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Regenerative brake
A regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle by converting its kinetic energy into another form, which can be either used immediately or stored until needed. This contrasts with conventional braking systems, where the excess kinetic energy is converted to heat by friction in the brake linings and therefore wasted. The most common form of regenerative brake involves using an electric motor as an electric generator. In electric railways the generated electricity is fed back into the supply system, whereas in battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored in a battery or bank of capacitors for later use. Energy may also be stored via pneumatics, hydraulics or the kinetic energy of a rotating flywheel.
Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup some of the energy lost during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to power the motor whenever the car is in electric mode.[1] Early examples of this system were the front-wheel drive conversions of horse-drawn cabs by Louis Antoine Krieger (1868-1951). The Krieger electric landaulet had a drive motor in each front wheel with a second set of parallel windings (bifilar coil) for regenerative braking [2] . In England, the Raworth system of "regenerative control" was introduced by tramway operators in the early 1900's, since it offered them economic and operational benefits as explained by A. Raworth of Leeds in some detail [3] [4] [5] . These included tramway systems at Devonport (1903), Rawtenstall, Birmingham, Crystal Palace-Croydon (1906) and many others. Slowing down the speed of the cars or keeping it in hand on descending gradients, the motors worked as generators and braked the vehicles. The tram cars also had wheel brakes and track slipper brakes which could stop the tram should the electric braking systems fail. In several cases the tram car motors were shunt wound instead of series wound, and the systems on the Crystal Palace line utilized series-parallel controllers [6] . Following a serious accident at Rawtenstall, an embargo was placed on this form of traction in 1911. Twenty years later, the regenerative braking system was reintroduced [7] . Regenerative braking has been in extensive use on railways for many decades. The Baku-Tbilisi-Batumi railway (Transcaucasian railway or Georgian railway) started utilizing regenerative braking in the early 1930's. This was especially effective on the steep and dangerous Surami Pass [8] . In Scandinavia the Kiruna to Narvik railway carries iron ore from the mines in Kiruna in the north of Sweden down to the port of Narvik in Norway to this day. The rail cars are full of thousands of tons of iron ore on the way down to Narvik, and these trains generate large amounts of electricity by their regenerative braking. From Riksgrnsen on the national border to the Port of Narvik, the trains use only a fifth of the power they regenerate. The regenerated energy is sufficient to power the empty trains back up to the national border [9] . Any excess energy from the railway is pumped into the power grid to supply homes and businesses in the region, and the railway is a net generator of electricity. An Energy Regeneration Brake was developed in 1967 for the AMC Amitron.[10] This was a completely battery powered urban concept car whose batteries were recharged by regenerative braking, thus increasing the range of the automobile.[11]
Regenerative brake Many modern hybrid and electric vehicles use this technique to extend the range of the battery pack. Examples include the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, the Vectrix electric maxi-scooter, and the Chevrolet Volt.
Limitations
Traditional friction-based braking is used in conjunction with mechanical regenerative braking for the following reasons: The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds; therefore the friction brake is still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Physical locking of the rotor is also required to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills. The friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the regenerative brake. Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels (as in a two-wheel drive car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such wheels, so in order to provide controlled braking under difficult conditions (such as in wet roads) friction based braking is necessary on the other wheels. The amount of electrical energy capable of dissipation is limited by either the capacity of the supply system to absorb this energy or on the state of charge of the battery or capacitors. No regenerative braking effect can occur if another electrical component on the same supply system is not currently drawing power and if the battery or capacitors are already charged. For this reason, it is normal to also incorporate dynamic braking to absorb the excess energy. Under emergency braking it is desirable that the braking force exerted be the maximum allowed by the friction between the wheels and the surface without slipping, over the entire speed range from the vehicle's maximum speed down to zero. The maximum force available for acceleration is typically much less than this except in the case of extreme high-performance vehicles. Therefore, the power required to be dissipated by the braking system under emergency braking conditions may be many times the maximum power which is delivered under acceleration. Traction motors sized to handle the drive power may not be able to cope with the extra load and the battery may not be able to accept charge at a sufficiently high rate. Friction braking is required to absorb the surplus energy in order to allow an acceptable emergency braking performance. For these reasons there is typically the need to control the regenerative braking and match the friction and regenerative braking to produce the desired total braking output. The GM EV-1 was the first commercial car to do this. Engineers Abraham Farag and Loren Majersik were issued two patents for this 'brake-by-wire' technology.[12]
