myU

UniversityofMinnesota DriventoDiscover

OneStop

EarlyReport,Winter1992 MotorSkillDevelopment
Inthisissue,colleaguesfromtheSchoolofKinesiologyandLeisureStudiesintheCollegeofEducationattheUniversityprovideinsights intothedevelopmentofmotorskillsandtherelationshipofmovementtothegeneraldevelopmentofthechild. MichaelWadecallsattentiontobasicfactsaboutearlyphysicaldevelopmentandtheimplicationsforotherdevelopmentaldomains.He pointstotheneedforparentsandprofessionalstorecognizeandcapitalizeonmotorskillsandplaybehaviorthatisintrinsictothe growingchild. AllenBurtondescribeshowmotorskillsdevelop,thefactorswhichinfluencethatdevelopment,andtheirimportancetoraisinghealthy, welldevelopedchildren. DianeWieseBjornstalsuggeststhatplay,movementandphysicalactivityareextremelyimportantelementsinthesocialdevelopmentof children.Theyeffectbasicnotionsof"gettingalong"andmakingfriendsaswellasmoresophisticatedsocialskillsofleadership, competition,andconflictresolution. Wearepleasedthatimplicationsforpractitionershavebeenincludedineacharticle.Weareremindednottothinkofphysicalactivity, sportsandplayasa"fitness"program,butaskeycomponentsofcognitive,socialandemotionaldevelopment.Programsforchildren shouldprovidedevelopmentallyappropriatemovementopportunitiesasanintegralpartoftheeducationalexperience.Itfollowsthen,that professionaleducatorsmustbecomeknowledgeableaboutworkingwithchildreninthisdomain.

MotorSkills,PlayandChildDevelopment:AnIntroduction
byMichaelG.Wade,Ph.D. Theliteratureforprofessionalswhoworkwithchildreninpreschoolandelementarygradesoftenreferstotheimportanceofplay, movement,andphysicalactivityanditsrelationshiptooveralldevelopment.Whatisoftenmissedistheimportantconnectionthese activitieshavetothecognitivedevelopmentofchildren.Certainly,itisimportanttorecognizethecriticalnecessitiesoffoodand nourishmenttogrowphysicallytothepointwhereachildcanbegintowalkandtalk.Otherwiseitisimpossibleforthatchildtoexhibit normalpatternsofdevelopmentthatpromoteinteractionwiththeenvironmentandhealthygrowth. Withoutmovement,withoutopportunitiestoplayandexploretheenvironment,thechildwillnotthrive.Psychologistsandeducators sometimesfailtorecognizefullythecrucialroleofperceptualmotordevelopmentandplayintheoveralldevelopmentofchildren.Only recentlyhaveprogramsinchildpsychologybeguntoofferspecificcourseworkandrequirestudentstobetterunderstandtheimportance oftherolephysicalactivityandplayserveinthedevelopmentofthechild. Fromthemomentofconception,theneurologicalapparatusthatbeginstodevelopintheembryoreflectstheprimacyofthemotorcortex. Thebeginningstructureofthebrainintheembryoistheneuralgroove.Thisgrooveessentiallyclosesinonitself,allowingthe developmentofthecerebralcortex,orthetwohemisphereswhichwecommonlyrecognizewhenweseeapictureofthebrain.Itshould benotedthatthefirstclosingalongthisneuralgrooveistheareathatwillultimatelydevelopintothemotorcortex.Fromtheearliest periodofneuraldevelopment,itisthemotorcortexthatleadsthewayandprovidesuswithanevolutionaryperspectivethatwould suggestthatmovementwillbetheprimaryvehicleofdiscoveryforthedevelopingchild. Achildisbornwithaseriesofbasicreflexesandisentirelydependentonothersfornutritionandsustenance.Inarelativelyshortperiod oftime,assumingnormalnutritionandweightgain,thechildquicklydevelopsthecapabilitytomovearoundtheenvironmentandbegins developingarepertoireofsimplemotorskills.Theseskillsallowthechildtodiscovertheworldviaitsperceptualsystemsthesensations ofsmell,touch,sound,andsight.Beforelongthechildreachesacriticalpointinphysicaldevelopment,movingfromacrawlingpositionto maintaininguprightposture.Fromhereon,asanyparentwillattest,thereisaveritableexplosionofmotoractivity,aswalking,then running,followtheacquisitionofcontrolofuprightposture. Thismilestonehasimplicationsforotherdevelopmentaldomains.Locomotionbringsopportunitiesnotonlytoexploretheenvironment independently,buttotakeadvantageofopportunitiestointeractwithotherpeopleand,consequently,acquireawholerangeofsocial competencies.Inthefirsttwoyears,thechildacquiresarapidlyincreasingrepertoireofmotorskills,suchasreachingandgrasping, walkingandrunning,aswellasaparallelsetofmotorskillsimbeddedinthespeechapparatuswhich,don'tforget,isalsoamotorskill. Intheseveryearlyyearsthechild'sphysicaldevelopmentmaybetheonlydomaininwhichonecanassessgeneraldevelopment.The abilitiesdemonstratedinmovementprovideaprimarywindowintothestatusoftheperson.Thechildwhoisdisabledphysicallyfrombirth orhasadamagedcentralnervoussystem,howeversubtle,usuallyexhibitsdeficitsfirstinthemotordomain,eitherbyafailureor slownesstoacquirelocomotion,uprightposture,ortheabilitytospeak. Movementbehaviorreflectsthecompletedevelopmentofthegrowingchildandprovidesarichcontextforparents,teachers,andchild developmentprofessionalstoenrichthechild'sexperience.Wecancapitalizeonthemotorskillandplaybehaviorthatisintrinsictothe growingchild. Thepointtobestressedisthatmovementandplayshouldnotbethepartofthecurriculumusedtodiffuseenergyorto"letoffsteam"so thatchildrencanthenreturntothemoreseriouselementsoflearning.Rather,motorskillsandplayareimportantprecursorsofthemore formalandstylizedelementsofwhatwerefertoascognitiveorintellectualdevelopment. Movementexperiencesandplayshouldbekeyelementsinthecurriculumandexperienceofchildrenbothatschoolandathome. Researchsuggeststhatthechildseeksinformationisnaturallyinquisitive.Thisinherentcuriositycanbestbeaddressedviamovement

