Streamgauging

Streams provide
Water supply l for f humans h and d animals, l Irrigation water for plants, Dil ti and Dilution d transport t t for f removal l of f waste, t and d Energy for production of power.

Therefore, records of stream flow are important in each of these uses. uses Similarly, Similarly records of flood events are important Design of f bridges, b d culverts, l spillways, ll reservoirs, etc

RiverStage
River stage is a term used in stream gauging. It is the elevation of the water surface at a specified station above some arbitrary datum. The zero elevation is some times taken as mean sea level but more often it is set slightly below the point of zero flow in stream. stream The river stage is denoted by g.

ChannelControl
This is another term often used in stream gauging. It is the reach of a channel or a channel section where there is a unique relationship between stage and discharge. There are two types of channel control. control
It may be an artificial or natural one.

ArtificialControl
It is an amended section or length of stream for measurement purposes. p p Examples p are weir, , flumes etc. Artificial design g should consider following g The profile of crest should be such that a small change in discharge indicates appreciable change in stage. The structure should not create undesirable disturbance in the channel above or below the control. (should be self cleaning and should not be subject to obstruction by debris and ice or to deposits d of f sand, d gravel l or silt l either h u/s / or d/s) d/ ) The control should have structural stability and should be permanent.

SelectionofaGauging g gSite
Essential requirements for stream gauging are: No backwater effect from D/S or other t ib t i tributaries Site should be excellent enough to provide best readings d f discharge for d h Stage gauge should be in easy approach The fluctuations of water level can be easily recorded Site should be free from debris Site should be sustainable especially in floods

 Availability of power line or telephone lines, where needed for special instrumentation. A Accessibility ibilit of f the th site it by b roads, d particularly ti l l during d i floods. Economic construction

MeasurementofRiverStage
Theriverstageismeasuredbytwotypes ofgauges.
Nonrecordinggauges Recordinggauges.

MeasurementofRiverStage
NonRecordingGauges:
StaffGauge Floattypegauge

MeasurementofRiverStage
StaffGauge
VerticalStaffGauge Sectional S i lS Staff ffgauge InclinedStaffGauge

VerticalStaffGauge
The simplest way to measure river stage is by means of staff gauge. A portion of the vertical staff gauge is immersed in th water the t at t all ll times. ti The gauge may consist of a single vertical scale attached to a bridge pier, or other structure that extends into the low water channel of the stream.

SectionalStaffGauge
Ifnosuitablestructureexistsinalocation, p ofsectionalstaffg gauge g can thentheconcept beused speciallyconstructedsupportsaredesignedin suchawaythatonesectionisalways accessible

InclinedStaffGauge
An alternative to the sectional staff gauge is an inclined staff gauge. Inclined staff gauge is placed on the slope of the stream bank and graduated so that the scale reads directly d ec y in the e vertical e ca dep depth. The inclined staff gauges are considered better than the sectional staff gauges due to better accuracy

FloatType yp Gauge g
This gauge is generally used as an inside reference gauge and is installed in a stilling well to avoid wave effects. The h stilling ll well ll is 1.20 m in diameter d or with h inner dimensions 1.20 m x 1.20 m. It is built on side of a bank. A pipe connects well to river at its lowest level. The gauge consists of a float, graduated steel tape, counter weight g and a p pulley. y The p pulley y is g grooved to accommodate the tape and mounted on a stand.

MeasurementofRiverStage
Recording Gauges:
These are similar to the nonrecording gauges but have some arrangement to give a continuous record. record In recording gauges motion of a float for example is recorded on a chart, chart and In a continuous recorder, the motion of the float moves a pen across a long strip chart. chart The chart is usually 25 cm wide and at a scale of 1:12. When the pen reaches the edge of the chart it is reverses direction and records the next readings in the other directions across the chart.

