!"##$#% &'() *#+ ,$-*.

+/
0# 1*.(2 3'+4.# 1#%(*#+
5#$64./$72 08 9":;4.< =>?@ABA
Submitteu in pait fulfilment foi the
uegiee of NA in Religious anu Social Bistoiy,
1Suu-17uu at the 0niveisity of Waiwick Septembei 2u1u
This uisseitation may be photocopieu
!
!"#$%#$&
CD)#'E(4+%4:4#7/ ii
C;/7.*D7 iii
0#7.'+"D7$'# 1
? ,F' ,4.4 ,F$74 ,$7DF4/ *#+ ,$-*.+/G 8
0iigins 1u
0ccupation anu Social Status 1S
uenuei 2u
H IF4 I4DF#$J"4/ *#+ I''(/ 'K !"##$#% &'() 24
ueneial Tools 2S
TheftStolen goous 26
Love Nagic 29
Bealing S2
Potions anu Piotection fiom Black Witchciaft 4u
A L$%F4. 3*%$D 46
@ IF4 M4./4D"7$'# ,F$74 ,$7DF4/ &*D4+ 67
Law 69
Contempoiaiy Comment 74
!'#D("/$'# 87
CNN4#+$D4/
1. 'Against vvilliam Li-Lie (alias) Lillie' 91
2. 'Populai Eiiouis oi the Eiiouis of the people in mattei of Physick' 92
O$;($'%.*NF2 9S
!!
'()#"*+%,-%.%#$&
I woulu like to thank my unueigiauuate anu postgiauuate tutois at Waiwick,
whose teaching anu guiuance ovei the yeais has helpeu shape this uisseitation.
In paiticulai, a gieat ueal of giatituue goes to Beinaiu Capp, whose supeivision
anu assistance has been invaluable.
Also, to }B, uB, CS anu EC youi help anu suppoit has been beyonu measuie,
thank you.
!!!
!/##0#- 1"+) 2#, 30425,& 0# 625+7 8",%5# 6#-+2#,
Witchciaft has been a ieoccuiiing pieoccupation foi societies thioughout
histoiy, anu as a iesult has inspiieu significant acauemic inteiest. The
witchciaft peisecutions of the eaily mouein peiiou in paiticulai have ieceiveu a
consiueiable amount of histoiical investigation. Bowevei, the vast majoiity of
this scholaiship has been focuseu piimaiily on the accusations against black
witches anu the punishments they suffeieu. Bue to the useful souices left fiom
tiials involving allegations of black witchciaft, this focus is unueistanuable.
Bowevei, this ignoies the consiueiable netwoik of white witches, oi cunning
folk that can be founu in sixteenth anu seventeenth centuiy English iecoius.
This pioject will consiuei the oiigins of cunning folk's poweis, theii occupation
anu social status anu the genuei uiffeiences between piactitioneis. It will also
exploie the activities white witches weie involveu in anu what tools they useu
to caiiy out theii piactices such as healing, finuing lost goous anu pieuicting
futuie events. It will uiscuss many of the most commonly iequesteu spells anu
foims of magic anu will look at the uevices that weie useu to fulfil these. The
position of highei magicians will also be uiscusseu, looking at the well euucateu
men, who uabbleu in white magic thiough subjects such as astiology anu
alchemy. Finally, aftei establishing the skills anu situation foi cunning folk
oveiall, the final pait of this uisseitation will consiuei the peisecution cunning
folk anu wizaius faceu in this peiiou. It will look at theii position in the law anu
the ciiticism they faceu fiom contempoiaiies. I aim to offei an oiiginal
peispective on white witchciaft in this peiiou; ievealing its ielevance to the
histoiical stuuy of witchciaft in which it is often oveishauoweu.
"
9#$5",/($0"#
C %.4*7 :*#2 'K "/ EF4# E4 ;4 $# 7.'";(4P '. /$D)#4//P '. ('/4
*#27F$#%P E4 ."# F$7F4. *#+ 7F$7F4. 7' E$7DF4/P '. /'.D4.4./P EF':
E4 D*(( E$/4 :4#Q/44)$#% *$+ *#+ D':K'.7 *7 7F4$. F*#+/R
|Bishop Bugh Latimei, 1SS2j
1
0K :4# F*64 ('/7 *#27F$#%P $K 7F42 ;4 $# *#2 N*$# '. +$/4*/4P 7F4#
7F42 N.4/4#7(2 ."# 7' /"DF */ 7F42 D*(( E$/4 :4#R
|Anthony Buigess, 16S6j
2
Bishop Latimei anu Anthony Buigess' comments ieveal the uepenuence much
of the eaily mouein population felt towaius cunning folk anu wizaius. Bespite
this, histoiical ieseaich on witchciaft has been uominateu by woik focuseu on
maleficient oi black witchciaft. Bistoiians have on the whole left the cunning
folk anu white witches of the eaily mouein peiiou on the siuelines of the society
they inhabiteu. As Robin Biiggs obseives, 'witches have haunteu the human
imagination with iemaikable peisistence. Bestiuctive anu malicious figuies,
they have always iepiesenteu the opposite of all positive values'.
S
Theie have,
howevei, been a few significant attempts to iectify this situation. Keith Thomas
was peihaps the fiist to tiuly uelve into the topic in his !"#$%$&' (') *+" ,"-#$'"
&. /(%$-. 0thei notewoithy woiks aie 0wen Bavies' book 0&12#(3 /(%$- anu
Alan Nacfailane's 4$*-+-3(.* $' 52)&3 (') 6*2(3* 7'%#('). 0ften, histoiians of
1
6"38&'9 :; <2%+ =(*$8"3, (eu.) u.E. Coiiie (Cambiiuge, 1844), p. SS4 citeu in Keith Thomas>
!"#$%$&' (') *+" ,"-#$'" &. /(%$-> 6*2)$"9 $' 0&12#(3 ?"#$".9 $' 6$@*""'*+A(') 6"B"'*""'*+A-"'*23;
7'%#(') (Lonuon, 1991), p. 2u9.
2
A. Buigess, CXLv 7@1&9$*&3; 6"38&'9 21&' *+" 4+&#" 9"B"'*""'*+ C+(1*"3 &. *+" D&91"#
(--&3)$'% *& 6* E&+' (16S6), p. 9S citeu in Thomas> !"#$%$&'> pp. 2u9-1u.
S
Robin Biiggs, 4$*-+"9 (') F"$%+:&239 (Lonuon, 1997), p. S.
#
black witchciaft mention cunning folk anu wizaius, but they aie ielegateu to the
siuelines of the moie wiuely ieseaicheu maleficient powei.
This focus on black witchciaft leaves an impoitant element of eaily
mouein English society unexploieu. Theie seems to have been a veiy laige
numbei of white magical piactitioneis in Englanu in this peiiou. As Robeit
Buiton stateu in 1621, 'Soiceieis aie too common; cunning men, wizaius, anu
white witches, as they call them, in eveiy village, which, if they be sought unto,
will help almost all infiimities of bouy anu minu'.
4
Alan Nacfailane has
suggesteu that theie weie 'at least foity-one |whoj both liveu in Essex anu acteu
as cunning folk'.
S
Bowevei, as he notes, it is uifficult to obtain infoimation on
cunning folk as most people uiu not iepoit them, because they felt they weie
uoing goou.
6
Also, 'it is uifficult to obtain any quantitative estimate of how many
people actually uiu go to cunning folk oi in what peicentage of all cases of
illness, suspecteu witchciaft, oi theft |theyj weie consulteu'.
7
Peihaps it is
because theie aie so few piimaiy accounts that white witchciaft has been
ielegateu to the fiinges of histoiical investigation. Bowevei, uespite the
uifficulties ietiieving souices fiom this peiiou, theie is enough infoimation to
uemonstiate the significant impact that cunning folk anu wizaius hau on the
eveiyuay lives of the eaily mouein English people. This uisseitation will piece
togethei piimaiy anu seconuaiy infoimation on these magical piactitioneis, so
often foigotten, to exploie theii impact on anu iole within this peiiou.
