Composites: Part B 54 (2013) 5970

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Composites: Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

Effects of hot water aging on failure behavior of mechanically fastened glass ber/epoxy composite joints
Ibrahim Fadil Soykok a,, Onur Sayman a, Ahmet Pasinli b
a b

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University Tinaztepe Campus, 35397 Buca, Izmir, Turkey Ege Vocational Training School, Ege University Campus, 35040 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
The present experimental investigation aims to discover how mechanically fastened joints of glass ber/ epoxy composites were inuenced by hot water immersion. Specimens were exposed to hot water at temperatures of 50, 70, and 90 C for 1 and 2 weeks periods prior to the joint assembly and testing. Having conducted tensile tests, it was nally concluded that failure behavior of joints in aged specimens is strictly related to the temperature applied and holding time in hot water. Both extending of immersion time and increasing liquid temperature were found to affect the mechanical characteristics of joint, adversely. In addition, glass ber reinforced composite plates were realized to have increased in weight due to the moisture absorption, the amount of which is dependent on immersing time and temperature. Another nding derived from experiments is that, the joints with fasteners preloaded under 6 Nm tightening torque offer noticeable advantage in terms of stiffness and strength compared with the ngertightened ones, just as experienced in unaged specimens. 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 10 December 2012 Received in revised form 21 April 2013 Accepted 23 April 2013 Available online 9 May 2013 Keywords: A. Glass bers B. Environmental degradation D. Mechanical testing E. Joints/joining

1. Introduction Composites are structural components, which are designed and produced in response to an ever-increasing demand of usage from many elds of production, such as aeronautic and aerospace, automotive, and robotic industries. They are given preference over the conventional metallic alloys, due to their high specic strength (strength to weight ratio) and specic modulus (modulus to weight ratio), which provide greater payload capability, improved performance and fuel savings in the wake of weight savings. Composites can be subjected to a wide range of variable mechanical loadings under many different environmental conditions during service life. In order that the composite components fulll their tasks effectively, it is of great importance to determine their behaviors under environmental extremes, such as hot/wet or hot/humid conditions. Many researches are available in literature, focusing on how hot water immersion and moisture inuence the mechanical features of ber reinforced composites. The authors of almost all the previous papers concluded in accordance with each other that hot water aging has obviously a negative impact on mechanical characteristics of brous composite materials. Three types of ber-reinforced polymeric composites were investigated by Selzer and Friedrich [1] to nd out moisture effects
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 232 3019200.
E-mail address: ifsoykok@gmail.com (I.F. Soykok). 1359-8368/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2013.04.073

on the mechanical properties and the failure behavior. Two thermosetting matrices (unmodied and toughness-modied epoxy) and one thermoplastic matrix (polyetheretherketone) were used. These properties were decreased by moisture absorption, which was ascribed by the authors to the weakening of bonding between ber and matrix and softening the matrix materials. Kawaguchi et al. [2] studied hot water immersion testing and tensile testing on three kinds of short glass ber or glass bead-reinforced plastics (PPE, PPS, POM). A degradation of the strength was observed for reinforced plastics under hot water immersion and the change of the tensile strength was found to be most drastic in glass ber-reinforced PPS (GFPPS). Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations of the tensile fracture surface and the results of acoustic emission analysis revealed that the change in tensile strength was attributable to the deterioration of the interface between the glass ber and the matrix resin. Mechanical loading and moisture conditioning effects on Eglass/epoxy composite were examined by Abdel-Magid [3]. After short duration (500 and 1000 h) of applied tensile stress and submergence in distilled water at room temperature, the material exhibited an increase in strength, decrease in modulus, and increase in strain to failure. After longer duration (3000 h) of applied stress and moisture conditioning at room temperature, a signicant decrease in strength and strain-to-failure was exhibited indicating crack propagation in the matrix and at the interface causing the material to be less ductile and more brittle. When the conditioning temperature was raised to 65 C for 1000 h, the strength