MeasurementofRiverStage
Crest C Stage S G Gauge
A third type of stage measuring device is the crest gauge, used to obtain a record of flood crests at sites where recording gauges are not installed. It gives the information about maximum water level in the past. A variety of such gauges have been devised, including small floats which rise with the increase in stage but are restrained at the maximum level. Watersoluble paints on bridge piers where they are protected from rain and can indicate a definite high water mark are also in use as crest stage gauge. gauge

 The piers of bridge are repainted after a flood. The Th gauge used d by b U.S. U S geological l i l survey consists it of a length of vertical pipe containing a graduated stick ti k and d a small ll amount t of f grounded d d cork. k The cork floats, as the water rises and some adheres to the stick at the highest level reached by water. The stick can be removed, the crest reading recorded, the cork wiped off and the stick replaced ready for the next reading.

DischargeMeasurement
Stream discharge represents the runoff phase of the hydrologic cycle. Stream discharge can be measured more accurately than other components of hydrologic cycle such as precipitation, evaporation, infiltration etc. Methods for determining discharge can be classified as.
Velocity area method (free flow method). Measurement by yp permanent structures. Chemical gauging method

FreeFlowMethod(VelocityArea Method)
In these methods certain instruments are y in the stream, used to observe, the velocity and the discharge is calculated from the data thus obtained. obtained In this method the regime of the channel is not affected. ff i.e. for f example l depth h remains unaffected when instrument is inserted in stream

FreeFlowMethod(VelocityArea Method)
Also free flow method can be employed at any a y su suitable tab e sect section. o The basic principle that Q =AV is used in this method. method Where
Q = Discharge A = Area of crosssection of flow and V = mean flow velocity.

FreeFlowMethod(VelocityArea Method)
Thi This needs d measurement of f mean velocity l i of f flow fl and the flow crosssectional area. The channel is divided in to subsections, sections the mean velocity and the area of flow is measured at each subsection and finally the total discharge is the sum of the discharges through these subsections.
Q=q1+q2+q3+..+ qn

Where Q is total discharge and qi is discharge through a subsection i of stream.

FindingMeanVelocity:
Thevelocityinthefreeflowmethodisfound y by
Currentmeter Pitottube Floats.

CurrentMeter
A current meter is an instrument used to measure velocity of water in open channels or streams. streams One of the most commonly used current meter is the Price Meter. Meter This type of current meter is used by U.S. U S geological survey. It consists of six conical cups rotating about a vertical axis. axis Electric contacts driven by the cups close a circuit through a battery and a wire of supporting cable, causes a click in headphones worn by the operator for each revolution of cups.

CurrentMeter
For shallow depths wading (depth measurement by rods) is done and for measurements in deep water the meter is suspended from a cable. The meter reader is either in a boat or on a bridge. There is a heavy y weight g suspended p at the bottom of this cable to keep the whole family vertical. The velocity of water is given as V=a+bN Where N is the number of revolutions per second of cups and d a , b are the h coefficients ffi i f a given for i current meter

CurrentMeter
Followingstepsareadoptedtotakemeasurementsby thecurrentmeter
Measuringdepthofflow(sounding) TakingreadingforN,therevolutionspersecond

CurrentMeter
Measuring M i depth d th of f flow fl (sounding) ( di )
The depth is measured by a rigid rod called wading rod or by a sounding weight suspended from a cable. The cable is controlled either by a reel fixed on a pulley or by hand line of a bridge. The wadding g rod is p placed in the stream so that the base plate rests on the stream bed and the depth p of water is read on the g graduated main rod.

CurrentMeter
A sounding weight (Coulombs Weight) is suspended below the current meter to keep it stationary in the water. The weights offer minimum resistance to flowing water and have sufficient weight not to be taken away by the water. Reading is taken when the weights just touch the water surface. surface These are further lowered till these touch the base of the channel. The reading of reel is taken again. again The difference of these readings gives the depth of flow.

CurrentMeter
Methods of Measuring Average Velocity
There are four alternatives for current meter readings.
Single Si l point i t Method M th d Two point Method Multiple l i l Point i Method h d Direct Integration Method

To decide which method should be used, the governing factors are

How much accuracy is required? The time available The behavior of stream

 Methods Velocity

of

Measuring

Average

Single Point Method:

The Th current meter is i placed l d at 0.6 0 6 of f depth d h below the water surface to find mean velocity This is least time consuming velocity. method. This is done when the depth of flow is less than 1 m. m The Th average velocity l it is i denoted d t d as V=V V V0.6d Where V0.6d represents velocity at 0.6 of depth. depth

 Methods of Measuring Average Velocity Two point Method: The current meter is placed at two points. First the reading is taken at 0.2 of depth from the surface and then at 0.8 0 8 of the depth from the surface. This is more accurate than one point method. method The average velocity is mean of the velocity at 0.2 depth and that at 0.8 depth. V=(V0.2d +V0.8d)/2

 Multiple p Point Method: In this method current meter is placed l d at different diff points. i V l i at Velocity each p point is measured and then mean of these velocities is taken. This method is although accurate but is very time consuming.