4
Robeit Buiton, G'(*&8; &. /"#('-+&#; (1621) citeu in Thomas, !"#$%$&', p. 2u9.
S
Alan Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.* $' 52)&3 (') 6*2(3* 7'%#(') (Lonuon, 197u), p. 11S.
6
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 11S.
7
Ibiu.> p. 12u.
$
At the time goou witches weie known by a vaiiety of names anu titles,
which incluueu: 'wise man oi woman, cunning man oi woman, witch (white oi
black), wizaiu, soiceiei, conjuiei, chaimei, magician, wight, nigiomancei,
neciomancei, seei, blessei, uieamei, cantel, soothsayei, foitune-tellei, giiule-
measuiei, enchantei, incantantiix anu so on'.
8
Bowevei, 'they weie iefeiieu to
most fiequently as "cunning" (that is, skilful oi knowleugeable) men oi
women'.
9
This meuley of titles can cause histoiians some uifficulties when
ieseaiching theii piesence in the eaily mouein peiiou. As Nacfailane notes, the
teims involveu in this topic 'aie notoiiously uifficult to uefine. Theie is no
consensus of opinion on theii meaning, eithei among piesent-uay histoiians
anu anthiopologists oi among wiiteis living in the sixteenth anu seventeenth
centuiies'.
1u
Bavies notes that, in auuition, the uefinition of magic is uifficult to
establish but he believes any 'useful unueistanuing must be tieu to the cultuies
of the people being stuuieu in specific peiious anu places'.
11
As long as we aie
cleai on the uefinitions that will be useu to investigate these magical
piactitioneis within this uisseitation, the situation will be less pioblematic. I
will pieuominantly use 'cunning folk', 'white witch' oi 'wizaiu' to iefei to the
magical piactitioneis I am uesciibing. But what was the uiffeience between
these piactitioneis anu those that piactiseu black witchciaft, oi 8(#".$-$28.
Chiistina Lainei states that 'Witchciaft is the geneiation of supeinatuial powei
with oi without paiticulai peifoimances anu is theiefoie an umbiella teim'.
12
8
Emma Wilby, C2''$'% H&#I (') H(8$#$(3 61$3$*9> 6+(8('$9*$- J$9$&'(3; 53()$*$&'9 $' 7(3#;
/&)"3' ?3$*$9+ 4$*-+-3(.* (') /(%$- (Biighton, 2uuS), p. 26.
9
}ames Shaipe, K'9*328"'*9 &. ,(3I'"99> 4$*-+-3(.* $' 7'%#(') LMMNALOMN (Lonuon, 1997), p. 66.
1u
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. S.
11
0wen Bavies, D3$8&$3"9P G <$9*&3; &. /(%$- ?&&I9 (0xfoiu, 2uu9), p. 2.
12
Chiistina Lainei, 7'"8$"9 &. D&)P 5+" 4$*-+A<2'* $' 6-&*#(') (Euinbuigh, 2uuu), p. 9.
%
Beneath this umbiella teim theie weie two veiy sepaiate types of magic: black
anu white.
Black magic is the use of supeinatuial poweis to cause haim anu
uestiuction to objects, people oi animals. The black magic they cast uuiing this
peiiou was teimeu 8(#".$-$28 anu involveu cuises, weathei magic anu iitual
saciifices. By contiast, white magic is the use of magical knowleuge anu poweis
foi goou puiposes.
1S
Some of the main examples of the goou magic they cast, foi
theii own benefit anu foi otheis, incluueu love magic, healing, anu uivination to
tell the futuie anu to finu lost goous. Biian Levack gives a goou summaiy of the
aims anu poweis of white magic:
White magic can be piouuctive, in the sense of helping ciops to giow oi
women to beai chiluien; it can be cuiative, in the sense of healing a
peison who is ill; oi it can be piotective, in the sense of pieventing some
misfoitune fiom occuiiing oi waiuing off some evil spiiit oi witch.
14
The ways they acquiieu theii poweis uiffeieu as well. Black witches weie
believeu by many to secuie theii poweis fiom the Bevil, aftei making a pact
with him. The oiigins of white witches' poweis weie a much moie contentious
topic. Some people believeu that, like maleficient witches, cunning folk ueiiveu
theii magical poweis fiom the uevil. Bowevei, by contiast, otheis believeu theii
goou magic was angelic in oiigin.
1S
The motives behinu theii woik also uiffeieu.
White witches may have caiiieu out theii woik puiely to help otheis, oi they
may have been uiiven by financial neeus. Though many uiu not take any
1S
Baviu Rollison, 5+" =&-(# Q3$%$'9 &. /&)"3' 6&-$"*;R D#&2-"9*"39+$3" LMNNALSNN (Lonuon,
1992), pp. 187-8.
14
Biian P. Levack, 5+" 4$*-+A<2'* $' 7(3#; /&)"3' 723&1" (Bailow, 1996), p. 6.
1S
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 126.
&
payment anu even those that uiu, uiu not eain veiy much.
16
Black witches on
the othei hanu weie seen as pieuominantly uiiven by malice, angei anu
ievenge.
Although theie weie cleai uiffeiences between the piactices of black
witches anu cunning folk, theie weie giey aieas wheie the uistinction between
goou anu bau became bluiieu. Foi example, love magic coulu be paiticulaily
tiicky. In essence it was goou magic, employeu to maintain maiiiages anu
cieate goou social ielationships. Bowevei, if a wizaiu foiceu someone to love
them with magic oi aiueu an auulteious affaii the magic became maleficient in
natuie; as Levack states, 'one peison's gain in love might easily be anothei's
loss'.
17
Be notes that theie weie also uifficult situations with healing, foi
example if the wizaiu haimeu someone in oiuei to piotect himself, oi if he
cuieu a patient by moving theii uisease to someone else.
18
These giey aieas uiu
not help the cunning folk of this peiiou to win acceptance by theii ciitics. Nany
cleigy, especially puiitan wiiteis, believeu that theie was no uistinction
between goou anu black magic as all magic came fiom the Bevil.
As pieviously noteu, this subject has been oveishauoweu by the
peisecution of black witches in this peiiou. It is theiefoie a piime topic foi
fuithei exploiation. The cunning folk anu wizaius of eaily mouein Englanu aie
an invaluable tool to use in exploiing the uiffeiences between elite anu populai
belief. The populaiity they enjoyeu can ieveal a gieat ueal about what the
people of the peiiou weie willing to put theii tiust anu faith into. Also, the
16
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 126.
17
Levack, 5+" 4$*-+A<2'*> p. 6.
18
Ibiu.> p. 6.
'
tieatment they ieceiveu in the law can tell us a gieat ueal about the authoiities'
geneial appioach towaius ueviant gioups within the society. Thus by exploiing
in gieatei uetail the lives of cunning folk we can gain a ueepei unueistanuing of
the woilu that suiiounueu them. By stuuying those consigneu to the fiinges of
society, we can bettei compiehenu the values anu beliefs of those shaping the
noims. This uisseitation will uiaw on a iange of piimaiy souices, such as
chuichwaiuens' piesentments, couit iecoius, pamphlets, uiaiies anu almanacs.
