DIESEL ENGINES & FUEL SYSTEMS E-TEXT

D ESEL ENGINE
F U N D A M E N TA L S

1
DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

DIESEL ENGINES & FUEL SYSTEMS E-TEXT

D ESEL ENGINE

F U N D A M E N TA L S

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DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

1.1 DIESEL ENGINE BASICS

Some important terms Mechanical cycles Four stroke cycle Scavenging Two stroke cycle Compression ratio Compression ignition Engine torque Thermal efficiency Exhaust gas Diesel fuel Glow plugs Cold starting aids Revision questions

2011 DEFS

1.1 DIESEL ENGINE BASICS

DIESEL ENGINES & FUEL SYSTEMS E-TEXT

D ESEL ENGINE

F U N D A M E N TA L S

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DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

This continued movement will cause a low pressure area to develop behind the fast moving exhaust gas, and this is used to draw fresh air into the cylinder if the inlet valve opens at the instant the low-pressure area develops.
TDC

Suitable positioning of the valves, usually one at each side of the combustion chamber, helps to guide the gases on their correct paths, and assists in achieving complete scavenging. It is worthwhile to note at this stage that turbocharged engines usually have more valve overlap than naturally aspirated engines.

Two Stroke Cycle

IN
19
12

EX

16

In engines of this type, there are obviously only two strokes, or one crankshaft revolution, to one complete engine cycle. This means that there are twice as many working strokes per minute in a two stroke diesel as there are in a comparable four stroke, working at the same engine speed. Theoretically, then, the two stroke engine should develop twice the power of a four stroke of similar bore and stroke and the same number of cylinders but, due to scavenging difficulties, the power output is in the vicinity of one-and-a-half times that of a comparable four stroke. A scavenge blown engine makes use of an engine driven air pump, or blower, to supply air to the engine cylinder. An inlet port in the cylinder wall is used instead of an inlet valve, in conjunction with either an exhaust port in the engine cylinder or an overhead exhaust valve. On the power stroke, the exhaust valve or exhaust port opens first, and the high-pressure exhaust gas escapes. The inlet port then opens, allowing air (at between 15 and 60 kPa pressure) to sweep through the cylinder, clearing the exhaust gas and recharging the cylinder with fresh air. It is usual to close the exhaust valve or port first, allowing a slight pressure to build up in the cylinder before compression begins. One of the most common examples of a two stroke diesel engine is the Detroit Diesel. Although it is a two stroke engine, the operation of the Detroit Diesel is considered in four stages:

mpression

P o we r

INTAKE

co

EXHAUST

15 60

BDC

IN

EX

Fig 3. Valve timing diagram for a four stroke cycle diesel engine In practice, it is found that good scavenging can be achieved by opening the inlet valve just before TDC, and closing the exhaust valve just after TDC, thus allowing the exhaust gas to draw fresh air into the cylinder before the inlet stroke actually begins. The period of crankshaft rotation when both valves are open together is known as valve overlap, and occurs only at TDC.

Scavenging

Compression

Power

Exhaust

Fig 4. Detroit Diesel two stroke cycle engine operation

2011 DEFS 1.1 DIESEL ENGINE BASICS 6

DIESEL ENGINES & FUEL SYSTEMS E-TEXT

D ESEL ENGINE

F U N D A M E N TA L S

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SECTION CONTENTS

DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

1.2 DIESEL ENGINE COMBUSTION

Overview Stages of combustion Diesel knock Combustion chambers Direct injection Piston cavities Indirect injection Squish effect Revision questions Additional pictures/photos

2011 DEFS

1.2 DIESEL ENGINE COMBUSTION 13

DIESEL ENGINES & FUEL SYSTEMS E-TEXT

D ESEL ENGINE

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Piston Cavities and Squish

Piston cavities are cast in the piston crown, and take many different forms. The most common type is the toroidal piston cavity a circular cavity, usually symmetrical about the piston axis, with a small cone projecting upwards from the bottom of the cavity towards the cylinder head. It is important to realise that each cavity must be used in conjunction with a particular injector nozzle, and the fitting of a nozzle with a slightly different spray angle can result in holes being burnt in the piston crown.
Fig 4. The squish effect