andplaybehaviors,particularlyinthepreschoolyears.Duringthisperiodintellectualandmotorskillshavenotbecomeformaland stereotyped.Thechildisdevelopinganunderstandingofhisorherowncapacityformovement.Thus,forparentsandprofessionals, understandingdevelopmentofmovementskillsandplayisfundamentaltoacompleteunderstandingaboutchilddevelopment.Alackof playexperiencesandopportunitiestoparticipateinvigorousphysicalactivityandmovementcanslowbothphysicalandintellectual growth. Itmustberecognizedandunderstoodthatitisnotenoughtoprovideforplayandphysicalactivitybyhaving"recess."Adequatetimeand structuredenvironmentsthatreflectthedevelopmentallevelofthechildmustbeanintegralpartofthechild'seducation.

TheDevelopmentofMovementSkills
byAllenW.Burton,Ph.D. Thetransformationofahelplessinfantintoawalkingtoddlerinapproximatelyoneyearisoneofthemiraclesofchildhood.Despitegreat varietyinbodysize,degreeofmuscularstrength,opportunitytomove,andactualexperience,walkingisfirstobservedinabout80 percentofallinfantsbetween10and15monthsafterbirth.Theacquisitionofnewmotorskillsfrombirththroughearlychildhoodfollows aremarkablyconsistentpathwayallowingusaschildren,andlaterasadults,tointeractcompetentlywiththeenvironment. Theinteractionwithone'senvironmentininfancythroughselfproducedlocomotionprovidesthefoundationforthedevelopmentof cognitive,perceptual,andsocialskills.Thus,itisnotsurprisingthattheconsistentsequenceofearlymotormilestonesisoftenusedby earlychildhoodprofessionalstoevaluatethedevelopmentalstatusofskillsinthesethreeareas.Allthroughchildhood,children's movementcompetencecontinuestoplayamajorroleintheiroveralldevelopmentandtheirabilitytoacquiretheskillsoflife. Giventheimportanceofthedevelopmentofmovementskillsduringearlychildhood,personswhoworkwithyoungchildrenshouldhavea goodunderstandingof:a)thedevelopmentalhierarchyofmovementskills,andb)thefactorswhichmayaffecttheappearanceand unfoldingoftheseskills.