This will then be linkeu to seconuaiy ieseaich to piesent a geneial suivey of the
position of cunning folk anu wizaius in this peiiou. I will be asking wheie theii
poweis weie thought to come fiom, anu why people woulu tiavel many miles to
see a paiticulai cunning man. Why weie they such piominent anu populai
figuies foi many people. What neeus uiu they meet, that othei gioups in society
weie unable to satisfy. To uo this, it is impoitant fiistly to establish who those
that claimeu to be cunning folk anu wizaius weie. The fiist chaptei will
consiuei the oiigins of cunning folk's poweis, theii occupation anu social status
anu the genuei uiffeiences in piactitioneis. The seconu chaptei will then
examine the techniques anu tools useu by white witches anu wizaius. It will
uiscuss many of the most commonly iequesteu spells anu foims of magic anu
will look at the uevices that weie useu to pioviue these. The thiiu chaptei will
consiuei the position of highei magicians, those who weie well euucateu anu
uabbleu in white magic alongsiue astiology anu alchemy. Finally, aftei
establishing the skills anu position of cunning folk oveiall, the fouith chaptei
will consiuei the peisecution that cunning folk anu wizaius coulu also face in
this peiiou. It will look at theii position unuei the law, anu the ciiticism they
faceu fiom contempoiaiies. I hope to show how the situation changeu foi
(
cunning men anu women acioss this peiiou anu why cunning folk anu wizaius
aie an impoitant topic foi histoiical investigation.
)
I
3:" *%5% 3:0$% 30$(:%& 2#, 30425,&;
S#(2 ;*+ E$7DF4/ *.4 "%(2 |ulinua The uoou Witch in 5+" 4$T(3) &. QT,
19S9j
The quote above ieflects the geneial uepiction of goou anu bau witches in
mythical anu folkloie iepiesentations anu is pait of the ieason 'the witch anu
the magician aie absent fiom the stage of ieal life, anu have been ielegateu
fiimly to the iealm of fantastic fiction'.
1
0vei the yeais, numeious plays, stoiies
anu films have cementeu uniealistic anu faiiy-tale uepictions of both black anu
white witches, so that, as Robin Biiggs iemaiks, mouein 'iueas of the witch have
been simplifieu to the point of caiicatuie'.
2
These chaiacteiisations can be
uetiimental when attempting to uiscovei the tiue natuie of white magic in the
eaily mouein peiiou. When iemoveu fiom these steieotypical uepictions, who
weie the people who piactiseu white magic in this peiiou. Nost people touay
aie familiai with the Balloween costume iepiesentations of black witches: tall
black hats, gieen skin anu a heaity cackle. Bowevei, iepiesentations of wizaius
anu white witches have been moie wiue ianging, with the wizeneu magical
beings of the Loiu of the Rings tiilogy anu most iecently the young anu populai
wizaiu; Baiiy Pottei. Bowevei, neithei of these poitiayals ieally embouies the
chaiacteiistics of the cunning folk of eaily mouein Englanu. So just who weie
these men anu women.
1
ueoffiey Scaiie, 4$*-+-3(.* (') /(%$- $' 6$@*""'*+ (') 6"B"'*""'*+ C"'*23; 723&1"
(Basingstoke, Lonuon, 1987), p. 1.
2
Robin Biiggs, 4$*-+"9 (') F"$%+:&239 (Lonuon, 1997), p. 2u.
*
Because theie is geneially a lack of souices wiitten fiom the cunning
folk's peispective in this peiiou, a gieat ueal of the infoimation available is
baseu on the opinions of otheis. Although those that uabbleu at a highei level of
magic weie euucateu anu have theiefoie left infoimation foi us to examine, the
majoiity of cunning folk weie often illiteiate anu left veiy little papei eviuence
of theii existence. In auuition, white witches anu wizaius also uelibeiately left
veiy little infoimation suiiounuing theii magical piactices. Theii opeiations
weie often veibal, anu caiiieu out by them at the time of the patients'
consultation, leaving no wiitten iecoius. Bowevei, theie aie some suiviving
uesciiptions. Foi example }ohn Aubiey notes a cuie foi thiush: 'Take a living
fiog, anu holu it in a cloth, that it uoes not go uown into the chilu's mouth; anu
put the heau into the chilu's mouth 'till it is ueau; anu then take anothei fiog
anu uo the same'.
S
Foi toothache, he states, 'take a new nail, anu make the gum
bleeu with it, anu then uiive it into an oak'.
4
The lack of wiitten iecoius was
peihaps because of a feai of peisecution, oi to maintain a sense of mysteiy foi
theii clients.
S
It may also have been to piotect themselves fiom competition. All
in all this has meant that histoiians inteiesteu in the extent of cunning folk anu
theii tieatments in this peiiou aie faceu with a uifficult situation. Bowevei,
uespite the spaise piimaiy souices, theie is still a significant amount foi us to
leain fiom them.
S
}ohn Aubiey, /$9-"##('$"9 (Lonuon, 18S7), pp. 1S7-8.
4
Aubiey, /$9-"##('$"9, p. 1S8.
S
Emma Wilby, C2''$'% H&#I (') H(8$#$(3 61$3$*9> 6+(8('$9*$- J$9$&'(3; 53()$*$&'9 $' 7(3#;
/&)"3' ?3$*$9+ 4$*-+-3(.* (') /(%$- (Biighton, 2uuS), p. 29.
"+
S.$%$#/
The beliefs that suiiounueu the oiigin of cunning folk's supeinatuial
poweis aie impoitant to uiscuss, unuoubteuly these beliefs weie integial to the
iespect anu success that the white witch oi wizaiu achieveu. If they weie
unable to piove they possesseu supeinatuial skills, eithei thiough inheiitance
oi magical expeitise, they weie unlikely to achieve the piestige they neeueu to
maintain iegulai clients. Peihaps the simplest way to become a cunning man oi
woman was to inheiit magical gifts anu heibal knowleuge fiom a ielative.
Accoiuing to populai supeistitions, this natuial powei was believeu to be
paiticulaily stiong if they weie boin at a ceitain time oi in a ceitain position in
theii family. Foi example, 'seventh sons anu uaughteis...weie believeu to
possess innate poweis to cuie conuitions, anu, not suipiisingly, cunning-folk
often claimeu to be so blesseu'.
6
Yet, these innate supeinatuial abilities
geneially only iesulteu in a specific magical powei, iathei than the full iange of
cunning expeitise.
7
The magical poweis white witches anu wizaius claimeu to be able to
hainess weie not always believeu to have been inheiiteu. In fact, many cunning
folk asseiteu that theii poweis weie a gift (oi cuise) fiom anothei supeinatuial
being. The most common claim was that faiiies hau bestoweu the witch oi
wizaiu with the abilities they now useu foi goou.
8
We can see an example of this
in a Scottish tiial in 16SS involving a white witch nameu Issobell Sinclaii. The
uetails of Issobell's case state that she aumitteu that she was attempting to
6
0wen Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> C2''$'%A.&#I $' 7'%#$9+ <$9*&3; (Lonuon, 2uu7), p. 7u.
7
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 7u.
8
Ibiu.> p. 7u.
""
piotect cattle on Balloween anu that to uo so she was using 'linen cloth anu the
haii of the beast'.
9
Bowevei, she uivulgeu that whilst caiiying out hei magic she
'was with the phaiie.|whoj gave hei seconu sight to know if any fey bouy aie
in the house'.
1u
Thus Issobell claimeu that faiiies hau aiueu hei in hei magic anu
as a iesult, she was founu guilty anu executeu. This Scottish example of white
magic involving faiiy aiu ieveals similai chaiacteiistics to those uisplayeu in
Englanu, uemonstiating the peivasiveness of faiiy belief. A similai account was
of nineteen-yeai olu Ann }effeiies, who claimeu to have hau an encountei with
the faiiies.
11
Ann was fiom a pooi family, anu was 'appienticeu as a uomestic
seivant to a substantial yeoman family in the paiish of St Teath'.
12
She stateu
that in 164S she hau been knitting in the gaiuen of hei employei Ni Pitt when
'theie came six peisons, of a small statuie, all clotheu in gieen, upon which she
was fiighteneu into a convulsion. Buiing hei long continueu illness, she
fiequently ciieu out that she saw the faiiies'.
1S
Noses Pitt, the son of hei
employei, latei iecounteu that upon hei iecoveiy, she uevelopeu the ability to
heal the sick by touch.
