Part

Fundamental Issues

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Chapter

Issues in Fat Replacement

Sylvia A. Jones CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction 1.2 Nutritional Background 1.3 The Functions of Fat in Food 1.3.1 Nutritional Functions of Fat 1.3.2 Physical and Chemical Functions of Fat 1.3.3 Sensory Functions of Fat 1.3.4 Overall Implications for Fat Replacement 1.4 Terminology and Classication of Fat Replacers 1.4.1 Terminology 1.4.2 Classication 1.5 Fat Replacement Strategies 1.5.1 Direct Fat Removal No Compensation 1.5.2 Formulation Optimization 1.5.3 Technological Approach 1.5.4 Holistic Approach 1.6 Developments in Fat Replacers 1.6.1 Olestra and Its Impact 1.6.2 Maltodextrins and other Starch-Derived Fat Mimetics 1.6.3 Microparticulates 1.6.4 Fat Replacers in the Context of Functional Foods 1.6.5 Recognition of the Role of Established Food Ingredients 1.6.6 Development of Combination Systems 1.6.7 Replacing Standard Fats with Low-Calorie Fats 1.6.8 Improving the Quality of Fat Replacers 1.7 Important Considerations in the Development of Low-Fat Foods 1.7.1 Product Quality/Consumer Preference/Marketing Drive

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1.7.2 1.7.3 1.7.4 1.7.5 References

Knowledge of Ingredients Microbiological Implications Legislative Considerations Pricing and Marketing

1.1 INTRODUCTION
With over a decade of fat replacement activities in the commercial world behind us, it is appropriate to take a comprehensive view of the principal issues involved, and examine the mechanisms and the directions of the progress made, in order to gain a better understanding of the developments and draw conclusions for the future from the learned experience. As a point of departure, it is useful to address rst the principal question: is fat reduction a passing fad? To address this question, we need to look at the nutritional background to this issue, and, in particular, to assess the recent developments in nutrition science. After all, it is the consumption of fat in relation to the etiology of cardiovascular disease that triggered the sudden interest in food products with less fat (or even zero fat), both within the food industry and among the public at large. The challenge has been to produce low-fat variants with physical and sensory characteristics that resemble as closely as possible the full-fat standard products to which people were accustomed. The food industry during the last 10 to 15 years has invested considerable resources and effort into the task. One problem has been that, often, product development has been carried out without a full awareness of the different consequences of removing substantial quantities of fat from a particular product. In order to combat that, and hence develop successfully lowfat variants, it is essential to understand the multiplicity of functions of fat in foods, and, in this context, to examine the particular food matrix in which the fat is to be replaced. Because of the crucial role played by fat in foods, it quickly became obvious that the development of low-fat variants with matching quality of the full-fat counterparts depended on replacing the fat with alternative ingredients. Hence, many ingredients have been developed for the specic purpose of fat replacement. Others are food ingredients that have been used for other purposes before researchers realized that they had a role to play in fat replacement. The result is that over 200 ingredients now exist (either commercially available or at different stages of development) which can be used in fat replacement. The sheer number of ingredients is quite outstanding, but it well illustrates the difculties encountered in matching the functionality of fat. Indeed, fat can be seen as a gold standard similar to sucrose in the case of sweeteners. However, sucrose replacement can now be seen as a relatively easy task compared with fat replacement. With the increase in the number of ingredients available, new terms have been introduced, causing some confusion. Thus, steps need to be taken toward a more systematic approach to both terminology and classication of the ingredients developed for the purpose of fat replacement. Another issue needing consideration is what are the different strategies that can be adopted in product development and how these have evolved and why. A holistic approach to fat replacement needs to be considered, and will be exemplied in Chapter 4 where physical, chemical, and sensory aspects of fat replacement are discussed. Meanwhile, the development of fat replacers has gone through a number of different stages. It is appropriate now to put these developments into a historical perspective and provide a logical framework by identifying the constraints and particular problems of fat replacement,

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and the driving forces behind the developments. This will therefore set the scene for the detailed discussion on the different fat replacers or categories of fat replacers given in Chapters 6 to 13. Last, but not least, when developing low-fat foods, a number of important considerations need to be taken into account. These need to encompass technological, microbiological, and legislative implications, together with marketing aspects, while keeping a watchful eye on changing consumer preferences.

1.2 NUTRITIONAL BACKGROUND

Up to the 1970s, the issue of fat in the diet and its effect on health was hardly considered, except in cases of obesity where an overall reduction in energy was recommended. Reduced-calorie foods, therefore, were mainly a small niche market directed toward a minority of consumers who were obese or otherwise wished to lose body weight, and thus were interested in reducing their calorie intake. Moreover, the nutritional advice for weight loss at that time tended to focus more on carbohydrates than on fat, despite the fact that fat is the most dense source of calories (9 kcal/g vs. 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins). By the 1980s, a radical change had taken place in consumers attitudes. This can be traced directly to developments in the science of nutrition, and to a better understanding of the relationships between diet and health, which, in the developed countries, led to signicant changes in ofcial nutritional recommendations. In the U.K., this reevaluation was brought to public attention by the publication of two major reports which were, respectively, the so-called NACNE Report, produced in 1983 by the National Advisory Committee on Nutrition Education (NACNE, 1983), and Diet and Cardiovascular Disease, known as the COMA Report, produced in 1984 by the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy (COMA) (Department of Health and Social Security, 1984). The recommendations of the NACNE Report were oriented toward a diet that would benet the nations health generally, whereas those of the COMA Report were intended more specically to prevent coronary heart disease (CHD). The major recommendation of both reports was to reduce the intake of fat from the 42% at the time to 34% (NACNE) or 35% (COMA) of total food energy in the diet. Furthermore, they recommended that the intake of saturated fat should be reduced to 10% (NACNE) or 15% (COMA) of food energy. They also advised a reduction in salt intake and increased consumption of complex carbohydrates and dietary ber. The recommendations were widely debated and given extensive publicity in the media. The reports, therefore, had a signicant impact on increasing consumer awareness of the relationship between diet and health. Similar developments took place in the United States. In 1988, the U.S. Surgeon General published a major review on nutrition and health. It proposed that energy in the diet derived from fat should be reduced to 30% (USDHHS, 1988). A further review carried out on behalf of the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS, 1989) provided a broad scientic consensus for the U.S. government report: Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans (USDA/USDHHS, 1990). The recommendations of the Surgeon General were supported by a number of health-related organizations such as the American Heart Association and the American Cancer Society, on the basis that the incidence of coronary heart disease and cancer would be reduced by decreasing the amount of fat and cholesterol in the diet (Przybyla, 1990). By the end of the 1980s, the governments of most developed countries in the western hemisphere had drawn up nutritional recommendations advising consumers to reduce fat intake from the prevailing level of 40 to 49% (depending on the country) to