 Direct Integration Method:

This h method h d is same as that h at No. (3). ( ) In this h method h d it is essential that the worker should be an experienced person. person The current meter is lowered from the surface to the bed of stream with the uniform velocity and from bed of channel to the surface with the same velocity. y the p propeller p is The number of revolutions made by recorded and then dividing it by time consumed in this operation gives the mean velocity directly. The behavior of flow in channel is also an important factor. i.e. in case of unsteady flow where the discharge is changing h i during d i the th measurements t as that th t in i floods fl d etc, t this can be used.

 Measurement By y Wading g Rods:

The wading rod is placed in the stream so that the base of the rod rests on the stream bed and the depth of water is read on the graduated main rod. The wading rod is used to hold the current meter when h the th depth d th of f stream t i not is t high hi h and d the th stream t section is known to be safe. For deep streams which are dangerous d f wading for di the th current t meter t is i held h ld by cable having sounding weights.

 When the depth is upto 1m, 1m then the Current meter should be at 0.6d. If depth is more than 1m, 1m then current meter is placed at 0.2d and 0.8d and mean velocity is calculated by V=(V0.2d +V0.8d)/2

 Measurement From Bridge:

We can measure the depth of water from upstream as well as down stream side of the bridge. On the upstream side the hydraulic characteristics are usually more favorable, and the stream bed is less likely to scour. The meter is suspended from a handrail of the bridge or a sounding reel supported by a bridge board or a portable crane

 The method of measurement of depth and velocity is same as discussed earlier. However the current meter is not used near the bridge piers and abutments.

 Measurements from a CableWay:

The cable way provides a track for the operation of a cable from which an observer takes measurement on current meter. Cable also supports the sounding reel and other necessary equipment. The car is moved from one point to another on the cable way by means of rollers. The depth is measured by sounding reel and the velocity is measured by current meter

 Measurement From Boat:

If the cable way and bridge are not available and the water depth is too deep to be waded, a boat is used. The measurement is made by first stretching the tag line across the stream and then moving the boat at each tag to take depth and velocity measurements. When the stream is very wide and the tag line can not be used the boat can be kept in position at the crosssection by lining up with flags position on each end of the cross section. i The position of the boat is determined by a transit on the stand d and d a standard d d rod d held h ld in the h boat b

Pitot Tube
Ap pitot tube can also be used for measurement of velocity in order to calculate discharge in laboratory flumes or very small streams. However the use of pitot tube may not be recommended for rivers due to following reason. reason Supporting the pitot tube is very difficult when the channel is very wide and deep. The head generated by a pitot tube in open channel is g generally y very y small due to very y low velocities, and therefore discharge can not be accurately measured.

Pitot Tube
The use of pitot tube may however recommended for estimating discharge laboratory flumes and small channels. The Th formula f l for f calculating l l ti velocity l it is i V= (2gh)0.5 Where h is water height in tube above surface of water. It is the velocity head. be in

PitotTube

Floats
This method consists of putting a float in the channel and d noting i the h time i and d distance di covered d by b the h float. fl Th The velocity l i will ill be b equal l to the h distance di traveled l d in i a unit time. i.e. Vs=S/t and V=0.85Vs Where S is distance covered by float in time t. A straight reach of the channel is to be selected where the depth is nearly uniform.

 Type1 floats: The float is kept on the surface of water, specific distance and time is noted as mentioned earlier. The velocity of float is determined which is the velocity at the surface of water. The mean velocity then is about 0.85 of surface velocity.

Type2 floats: Some weight is put in the water attached with a flag kept above water surface, surface the string length is so adjusted so that the weight is at a depth of 0.60 0 60 of total depth. depth This directly gives the mean velocity.