14
Ann claimeu that this encountei was the fiist of many
faiiy meetings anu she believeu that they weie always with hei.
1S
Bei cuies
became veiy famous anu uespite taking no money foi hei seivices, 'she always
9
}ulian uoouaie, Lauien Naitin, }oyce Nillei anu Louise Yeoman, 'The Suivey of Scottish
Witchciaft', (4 August 2u1u) Case of Issobell Sinclaii, 28 Febiuaiy 16SS.
1u
uoouaie, Naitin, Nillei anu Yeoman, 'The Suivey of Scottish Witchciaft'.
11
Robeit Bunt, 0&12#(3 !&8('-"9 &. *+" 4"9* &. 7'%#(') (19uS), p. 1S4.
12
Petei Naishall, 'Ann }effeiies anu the Faiiies: Folk Belief anu the Wai on Scepticism' in Latei
Stuait Englanu' in Angela NcShane anu uaithine Walkei (eus.) 5+" 7@*3(&3)$'(3; (') *+"
7B"3;)(; $' 7(3#; /&)"3' 7'%#(')> 799(;9 $' C"#":3(*$&' &. *+" U&3I &. ?"3'(3) C(11
(Basingstoke, 2u1u), p. 127.
"$
C'L'Estiange Ewen, 4$*-+-3(.* (') ,"8&'$('$98(Lonuon, 197u), p. SuS.
14
Noses Pitt, G' (--&2'* &. &'" G'' E".."3$"9> '&U #$B$'% $' *+" -&2'*; &. C&3'U(##> U+& U(9 .") .&3
9$@ 8&'*+9 :; ( 98(## 9&3* &. ($3; 1"&1#" -(##V) .($3$"9> (') &. *+" 9*3('%" (') U&')"3.2# -23"9 9+"
1"3.&38") U$*+ 9#(B"9 (') 8")$-$'"9 9+" 3"-"$B") .3&8 *+"8> .&3 U+$-+ 9+" '"B"3 *&&I &'" 1"'';
&. +"3 1(*$"'*9 (1696), p. 12.
1S
Katheiine Biiggs, G 6(81#"3 &. ?3$*$9+ H&#IA5(#"9 (Lonuon, 1977), p. 1SS.
"#
hau sufficient foi hei wants, anu ceaseu to eat the victuals pioviueu by hei
mastei, being feu by the faiiies'.
16
This peivasive belief in supeinatuial powei
bestoweu by magical cieatuies is also a featuie of the Shakespeaiian play 5+"
5"81"9*. In it the poweiful magician Piospeio is assisteu by the faiiy-like spiiit,
Aiiel. Piospeio, having saveu Aiiel fiom impiisonment at the hanus of the witch
Sycoiax, employeu Aiiel as his seivant. The following exceipt fiom the play
ieflects the ielationship between the wizaiu anu the spiiit:
MTSUM1TS
...Come away, seivant, come. I am ieauy now.
Appioach, my Aiiel, come.
7'*"3 G!K7=
CT01V
All hail, gieat mastei! giave sii, hail! I come
To answei thy best pleasuie; be't to fly,
To swim, to uive into the fiie, to iiue
0n the cuil'u clouus, to thy stiong biuuing task
Aiiel anu all his quality.
17
As with Issobell Sinclaii anu Ann }effeiies, Piospeio utilises Aiiel's magical
skills to aiu his own woik. Bowevei, in the play the balance of powei lies cleaily
with Piospeio, while in Issobell anu Ann's cases the powei was gifteu by the
faiiies iathei than oiueieu. The appeaiance of this type of magical ielationship
16
Ewen, 4$*-+-3(.*, p. SuS.
17
William Shakespeaie, 5+" 5"81"9*, (eu.) Baviu Linuley (Cambiiuge, 2uu2), pp. 1u8-9.
"$
in Shakespeaie's woik suggests the extent to which this was a populai belief
associateu with white witches anu wizaius in this peiiou. Bavis has founu that
this connection to faiiies uieu out aftei the eaily mouein eia; a phenomenon he
believes was uiiectly ielateu to a uecline in populai belief in faiiies, which
meant 'faiiies caiiieu less anu less weight as souices of magical powei'.
18
It is also impoitant to consiuei why theie was a geneial neeu anu
populai suppoit foi cunning folk in eaily mouein Englanu. As pieviously
suggesteu, it is uifficult to establish why cunning folk hau such wiue appeal, but
histoiians have maue some suggestions. Nacfailane pioposes that changes in
the iole anu status of the cleigy post-Refoimation incieaseu the neeu foi white
witches anu wizaius.
19
Befoie the Refoimation, the cleigy weie fulfilling many
of the ioles cunning folk woulu latei unueitake, such as cuising thieves,
pioviuing supeinatuial piotection, iesolving quaiiels within the local
community anu helping to heal anu tenu to the sick.
2u
Foi instance Ewen
uesciibes one example of the type of healing supplieu by a white witch foi hei
local community. Be notes that Anne, wife of Thomas uieene of uaigiave,
Yoikshiie, was askeu foi auvice by }ohn Tatteison when he was suffeiing with
eaiache.
"She tolu him that black wool was goou foi it, but he saiu that was not
the mattei". Wheieupon she ciosseu his left eai thiee times with hei
gaitei, anu "got some haii out of his neck, without his consent". uoing
home he suffeieu moie pain than befoie, anu, ietuining tolu hei "to look
18
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 7u.
"*
Alan Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.* $' 52)&3 (') 6*2(3* 7'%#(') (Lonuon, 197u), p. 1Su.
2u
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 1Su.
"%
to it, oi he woulu look to hei". Baving ciosseu his eai thiee times again,
she piomiseu that it woulu menu, anu... it uiu.
21
Although post-Refoimation these kinus of actions weie conuemneu as popeiy
by the chuich, theie was an unueniable suppoit foi them fiom the populace.
This illustiates the impoitant social ioles white witches anu wizaius peifoimeu
in eaily mouein Englanu. Some histoiians have staiteu to uesciibe the actions
of cunning folk without iefeiiing to the magic they useu. It has been suggesteu
that although it was magical belief that uiove them anu theii clients, theii
actions aie similai to those we woulu see useu by a counselloi touay. As Robin
Biiggs has suggesteu, we can view witchciaft as a type of theiapy, which often
cuieu a patient thiough uiscussion anu ieassuiance that was otheiwise not
supplieu by society.
22
Nacfailane sums up this theoiy by stating that 'they
foieshauoweu mouein psychiatiists in ielating physical illness to uistuibeu
social ielationships. They inteipieteu the feelings aiouseu by uistuibances in
cuiient, witchciaft, teims. Beie they filleu a vacuum anu supplieu a neeu'.
2S
Thus, it is appaient that cunning folk anu wizaius filleu an impoitant social iole
that woulu have otheiwise been left unsatisfieu. Bowevei, even with inheiiteu
gifts, faiiy-bestoweu poweis anu impoitant social functions, the cunning folk of
eaily mouein Englanu hau to uo something moie if they wanteu to establish a
highei level of piactice; as Bavis states, 'they hau to get theii books out'.
24
21
Ewen, 4$*-+-3(.*, p. S29.
22
Robin Biiggs, 'Ciicling the Bevil: Witch-Boctois anu Nagical Bealeis in Eaily Nouein
Loiiaine', in Stuait Claik (eu.) =('%2(%"9 &. 4$*-+-3(.*> F(33(*$B"> K)"&#&%; (') /"('$'% $' 7(3#;
/&)"3' C2#*23" (Basingstoke, Lonuon, 2uu1), p. 161.
2S
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 129.
24
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 7u.
"&
SDD"N*7$'# *#+ /'D$*( /7*7"/
The white witch oi wizaiu's ability to uelve into books in oiuei to gain
ancient magical potions anu spells ielieu a gieat ueal on theii position within
society. This position was pieuominately establisheu anu maintaineu thiough
theii occupation. As will be uiscusseu in fuithei uetail in the fouith chaptei of
this uisseitation, the cunning piofession lay on the fiinges of acceptability in
this peiiou. As a iesult it was uangeious to piofess youi magical abilities
openly, anu many cunning folk maintaineu anothei occupation to hiue theii
illicit piofession.