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approximately 30% of total energy in the diet. In most cases, the goal was set to reduce fat consumption to the recommended level by the year 2000. In 1992, the U.K. government issued a set of targets to reduce the incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD) in the White Paper The Health of the Nation: A Strategy for Health in England (Department of Health, 1992). One target was to reduce the number of premature deaths (in people under 65 years old) by 40% by the year 2000 (using 1990 gures as a baseline). Dietary targets were set on the basis of the recommendations given in a second report by the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy on dietary reference values (Department of Health, 1991), which, in the case of fat, was that it should not exceed 35% of total food energy in the diet (the same as in the COMA Report of 1984), with the consumption of saturated fatty acids no more than 11% of total food energy (4% lower than in the COMA 1984 Report). At the time, the average fat intake of the British population was at 40% of total food energy and 17% of food energy was derived from saturated fats. It would appear, therefore, that relatively little progress has been made in achieving the targets suggested by NACNE and COMA in the mid-1980s, despite the concurrent increase in sales of low-fat foods (see Chapter 3). Dietary fat in the American diet is considered to account for 36% of energy content (Buss, 1993), indicating that greater progress in adopting dietary recommendations has been made on average compared with the U.K. However, the analysis of a nutritional survey among British adults (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1994a) found that 10% of the adult population had less than 35% of their food energy derived from fat, thus indicating a signicant segmentation in consumers response to nutritional guidelines. The extent to which consumers might be compensating for low-fat intakes when consuming low-fat products remains to be established (see Chapter 2). If that is so, a further point of interest would be to nd out the extent to which the process was a physiological, as opposed to a psychological, response. Meanwhile, scientic research oriented toward understanding better the relationship between diet and health was a major growth area. One noteworthy study was that carried out by Watts et al. (1992), which was the rst to support the hypothesis that a low-fat diet can actually prevent narrowing of the coronary arteries. More recently, the complex relationship between diet and heart disease has been reviewed by Ashwell (1993). While it is acknowledged that CHD is a multifactorial disorder, it is considered that diet is one component which can be modied by everybody. The report concludes that the development of CHD can be viewed simplistically as a three-stage process starting from an initial arterial injury that is followed by atherosclerosis and the formation of a blood clot which eventually blocks the artery thus causing a heart attack. Each stage can be inuenced by several physiological conditions (e.g., high blood pressure, high levels of plasma lipids, and low levels of antioxidants), and these can be affected by controllable factors, including diet. A round table model was derived to elucidate the relationships between the stages of the disease, physiological conditions, and dietary components. The level and composition of the fats consumed is shown to be of importance at all three stages, and overall the dietary advice given includes reduction of fat intake through the consumption of low-fat products and increased intake of sh oils. There is a general consensus that the type of fat consumed is of importance in relation to the aetiology of chronic diseases. In particular, increasing the proportion of polyunsaturated fats in the diet, e.g., through the consumption of oil-rich sh, appears to play a protective role against CHD, as evident from the fact that Eskimos subsisting on a high fat diet based on sh are less prone to heart disease and thrombosis than people on high

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fat diets based more on saturated fats (Dyerberg et al., 1978; Dyerberg and Bang, 1979). The crucial factor, it seems, is the effect of consumption of different fats on the proportion of serum cholesterol associated with high-density lipoproteins (HDL cholesterol) vs. that associated with low-density lipoproteins (LDL cholesterol). Thus, consumption of fats favoring a higher proportion of HDL cholesterol and/or a lower proportion of LDL cholesterol, such as diets in which a higher proportion of fats consumed are polyunsaturated (e.g., from sh or certain vegetable sources) or monounsaturated (e.g., from olive oil), tend to reduce risk from CHD (helped also by the consumption of dietary antioxidants such as Vitamin E, which blocks the oxidative modication of LDL). Conversely, a higher proportion of saturated fats in the diet tends to increase the ratio of LDL cholesterol to HDL cholesterol, thus increasing risk of CHD (Grundy, 1994). However, it is now evident that different saturated fats and dietary sources of saturated fat vary in their inuence on the level of LDL cholesterol (Richardson, 1995). For instance, butter and other dairy products, which are high in myristic acid (14:0), appear to strongly increase levels of LDL cholesterol, whereas beef fat, containing palmitic (16:0) and stearic (18:0) acids does so to a lesser extent, and cocoa butter, with a high proportion of stearic acid, increases LDL cholesterol only slightly. In addition, there has been increasing concern and controversy on the consumption of trans fatty acids in relation to health (Mensink and Katan, 1990; Grundy, 1994). Epidemiological data (Willett et al., 1993) have shown a positive association between higher intakes of trans isomers (derived from partially hydrogenated vegetable oils) and the risk of CHD. Wahle and James (1993) have published a comprehensive review on this topic, and concluded that some evidence exists to suggest that trans fatty acids have deleterious effects on blood plasma lipids (i.e., they tend to increase the levels both of LDL and HDL cholesterol present, as well as the concentration of lipoprotein a (which is a genetic marker for CHD acting as an independent risk factor). However, other studies have given conicting results, so that the issue at present remains unresolved, with a majority of studies implicating trans fatty acids. Clearly, more research is required on this issue. Meanwhile, the FAO/WHO Expert Committee concluded that the effects on plasma cholesterol concentrations exerted by trans unsaturated fatty acids are similar to saturated fatty acids and hence they have recommended that in order to improve plasma lipid prole, the intake of trans fatty acids should be cut back when the intake of saturated fats is reduced (Sanders, 1995). In short, while our knowledge of the relationship between diet and health continues to progress, the adoption of dietary recommendations derived from that knowledge consistently lags behind. It is possible that a better consumer response could be achieved primarily by more extensive nutritional education and secondly, by improving the quality of existing or new low-fat foods. On the other hand, it is likely that as the market matures, with increasing availability of low-fat foods to a wider range of social strata, consumers might more readily adhere to the guidelines regarding fat consumption.

1.3 THE FUNCTIONS OF FAT IN FOOD

The level of fat determines the nutritional, physical, chemical, and sensory characteristics of foods. Before the replacement of fat in food products can be considered, however, it is essential to understand what its various functions are. 1.3.1 NUTRITIONAL FUNCTIONS OF FAT Physiologically, fats in foods have three basic functions: they act as a source of essential fatty acids (linolenic and linoleic acids); they act as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins

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(A, D, E and K); and they are an important source of energy. From a nutritional point of view, only the rst two may be considered as essential because other nutrients (namely carbohydrates and proteins) can act as sources of energy. Normally, even diets very low in fat can satisfy those requirements. The overriding issue today is that changes in peoples lifestyles over the years have meant that the requirements for energy from food have decreased signicantly. At the same time, the proportion of energy derived from fat (the consumption of which, as noted already, apart from being the most concentrated source of energy, has other adverse effects on health) has remained high. Figure 1.1 illustrates the relative contribution of fat from different foods in an intake of 88 g/day which is the average for the U.K., and represents 38% of total energy or approximately 40% of energy from food, i.e., excluding alcohol (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1994a).

Figure 1.1 Sources of fat in diet of U.K. consumers. (Compiled from Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1994a).

The nutritional function of fat in food would not be complete without mentioning its physiological/psychological aspect, mainly the extent to which fat plays a role in achieving satiety. Research has shown that the consumption of fat is associated with a subsequent state of fulllment, such that, by implication, fat reduction might lead to energy compensation and the increased consumption of food. This issue is discussed in detail in Chapter 2. However, it should be pointed out that most studies on satiety have been carried out using noncaloric, nonabsorbable fat substitutes (such as sucrose polyesters). As will be discussed, so far such fat substitutes have not been approved for use in foods, and therefore the studies do not address the current market reality where fat mimetics are used to reduce the fat content of food products. A study on satiety involving three different types of fat mimetics is currently being undertaken at the Leatherhead Food Research Association, supported by the U.K. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.