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decreased by 18%, and the modulus decreased by 28% while the strain-to-failure increased by 18%. It was concluded that the applied stress has a positive effect on the material in short-term, and that the effect of load and water at room temperature is quite different from their effect at high temperature. Manfredi et al. [4] studied on the inuence of montmorillonite nanoparticles dispersion to the matrix of unidirectional glass ber/epoxy composites on their mechanical and water absorption properties. The composites containing a nanocomposite matrix absorbed higher quantity of water at long times than the one with a pure epoxy matrix due to the diminution in the crosslinking density of the epoxy. A decrease in the mechanical properties after water submersion as well as a detrimental effect of the water on the matrix and interface of the composites was observed. On the other hand, some researchers conducted also water immersing tests on composites reinforced by low cost natural plant bers. Following immersion at room temperature and boiling temperature, the effect of water absorption on the mechanical properties of non-woven hemp ber reinforced unsaturated polyester composites has been studied by Dhakal et al. [5]. The study showed that, moisture uptake increase with ber volume fraction increases due to increased voids and cellulose content. The water absorption pattern of these composites at room temperature is found to follow Fickian behavior, whereas at elevated temperature the absorption behavior is non-Fickian. Water uptake behavior is radically altered at elevated temperatures due to signicant moisture induced degradation. Exposure to moisture results in signicant drops in tensile and exural properties due to the degradation of the bermatrix interface. Assarar et al. [6] tested water aging property degradations in both natural ax ber and glass ber reinforced composites, comparatively. The results showed that water aging degrades considerably both the Young modulus and the maximum strain of axber composite, in the opposite of glassber one, for which only the tensile stress was affected adversely. A construction made of composites cannot be considered without joints, because of the limitations of production sizes and transportation difculties. Composites are usually joined adhesively or mechanically to each other or to any other structural member. While making a choice between them, it must be taken into account that, both of the joint types have their own outstanding features under different operating conditions. In the present paper, we are going to study the mechanically fastened ones, which are less sensitive to environmental impacts, like extremely hot, cold, and humid conditions. Many authors have already reported the related studies, the basic goals of which are to obtain knowledge about how mechanical, geometrical and environmental parameters are effective in failure behaviors of mechanically fastened joints. Hart-Smith [7] proposed methods for analysis and design of bolted graphiteepoxy and hybrid graphite glass/epoxy composite joints. Test specimens were selected as having quasi-isotropic and

two near quasi-isotropic layup. Net section, bearing, and shear out failure modes were studied in specimens by changing their geometrical parameters. The interaction of stress concentrations associated with multi-row bolted joints was investigated experimentally by testing single- and double-row bolted joints and open-hole specimens in tension. A linear interaction was found to exist between the bearing stresses reacted at a given hole and the remaining tension stress running by that hole to be reacted elsewhere. Subsequently, Ling [8] studied the bolt clamping forces in mechanically fastened joints, experimentally and numerically. Experimental results have given clues for predicting the critical bearing strength of single-hole joint types. Additionally, bolted joints are found to be appropriate for estimation method as a result of the comparison between the data for experimental and analytical solutions. In a more recent study, Sen et al. [9] investigated the individual effects of stacking sequences, preload torque, and bolt-hole clearances. Failure behaviors were found to be inuenced considerably by material parameters, as well as the geometrical parameters. The effects of geometrical parameters were also discussed in the research paper by Karakuzu et al. [10]. Experimental and numerical studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of the edge distance-to-hole diameter ratio (E/D), plate width-to-hole diameter ratio (W/D), and the distance between two holes-to-hole diameter ratio (M/D) on failure loads and failure modes in wovenglassvinyl ester composite plates with two serial pin-loaded holes. LUSAS commercial nite element software was utilized during analysis; and failure load and failure mode estimations were made by using the Hashin failure criterion in the numerical analysis. As a result of a series of experimental and numerical studies they showed that the ultimate load capacity of woven glassvinyl ester laminates with pin connections increased by increasing ratios E/D, W/D, and M/D. On the other hand, Kishore et al. [11] studied the geometrical parameters pitch-to-diameter ratio (P/D), side width-to-diameter ratio (S/D) and edge-to-diameter ratio (E/D) by developing a two-dimensional nite element model with ANSYS software. In the numerical calculations, TsaiWu failure criteria associated with material property degradation was used in the analysis to predict failure load and to differentiate failure modes. Then, the results were validated with the experimental work. Camanho and Lambert [12] developed a method for initial damage, nal failure and failure mode predictions in pin-loaded and bolt-loaded joints. Final failure and failure mode were predicted using point or average stress models. Standardized procedures to measure the characteristic distances used in the point or average stress models were proposed. The statistical analysis of the experimental results showed that the characteristic distances in tension are a function of both the hole diameter and specimen width. It was also concluded that the characteristic distances in compression are a function of the clamping conditions applied to the joints

Fig. 1. Joint of single shear double fastener composite test specimens.