2S
Theie aie numeious examples of the thieat of peisecution,
such as the case of Anne uieene. As we saw, she offeieu hei local community
hei healing abilities, but these weie not always iegaiueu favouiably. The
uesciiptions of the help she offeieu Tatteison anu otheis aie only available to
us because she was accuseu of bewitchment. Ewen states that 'Thiee... bills
weie founu: (i) foi bewitching Elizabeth, wife of Ameiy Coggill; (ii) foi
bewitching }ohn Tatteison; (iii) foi bewitching Thomas Shutt'.
26
Foitunately foi
Anne, 'the veiuict of the juiy of life anu ueath was "not guilty"'.
27
The feai of
peisecution was not the only ieason foi puisuing two occupations. Wizaius
may also have wanteu to iemain at the heait of village life because 'in theii line
of woik it was impoitant to be familiai with all the latest local gossip'.
28
As a
iesult, seveial cunning folk ian uiinking establishments whilst caiiying-out
theii magical seivices. Peihaps because, alcohol ieuuceu people's inhibitions
2S
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 7S.
26
Ewen, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. SSu.
27
Ibiu., p. SSu.
28
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> pp. 7S.
"'
anu if they listeneu out foi it, they coulu uiscovei all the seciets they neeueu.
29
Auuitionally, many cunning folk followeu two uiffeient occupations so that they
coulu affoiu to suppoit themselves financially. Although some men anu women
who uabbleu in white witchciaft weie able to eain a ieasonable income, many
eithei offeieu theii seivices foi fiee oi chaigeu veiy little. 0n the whole, those
who weie able to eain a goou income with theii magic weie those pioficient in
highei magic like astiology.
Su
The majoiity weie most likely 'neithei
piofessional noi full-time piactitioneis' anu caiiieu out theii iole, seiving a
small iuial community, moie foi 'the uesiie foi piestige iathei than |foij
payment'.
S1
By offeiing theii seivices foi a ieasonable piice, cunning folk weie
consiueieu a favouiable alteinative to the expensive physicians of the peiiou.
This opinion can be seen in Thomas Coopei's The /;9*"3$" &. 4$*-+-3(.*, wheie
he states, 'help must be hau, anu what moie ieauy then the -2''$'% U&8(',
especially seeing she uoth it with so little cost.'
S2
Although this shows that the
low chaiges oi fiee seivices cunning folk offeieu weie populai, it was not the
only ieason they offeieu low fees. As pieviously mentioneu, cunning folk helu a
piecaiious position in society anu as a iesult 'they weie less vulneiable to an
action of fiauu if they coulu show that theii fees weie voluntaiy'.
SS
In 1614 the
couits heaiu a case of fiauu involving a cunning man. Naiy Loveall hau been left
piegnant by a Suffolk man, who hau piomiseu to maiiy hei befoie he left foi
home.
29
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> pp. 7S.
Su
This topic will be coveieu in gieatei uetail in the thiiu chaptei of this uisseitation.
S1
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 127.
S2
Thomas Coopei, 5+" /;9*"3$" &. 4$*-+-3(.*> 5+" 6"-&') ?&&I"W 6(*+(' 53('9.&38") $'*& ('
G'%"## &. =$%+*> "@13"99$'% +$9 )('%"3&29 K81&9*23"9 2')"3 D#&3$&29 6+"U"9X 781#$.$") 61"-$(##; $'
*+" ,&-*3$'" &. 4$*-+A-3(.*> (') 92-+ 9#"$%+*9 &. 6(*(' (9 (3" $'-$)"'* *+"3"2'*&X J"3; '"-"99(3; *&
)$9-"3'" *+" 91"-$A0#(%2" 3(%$'% $' *+"9" )(;"9> (') 9& *& +$)" &23 9"#B"9 .3&8 *+" 9'(3" *+"3"&.
(Lonuon, 1622), p. 24S.
SS
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 126.
"(
She was peisuaueu by an acquaintance William Natchwick to give him
money anu goous, so that he coulu pay a cunning man calleu "}acke of
Nubuiy" to fetch the man fiom Suffolk "whethei he woulu oi noe". She
latei gave Natchwick a sheet woith eight shillings, when he tolu an
elaboiate stoiy about how he hau uiunk with the cunning man at
Newbuiy, who hau piomiseu to "cause the uevell" to biing the
iiiesponsible fathei of hei chilu "agayne upon his back".
S4
Bowevei, the cunning man was most likely fabiicateu anu the whole tale an
elaboiate ueception.
SS
Bence, when money was involveu in white witchciaft the
situation coulu become moie uangeious foi both the client anu foi the
piactitionei.
In geneial, foi cunning folk in this peiiou 'caieei piospects in the
piofession uepenueu heavily on access to knowleuge' anu without access to this
knowleuge the skills they neeueu woulu be out of theii ieach.
S6
This access was
uepenuent on the financial situation anu euucational level of the white witch oi
wizaiu, anu theie was unsuipiisingly a uiviue ueteimineu by the level of
euucation they coulu affoiu. As Bavis notes, 'it was access to these liteiaiy
souices that fuithei militateu against the labouiing classes becoming cunning-
folk'.
S7
The ability to obtain magical infoimation fiom books was ciucial foi
cunning folk involveu in aieas such as astiology, alchemy anu neciomancy. All
of these bianches of wiuei white magical piactice weie consiueieu high magic,
an aiea uominateu by the euucateu. Those in the lowei echelons weie as a
S4
Anthony Fletchei, G C&2'*; C&882'$*; $' 0"(-" (') 4(3P 6299"@ LYNNALYYN (Lonuon, 197S),
p. 16S.
SS
Fletchei, G C&2'*; C&882'$*;> p. 164.
S6
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 69.
S7
Ibiu., p. 69.
")
iesult excluueu fiom these aieas, though, to be a white witch oi wizaiu in this
peiiou, liteiacy was not necessaiily essential. 0ften 'the meie uisplay of
numeiacy, liteiacy anu liteiatuie was enough to convince many clients they
weie paity to exclusive occult knowleuge'.
S8
The spells anu tieatments they
offeieu theii clients weie fiequently veibal anu physical iathei than wiitten.
Foi example, Aubiey notes that in Beitfoiushiie anu Kent 'they uo put a colu
iion bai upon theii baiiels, to pieseive theii beei fiom being souieu by
thunuei'.
S9
Keith Thomas suggests that although liteiacy was a factoi in highei
magic, 'village wizaius' weie unlikely to 'possess books, oi... to iest |theii
activitiesj on a bouy of self-conscious theoiy'.
4u
Noie often, a white witches'
'technique was leaineu veibally fiom some ielative oi neighboui'.
41
Anothei way in which cunning folk's occupation coulu be affecteu by
theii social status was in the ioles they woulu take alongsiue theii magical
piofession. The financial anu social status of the inuiviuual coulu significantly
influence the ioles he was able to take as a cunning man. Foi example, well-to-
uo ciaftsmen oi tiauesmen woulu be able to take time to fulfil theii cunning
iole as well. In contiast, humble labouieis woulu not have hau the oppoitunity
to 'pioviue iounu-the-clock seivice that people expecteu fiom cunning-folk'.
42
Social status coulu also play a iole in who the clients felt that they coulu visit.
Foi example, Bavis has suggesteu that many of the people who visiteu cunning
folk weie faimeis. Thus a faimei may have been ieluctant to visit anu pay a
S8
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> pp. 69-7u.
S9
Aubiey, /$9-"##('$"9, p. 14u.