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1.3.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FUNCTIONS OF FAT Physical and chemical functions of fat in food products can be grouped together since the chemical nature of fats determines more or less their physical properties. Thus, the length of the carbon chain of fatty acids esteried with the glycerol, their degree of unsaturation, and the distribution of fatty acids and their molecular conguration (i.e., whether in the form of cis or trans isomers), as well as the polymorphic state of the fat, will all affect the physical properties of foods (for example, viscosity, melting characteristics, crystallinity, and spreadability). Furthermore, fat affects the physical and chemical properties of the product, and hence has several practical implications, the most important of which are (1) the behavior of the food product during processing (e.g., heat stability, viscosity, crystallization, and aerating properties), (2) post-processing characteristics (e.g., shear-sensitivity, tackiness, migration, and dispersion), and (3) storage stability, which can include physical stability (e.g., de-emulsication, fat migration, or fat separation), chemical stability (e.g., rancidity or oxidation), and microbiological stability (e.g., water activity and safety). 1.3.3 SENSORY FUNCTIONS OF FAT Last, but not least, fats have an important function in determining the four main sensory characteristics of food products, which are (1) appearance (e.g., gloss, translucency, color, surface uniformity, and crystallinity) (2) texture (e.g., viscosity, elasticity, and hardness), (3) avor (namely, intensity of avor, avor release, avor prole, and avor development), and (4) mouthfeel (e.g., meltability, creaminess, lubricity, thickness, and degree of mouth-coating). Sensory and related aspects of fat reduction are discussed in detail in Chapter 4. 1.3.4 OVERALL IMPLICATIONS FOR FAT REPLACEMENT Reducing fat in a food product must take into account its multifunctional role, in particular how its location in the food matrix determines the chemical, physical, and sensory properties of the food, as well as its processing characteristics. The relative importance of the different functions of the fat in a food vary according to the particular food product and according to the type of fat used. The greater number of product quality characteristics determined by the fat, the more pronounced will be its effect, and the more complex will be the approach required when a substantial part of the fat is to be replaced. In the development of low-fat products, it has been found useful to visualize the overall functionality prole of a product making use of a shbone diagram. This approach was used, for instance, by Loders Crocklaan for designing speciality fats for particular product applications (Anon., 1994). Figure 1.2 illustrates the basic technique whereby a full functionality prole for a given product can be translated into a detailed set of physical/chemical and sensory attributes. By the same token, a detailed functionality prole resulting from the presence of fat in a product can be dened and used as a tool in product development for nding ingredient systems that will deliver the required prole. Fishbone diagrams have also been used to illustrate the multifunctional aspects of fat reduction (Anon., 1992).

1.4 TERMINOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION OF FAT REPLACERS

1.4.1 TERMINOLOGY Over the years, different terms have been used for ingredients that have been specically developed to replace fat in food products. This has created some confusion over the

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Figure 1.2 Basic shbone diagram for product development and reformulation purposes. (From Source, Issue No. 13, January, 6, 1994. Reprinted with the permission of Loders Croklaan.)

terminology used for fat-replacing ingredients in the literature. Thus, there is a need to introduce a more systematic approach to this issue. Initially, the term fat substitute was used for all such ingredients regardless of the extent to which they were able to replace fat and principles determining their functionality. However, the main interest then had been directed toward discovering an optimal ingredient able to replace fat fully in all food systems. Such an ideal ingredient would need to have a similar chemical structure and similar physical properties to fat, but would need to be resistant to hydrolysis by digestive enzymes in order to have preferably a zero or very low caloric value. In the second half of the 1980s, the only ingredients able to fulll all those requirements were synthetic compounds such as olestra. The main practical difference between these synthetic compounds and other ingredients launched for the purposes of fat replacement was that only the former were able, by denition, to replace fat on a weight-by-weight basis. All other ingredients, on the other hand, required water to achieve their functionality, and their ability to replace fat was based on the principle of reproducing (mimicking) some of the physical and sensory characteristics associated with the presence of fat in the food. Hence, the term fat mimetic evolved to distinguish this group of ingredients. With separate terms now being used to dene these different types of ingredients, there was the need for an overall term that referred to all ingredients used for fatreplacement purposes, and the general term fat replacer began to be used in that context. However, many authors continue to use the term fat substitute for all fat replacing ingredients, and an even greater number use the terms fat substitute, fat mimetic, and fat replacer more or less interchangeably, thus causing confusion on the meanings of these terms. In addition, as a result of further developments, other terms have been introduced by ingredient manufacturers. For instance, the term fat extender has been used by Pzer to describe a system comprising a mixture of ingredients, containing standard fats or oils, such as Veri-Lo 100 and Veri-Lo 200, which are emulsions containing 33 and 25% fat, respectively. On the other hand, ingredients such as Caprenin and Salatrim,

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which are true fats (i.e., they are triglycerides) but with a fatty acid composition different from standard fats designed to provide fewer calories (see below), may also be described as fat extenders. However, when Salatrim was launched, the term low-calorie fat was promoted, and has since evolved as a term in its own right, distinct from fat extenders. Thus, Caprenin and Salatrim are now more usually placed in an independent group under the heading low-calorie fats. Hence, the term fat extender now tends to be reserved for systems combining standard fats or oils with other ingredients, as in the case of Veri-Lo. In summary, the ve terms used to describe ingredients which can replace fat may be dened briey as follows:
Fat replacer: a blanket term to describe any ingredient used to replace fat Fat substitute: a synthetic compound designed to replace fat on a weight-by-weight basis, usually having a similar chemical structure to fat but resistant to hydrolysis by digestive enzymes Fat mimetic: a fat replacer that requires a high water content to achieve its functionality Low-calorie fat: synthetic triglyceride combining unconventional fatty acids to the glycerol backbone which results in reduced caloric value Fat extender: a fat replacement system containing a proportion of standard fats or oils combined with other ingredients

It should be added that the current lack of development activity for the last category of fat replacers might lead to the disappearance of the term in due course; however, it is included in the above list for completeness. 1.4.2 CLASSIFICATION One of the main characteristics of the ingredients used to replace fat is that they lack similarity both in terms of chemical structure and in a specic physical structure. All they have in common is that under certain conditions, they are able to replace fat and fulll at least some of the functional properties associated with fat in a given product. By denition, therefore, they represent a disparate group of ingredients for which it is not easy to provide a simple classication. An additional problem is that the group as a whole is quite unbalanced in which some subgroups of ingredients of similar chemical structure and functional properties comprise a large number while others may contain only one or two ingredients developed so far. In short, a systematic approach (i.e., based on a single feature or characteristic) cannot be used because too many ingredients would be excluded. Furthermore, there is the issue as to whether to include in any classication all ingredients currently used, or have potential use as fat replacers, or whether it should consist only of those ingredients that have been purposely designed to act as fat replacers. The classication of fat replacers given below aims to give the reader a comprehensive view of ingredient categories that can be considered for product development of low-fat foods (including the synthetic fat substitutes, none of which, as yet, are permitted for use in foods)*. The list is based partially on chemical composition and partially on functionality of the ingredients, and includes combination systems (i.e., blends).
1. Starch-derived 2. Fiber-based
* Since completing this manuscript, the U.S. FDA announced on January 24, 1996 their approval for the use of olestra in selected savory snacks.

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Protein-based Gums, gels and thickeners Emulsiers Bulking agents Low-calorie fats Fat extenders Synthetic fat substitutes Combination systems

As may be seen, a certain degree of overlap cannot be avoided. For instance, it can be debated whether low-calorie fats should be considered as a separate entity, or be included in the synthetic fat substitute category. However, since the low-calorie fats structurally are lipids, and were assigned a separate term from other fat replacers when launched on the market, it is considered more appropriate to differentiate them from the category of the, as yet, unpermitted fat substitutes in the above classication.