[13]
Regenerative brake its phase II is complete through the use of regenerative braking.[15] Another form of simple, yet effective regenerative braking is used on the London Underground which is achieved by having small slopes leading up and down from stations. The train is slowed by the climb, and then leaves down a slope, so kinetic energy is converted to "stored" potential energy in the station. Electricity generated by regenerative braking may be fed back into the traction power supply; either offset against other electrical demand on the network at that instant, or stored in lineside storage systems for later use.[16]
Regenerative brake
Regenerative brake Autopart makers Bosch Motorsport Service is developing a KERS for use in motor racing. These electricity storage systems for hybrid and engine functions include a lithium-ion battery with scalable capacity or a flywheel, a four to eight kilogram electric motor [with a maximum power level of 60 kW (81 hp)], as well as the KERS controller for power and battery management. Bosch also offers a range of electric hybrid systems for commercial and light-duty applications.[34] Carmakers Automakers including Honda have been testing KERS systems.[35] At the 2008 1000 km of Silverstone, Peugeot Sport unveiled the Peugeot 908 HY, a hybrid electric variant of the diesel 908, with KERS. Peugeot plans to campaign the car in the 2009 Le Mans Series season, although it will not be capable of scoring championship points.[36] Vodafone McLaren Mercedes began testing of their KERS in September 2008 at the Jerez test track in preparation for the 2009 F1 season, although at that time it was not yet known if they would be operating an electrical or mechanical system.[37] In November 2008 it was announced that Freescale Semiconductor would collaborate with McLaren Electronic Systems to further develop its KERS for McLaren's Formula One car from 2010 onwards. Both parties believed this collaboration would improve McLaren's KERS system and help the system filter down to road car technology.[38] Toyota has used a supercapacitor for regeneration on Supra HV-R hybrid race car that won the 24 Hours of Tokachi race in July 2007.[39] Motorcycles KTM racing boss Harald Bartol has revealed that the factory raced with a secret Kinetic Energy Recovery System (KERS) fitted to Tommy Koyama's motorcycle during the 2008 season-ending 125cc Valencian Grand Prix. This was illegal and against the rules. so they were later banned from doing it afterwards.[40] Races Automobile Club de l'Ouest, the organizer behind the annual 24 Hours of Le Mans event and the Le Mans Series is currently "studying specific rules for LMP1 that will be equipped with a kinetic energy recovery system. "[41] Peugeot was the first manufacturer to unveil a fully functioning LMP1 car in the form of the 908 HY at the 2008 Autosport 1000 km race at Silverstone.[42]
References
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Regenerative brake
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[37] Lawrence Butcher (2008-09-18). "F1 KERS; Mclaren on track with KERS | People" (http:/ / www. racecar-engineering. com/ news/ people/ 274178/ mclaren-on-track-with-kers. html). Racecar Engineering. . Retrieved 2010-08-14. [38] McLaren to work with Freescale on KERS (http:/ / www. autosport. com/ news/ report. php/ id/ 72085) November 12, 2008 [39] "Toyota Hybrid Race Car Wins Tokachi 24-Hour Race; In-Wheel Motors and Supercapacitors" (http:/ / www. greencarcongress. com/ 2007/ 07/ toyota-hybrid-r. html). Green Car Congress. 2007-07-17. . Retrieved 2010-09-17. [40] "KTM beats F1 with secret KERS debut! | MotoGP News | Feb 2009" (http:/ / www. crash. net/ MotoGP/ News/ 142605/ 1/ ktm_beats_f1_with_secret_kers_debut. html). Crash.Net. 2009-02-04. . Retrieved 2010-08-14. [41] "ACO Technical Regulations 2008 for Prototype "LM"P1 and "LM"P2 classes, page 3" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080625190107/ http:/ / www. lemans. org/ sport/ sport/ reglements/ ressources/ auto_2008/ cdc_reglement_lmp_fr_gb_2008. pdf) (PDF). Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO). 20 December 2007. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. lemans. org/ sport/ sport/ reglements/ ressources/ auto_2008/ cdc_reglement_lmp_fr_gb_2008. pdf) on 2008-06-25. . Retrieved 2008-01-20. [42] Sam Collins (2008-09-13). "Peugeot Sport Hybrid | People" (http:/ / www. racecar-engineering. com/ news/ people/ 273697/ peugeot-reveal-hybrid-racer-for-2009. html). Racecar Engineering. . Retrieved 2010-08-14.
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