4u
Keith Thomas, !"#$%$&' (') *+" ,"-#$'" &. /(%$-> 6*2)$"9 $' 0&12#(3 ?"#$".9 $' 6$@*""'*+A(')
6"B"'*""'*+A-"'*23; 7'%#(') (Lonuon, 1991), pp. 271-2.
41
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 272.
42
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 69.
"*
white witch oi wizaiu whose social position was significantly lowei than his
own.
4S
Nany people coulu acquiie the basics that weie neeueu foi a magical
piofession by oial tiansmission within the 'seciet, unchaiteieu aieas of peasant
exchange.'
44
0i alteinatively the 'close obseivance of othei well-establisheu
cunning-folk also pioviueu buuuing piactitioneis with iueas'.
4S
As in many
tiaues, paients often passeu theii knowleuge onto theii sons anu uaughteis so
they coulu take ovei theii magical piofession once they weie gone. Theie aie
also many examples of white witches anu wizaius who claimeu to have 'leaineu
theii tiaue as seivants oi pupils of esteemeu piactitioneis'.
46
0wen Bavies has
founu some examples of this, such as the 'Essex cunning-man William
Bills...|whoj was saiu to have been a pupil of the fameu astiologei anu almanac
wiitei William Lilly. Anne Kingsbuiy, of Someiset, likewise saiu she hau
acquiieu tieasuie-seeking techniques fiom Lilly'.
47
These examples ieveal the
impoitance of passing knowleuge between magical piactitioneis anu also show
the oppoitunities foi those in the euucateu elites of society iathei than the
labouiing pooi. The occupation anu status of cunning folk anu wizaius weie
theiefoie impoitant elements in shaping the way they woulu caiiy out theii
magical uuties.
4S
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 69.
44
Wilby, C2''$'% H&#I, p. 29.
4S
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 72.
46
Ibiu.> pp. 72-S.
47
Ibiu.> p. 7S.
#+
W4#+4.
The obstacles facing cunning folk in this peiiou in teims of social status,
euucation anu liteiacy skills may also explain the uiffeiences in the genuei ioles
of white witches anu wizaius. The subject of 'genuei' in witchciaft
histoiiogiaphy has iecently attiacteu consiueiable investigation, anu has
piovokeu a gieat ueal of uebate.
48
This uiscussion of genuei in witchciaft is, like
most of the histoiiogiaphy on this subject, centieu on the expeiience of
maleficient witches. In the ieseaich on black witchciaft, the geneial consensus
is that it was pieuominantly women who weie tiieu. As Shaipe states, 'aiounu
9u pei cent of peisons inuicteu foi witchciaft at the Bome ciicuit assizes
between...1S6S anu...17S6 weie women'.
49
The same pattein is not as appaient
with white witches. Nouein histoiians anu contempoiaiies have both faileu to
agiee whethei it was men oi women who weie pieuominantly cunning folk in
this peiiou. Nacfailane has suggesteu that even people at the time weie unsuie,
'}ohn Steaine wiote that black witches weie neaily all women, while cunning
folk "almost geneially they be men". 0n the othei hanu, Thomas Coopei
assumeu that cunning folk woulu be women'.
Su
Bavis howevei believes that 'the
majoiity, ioughly some two-thiius, weie male'.
S1
The genuei uiffeience in this
paiticulai piofession was peihaps as a iesult of the type of woik the witch oi
wizaiu was involveu in. As Nacfailane notes 'fiom the Essex eviuence it seems
48
Kathaiine Bougkin, 'uenuei, Ninu anu Bouy: Feminism anu Psychoanalysis' in }onathan Baiiy
anu 0wen Bavies (eus.) 0(#%3(B" G)B('-"9 $' 4$*-+-3(.* <$9*&3$&%3(1+; (Basingstoke, 2uu7), p.
182.
49
}im Shaipe, 'Women, Witchciaft anu the Legal Piocess' in Baiien 0luiiuge (eu.) 5+"
4$*-+-3(.* !"()"3 (0xfoiu, 2uuS), p. 289.
Su
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 127.
S1
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> pp. 68-69.
#"
that while men weie moie likely to be piesenteu at couit.(ovei lost goous anu
as healeis) women weie often consulteu in the attempt to countei witchciaft'.
S2
Women weie often unable to access the necessaiy euucation to achieve
the knowleuge they iequiieu to be cunning folk, consequently, Bavies has noteu
that they weie moie likely to become foitune-telleis as an alteinative.
SS
.
Bowevei, uespite the uisauvantages they faceu, magic was a pait of women's
lives as much as men's. This is highlighteu in }ohn Aubiey's /$9-"##('$"9 wheie
he offeis many examples of female paiticipation in magic oi foitune telling
ioles, foi example:
The last summei, on the uay of St. }ohn the Baptist, 1694, I acciuentally
was walking in the pastuie behinu Nontague house, it was 12 o'clock. I
saw theie about two oi thiee anu twenty young women, most of them
well habiteu, on theii knees veiy busy, as if they hau been weeuing. I
coulu not piesently leain what the mattei was; at last a young man tolu
me, that they weie looking foi a coal unuei the ioot of a plantain, to put
unuei theii heau that night, anu they shoulu uieam of who woulu be
theii husbanus: It was to be sought foi that uay anu houi.
S4
Aubiey also noteu that the 'women have seveial magical seciets hanueu uown
to them by tiauition.as, on St. Agnes' night, 21
st
uay of }anuaiy, take a iow of
pins, anu pull out eveiy one, one aftei anothei, saying a Patei Nostei. sticking a
pin in youi sleeve, anu you will uieam of him, oi hei, you shall maiiy'.
SS
These
S2
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 127.
SS
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 71.
S4
Aubiey, /$9-"##('$"9, p. 1S1.
SS
Ibiu., p. 1S1.
##
examples show that magic was involveu in eveiyuay life foi many women, at all
levels of society.
Those who became cunning women weie often fiom highei levels of
society oi maiiieu into such families.
S6
Souice mateiial is fiustiatingly spaise;
but some iecoius of theii piesence anu of theii woik can be uncoveieu. In 1S1S
in Pauiham, Lancashiie, couit iecoius state that 'the wife of }ohn Beniyson, as
the fame has it, piactises foitune-telling anu witchciaft. She aumits the fame
anu must biing six testifieis'.
S7
Also in Eumonu Bowei's 4$*-+-3(.* C&')"8'),
Anne Bouenham is uesciibeu as fulfilling the iole of cunning woman to hei local
community in Wiltshiie. Bowei uesciibes that:
she woulu often tell those, that hau conveise with hei of lucky anu
unlucky uays... she was likewise auuicteu much to uossipping (as the
vulgai call it) to tell stiange unheaiu of tales anu stoiies of tiansactions,
anu things that have been, anu might be uone, by cunning anu wife
people; she was one that woulu unueitake to cuie almost any uiseases,
which she uiu foi the most pait by chaims anu spels, sometimes useu
physical ingieuients, to covei hei-abominable piactices; she woulu
unueitake to piocuie things that weie lost, anu to iestoie stolen goous,
upon which employments she was maue use of by many people.
S8
S6
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 71.
S7
Paul Baii (eu.) ?".&3" *+" ?(U); C&23* (Lonuon, 1972), p. 128.
S8
Eumonu Bowei, ,&-*&3 =(8: 3"B$B")> &3> 4$*-+-3(.* -&')"8'V) $' G''" ?&)"'+(8 P ( 9"3B('*
&. +$9> U+& U(9 (33($%'") (') "@"-2*") *+" #"'* (99$T"9 #(9* (* 6(#$9:23;> :".&3" *+" 3$%+*
+&'&23(:#" *+" =&3) C+$". ?(3&' 4$#)> Z2)%" &. *+" (99$9" P U+"3"$' $9 9"* .&3*+ +"3 9*3('%" (')
U&')"3.2# )$(:&#$-(# 29(%" &. ( 8($)> 9"3B('* *& /3X D&))(3)> (9 (#9& +"3 (**"81* (%($'9* +$9
)(2%+*"39> :2* :; 13&B$)"'-" )"#$B"3") P :"$'% '"-"99(3; .&3 (## %&&) C+3$9*$('9 *& 3"()> (9 (
-(B"(* *& #&&I *& *+"89"#B"9> *+(* *+"; :" '&* 9")2-") :; 92-+ $'*$-"8"'*9 (Lonuon, 16SS), p. 1.