1.5 FAT REPLACEMENT STRATEGIES

A number of approaches have evolved in the development of reduced-fat foods. In this section, the main options will be discussed briey in the order that they were introduced. 1.5.1 DIRECT FAT REMOVAL NO COMPENSATION During the rush of publicity of the new nutritional recommendations in the early 1980s, the rst strategy to evolve was simply to remove fat from the standard product, without any attempt to address the organoleptic changes resulting from the reduced presence of the fat. The dairy industry was the rst to adopt such a strategy, with the introduction of semi-skimmed, and subsequently, skimmed milk. Fat content was reduced from the 3.5% in the standard product, to, respectively, 1.7% (i.e., a 50% fat reduction) and 0.1% (i.e., a more or less 100% reduction), in effect, replacing the fat with a proportional increase of all the other constituents of milk. This somewhat drastic strategy, which changed considerably the organoleptic quality of the nal product, had many skeptics who doubted whether consumers would accept such a change. It was thought that after the initial hype period, consumers would gradually go back to the standard full-fat milk, and demand for the reduced-fat varieties would dwindle to a small niche market. However, history proved otherwise. In the U.K., for example, as indicated in Figure 1.3, the consumption of reduced-fat liquid milk grew at a remarkable rate. According to the most recent National Food Survey in Britain, the consumption of reduced-fat milk has now overtaken that of whole milk (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1994b). In other words, the strategy of direct fat removal adopted by the dairy industry proved a major success, gaining widespread consumer acceptance in spite of the obvious changes in product characteristics. Similar developments subsequently took place in the meat industry. Thus, lean and extra lean raw beef, pork and lamb (mostly in a minced or diced form, chilled or frozen) are now readily available in the supermarkets of many of the developed countries, with a fat content ranging from 15 to 10%, and even as low as 5%. Such a strategy is less possible for most other food products because, for the majority, physical stability, functional properties, and, in many cases, microbiological stability, are adversely affected. The same applies when fat is replaced by water alone. Direct fat removal without compensation, therefore, has limited applicability, depending on the type of product, and the level of fat reduction intended. Since this strategy expects the consumer to accept considerable change in the organoleptic characteristics of a product,

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Figure 1.3 Consumption of liquid milk (g/d) in the U.K. (Compiled from Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, National Food Surveys for 19841993.)

it can only work well when the consumer is highly motivated, and where, therefore, fat content and nutritional concerns in general will inuence purchasing behavior. In short, the limited number of products to which this strategy can be applied has meant that other ways of achieving fat reduction have had to be sought. 1.5.2 FORMULATION OPTIMIZATION The major challenge in the development of reduced-fat foods is to achieve fat reduction while matching as closely as possible the eating qualities of the traditional full-fat product. This involves the creative use of established functional ingredients, including the range of fat replacers now available. For most food products, reduction of fat is associated with an increase in water content. The rst need, therefore, in order to mimic the quality of the full-fat product, is to attempt to structure the water phase, through the use of such functional ingredients as proteins, starches and other thickeners, gums, stabilizers, gelling agents, bulking agents, emulsiers and bers. The choice of ingredients will depend on product type and the level of fat reduction intended, and needs to be carefully balanced against their effects on the multiplicity of product characteristics. The strategy requires a thorough knowledge of the ingredients available, and an understanding of the structure/function relationships in a given product matrix. During the second half of the 1980s, when the emphasis was narrowly focused on the search for an optimal new fat replacer, developments in other directions were somewhat limited. However, once the inherent limitations of the various fat replacers introduced to the market were realized, interest in the creative use of the standard functional ingredients increased considerably. The introduction of new ingredients designed specically to replace fat (i.e., fat replacers) signicantly increased the scope for matching the quality of reduced-fat variants. Currently, as noted already, there are over 200 ingredients with some claim for

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aiding fat replacement, either available commercially, or at an advanced stage of development (see Section 1.6). Most of the fat replacers on the market are based on the ability to structure the water phase toward achieving fat-like structures that mimic the physical and/or perceived sensory characteristics of fat. 1.5.3 TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH The use of specially designed fat replacers in products often requires changes in processing conditions or additional processing stages in order to achieve optimal functionality. However, the technological approach can be extended much further in fat replacement strategies. One example would be to explore interactive processing. This is based on the principle of employing a processing method purposely designed to cause interactions between ingredients, and changes in ingredient functionalities within the food matrix, in such a way that they compensate for the removal of fat in the nal product. On the other hand, the application of a new technology, or an existing technology that is not normally used in the production of the standard product, can be sought. To date, neither of these approaches has been explored to any great extent. 1.5.4 HOLISTIC APPROACH The holistic approach to fat reduction is based on the fact that, on the one hand, the vast majority of food products are relatively complex systems, and, on the other hand, any one fat mimetic has limitations in its ability to cover the many different functions of fat. The strategy has evolved because in most cases it has been found that no single approach to fat replacement gives a satisfactory nal product with signicant fat reduction, without compromising some of the quality characteristics (e.g., sensory, physical stability, microbiological stability) of the standard product. It has normally taken the form of using a chosen fat replacer in conjunction with other ingredients (e.g., stabilizers, emulsiers), or the use of a blend of ingredients designed for a particular product application. More recently, this has shifted toward using more than one fat replacer in conjunction with a range of standard ingredients. However, the ultimate holistic strategy, with the goal of producing optimal quality products with low-fat levels or in fat-free versions, needs to go beyond the issue of ingredients used, toward encompassing all technological means for achieving the required fat reduction. Indeed, this does not only apply to the development of low-fat products, but to all food product development. In a holistic strategy even greater attention must be directed toward achieving an understanding of the functionality of the various ingredients, and how they interact with one another. Many of the advances in product development activities have been predominantly empirically based. In general, low-fat products, because they are deprived of the functionality of fat, are much more sensitive to molecular interactions, especially those between avor and other ingredients, and those which affect texture. Thus, when developing low-fat products, much more attention needs to be given to all aspects of the often complex and nely balanced physical and chemical system as a whole. This emphasizes the need for a holistic strategy.