I.F. Soykok et al. / Composites: Part B 54 (2013) 5970 Table 1 Mechanical properties of the glass ber/epoxy composite material. E1 (MPa) 27200 E2 (MPa) 12800

61

m12
0.25

Xt (MPa) 586.5

Yt (MPa) 137.7

Xc (MPa) 324.7

Yc (MPa) 200.2

S (MPa) 61.96

Tg (C) 85

properties. But in our previous work [14], mechanically fastened composite plates were subjected to tensile loadings under thermal exposure. High temperature environments were found to be rather harmful for joints; especially near the glass transition temperature, the joint strength reduction occurred more severely due to the heat damage to the resin matrix. Unlike this former study, conducted at elevated temperatures, the current experimental research is now focusing on the mechanical features of mechanically fastened joints in glass ber/epoxy composites at ambient temperatures after being exposed to hot water aging. 2. Sample preparation Glass ber/epoxy, quasi-isotropic laminates with a lay-up of [0/ 90/45/45]s conguration and with 100 120 mm in-plane dimensions were prepared by cutting the plates into required dimensions (L = 210 mm, W = 36 mm and h was measured as 2 mm). ASTM D 5961/D 5961M 01, the standard test method for bearing response of polymer matrix composite laminates was referenced for determination of the specimen geometries. Just as specied in the standard procedure, a single shear, composite-to-composite, lap joint with 2 fasteners arranged in longitudinal direction, was subjected to quasi-static loading in tension (Fig. 1). The geometries and materials of the two connected parts of the specimen are equivalent to each other. Two holes with the diameter of 6 mm were drilled along the centerline on each specimen. In order to minimize the bending effect, arising from the nature of single shear joint, doublers cut of the plate material were also bonded on to the end portions of specimens, where the upper and lower specimens were clamped between the corresponding wedge grips. Fasteners were Class 8.8 and M6 size metric bolts, having an allowable tensile strength of 800 MPa and shear strength of 480 MPa. Based on the given strength values, the rigid bolts are found to be suitable and strong enough to carry the load transmitted by fasteners between specimens even when reached to the maximum load. Having examined the bolts after tests, the endurance of bolt material could also be seen, visually. 3. Experimental study and of the hole diameter. The methodology proposed was proved that it is practical in double-shear mechanically fastened joints using quasi-isotropic laminates under uniaxial or multiaxial loading. Sen and Sayman [13] analyzed the effects of preload torque magnitudes, besides material, and geometrical variables on the failure response of two serial bolted joints in composite laminates. Some geometrical ratios were found to be inconvenient for safe design. Additionally, the increase in preload torque up to some point was seen as a necessary requirement for trusted designs made of two serial bolted composite joints. As explicated in the above mentioned papers, while some authors were interested in the inuences of material and geometrical parameters on mechanically fastened composite joints, other researchers focused solely on the aging effects of hothumid environments on composite materials itself and especially on their mechanical features. Generally, a majority of the prior publications, concerned with mechanically joined composites do not involve environmental factors, and how they affect the mechanical 3.1. Material production The material of composite specimens was produced by using vacuum assisted resin infusion technique [15]. Glass ber layers, having a density of 300 g/m3 were laid on to the heater table, according to [0/90/45/45]s ber orientations. In order to isolate the lower surface of the laminate from the heater table, a release lm was used, and to provide a clean and uncontaminated upper surface, peel plies were laid in contact with the ber material so that it is positioned between the two separator layers, which were nally detached from the composite laminate. Then, a layer called resin distribution medium was placed on the top of the whole layers to assure homogenous and quicker resin dispersion. The layers were covered by a vacuum bagging lm, pasting it using sealant tape from the edges to the heater table. The air inside the bag was evacuated by a vacuum pump (0.1 MPa) and it was ensured that no leakage exists. The mixture of Duratek DTE 1000 resin and Duratek DTS 1100 fast hardener was drawn into the

Fig. 2. Hot water aging in pure water.