#$
Ewen also notes this case, stating that Anne who was 'foimeily a seivant to Bi
Lamb of Lonuon... piactiseu as a "cunning woman", cuiing uiseases by chaims
anu spells |anuj uiscoveiing things lost anu stolen'.
S9
The uiscussions ievolving
aiounu this case signify that women weie pait of the cunning folk of this peiiou.
Although they may have piactiseu to a lessei extent anu may have been limiteu
in what they coulu offei because of theii iestiicteu euucation, they weie still a
significant element of white magic.
This chaptei has uemonstiateu that the cunning folk of this peiiou weie
fiom a wiue spectium of the eaily mouein society. It has also noteu that the
piactices that weie followeu weie almost ceitainly affecteu by theii oiigins,
occupation, status anu genuei. It has maue mention of the clients that visiteu
the magical piactitioneis anu it woulu seem that although they too weie
affecteu by theii social status anu genuei, clients came fiom all levels of society.
The souices suiiounuing the cunning folk's customeis aie spoiauic, but it is an
inteiesting topic woithy of futuie ieseaich. The next chaptei will exploie the
vaiious techniques anu tools cunning folk anu wizaius hau at theii uisposal.
S9
Ewen, 4$*-+-3(.* (') ,"8&'$('$98, p. S24.
#%
II
<:% <%(:#0=/%& 2#, <""+& "1 !/##0#- >"+)
C /$#%(4 .4(*7$'# K'. *# CKK$.:*7$64RRR XD'#/"(7*7$'#P EF$DF D*# ;4Y
/"KK$D$4#7(2 D'#K$.:4+ *#+ *774/74+P $/ E'.7F * 7F'"/*#+ 7*(4/ 'K
K'.%4.2 *#+ $:N'/7".4R|}oseph ulanvill, 1666j
?
It is cleai that theie was a substantial assoitment of people who consiueieu
themselves white witches oi wizaius. Bowevei, uespite theii appaient sizeable
piesence, the populace woulu often tiavel many miles to see paiticulai cunning
folk, passing otheis on theii way.
2
What maue one white witch moie ieputable
than anothei. Peihaps the key to unueistanuing this is to uelve into the
techniques anu tools that weie hainesseu by the cunning folk in theii magical
woik. The techniques they useu vaiieu a gieat ueal, some useu piayeis anu
simple chaims, whilst otheis useu moie intiicate anu complicateu means.
S
Befoie exploiing the methous anu appaiatus useu by the cunning folk, we
shoulu consiuei the types of pioblems they weie geneially employeu to solve.
}ames Shaipe has suggesteu that theie weie foui main ways that cunning folk
pioviueu help foi the people of this peiiou. Fiist, they weie able to help finu lost
oi stolen goous, anu if neeueu weie able to help establish who hau taken the
goous. Seconuly, they coulu offei healing anu iemeuies foi vaiious ailments,
both natuial anu supeinatuial in oiigin. They weie also able to use uivination oi
foitune-telling to pieuict futuie events in a peison's life. Foi example Aubiey
1
}oseph ulanvill, G 1+$#&9&1+$-(# "')"(B&23 *&U(3)9 *+" )"."'-" &. *+" :"$'% &. BB$*-+"9 (')
(11(3$*$&'9 (1666), pp. SS-S4.
2
Alan Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.* $' 52)&3 (') 6*2(3* 7'%#(') (Lonuon, 197u), p. 121.
S
}ames Shaipe, K'9*328"'*9 &. ,(3I'"99> 4$*-+-3(.* $' 7'%#(') LMMNALOMN (Lonuon, 1997), p. 67.
#&
founu that, 'in Baibaiy... wizaius... smeai theii hanus with some black ointment,
anu then uo holu them up to the sun, anu in a shoit time you shall see
uelineateu in that black stuff, the likeness of what you uesiie to have an answei
of'.
4
Fuitheimoie, cunning folk weie fiequently engageu to ueteimine whethei
a maleficient cuise hau been cast, then to iemove the cuise anu to finu the
culpiit.
S
This fouith iole was peihaps theii most impoitant, anu gaineu them a
significant amount of business. Although these weie the most common
examples of the kinu of woik cunning folk weie involveu in, they uo not ieflect
all of theii skills.
W4#4.*( I''(/
Though theie weie uistinct vaiiations between the piactices of uiffeient
witches anu wizaius, some techniques anu tools appeai to have been of
fiequent use. The fiist impiession the cunning man oi woman maue on theii
client was vital anu as a iesult they often useu magical aius to cieate a
mysteiious alluie anu atmospheie. In oiuei to establish what Nacfailane teims
a 'psychological auvantage', wizaius woulu often uiess in elaboiate costumes
anu fill theii iooms with mysteiious appaiatus to meet theii client's
expectations.
6
This woulu encouiage them to tiust anu believe in theii skill. As
Keith Thomas suggests, the 'cunning man's gieatest asset was his client's
imagination; anu in view of what is known touay about the potentialities of any
cuie in which both uoctoi anu patient have complete faith, its powei cannot be
4
}ohn Aubiey, /$9-"##('$"9 (Lonuon, 18S7), p. 1Su.
S
Shaipe, K'9*328"'*9 &. ,(3I'"99> p. 67.
6
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 124.
#'
uisiegaiueu'.
7
The aesthetic ambience the wizaiu establisheu was coupleu with
equally impoitant veibal intiouuctions. The client woulu often be gieeteu with
a waining fiom the cunning man that they hau aiiiveu just in time to ieceive
help.
8
This may have been uesigneu to heighten the sense of uiama, oi insteau
to pioviue an excuse shoulu the magical aiu fail.
9
With the initial inteiest
establisheu, the wizaiu woulu pioceeu to enquiie aftei the ieason behinu the
client's visit. The way in which they uealt with this situation was as impoitant
as the opening sequence because, whethei they believeu in theii own abilities
oi not, they neeueu to sustain theii clients' suppoit anu cuiiosity. The next
stage of theii tieatment was uepenuent on the ieason foi theii client's visit as
uiffeient pioblems iequiieu veiy uiffeient tieatments.
IF4K7ZU7'(4# W''+/
0ne impoitant iole that cunning folk fulfilleu foi theii clients was finuing
goous that hau been stolen oi misplaceu, anu in the foimei case, they weie also
often employeu to uncovei the culpiits. Keith Thomas has stateu that othei than
healing, this was the most common iequest maue of cunning folk's poweis,
peihaps because it was 'a mattei foi which society maue veiy little alteinative
piovision'.
1u
Theie weie numeious methous by which white witches anu
wizaius coulu seaich foi misplaceu items anu the people that may have taken
them. 0ne of the most populai techniques was the use of the sieve anu sheais.
11
7
Keith Thomas, !"#$%$&' (') *+" ,"-#$'" &. /(%$-> 6*2)$"9 $' 0&12#(3 ?"#$".9 $' 6$@*""'*+A(')
6"B"'*""'*+A-"'*23; 7'%#(') (Lonuon, 1991), p. 248.
8
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 122.
9
Ibiu., p. 122.
1u
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> pp. 2S2-S.
11
Shaipe, K'9*328"'*9 &. ,(3I'"99> p. 67.
#(
}ohn Aubiey gives a cleai uesciiption of this piocess, which involveu little effoit
anu no paiticulai magical skill to accomplish.