DevelopmentalHierarchyofMovementSkills
Movementskillsmaybedefinedasidentifiablemovementpatternswhichareusedtoaccomplishcertaintasks.Abetterunderstandingof specificmovementskillsmaybegainedbycategorizingthemintoafourleveldevelopmentalhierarchy. Level1 Atthebottomofthehierarchyarereflexes,whichdominatethemotorbehaviorofinfantsforthefirstthreeorfourmonthsafterbirth. Examplesofprimitivereflexesarethegraspreflex,elicitedbyplacinganobjectinaninfant'shandandthesteppingreflex,elicitedby holdinganinfantuprightandgentlybouncinghis/herfeetonatableorfloor.Primitivereflexesaffordinfantstheirfirstopportunitiesto interactwiththeirworld,butbyaboutfourmonthsthesereflexesusuallydisappear.Althoughtheseresponsesareapparentlynotunder thedirectcontroloftheinfant,someexpertsbelievetheyhelptoestablishtheframesofreferencebetweentheinfant'seyes,head,trunk, andlimbsnecessaryforsuccessfulvoluntarymotorbehavior. Level2 Theearlylocomotormilestonesincludingrollingover,creeping,crawling,standing,walkingwithsupport,andwalkingindependentlyare atthenextlevelupthehierarchy.Theselocomotormilestonesusuallyappearbetweenfourtothirteenmonths,withtheonsetof independentwalkingmarkingtheendofinfancyandthebeginningoftoddlerhood.About85to90percentofallinfantsdemonstratethese skillsinthesamechronologicalorder,withtheotherseitherskippingaskill(e.g.,goingdirectlyfromrollingovertostanding)orshowing alternateskills(e.g.,scootinginasittingposition). Inthe1950sand1960ssometheoristshypothesizedthatinfantswhodonotshowthe"normal"sequenceofearlylocomotormilestones areatgreaterriskforlearningand/orspeechproblems,buttherehasbeenlittleevidencereportedtosupportthisnotion. Level3 Thethirdleveliscomprisedofwhatareusuallycalledfundamentalmotorskillswhichemergefromtheendofinfancytoaboutsixor sevenyearsofage.Theseincludelocomotorskillssuchasrunning,jumping,hopping,galloping,andskipping,andobjectcontrolskills suchasthrowing,catching,striking,kicking,anddribbling.Walking,thelastearlymotormilestone,mightalsobeconsideredtobeoneof thefundamentalmotorskills.Theterm"fundamental"suggeststhattheseskillsprovidethefoundationforthelearningofother,more specializedmovementskills. Themovementskillsatthefirstthreelevelsofthehierarchysometimesarereferredtoasphylogenetic(developmentofaspecies)skills, meaningtheyarecommontoallhumanbeings.
Level4

Atthetoplevelofthehierarchyarespecializedmovementskillssometimesreferredtoasontogenetic(developmentofanindividual) skillsbecausetheyarenotdemonstratedbyallpersons,butarespecifictotheneedsandinterestsofaparticularperson.Therearemany specializedmovementskills,whicharemorespecificformsoffundamentalmotorskills.Theyincludesuchmovementsasthewindmill pitchinsoftballornewskillscreatedbycombiningfundamentalmotorskills,suchasavolleyballspikewhichcombinesjumpingand striking. Althoughspecializedmovementskillsareobservedinearlieryears,theyareprimarilylearnedafterfundamentalmotorskillsareintact, fromaboutsixtosevenyearsandthroughoutaperson'slifetime.

FactorsAffectingMovementSkillDevelopment
Theexacttimingofwhenaparticularearlylocomotormilestone,fundamentalmotorskill,orspecializedmovementskillisfirstobserved inagivenindividualmaydependononeormoreperformerorenvironmentalfactors. Performerfactorswhicharemostlikelytoaffecttheemergenceofparticularmovementskillsincludebodysizeandphysicalgrowth,