Indirect Injection
While the large majority of modern diesel engines use direct injection there is still a lot of older smaller automotive diesel engines using the compression swirl system. A basic swirl chamber consists of an approximately spherical chamber in the cylinder head connected to the cylinder by a small passage. The passage joins to the side of the chamber at a tangent. This ensures that the air entering the chamber through the passage on the compression stroke swirls around inside the spherical chamber. The fuel is injected at a right angle to the swirling air, ensuring complete mixing. As soon as the pressure rise due to combustion is sufficient, a mixture of burnt, burning and unburnt fuel is ejected violently into the main chamber in the piston crown.
ec
Combustion chamber Glow plug

Fig 3. Typical piston cavities

Regardless of the piston cavity design, the turbulence in the cylinder is created in the same way. As the piston approaches TDC on the compression stroke, the major portion of the air in the cylinder is compressed into the piston cavity. Because of the squish effect, as shown in Fig 4. a high velocity is imparted to the air when it moves towards the piston cavity, thus causing a high degree of rotational turbulence in the piston cavity itself. The fuel injector is positioned above the piston so that fuel is injected directly into the turbulent air in the piston cavity, promoting efficient airfuel mixing. Squish may be defined as the rapid movement of the air being compressed in the cylinder of an open combustion chamber engine, from the cylinder walls towards the centre of the combustion chamber. As the piston approaches TDC on the compression stroke, the air trapped between the piston periphery and the cylinder head is forced inwards, at high velocity, into the cavity in the piston crown. At or near the centre of the cavity, air meeting air causes mutual deflection towards the bottom of the piston cavity, beginning the circular turbulence.

Piston

Fig 5. Indirect injection swirl type combustion chamber

Courtesy of Bosch

2011 DEFS

1.2 DIESEL ENGINE COMBUSTION 16

Inj

tor

DIESEL ENGINES & FUEL SYSTEMS E-TEXT

D ESEL ENGINE

F U N D A M E N TA L S

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DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

1.3 DIESEL ENGINE FUELS

Overview Types of diesel fuel Winter fuel

Oil refining Specification of diesel fuel Ignition quality Cetane number Self-ignition temperature Cloud point Viscosity Sulphur content Fuel storage Biological contamination Care of fuel systems Cold weather operation Revision questions Industry updates Related web sites

2011 DEFS

1.3 DIESEL ENGINE FUELS 20

DIESEL ENGINES & FUEL SYSTEMS E-TEXT

D ESEL ENGINE
Overview

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Gas

A number of grades of diesel fuel are available for compression ignition engines, and the use of the correct fuel is important for engine performance and operation. The fuels available in Australia are listed below.

Petrol Kerosene Diesel fuel Distillation column

Diesel
Diesel is a highly refined fuel for use in high speed diesel engines as used in tractors, trucks and motor cars. It is clear to light-straw in colour.

Winter Fuels
Because wax solidifies in diesel fuel under very cold conditions and blocks the fuel flow, winter grade diesel fuel has been introduced. This fuel contains special additives to prevent the wax from solidifying at low ambient temperatures.
Lubricating oils heavy fuel oil

Input of crude oil Super heated steam

Fig 1. The oil refining process

Courtesy of DAF Trucks

Industrial Diesel Fuel

This is the name given to a less refined fuel suitable for use in slow to medium speed diesels (ship engines) and commercial heating installations. It is a heavier grade of fuel, but is free flowing and does not require preheating. Its colour is light straw to black.