1.6 DEVELOPMENTS IN FAT REPLACERS

Although the fat replacement issue has been on the agenda for more than a decade, it was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s that the development of ingredients specifically for fat replacement really took off. The fact that there are so many ingredients now available for use in fat replacement means that this has been one of the strongest growth areas in the eld of ingredient development for some time. In this section, the various developments in fat replacers are put in a historical context, highlighting the
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main events, in order to show how each development had an impact on further research activities. It sets the scene for the more detailed discussion on the different fat replacers or categories of fat replacers in Chapters 6 through 13. 1.6.1 OLESTRA AND ITS IMPACT Initially, as previously mentioned, the desire was to nd an ingredient that would behave, both physically and chemically, like fat, while contributing fewer calories, and which could be used in all product types by directly substituting for the fat, with little or no need to reformulate the product. Olestra, a sucrose polyester, rst synthesized in 1968 and patented by the Procter & Gamble Company in 1971, precisely tted those criteria (Mattson and Volpenheim, 1971). With sucrose substituting for the glycerol moiety in triglycerides, and six to eight of the hydroxyl groups of the sucrose esteried by fatty acids, the chemical structure of olestra is rather similar to fat. The main difference is that the molecule cannot be hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipases, and hence passes straight through the gastrointestinal tract unchanged without being absorbed. It thus contributes no calories. Furthermore, its physical properties could be manipulated by varying the chain length, the degree of unsaturation and the proportions of different fatty acids used to esterify the hydroxyl groups of the sucrose molecule. Finally, because it is inherently heat stable, it can substitute for fat over a wide range of applications in the food industry (including in frying oils), and in virtually every type of food product. It was not until the late 1970s and early 1980s, when the nutritional arguments for reducing fat consumption were being publicized, that a viable market for olestra started to become apparent. Its current status is that it is still awaiting ofcial approval for use in food. Procter & Gamble submitted its rst petition for approval to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in April 1987. A further petition was submitted in July 1990, restricting its use to savory snacks (Anon., 1991a). The company has also led for the approval of olestra in Canada and in the U.K. (Anon., 1990). It was hoped that approval would be obtained in 1995, especially since a second 1-year interim extension to the Procter & Gambles patent awarded by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Ofce is due to expire in January 1996 (Anon., 1995). Under the current U.S. legislation concerning products which require lengthy regulatory review, if olestra were to be approved before this date, then it would be possible for Procter & Gambles patent to be extended for an additional 2 years from the time of its approval by the FDA. There is also the issue that even if approved, it is not certain whether olestra will gain consumer acceptance. However, it is noteworthy that, despite, on the one hand, its synthetic nature, and, on the other hand, a concurrent consumer trend in the 1980s toward natural and additivefree products, olestra has continued to receive remarkably positive publicity. For completeness, it should be added that a number of other synthetic fat substitutes have been developed. These include esteried propoxylated glycerols, carboxy-carboxylate esters, malonate esters, alkyl glyceryl-ethers, alkyl glycoside fatty acid polyesters, esteried polysaccharides, polyvinyl oleate, ethyl esters, polysiloxanes, and many more (Bowes, 1993). These are discussed in Chapter 13. It is interesting to note, though, that none of the companies developing these synthetic fat substitutes have so far attempted to go through the hurdles of gaining approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, but rather have resigned themselves to waiting for the outcome of the application for olestra. However, it should be pointed out that a joint agreement was signed in 1990 between the companies Arco and CPC International to develop esteried propoxylated glycerol, and subsequently to prepare the necessary scientic data required if the ingredient is to gain approval (Anon., 1991a). Meanwhile, the nonavailability of olestra in the 1980s had the effect of stimulating developments in fat replacers in other directions.
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1.6.2 MALTODEXTRINS AND OTHER STARCH-DERIVED FAT MIMETICS In the early days of fat replacement, relatively small reductions in fat were considered an acceptable goal, perhaps by a quarter or a third compared with the fat content of the standard product. In many cases, this could be achieved with the use of different types of starch-derived fat mimetics, which, in contrast to olestra, do not have any regulatory hurdles to pass over. One of the rst starch-derived mimetics to enter the market was N-Oil, a tapioca dextrin, which had been produced by National Starch & Chemical Corporation since 1984 (Dziezak, 1989). The most signicant amount of research activity on starch-derived mimetics has centered around the development of maltodextrins i.e., starch hydrolysis products obtained by acid or enzymic hydrolysis of starch materials and characterized by a low dextrose equivalent (DE) value. The concept of starch hydrolysis products with DE<10 was pioneered at the Academy of Science in the former German Democratic Republic, where potato starch was partially degraded using a-amylase, a process that was subsequently patented (Richter et al., 1973). Since such maltodextrins when used in solution at a concentration greater than 20% form thermoreversible gels, with some of the sensory characteristics of fats, and caloric value amounts to approximately 1 kcal/g, there was scope for exploring these ingredients for the purposes of fat replacement. On the other hand, both enzymic and acid hydrolysis methods can be applied to any type of starch or material high in starch content, and hence, not surprisingly, a large number of maltodextrins from different sources have been developed and are available commercially. A detailed discussion of these fat mimetics is given in Chapter 6A, and Chapter 6B covers the maltodextrins derived from potato starch. A list of commercially available maltodextrins is given in the Appendix. Although the main focus was concentrated on maltodextrins, a few modied starches were also introduced to the market for fat replacement purposes toward the end of the 1980s and in the beginning of the 1990s (e.g., the Sta-Slim range from the company A. E. Staley and the Amalean range from the American Maize Products Company). Some further developments in starch-derived fat mimetics will be highlighted later. In the late 1980s, when the trend had shifted toward developing food products containing even lower amounts of fat, and in the midst of the hype associated with synthetic fat substitutes at that time, fat mimetics, such as those derived from starch, were at a serious disadvantage because they could not fulll all the criteria for an optimal (ideal) fat replacer. Furthermore, under the inuence of olestra, which had been submitted to the FDA for approval, the whole climate of opinion then was dominated by the perceived need to nd a single ingredient that had the potential of replacing fat across the whole spectrum of product applications. Thus, fat replacement reached something of an impasse: a market existed for low-fat foods, but while synthetic fat substitutes were not approved for use in food, other ingredients, such as starch-derived fat replacers, could only replace some of the functions of fat in foods, and, as fat mimetics, had restricted applications. 1.6.3 MICROPARTICULATES The rst technological breakthrough (or, more precisely, what was perceived as a breakthrough at the time) came with the development of Simplesse, a microparticulated protein fat mimetic introduced by the NutraSweet Company, the main version of which is based on whey protein concentrate (Singer et al., 1988) see Chapter 8 for a detailed discussion on Simplesse. It was launched in January 1988, receiving much publicity in the media. It should be added that while John Labatt Ltd., Canada, the originator of the Simplesse concept sold the rights to Simplesse to the NutraSweet Company, further
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developments were on-going at Ault Foods Ltd., a division of John Labbatt Ltd., which culminated in 1989 with the launch of a whey protein concentrate-based fat mimetic under the name Dairylight (Anon. 1991b). The difference between Simplesse and Dairylight lies in the processing method employed, whereby the latter involves only a mild treatment which leads only to partial denaturation of protein (60 to 80%), and hence it is not a microparticulated protein (Asher et al., 1992). Four years later, in 1993, the company Pzer relaunched Dairylight under the Dairy-Lo name as a result of an agreement reached between Pzer Company and Ault Foods Ltd., whereby Ault Foods would produce Dairy-Lo and Pzer would market it in all countries with the exception of Canada (Anon., 1993). The concept of a microparticulated protein as a fat mimetic was seen by many as the ultimate development in ingredient technology with the potential of resolving all the problems associated with fat replacement, including that of total fat replacement. These beliefs were compounded by the strong marketing strategy of the NutraSweet Company. However, strong marketing was needed at the time in order to combat the general opinion that fat mimetics were by denition underperformers as compared with the true fat replacers such as olestra which, in spite of their failure to gain approval for use in foods, were still seen as the ideal fat replacers. The concept of a special processing method leading to a microparticulated form of an ingredient was seen as one that can actually mimic the fat droplets in an oil-in-water emulsion, and hence the developments in proteinbased fat replacers were oriented toward some form of microparticulates (see Chapter 4 for a more detailed discussion of this issue). While LITA (from the company Opta Food Ingredients, Inc.) and Trailblazer (from Kraft General Foods) followed this concept using multicomponent systems based on proteins, a large number of insoluble fat mimetics also started to be marketed as having what had become the fashionable microparticulated form (e.g., the Avicel range from FMC, and Stellar a crystalline starch from A. E. Staley). Back in the late 1980s, Simplesse was also promoted on the basis of its natural (as opposed to synthetic) character, since it was produced from a well-recognized natural ingredient (i.e., whey protein concentrate or egg white/skimmed milk/sugar/pectin for Simplesse 100 and Simplesse 300, respectively). The fact that these ingredients were originally produced only in a liquid form, and hence had a short shelf-life and required refrigeration was probably (at least initially) a contributing factor to the positive image of these ingredients. (Further developments of Simplesse 100 are outlined in Section 1.6.8.) However, in due course, the publicity surrounding Simplesse turned into a two-edged sword, since it was loaded with high levels of expectancy and hence was thought able to deliver much more than other fat mimetics. In many applications, however, it was not technically possible for it to come up to those expectations, and moreover, it was becoming increasingly apparent that in order to achieve a signicant fat reduction, in most cases, other ingredients were also necessary for obtaining optimal quality. 1.6.4 FAT REPLACERS IN THE CONTEXT OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS The link between fat replacers and functional foods has not previously been made. However, that an association does exist, as will be demonstrated here, is worth pointing out amidst the current high level of interest in functional foods. One denition for a functional food states that it is a food which positively affects physiological functions of the body in a targeted way as a result of it containing ingredients which may, in due course, justify health claims (Roberfroid, 1995). Taking this issue broadly, it can be argued that all foods with reduced fat content can be considered as functional foods given the nutritional benets of fat reduction as discussed in