Fig. 3. Unidirectional quasi-static tensile tests in Shimadzu AG-100, 100 kN testing machine.

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Table 2 Failure loads of glass ber/epoxy composite material joints in tension tests at various temperatures and under different tightening torques. Immersing temperature (C) Immersing time (h) Moisture uptake (%) Failure loads (N) Tightening torques (Nm) Without immersing 0 0 10511.05 11209.90 50 168 0.31 9893.52 10954.97 50 336 0.31 8353.37 10325.75 70 168 0.71 7811.77 8250.53 70 336 0.71 7424.41 7867.51 90 168 0.76 6921.67 7498.44 90 336 0.97 6356.19 7461.92

0 6

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4. The effect of water temperature on load/displacement curves in tensile tests of bolted joints in glass ber/epoxy composite specimens after 1 week immersing time under (a) M = 0 Nm, and (b) M = 6 Nm tightening torques.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 5. The effect of water temperature on load/displacement curves in tensile tests of bolted joints in glass ber/epoxy composite specimens after 2 weeks immersing time under (a) M = 0 Nm, and (b) M = 6 Nm tightening torques.

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63

component under vacuum until full impregnation. Keeping the pressure constant, the laminate was cured at the table temperature of 120 C for 2 h until the product acquired the full strength. 3.2. Mechanical properties

strengths Xt and Yt, the longitudinal and transverse compressive strengths Xc and Yc, the rail shear strength S, Poissons ratio m12 and the glass transition temperature Tg.

3.3. Aging through hot water immersion A study was conducted to determine the properties of the composite materials, subjected to the joint tests in the current investigation. In order to perform the mechanical analysis, a unidirectional composite laminate was made of glass ber/epoxy material, identical to those of the original test specimens. Mechanical properties were determined as a result of a series of tensile, compressive and rail-shear tests. The basic material properties given in Table 1 are as follows: the longitudinal modulus E1, the transverse modulus E2, the longitudinal and transverse tensile The glass ber/epoxy composite specimens prepared by cutting and drilling the laminate in accordance with the standard test geometry, were aged for different time periods and at different temperatures in hot water before joining and testing. The doublers were also subjected to the same conditions and they were not attached to the specimens until the aging process have nished. Hot water immersing periods were selected as 1 and 2 weeks time and the water temperatures were adjusted as 50, 70, and 90 C.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 6. The effect of immersing time on load/displacement curves in tensile tests of bolted joints in glass ber/epoxy composite specimens subjected to hot water of (a) 50, (b) 70, and (c) 90 C under M = 0 Nm tightening torque.

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(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 7. The effect of immersing time on load/displacement curves in tensile tests of bolted joints in glass ber/epoxy composite specimens subjected to hot water at (a) 50, (b) 70, and (c) 90 C under M = 6 Nm tightening torque.

Measurements of specimen weights were also performed before and after immersion, so that the amount of water uptake could be calculated depending on the immersion time and the level of water temperature. The aging was performed in pure water, warmed by a resistance heater with an adjustable thermostat installed (Fig. 2). The free movement of specimens and the contact with each other were prevented by using a separator in order to ensure full surface contact with the liquid. At the end of the immersion periods, as soon as surface drying and weighing specimens, bolted joints were formed and the tests were implemented immediately. 3.4. Testing procedure Failure behaviors of mechanically fastened joints in composite laminates, composed of glass ber reinforced epoxy matrix, were

experimentally investigated after aging the specimens by hot water exposure. Shortly after taking the specimens from inside the hot water, single lap double serial fastener joints were prepared and failure analyses were conducted. While joining, two different tightening torque levels were applied to the bolts as 0 (nger-tight) and 6 Nm. Shimadzu AG-100, 100 kN testing machine was utilized for unidirectional quasi-static tensile tests, carried out at 1 mm/min crosshead speed (Fig. 3). Data acquisition and data processing were provided by using the Trapezium software, which is installed in personal computer that the testing machine is connected to.