Specification of Diesel Fuels

In the refining of fuels, certain specifications are laid down for each type, and the fuels properties must lie within these set limits. The most important properties include:

Oil Refining
Oil refining is the separating of hydrocarbons from crude oil. The refining of crude oil is called fractional distillation and takes place in a fractional distillation column as shown in Fig 1. Distillation is the process in which fractions, (hydrocarbons chains, such as lube oil, petrol, diesel and gas), are separated from each other by heating. The crude oil is pumped into the distillation column in a pre heated state and then rises to a high temperature with the introduction of super heated steam. A large part of the crude oil now vaporises and begins to rise up through the column. Depending on the type of hydrocarbon chain the vapour will condense to a liquid state at varying temperatures. The heavier hydrocarbon chains such as heating oil and lubricating oils will condense out first, the lighter chains such as gases will condense last. Diesel fuel belongs to the heavier hydrocarbon chain and condenses out early in the distillation process.

Ignition quality Self-ignition temperature Calorific value Flashpoint Cloud point Viscosity Sulphur content

Ignition Quality
The ignition quality of a fuel may be described as its degree of readiness to burn when injected into the combustion chamber. Fuels with low ignition quality will take longer to ignite than fuels with high ignition quality. Fuels with a low ignition quality therefore cause a longer delay period or ignition lag, with resultant greater diesel knock.

2011 DEFS

1.3 DIESEL ENGINE FUELS 21

DIESEL ENGINES & FUEL SYSTEMS E-TEXT

D ESEL ENGINE

F U N D A M E N TA L S

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DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

1.4 BEARINGS | SEALS | GASKETS

Overview Bearing function Classes of bearing Types of load on bearings Plain bearings Ball and roller bearings Removal of bearings Inspection of bearings Refitting bearings Bearing preload Seals and gaskets O-rings Lip type seals Reclamation of seal running surface Causes of seal leakage Gaskets Liquid sealing compounds Cylinder head gaskets Bolt locking devices Lock type compounds Revision questions Industry updates Related web sites Additional diagrams/photos
2011 DEFS 1.4 BEARINGS , SEALS & GASKETS 27

DIESEL ENGINES & FUEL SYSTEMS E-TEXT

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Bearing shells are sold in pairs for easy replacement and are precision finished to exact size ready to fit into place in the bearing housing. Big end and main bearing shells have to combine softness with strength. For this reason, a bearing shell consists of a layer of relatively soft anti-friction material bonded on to the surface of a semi-circular shaped backing or liner for strength, as shown in Fig 4. For more detailed information on main and big end bearings, refer the module on Crankshaft assembly.

Outer ring race Inner ring race

Ball Cage

Ball and Roller Contact Bearings

Ball and roller bearings (anti-friction bearings) are a very diversified product made in a great variety of types, each with many variations of design. The three basic types, from which all other variations will be found to originate, are the single row ball bearing, the single row roller bearing and the taper roller bearing, as shown in Fig 5. Ball bearing
Outer ring race Inner ring race

Deep Groove Ball Bearing

The basic ball bearing is known as the deep groove type. Deep groove raceways are provided in each ring so as to give the balls a contact in line with the bearing axis (line drawn through points of contact of ball and races). This type of bearing is the most widely used because of its versatility. Designed primarily to handle radial loads, it can accept an almost equal amount of thrust load in either direction, in combination with the radial load.
Roller Cage

Cylindrical roller bearing

Cup Cone

Cylindrical Roller Bearings

Roller bearings have greater load carrying capacity than ball bearings of the same external dimensions and are suitable for carrying radial loads only. The type shown in Fig 5 is a floating bearing in which the cylindrical rollers run between a ribbed inner ring and plain outer ring.

Roller Cage

Taper Roller Bearings

In this type of bearing the contact surfaces of the rolling elements are conical or cone shaped. When used in pairs, these bearings will carry both radial and axial loads and can be set up with a slight amount of preload or shaft end-play, depending on the application. A single tapered roller bearing can only deal with thrust in one direction, hence they are usually used in pairs.

Tapered roller bearing Fig 5. Ball and roller contact bearings

Courtesy of Timken

2011 DEFS

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