strengthrelativetobodyweight,andthematurityofthenervoussystem.Researchaboutbodysizeshowsthatchildrenwith proportionatelylongerlegs,whoarenotoverweight,tendtowalkearlierthanchildrenwithshorterlegs.Degreeofstrengthisillustrated byjumpingorhopping,whichrequireschildrentohaveatleastenoughstrengthtoprojecttheirbodiesofftheground. Mostmotordevelopmentexpertsviewthematurityofthenervoussystemastheprimaryfactorineffectiveuseofmovementskillsin children.Thegreatestproblemforthedevelopingnervoussystemistocontrolthemanyseparateactionunitsofthebody.Inonearm alone,excludingthehand,thereareapproximately2,600motorunits,26muscles,and4joints.Throughlearningandmaturation, independentactionunitsbecomecoordinated,reducingtheneedtocontrolindividualunits. Insteadofthinkingabouttheactionsateachjointinclumsilyperforminganewskill,achildmaysoonbeabletosmoothlycoordinatethe jointactionsandsimplythinkaboutperformingasingleaction.Forexample,somechildrenmaybeabletobothstepandhop,thetwo basiccomponentsoftheskip,butunlesstheyareabletocoordinatethetimingofthetwoskillsinbothlegs,theywillnotbeableto performthisfundamentalmovementskill.However,achildsuddenlymaybeabletoskipashis/hermaturingnervoussystemallows him/hertobuildlargerandmorecomplexcoordinatedunitsofaction. Environmentalfactorsmayalsoinfluencetheemergenceofmovementskills.Themotivationtomovemaybeenhancedbyexposing childrentoenvironmentalfeaturesthatinviteaction,suchasinterestingobjectsandtoys,accommodatingsurfacesandterrains,playful siblingsandfriends,andattentivecaregivers.Improvingattractivenessandincreasingopportunitiestomovemayadvanceearlylocomotor milestonesandinlateryears,maybethemostimportantfactorinachildbecomingproficientatspecializedmovementskills. Ontheotherhand,limitedopportunitiestoactivelyexploretheenvironmentandparticipateinmovementactivitiesmaydelayordenya child'sacquisitionofcertainmovementskills.Forexample,aresearcherrecentlyreportedthatinfantswhospentmorethantwohoursa dayinwalkerscrawledandcreptsignificantlylaterthanotherinfants.Itshouldbeemphasized,however,thatthelongtermeffectofthis typeofexperienceisunknown.

PracticalImplicationsforPersonsWorkingwithYoungChildren
1. Donotcomparechildren'smovementskillsbasedonchronologicalage,asisusuallydone,butrememberthatmanyperformerfactors contributetothedevelopmentofeachchild'sskills. 2. Implements,toys,andsportsandgameequipmentshouldbeproportionatelyscaledtochildren'sbodysizes.Thissuggests,for instance,thatcrayonsandmarkerssmallerthanadultsize,ratherthanlargerasisthetradition,shouldbeprovidedforyoungchildren withsmallhandstopromotethemostmaturewritingordrawingbehaviors.

DevelopingMindandBody:PsychologicalandSocialDevelopmentThroughPhysicalActivityandSport
byDianeWieseBjornstal,Ph.D. Movementandsportexperiencesarecentralnotonlytothephysicaldevelopmentandmaturationofyoungstersbutalsototheir psychologicalandsocialdevelopment.Forexample,throughphysicalactivityandsport,youngsterslearntofeelcompetentandworthy, developmoralresponsibility,feeljoyandenthusiasmfortheirbodiesandhumanmovement,andlearncooperativeandcompetitiveskills essentialforadulthood.Manyofthesebenefitsareoftenachievedwithoutthebenefitofadultguidance,throughthenaturalplayand movementintrinsictochildren.However,theroleoftheadultiscrucialinstructuringsituationstomaximizeopportunityfordevelopment andbyprovidingguidancewhen"teachablemoments"naturallyoccur.

PerceivedCompetence
Itisessentialforchildrentodevelopandmaintainapositiveviewofthemselvesandtheircompetencies.Throughphysicalactivityand sportexperiences,thefoundationislaidforthedevelopmentofperceivedcompetence(definedasdomainspecificselfesteem)inthe physicalandsocialdomains.Availableresearchshowsthatwithinthephysicalachievementdomain,thesourcesfromwhichchildren deriveinformationabouttheircompetencedifferacrossage.Adultfeedbackisanimportantsourceofinformationintheearlyyears,but suchdependenceoftendeclineswithageaschildrenincreasinglylearnfromtheirpeers. Thisgeneralpatternvariesdependingonfactorssuchaspsychologicalcharacteristics.Forexample,sportresearchhasshownthat childrenwithlowselfesteem,lowperceivedcompetence,andhighanxietyaboutcompetitionaremoresensitivetoadultevaluationof theirphysicalcompetencethanchildrenwithcontrastingpsychologicalcharacteristics.Ithasbeenfoundalsothatchildrenwhoseriously underestimatetheirphysicalcompetencemaybelikelycandidatesforlowlevelsofphysicalachievement,orworse,discontinuedphysical activityinvolvementaltogether. Onemajorimplicationforadultleadersistoprovideplentyofopportunityforsuccessinphysicalactivityexperiencesforallchildrenat theircurrentlevelofactualcompetence.Inadditiontoexperiencingsuccess,childrenmustperceiveandbelievetheiractionsare responsibleforthatsuccessandtheycancontrolskillimprovementandsuccessfuloutcomes.Therecanbeadirectrelationshipbetween perceivedcompetenceandperformanceinthephysicalandsocialdomains. Todeveloppositiveselfperceptionsaboutphysicalmasteryattempts,sportresearcherssuggest:1)providecontingentandappropriate praiseandcriticism.Giveaspecific,andearnedreasonforthepraise,e.g.,"Youdidagoodjobofcatchingtheball"2)Givefrequentand qualitativeskillrelevantfeedback,suchas,"Sally,youaresteppingtowardtheballnicely,butnexttimeworkonextendingyourarmsout tomeettheball"3)Encouragechildrentoevaluatetheirownperformancerealistically.Iftheydidwellbecauseofskill,suggesttheycan say,"I'mproud!"or,"Ididit!"ratherthan,"Iwasjustlucky."