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Section 1.1. Most of the ingredients used to replace fat, of course, do not provide any special positive physiological benets themselves. However, ber-based fat replacers can claim such benets since there is a growing recognition for the role of dietary ber in disease prevention, particularly in relation to colonic cancer and heart disease (e.g., Asp et al., 1993; Stark and Madar, 1994; Kritchesky, 1994). Thus, a number of fat replacers have been launched based on ber from a number of different sources, such as oats, sugar beet, soy beans, almonds, and peas. For instance, Advanced Oat Fibers manufactured by the company Williamson Fiber Products in Ireland were rst introduced in 1988. Oat ber is also a good source of b-glucan which is claimed to have cholesterol-lowering properties (Duxbury, 1990). Oatrim fat replacer, developed and patented by the U.S. Department of Agriculture is obtained through the enzymic modication of oat starch in the oat our or bran, and contains from 1 to 10% of bglucan (Inglett and Grisamore, 1991). Both ConAgra and Rhne-Poulenc/Quaker Oats Company are currently producing Oatrim under separate license agreements. Another ber ingredient, Fibercel, developed by Alpha-Beta Technologies, is composed of 85 to 90% -glucan obtained from a food-grade yeast product (Jamas et al., 1990). A range of cellulose-based fat replacers should also be mentioned as a source of ber (see Appendix). Moreover, in the particular case of inulin fat replacers (for instance Raftiline from Orafti, Belgium, and Fibruline from Cosucra SA, Belgium), positive physiological benets arise from their bidus stimulating properties (Roberfroid, 1995). 1.6.5 RECOGNITION OF THE ROLE OF ESTABLISHED FOOD INGREDIENTS Gradually, the realities of the market place began to shift away from the mythical one ingredient can solve it all and toward a more holistic strategy. Moreover, meanwhile, commercial pressures were moving the goal-posts of fat reduction to well beyond the 50% mark, thus making it even more difcult to achieve fat replacement without a holistic strategy in which ingredients such as, gums, emulsiers, thickeners, stabilizers, and bulking agents, along with gelatin and other proteins and untreated starches could play crucial roles. Previously, this group of ingredients had been overshadowed by the orientation toward discovering the optimal fat replacer. However, the important role of these well-established ingredients is clearly evident when examining low-fat or zero-fat products currently on the market (Bavington et al., 1992). While in many cases, these ingredients are used in conjunction with those developed purposely for replacing fat, in some products, fat reduction has been achieved by structuring the water phase using only gums and stabilizers (e.g., Krafts Free Choice Vinaigrette Style Fat-Free Dressing). Thus, the role of ingredients such as gums, stabilizers, thickeners and emulsiers needs to be rmly emphasized in the context of fat replacement. That is why this group of ingredients has been placed in a separate category in the classication of ingredients given earlier. Details on the uses of gums, bulking agents and emulsiers are given in Chapters 9, 10, and 11, respectively, and cellulosebased stabilizers, and their use for fat mimicking purposes, is discussed in Chapters 7A and 7B. The scope for utilizing functional food ingredients in fat replacement was further highlighted in 1991 by the commercialization of Slendid, a proprietary pectin developed by Hercules, Inc., and marketed by Copenhagen Pectin A/S (see Chapter 7C). 1.6.6 DEVELOPMENT OF COMBINATION SYSTEMS The launch of the N-Lite range of fat mimetics by National Starch & Chemical Corporation in January 1992, as well as widening the scope for the use of starch-derived ingredients for fat replacement purposes, was of considerable signicance because it established a new trend. This was the development of combination systems (i.e., blends
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of ingredients) for use in fat replacement in specic product applications. For example, N-Lite F, specically designed for use in icings, llings, frozen desserts and dry mixes, was a blend of modied starch, non-fat milk solids, polyglycerol ester and guar gum. In effect, therefore, the necessity for the holistic approach to fat replacement has been acknowledged. Most notably, it was in this context that modied starch was shown to have a useful role in fat replacement. In fact, some blends were on the market before 1992. Indeed, a number were launched in the second half of the 1980s, but received few headlines, because, at the time, the search for the single magic ingredient was the dominant theme. Developments in the use of blends as fat replacers have taken a number of forms, but, in the main, the approach has been to prepare a formulation containing three or more ingredients which, either could be more universally applied, or, were designed for a specic product category. The latter approach has tended to dominate (for obvious reasons), and the blends typically included as ingredients are gums, stabilizers, thickeners, and emulsiers, together with standard protein sources (see Appendix for a list of blended ingredient systems that are on the market). Most combination systems are composed using a passive approach, whereby each ingredient has its particular functionality, and it is the sum of those functionalities that is devised to result in optimal product characteristics. However, one group, interactive combination systems, is based on the principle that a particular combination of ingredients interact during processing, resulting in different characteristics to those that would have been expected from each of the ingredients separately or together. A good example of an interactive combination system is the Slimgel range launched by P.B. Gelatins, Belgium, at the end of 1993. It is composed of gelatin and galactomannans, and its performance is based on thermodynamic incompatibility between these two hydrocolloids, which, in turn, leads to phase separation (Muyldermans, 1993, see also Chapter 12). The advantage of blends, ideally, is that they shorten the time and effort required to develop new low-fat or fat-free products. However, the disadvantage is that when signicant development work is required to best match a given full-fat variant, the use of a blend might prove too inexible, and inhibit the ingredient optimization process, since the precise composition of the main functional system used is not known. The concept of using a range of ingredients in an attempt to reproduce the different functions of fat in the full-fat product goes some way toward a holistic strategy. This was particularly necessary by early 1990s, by which time, partly due to commercial pressures and partly due to new legislative restrictions regarding claims (see Chapter 5), the goal-posts for fat reduction had moved yet again, this time toward the ultimate limit i.e., zero fat. 1.6.7 REPLACING STANDARD FATS WITH LOW-CALORIE FATS The concept of replacing fat with a low-calorie fat entered the scene in the early 1990s. By that time, the likelihood of obtaining FDA approval for the use of olestra within a short time-scale was dwindling rapidly, and, on the other hand, it was recognized that the commercially available fat mimetics did not provide an easy answer to fat replacement, and, moreover, their use was restricted, in general, to water-based food systems. In this context, the idea of using the basic structure of a triglyceride molecule, but changing the composition of the fatty acids esteried with the glycerol backbone in order to achieve caloric reduction appeared to be very plausible. Moreover, the fact that medium-chain triglycerides, which usually comprise caprylic (C8) and capric (C10) fatty acids, are GRAS ingredients with a 35-year track record in clinical medicine (e.g., for treating patients suffering from lipid malabsorption symptoms or for use in infant formulae) was a distinct advantage (Latta, 1990; Megremis, 1991). These compounds provide energy (8.3 kcal/g) but are metabolized through the liver, and are characterized
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by a low tendency for becoming incorporated into tissue as depot fat. Currently, mediumchain triglycerides are marketed by the U.S. company Karlshamns Food Ingredients (Captex 300, 350 and 355, now known as AKomed range) and by Stepan Company (Neobee M-5). However, as pointed out by Thayer (1992), there are certain limitations to the use of medium-chain triglycerides in foods since, upon hydrolysis, the free fatty acids released give strong off-avors. The concept of using medium-chain triglycerides together with long-chain fatty acids (e.g., behenic acid C22) was developed jointly by Procter & Gamble and Grinsted Products, Inc. and commercialized under the name Caprenin. The incorporation of behenic acid (which is only partially absorbed in the gut), together with caprylic and capric acids, gives further caloric reduction, and the net result is that Caprenin provides only 5 kcal/g (Peters et al., 1991; Webb and Sanders, 1991). More information on Caprenin is given in Chapter 13. Caprenin has been used commercially as a substitute for cocoa butter in the product Milky Way II produced by M & M Mars (introduced into a test market area in the U.S. in March 1992), and (in September 1992) in Hersheys Reduced Calorie and Fat Candy Bar. In both cases, the Caprenin was used in conjunction with polydextrose to achieve a 25% reduction in caloric value compared with the standard product. However, since then, there seems to have been no apparent progress in the use of Caprenin as a fat replacer. The most recent addition to the low-calorie fat category is Salatrim, developed by Nabisco Foods Group in conjunction with Pzer Food Science, and launched in July 1994. Salatrim is a family of triglycerides comprising mixtures of long-chain fatty acids (predominantly stearic acid) and short-chain fatty acids (mainly acetic acid, propionic acid, and/or butyric acid) esteried with glycerol. As a result of this chemical structure, the caloric value of Salatrim is 5 kcal/g (Smith et al., 1994). It is not expected that the commercial availability of Salatrim will be hindered by the FDA approval process since it is made from natural substances commonly used in foods and produced by an established interesterication process (petition led with the FDA in mid-1994). No toxic effects were observed in animal studies of up to 13 weeks duration and in clinical studies, Salatrim was found to be well tolerated in doses of up to 30 g/d (Smith et al., 1994). At the time of writing, Nabisco was hoping to launch chocolate bars containing Salatrim by mid-1995, and Pzer Food Science was planning subsequently to launch ice cream, cheeses, baked goods and table spreads made from Salatrim. However, the incorporation of Salatrim into frying oils has not been suggested (see Chapter 13). The future will show whether low-calorie fats will be seen as a commercially viable option for the food industry. 1.6.8 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF FAT REPLACERS Developments of fat replacers have not only been conned to the development of new ingredients. In addition, much effort has been made by ingredient manufacturers to improve further the quality of the existing fat replacers in terms of their functionality, ease of use and heat stability, with the aim of expanding their industrial applications. Three trends can be identied: instantization; alterations in functionality prole; and ease of use during product manufacture. Instantization is an obvious and well-established route for ingredient extension. Thus, a number of ingredient manufacturers have launched instant versions of their fat mimetic. This is evident from the list of fat replacers given in the Appendix. The second trend can be seen as a reection of the realization that no fat mimetic, however good, can mimic all the functional characteristics provided by a fat in a given product. Thus, one or more other ingredients were being added to alter and improve the