4. Results and discussion Static tensile tests were applied to gather and evaluate information about failure behavior of single lap, double serial bolted,

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Fig. 8. The effect of bolt tightening torques on load/displacement curves in tensile tests of bolted joints in glass ber/epoxy composite plates without hot water immersing.

composite to composite joints, specically after holding the material in hot water for certain time periods. Force versus displacement plots and maximum failure loads for each joint in glass ber reinforced epoxy composite plates, subjected to hot water at varied temperatures and immersing times were recorded for having necessary information about their damage behaviors under hothumid and hotwet environmental conditions. Immersing for one- and two-week time periods in hot water resulted in the composite laminates to absorb some amount of water, as shown in Table 2. The dosage of water intake varied depending on water temperature and immersing time. The specimens kept in hot water at 50 C have absorbed 0.31% by weight moisture by the end of the one-week time period. At the same level of temperature, moisture content in specimens did not changed during one more week time in hot water. This phenomenon indicates that the material has reached the saturation point in taking moisture by the end of the rst week. Moisture absorption in the plate in hot water at 70 C appears to be as 0.71% by weight. Just as experienced at 50 C, moisture uptake reaches a saturation limit and specimens did not changed in weight during the second week time. On the other hand, moisture absorption ranged from 0.76% to 0.97% between immersed specimens for 1 and 2 weeks, respectively, at the water temperature of 90 C. This high absorption is attributed to the damage of resin matrix which is observed to be more severe at higher temperatures, especially above the glass transition temperature. This deterioration in matrix and in bermatrix interface led to an increase in cavities and causes the composite plate to keep absorbing water inside. In most cases, the deterioration of a composite material during wet aging is caused by a water absorption phenomenon depending on temperature, hygrometric rate and the nature of the composite. The transport of water can be facilitated by diffusion inside the matrix, by imperfections within the matrix, created during the fabrication (micro space, pores or cracks) or by capillarity along the ber/matrix interface [6]. Weakening ber/matrix interfacial bonds as a result of moisture absorption due to capillarity causes the matrix to fail in performing its task and leads to reduction in the ability to transmit external forces to the bers. The reduction in properties of composite laminates is usually related to matrix and ber/matrix interface weak-

ening due to the hot water aging. After immersion, all joint properties including shear and tensile strengths and bearing strength of joint which is mostly dependent on the compressive resistance of inner surface of bolt hole are highly affected by the existence of water particles inside the matrix and ber/matrix interface. In mechanically fastened joints, external forces are reacted primarily by means of the contact pressure between fasteners and hole edges of plates. The pressure is formed in the initial phase of loading in hand-tightened joints, and as for joints with preloaded fasteners, the development of pressure forces and its contribution to load transmission happens just after frictional forces are fully overcome. The pressure forces lead the bolt holes to be distorted and bolt-hole displacements to be initiated, instantaneously. Because rigidity of matrix material itself is an important characteristic in withstanding these compressive bearing forces, its degradation by adverse environmental conditions will have an adverse effect on the joint stiffness. Fig. 4a and b illustrate load versus displacement curves of joints tested after hot water aging for 1 week, whilst Fig. 5a and b depict it for aged specimens for 2 weeks in hot water. For both cases, it can be clearly seen that steeping specimens in hot water for a certain time period has an effect of reducing the slope of loaddisplacement curves. The decrease in slope of curves, belonging to the specimens aged at elevated immersing temperatures can be mainly attributed to reductions in joint stiffness. On the other hand, the attainable maximum failure load for each conditioned specimen seems to be inherently related to the slope of its loaddisplacement curve. In other words, in parallel with the decrements in slope of curves, the bearing strengths of joints are also reduced gradually for each temperature increment of aging water. Increasing temperature of immersing water aggravates its aging effect on glass ber/epoxy composite laminates. Joints of the specimens aged in hot water at higher levels of temperature exhibit lower tensile load transmission capacities for the same bolt-hole displacements. The decrease in slope of curves due to the increase of water temperature points to the fact that the deterioration of ber matrix interface and of matrix itself grows up to higher degrees if water temperature is elevated. Failure displacements seem also to decrease with increasing levels of water temperature, which is most prominently noticed in the plots of 70 and 90 C temperature levels in Figs. 4 and 5. Besides that, for specimens kept in hot water at those high temperature levels, an abrupt failure is observed after reaching the peak level of tensile load without any further deection. Immersing time also appears to be another parameter affecting the load bearing behavior of mechanically fastened joints in hot water aged glass ber epoxy composite specimens. The load displacement plots of tensile tests applied to the joints in composite plates aged for 1 and 2 weeks periods, are given comparatively with unaged cases in Figs. 6 and 7. Similar to the effect of increase in aging temperature, prolonged immersion times cause also to reduce the slopes of loaddisplacement curves. Despite the fact that no gain in weight of specimens was experienced, the failure behavior appeared to have changed during the second week immersion time at water temperatures 50 and 70 C. As for those, exposed to hot water at 90 C, two phenomena are observed: the amount of water penetration into the specimens grows, and failure strength of joints reduces throughout the second week. Based on the earlier studies, it is well known that, the ability of load transmission by a bolted composite joint is highly dependent on the amount of torque applied to the fasteners during assembly. Clamping forces, generated by the preloaded bolts in the contact region between plates enable the load transmission to be performed by frictional forces at the preliminary stage. The rigidity of joined plates, and material thicknesses are principal features