MoralDevelopment
Thepotentialforyoungsterstoexperiencepositivemoralgrowthanddevelopmentthroughphysicalactivityandsportexperiencesis enormous.Conceptsoffairplayandsportslikebehaviorcanbegainedthroughproperlystructuredandguidedmovementexperiences. Researchexaminingpurposefulintroductionofmoraldilemmasintophysicalactivityandsportsettings,alongwithguidancefromadults aboutappropriatestrategiestoresolvedilemmas,indicatesthatchildrencanlearnskillswhichhelpthemsuccessfullynegotiateconflict situations.

Timeoutscanbetakenfromgamesandplayactivitiestotakeadvantageofmeaningfullearningopportunitiesastheyarise.Issuesand underlyingvaluescanbediscussed,thedesirablebehaviorreinforcedoralternativebehaviorssuggested,andplaycanresume.Children shouldbeencouragedtodiscusswhatotherchildrendothatmakesthemfeelgoodorbad,howtohelponeanotheractoutthevaluesthey havediscussed,andhowtheycanbetterworktogethersoallkidscanbenefitequallyfromparticipationintheactivity. Physicalactivityandsportofferexcellentopportunitiestolearnrespectforauthorityandrules,properresponsestowinningandlosing, sensitivitytoothers,andbeingthebestyoucanbe.Adultsshouldcreateenvironmentsthatwillfostergoodbehaviorandanunderstanding ofthereasoningbehindit.Sportslikebehaviorcanbepromotedbypreventingconflictsfromoccurringaswellassolvingproblemsas theyhappen.Theimportanceofadultsmodelingdesirableandappropriateethicalbehaviorcannotbeoverstated.

PositiveAffect
Toagreatextent,childrenparticipateinphysicalactivitybecauseitis"fun!"Lookingatthesefeelingsofpositiveaffect,childrensaythat funincludesexcitement,challenge,winning,beingwithfriends,improvingskills,maintainingapositiverelationshipwithateacheror coach,andexperiencingpersonalsuccess.Unfortunately,thefunaspectislostsightofinmanyprogramsledbyadults,particularlyyouth sportprograms.Giventhatfunistheprimemotivator,itisessentialthatadultsarecarefulnottounderminebut,rather,takeadvantage ofchildren'sinnateenthusiasmformovementandplayandmaximizethefun.

KeepingPhysicalActivityFun
1. Providelotsofactionandvarietyintheclass,practice,orplaysetting.Makesureallchildrenstayinvolved,andavoidthecommon practiceofstandinginlonglinestoawaitaturn.Ittakescreativitywithlimitedspaceandequipment,butjustdoit! 2. Planplentyofopportunityforsocialandinteractiveactivitiesrotatepartnersandteammatestoencouragechildrentolearntointeract withawidevarietyofothers.Makingfriendsisanimportantaspectoffun. 3. Provideforskilllearning,practice,andoptimalchallengesforavarietyofskilllevels. 4. Recognizeandencourageeffortandimprovementinphysicalparticipation. 5. Providetimeforchildrentoexperiencethesheerjoyofplayfulmovement.