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functionality prole provided by the original ingredient in order to obtain some additional fat-like property (e.g., development of the Novagel range of fat replacers by F.M.C., based on Avicel). The extreme form of this trend was its extension into the development of blends, as discussed above. The need for ingredients which were easy to use during the manufacture of food products was especially in evidence during the rst half of the 1990s. This is associated with the fact that the use of many of the fat replacers that have been developed necessitated either the preparation of a solution and/or special processing when placed in solution, prior to addition to other ingredients, e.g., the Rafticreming stage required for Raftiline, and the high shearing (8000 psi) required for Stellar (Pszczola, 1991). Hence, the subsequent developments aimed to remove these additional stages in product manufacture while providing the expected functionality, and new variants entered the market (e.g., Raftiline HP and Instant Stellar). In the overall context of improvements in the quality and exibility of fat replacers, Simplesse deserves special mention, since the original ingredient (Simplesse 100) which was commercialized in a liquid form (42.5% solids) with a short shelf-life and low heat resistance, was developed into a dry form (Simplesse 100D) able to withstand UHT pasteurization or retorting, without loss of functionality.

1.7 IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF LOW-FAT FOODS

A reduced-fat food product, when compared with the standard product it is replacing, more often than not has different requirements from the points of view of manufacturers, retailers, and consumers. For instance, a change in the technology used in manufacture and manufacturing practice may be required, which, furthermore, might have cost implications. A change in pack design, e.g., with improved barrier properties, greater physical protection or a reduced pack size, may be called for where shelf-life is reduced. In some cases, changes in temperature or timescale of distribution may be necessary. While achieving optimal product quality is obviously the primary consideration in the pursuit of fat reduction, it is crucial to base this on an understanding of how the ingredients function, and, taking into account microbiological and legislative implications, appropriately designing a marketing strategy. These issues are highlighted in the following discussion. 1.7.1 PRODUCT QUALITY/CONSUMER PREFERENCE/MARKETING DRIVE Clearly, the organoleptic properties of the low-fat product ultimately determine the success or failure of the product, since consumers are unlikely (at least in the rst instance) to sacrice taste and quality in order to reduce calories in their diet (see Chapter 4 for a detailed discussion on sensory aspects of fat reduction and avor release). However, the success of the dairy industry in applying the strategy of direct fat removal, which, as noted already, resulted in dramatic organoleptic changes, suggests that consumer perceptions and liking of high-fat products can be modied over time. Indeed, there is already some evidence that consumer preference is shifting toward products with a medium, as opposed to those containing a higher level of fat (Wyeth and Kilcast, 1991; Mela and Marshall, 1992). In other words, consumers attitudes to health and diet are apparently beginning to have a signicant inuence on food choice, and a greater desire for foods with healthier nutritional characteristics is starting to inuence organoleptic preferences. Thus, increased consumption of some low-fat product variants can cause changes in preferences, which, in turn, changes acceptability patterns. It can be argued,