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(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 9. The effect of bolt tightening torques on load/displacement curves in tensile tests of bolted joints in glass ber/epoxy composite plates immersed in hot water for 1 week time at (a) 50, (b) 70, and (c) 90 C.

that determine the size of the contact area. The contribution of preload torque in load transmission of bolted joints explicitly draws attention on the curves of joints in unaged specimens, in Fig. 8. It is clearly seen that, the pre-loaded joints are advantageous in terms of rigidity and strength. When it comes to the joints in hot water aged specimens, the applied preload to fasteners continues to have an ongoing impact on bearing strengths of joints in composites aged for both one-and two-week time periods as illustrated in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. Furthermore, the performed tests have revealed that, applied torque provides joints with more resistance to axial forces than those tested without aging. That is to say, the torque applied is an important tool in alleviating the impact of aging. Displacements at failure are also reduced relatively by the effect of tightening torque as seen in Figs. 810. As previously men-

tioned, the clamping forces produced by tightening torques cause frictional forces to develop between plates while loading. Initially, the load transfer is met by the frictional forces up to an equilibrium level. After that point, the external forces prevail over frictional forces and the plates start to slide relatively, which can be monitored clearly as a sudden change in slope of loaddisplacement curves between 0 and 2 mm displacement levels. As bolt-hole displacements are restricted during the initial phase of loading, the total displacement at failure appears to be smaller in comparison to nger-tightened joints. The temperature dependent effect of hot water aging on maximum failure loads is presented in Fig. 11. As expected, the maximum forces that can be transferred through bolted joints are adversely affected by aging process; moreover, higher water temperature levels cause further reduction in failure load.

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(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 10. The effect of bolt tightening torques on load/displacement curves in tensile tests of bolted joints in glass ber/epoxy composite plates immersed in hot water for 2 weeks time at (a) 50, (b) 70, and (c) 90 C.

Consequently, the maximum reduction in failure load was 39.5% in nger-tightened joints of specimens tested after 2 weeks immersing period in hot water at 90 C. Besides, the difference in reductions rates between 0 and 6 Nm preloaded joints were found to be very small. The magnitude of failure load seems to decrease gradually as the time of immersion is prolonged. As illustrated in Fig. 12, both the nger-tightened (a) and pre-loaded (b) joints have given decreased failure loads in tests performed at the end of extended period of immersion times. The mean reductions in failure loads between the immersion periods of rst and second week times were found as 9.6% and 3.6% for M = 0 Nm and M = 6 Nm preload torque, respectively. In Figs. 13 and 14, different failure modes seem to have occurred concurrently during deformation. While the unconditioned

specimens, together with those conditioned at 50 C hot water fail in safe bearing mode due to their adequate geometrical and material features, the others subjected to aging in hot water at higher temperatures (70 C and 90 C) seem to have ruptured abruptly in net-tension mode due to the mechanical property degradation of the plate material. That means the plate cross-sections, intersected with hole centers are no more comparatively and sufciently capable of resisting the axial forces after immersion. The reduction in tensile strength is attributable to the weakening of the bermatrix interfacial bonds. As is known, these interfacial bonds act as a load transmitter and regulate the load distribution between bers. Specimens aged at 70 C and 90 C temperature levels absorb more water inside and naturally, the increased moisture content in the bermatrix interface demolishes these bonds and cause an uneven load distribution. Once the load has turned