CompetitiveSkills
Withinthecompetitivestructureofmanyphysicalactivityandsportexperiencesarecountlessopportunitiesforteachingimportantsocial values.Whatbetterplacethaninthemidstofagametodiscussthetruemeaningofsuchvaluesaswinning,losing,success,failure, anxiety,rejection,fairplay,acceptance,friendship,andcooperation?Rememberthatcompetitionisadevelopmentalprocessthat progressesthroughstagesjustasdoesmotordevelopment.Typesandlevelsofcompetitioninphysicalactivityandsportshouldbe consistentwitheachstageofdevelopment. Researchsuggeststhatchildrendonotreallyunderstand"competition"untilthelaterelementaryschoolyears.Childrencertainlycompete withothersmuchearlierandmayhavearudimentaryunderstandingoftheconcepthowever,itisonlyafterchildrenhavedevelopedthe cognitiveabilitytoassumetheroleoftheotherpersonthattheycantrulyappreciatewhatcompetitioninsportreallymeans. Theprimaryimplicationforthoseplanningphysicalactivityandperhaps,moreimportantly,youthsportprogramsistogreatlyde emphasizecompetitionwithothersduringtheearlychildhoodyears.Instead,emphasisshouldbeplacedonskilldevelopment,teamwork, personalimprovement,andsocialinteractionskills,andonthepositiveaffectassociatedwithparticipation.Forexample,earlyinskill learning,childrenmight"compete"onlywiththemselvesintryingtoimproveontheirownperformances.Elementsofcompetitionagainst opponentscanbegraduallyintroducedbeginninginthemidelementaryschoolyears.Teachingaboutcompetitionmustbeplannedand structuredinthesamewaysasotherconceptsandskills.Intheupperelementarygradeschildrenwillappreciatemorechancestotest theirskillsagainstothersincompetitivecontests.

CooperativeSkills
Competitivegamescanoftenbemodifiedtobemorecooperativeandhumanistic.Thebasicconceptistoencouragechildrenengagedin physicalactivityexperiencestoplaywithratherthanagainsteachother,andtoplaytoovercomephysicalchallenges,nottoovercome otherchildren/opponents.Gamesshouldbedesignedtomakecooperationamongplayersnecessarytoachievetheobjectives. Childrencan,inafunway,learntobecomemoreconsiderateofoneanother,moreawareofthefeelingsofothers,andmorewillingto cooperateformutualbenefit.Researchfindingsinstudiesassessingthesocialimpactofinvolvingchildrenincooperativegamesprograms havealsoshownanincreaseincooperativebehaviorinfreeplayandinclassroomsituations.Bydesigningmorecooperativeversionsof traditionalgames,itispossibletocreatetremendouspotentialforenhancingsocialdevelopmentthroughphysicalactivity. Thedevelopmentofpersonalvaluesandsocialskillscanbeenhancedbyparticipationinphysicalactivityandsport.Theroleofadult leadersintheprocessiscrucialtoestablishtheproperenvironmentinwhichtheycandevelop.Whenaffordedtheopportunitytodoso, adultleadersmustcarefullystructurephysicalactivityandsportsituationstoenhancethechancesforchildrentoexperiencepositive personalandsocialgrowth.Withinsuchstructure,however,theyshouldnotlosesightofretainingthejoyandenthusiasmassociatedwith freeparticipationinmovementexperiencesandplayactivities.

References
Block,S.D.(1977). MeandI'mGreat:PhysicalEducationforChildren38.Minneapolis:BurgessPublishers. Magill,R.A.,Ash,M.J.,&Smoll,F.L.(1982). ChildreninSport.Chicago:HumanKineticsPublishers. Munson,E.,&Sorenson,M.(1989). MotorDevelopmentandPhysicalEducationActivitiesforYoungChildren.St.Paul:Minnesota DepartmentofEducation.

ReprintGuidelines

TheinformationcontainedinEarlyReportmaybereproducedwithoutchargeforeducation/trainingorrelatedactivities.Thereisno requirementtoobtainspecialpermissionforsuchuses.Wedo,however,askthatthecitationbelowappearonallreproductions: ReprintedwithpermissionoftheCenterforEarlyEducationandDevelopment(CEED),CollegeofEducationandHuman Development,UniversityofMinnesota,1954BufordAvenue,Suite425,St.Paul,MN,55108phone:6126252898fax:612625 2093http://cehd.umn.edu/ceed/.

2013RegentsoftheUniversityofMinnesota.Allrightsreserved. TheUniversityofMinnesotaisanequalopportunityeducatorandemployer LastmodifiedonFebruary21,2013.

TwinCities:Parking&Transportation|Maps&Directions

Directories|ContactUofM|Privacy