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therefore, that for these patterns to emerge, the quality of the products with medium fat reduction may be the key to future developments. In this context, the market drive for fat-free variants may be seen as being premature for some product categories. The positioning of a particular product in the diet should, in principle, determine the level of fat reduction required and the product quality that can be achieved at different fat levels should be balanced against that before making a marketing decision. This helps to explain why some of the fat-free variants, despite apparently different characteristics from the equivalent standard product, appear to be of greater appeal to consumers than others. 1.7.2 KNOWLEDGE OF INGREDIENTS When developing a product where fat reduction is achieved through the incorporation of a fat replacer, it is of considerable importance to know or establish: rst, the physical and chemical characteristics of the functional ingredients used; second, what the possible interactions with other food components might be; and third, what the implications might be for the processing operations, i.e., what changes in processing might need to be employed in order to achieve maximum functionality. Thus, a full knowledge of a range of fat replacers, which can be used effectively to narrow down the number of fat replacers suitable for a particular product type, is essential if product development is to be carried out in an efcient manner. Moreover, any adjustments in other ingredients present in the standard full-fat formulation need to be guided by a knowledge of their functionality. It is important to be especially exible as far as the processing method is concerned, since, in some cases, small adjustments in the standard method might be required, whereas in others, the optimal solution might be to consider other technological options (e.g., through technology transfer, or by devising a new technology altogether). 1.7.3 MICROBIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS A reduction in fat content in a given product formulation is usually associated with a simultaneous increase in moisture content, which thus affects microbiological stability, and hence the safety of the product must be given due consideration. For example, lowfat spreads require the addition of a preservative such as potassium sorbate which is not normally necessary for full-fat margarine, and, moreover, they have a considerably shorter shelf-life. Similarly, many low-fat dressings, unlike the full-fat equivalent, require refrigeration after opening. In other words, for many reduced-fat products, consumers have to change the way in which they use the product compared with the full-fat equivalent, and it has to be ensured that consumers are aware of that. It is well recognized that water activity, acidity, preservatives, and the extent of heat treatment are the main factors affecting product shelf-life and microbiological safety. However, it should be mentioned that although water activity measurements have been used in the food industry for nearly 40 years as a food safety parameter, this is now considered inadequate by some, who argue that greater emphasis should be placed on glass transition temperature (Slade and Levine, 1991; Franks, 1991). Franks (1991) suggests that change in water availability, especially in the case of intermediate or low moisture products, is related to the rate of water diffusion in the product, which, in turn, is related to the glass-rubber transition of the material and the sensitivity of the transition temperature to changes in the moisture content. As yet, there is no consensus on this topic. Meanwhile, therefore, water activity remains the basic method for ascertaining microbiological stability.

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In many low-fat products, increasing the acidity of the aqueous phase can be an effective means to achieve an acceptable shelf-life. For example, Gram-negative pathogens such as the salmonellae may be controlled by ensuring a pH below 4.0. For coliforms, an even lower pH is required, or a combination of low pH and low temperature (The International Commission on Microbiological Specications for Foods, 1980a). The type of acid used for lowering the pH is critical, since it is the undissociated molecule of the organic acid or ester that confers antimicrobial activity. Organic acids used as food preservatives have pKa values of between 3 and 5 (pKa is the pH at which 50% of the total acid is undissociated). Lowering the pH of a food increases the proportion of undissociated molecules of an organic acid, thus increasing its effectiveness as an antimicrobial agent (The International Commission on Microbiological Specications for Foods, 1980b). Acetic, citric, lactic, propionic, benzoic, and sorbic acids are the most commonly used food acidulants and preservatives. At pH 4.0, for instance, the proportion of acetic acid molecules in an undissociated state is over four times that of citric acid, which reects the formers greater effectiveness as a preservative. This is well illustrated by the occurrence of outbreaks of Salmonella in Spain associated with the practice of using lemon juice instead of acetic acid in mayonnaise in which the importance of selecting the right acid to maintain a preservative function was simply overlooked (Perez et al., 1986). In a later study (Perales and Garcia, 1990), it was found that 45% of mayonnaise made in different restaurants in Spain had a pH greater than 4.5, with 17.5% using vinegar and lemon, and 2.5% did not use any source of acid, and 60% of the restaurants surveyed had recipes that allowed Salmonella enteriditis to survive, thus presenting health risks to consumers. The importance of selecting the right acid is even more important in the case of reduced-fat products, where microbiological risks are that much greater. Finally, it is important to bear in mind that if strongly acidic notes perceived in a product adversely affect overall sensory quality, it is possible to design blends that produce an acceptable avor prole, while maintaining the preservative function. 1.7.4 LEGISLATIVE CONSIDERATIONS When developing reduced-fat variants, the legislative issues in the country of sale need to be taken into account. This topic is discussed in detail in Chapter 5, but here the issue of nutritional claims will be outlined briey due to its importance in product marketing. In the European Union, harmonized provisions for nutrition claims across the member states has been under consideration for some time now, but nal agreement has yet to be reached. The current draft proposes that the term reduced-fat can be used if the fat content is reduced by at least 25% of that present in the standard product, and that the low-fat claim can only be used if not more than 3 g of fat is present per 100 g of product. The term without fat would be considered acceptable if the amount of fat did not exceed 0.15 g per 100 g in a product. However, in the absence of harmonized European Union regulations, national regulations or guidelines need to be adhered to. The U.S. regulations for nutrition claims produced by the FDA differ from the current draft for the European Union in the way the latter two claims are dened. The FDA low-fat claim can be used if a reference amount customarily consumed is greater than 30 g, or greater than two tablespoons, and the food contains 3 g or less of fat per reference amount. In cases where the serving size is 30 g or less, or up to two tablespoons, a lowfat claim can be used under the conditions stated above, but providing that 3 g or less of fat is present in 50 g of the food. The fat-free claim can be used when the food contains less than 0.5 g of fat per reference and per labeled serving.

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A further important difference between current regulations in member states of the European Union and the U.S. is that in the former nutritional labeling remains voluntary unless a nutritional claim is made for the particular food, whereas the U.S. Nutrition Labeling and Education Act as from May 1994 amended the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act to make nutrition labeling mandatory for most foods, and it also became compulsory to state on the label the amount of calories from fat in addition to the total amount of calories present. Furthermore, where regulations exist regarding compositional requirements, as with butter, chocolate, or ice cream, the reduced-fat product necessitates careful naming and labeling from a legal standpoint. 1.7.5 PRICING AND MARKETING The cost of ingredients used to replace fat is another important factor in the development of low-fat foods. More often than not, product development activities are carried out within nancial constraints which require costs of those ingredients not to exceed the cost of the fat they are supposed to replace. Although the initial prices of most fat mimetics have often been relatively high, competition and economies of scale have usually brought prices down over time. However, in order to survive in the market, an ingredient will need to have a clear performance advantage over existing alternatives. In this context, it is important to bear in mind that cost analysis is an additional element that needs to be incorporated into the holistic approach to the development of low-fat foods already advocated from a technical point of view. A complication here is that direct price comparison between different fat mimetics does not necessarily reect real cost differentials since, more often than not, each fat mimetic will require different adjustments in the type and concentration of other ingredients in the formulation in order to produce an end product of comparable quality. This issue is of particular importance when there are signicant differences in the chemical composition of the fat mimetics being compared, since they would be more likely to have an impact not only on textural characteristics, but also on avor and the overall avor release mechanism, as discussed in Chapter 4. Finally, the retail price of a low-fat product compared with the standard product will have an effect on relative sales volumes. In this context, it is worth noting that there are many low-fat variants currently on the market priced at the same level or even lower than the equivalent full-fat products (Dibb, 1994). This trend can be seen as a positive initiative of food manufacturers and retailers to achieve a wider public appeal and increased sales of low-fat products, and further emphasizes the need for a macromarketing approach to popularize products that are nutritionally more benecial.

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