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Failure load (kN)

Failure load (kN)

without immersing 50 70 90

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Immersion Temperature (C)

M=0 Nm M=6 Nm

without immersing

50

70

90

Immersion Temperature (C)

M=0 Nm M=6 Nm

(a)

(b)

Fig. 11. Hot water effects on failure loads for (a) 1 week and (b) 2 weeks immersion time.

Failure load (kN)

10 8 6 4 2 0 50 70 90

Failure load (kN)

12

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 50 70 90

Immersion Temperature (C)

1 week 2 week

Immersion Temperature (C)

1 week 2 week

(a)

(b)

Fig. 12. Hot water effects on failure loads for joints under (a) 0 Nm and (b) 6 Nm tightening torques.

Fig. 13. Failure photos belonging to the unaged specimens with those aged in hot water for 1 week immersion at various temperatures.

into non-uniformly distributed, this situation leads to overloading of some bers. The bers, exposed to excessive forces are broken, consecutively and this leads to failure of the whole section in net-tension mode. With the intention of observing detailed matrix and ber/matrix interface degradations which are generally assumed to be mainly responsible for diminution in joint strength, fracture surfaces of failed specimens are displayed using SEM micrographs as seen in Fig. 15. In the microstructure of unconditioned specimens shown in Fig. 15a, the structural integrity of matrix material as

well as the ber /matrix bonding seem to be well maintained across almost the entire fracture surface. Accordingly, ber breakages appear to have occurred near or at the crack plane. Except for a very few ber debondings and local matrix crackings, the specimens exposed to 50 C have a view of fractograph in Fig. 15b similar to those tested before aging. In other words, micromechanical damage due to the moisture penetration into the resin and ber/ matrix interface appears to be quite limited at this temperature of immersion. On the other hand, the damage resulting from water penetration and temperature seem to be thoroughly intensied in

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Fig. 14. Failure photos belonging to the unaged specimens with those aged in hot water for 2 weeks immersion at various temperatures.

Fig. 15. SEM micrographs of fracture surfaces related to (a) the unaged control specimen, nd the specimens aged at (b) 50 C, (c) 70 C, and (d) 90 C temperature levels in hot water.

matrix and interfacial bonds of the specimens given in Fig. 15c and d, which are related to those immersed at the temperature levels of 70 C and 90 C, respectively. When examining these micrographs, it is clearly evident that matrix material had signicantly lost its mechanical properties due to moisture-induced plasticization during the hydrothermal aging; hence ber tips could easily slide from inside the fragmented resin matrix across the fracture surface.

5. Conclusion The present paper mentions an experimental investigation about mechanically fastened joints of glass ber/epoxy composite plates, exposed to hot water aging. Single lap joints were formed by using double serial bolts, tightened under different torque levels. Composite specimens, immersed for aging in hot water at varied temperatures for different time periods were joined and tested. The following conclusions can be deduced from the results of the current experimental study:

(1) Glass ber reinforced epoxy composites absorb moisture during immersion in hot water. Both the extension of holding time and the increase in water temperature can raise the amount of moisture uptake. (2) The level of water temperature applied during aging has a signicant inuence on the failure behavior of mechanically fastened joints in composite plates. Joints of composites aged at higher water temperatures exhibits relatively reduced maximum failure loads. (3) Holding time in hot water is considerably effective on the behavior of composite joints in tensile loading. Prolonged immersion times cause mechanically fastened joints to reduce in strength, gradually. (4) Excessive immersing temperatures such as 70 C and 90 C cause mechanically fastened composite joints to fail abruptly in net-tension failure mode due to moisture induced degradation in material, whereas the joints of unaged laminates and those aged at 50 C exhibit safe bearing failure mode.

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(5) Preloading torque in fastener bolts affects positively the joint strengths of hot water aged composites, just as experienced in the case of without aging.

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