12
The magick of the Sive anu Sheeies.The Sheeis aie stuck in a Sieve, anu
two mayuens holu up y
e
sieve with the top of theii fingeis by the hanule
of the shieis: then say, By S
t
Petei & S
t
Paule such a one hath stoln (such a
thing), the otheis say, By S
t
Petei & S
t
Paul Be hath not stoln it. Aftei
many such Aujuiations, the Sieve will tuine at y
e
name of y
e
Thiefe.
1S
Theie weie a numbei of vaiiations on this type of technique, populai in the
peiiou. 0ne example was the key in the book, which as Thomas uesciibes
simply involveu placing a key in a chosen pait of the book (often the Bible) with
the names of possible suspects wiitten on papei anu slotteu in the hollow
section of the key. 'When the papei beaiing the name of the thief was put in, the
book woulu "wag" anu fall out of the fingeis of those that helu it'.
14
We have
iecoius of cunning folk using such techniques, foi example at Elgin, Noiayshiie,
Scotlanu, in 1724. The couit iecoius state that, 'Agnes 0iquhait, who.
confesseu heiself guilty of chaiming by making use of the Bible anu key foi
finuing out things that weie stolen, which she has uone fiequently, anu also
taught hei uaughtei the saiu ait, |wasj to be publicly iebukeu befoie the
congiegation'.
1S
Although this is a Scottish example, it ieveals how wiuespieau
these piactices weie.
These techniques weie well-likeu by the populace anu some white
witches, but cunning folk often caiiieu out much moie complicateu methous of
12
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 2SS.
1S
}ohn Aubiey, !"8($'9 &. D"'*$#$98" (') E2)($98" (Lonuon, 1881), p. 2S.
14
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 2S4.
1S
Paul Baii (eu.) ?".&3" *+" ?(U); C&23* (Lonuon, 1972), p. 1SS.
#)
uivination, which iequiieu moie magical pioficiency. Some white witches useu
ciystal balls in oiuei to see the culpiit; they woulu ask the client to look into the
ball anu see if they iecogniseu the featuies they saw.
16
Some cunning folk ielieu
on astiology foi this type of woik anu woulu attempt to give a uesciiption of the
culpiit fiom theii finuings.
17
Anothei methou useu was 'geomancy- inteipieting
the meaning of the pattein of uots piouuceu by the ianuom uooulings of the
wizaiu in a state of semi-tiance'.
18
Nany histoiians have suggesteu that the key to success in this type of
woik was foi the cunning-peison to suiieptitiously gain backgiounu
infoimation fiom theii clients in oiuei to point them to theii goous anu the
thieves. Thus Shaipe anu otheis imply that these kinus of techniques 'tenueu to
be most effective when the client of the cunning man oi woman alieauy hau a
shiewu suspicion of the iuentity of the thief'.
19
To acquiie this knowleuge the
cunning man hau vaiious options. Some chose to ask theii client to ietuin to
them in nine uays, implying that this was in oiuei to take time to ueciue
whethei oi not they hau the ability to help them. In ieality, this time may have
been in oiuei foi them to caiiy out a little investigation in theii client's local
community to gain insight into possible guilty paities.
2u
Alteinatively, they
coulu ask theii clients questions at the stait of the session to elicit the necessaiy
infoimation. 0theis might watch theii client while they weie involveu in
techniques such as the sieve anu sheais oi key in the book, anu look foi small
16
Shaipe, K'9*328"'*9 &. ,(3I'"99> p. 68.
17
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 2SS.
18
Ibiu., p. 2SS.
19
Shaipe, K'9*328"'*9 &. ,(3I'"99> p. 68.
2u
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 124.
#*
signifieis that ievealeu who they suspecteu.
21
Foi example, when they weie
iunning thiough the names of the people they felt coulu possibly be iesponsible
whilst holuing the sheais, the client was likely, even if only subconsciously, to
have a physical ieaction to the name of the peison they believeu to be guilty.
It is unieasonable to suppose that all white witches anu wizaius weie
uishonest oi that all the clients that visiteu them hau a piioi agenua.
22
Bowevei,
it uoes seem veiy possible that some, at least, weie cynical about the techniques
they employeu. Yet, iegaiuless of the methou they utiliseu, cunning folk appeai
to have helu consiueiable sway in the community until the late seventeenth
centuiy.
2S
As Thomas suggests, 'in a society which accepteu the possibility of
magic, the cunning man coulu thus pioviue both a ueteiient anu a means of
uetection'.
24
If you believeu in the magic cunning folk claimeu to wielu you may
have been uissuaueu fiom committing a ciime anu if you alieauy committeu
one, you may have confesseu aftei being 'uiscoveieu' by magic.
V'64 3*%$D
Anothei impoitant seivice cunning folk anu wizaius offeieu was magical
help with pioblems iegaiuing love anu ielationships.
2S
Although it was peihaps
a less fiequent iequest, the ability to pioviue love magic was still an impoitant
featuie of cunning folk's iepeitoiie. People often went to them in seaich of
spells anu potions that coulu iectify a wilting ielationship oi peisuaue someone
to fall in love. They weie also askeu to pieuict a peison's futuie spouse thiough
21
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 2S7.
22
Ibiu., p. 2S9.
2S
Ibiu., p. 2S7.
24
Ibiu., pp. 26S-4.
2S
Emma Wilby, C2''$'% H&#I (') H(8$#$(3 61$3$*9> 6+(8('$9*$- J$9$&'(3; 53()$*$&'9 $' 7(3#;
/&)"3' ?3$*$9+ 4$*-+-3(.* (') /(%$- (Biighton, 2uuS), p. 4u.
$+
uivination oi foitune-telling. We can see an example of this kinu of magic in a
couit iecoiu fiom just befoie oui peiiou. In 1446 in Buiham, Naiiot ue Belton
anu Isabella Biane weie on tiial foi witchciaft. The iecoiu states, 'that they aie
witches, anu piactise the ait, anu they tell single women who want to get
maiiieu that they can get them the men they want anu long foi'.
26
This iecoiu suggests that, as will be uiscusseu in moie uetail in a
following chaptei, this love magic was a skill that often foiceu white magicians
into a giey aiea of magic anu even sometimes maleficient enchantment. When
upholuing stiuggling maiiiages white witches anu wizaius might be well-
iegaiueu foi using magic to iestoie a haimonious union. But if theii magic was
useu eithei to foice someone to love anothei in whom they hau hau no inteiest,
oi if they aiueu an auulteious liaison, then the wizaiu's magic woulu be
consiueieu maleficient. This fine line between goou anu bau in ielation to love
magic seems to have been uiawn in accoiuance with what was positive oi
negative foi the wiuei community. Naintaining a maiiiage was acceptable
because it uphelu social moials but inspiiing auulteiy inciteu social uisoiuei.
Shakespeaie's play G /$)9288"3 F$%+*[9 ,3"(8offeis eviuence of the
complicateu anu tiicky natuie of love magic in this peiiou. Wiitten aiounu
1S9S, Shakespeaie may have been commenting not only on the uifficult natuie
of love itself, but on the pioblems of involving magic in such peisonal affaiis. In
Act II Scene I 0beion, king of the faiiies, asks Puck to finu a magical flowei
which expels a juice that can be placeu on a peison's eyelius while they sleep, so
that when they wake they will fall ueeply in love with the fiist living cieatuie
they see.
26
Baii, ?".&3"> p. 2u6.
$"
SO1TS9
Fetch me that flowei; the heib I shew'u thee once:
The juice of it on sleeping eye-lius laiu
Will make oi man oi woman mauly uote
0pon the next live cieatuie that it sees.
27
0beion asks Puck to place the juice on his wife Titania's eyes as punishment foi
uisagieeing with him, anu he also encouiages him to uo the same to the loveis
walking in the foiest: Lysanuei anu Beimia, Bemetiius anu Belena. Bowevei
Puck gets the loveis mixeu up anu causes them moie pioblems than befoie. In
the uiscussion between Puck anu 0beion aftei they have iealiseu his mistake,
we can see that Shakespeaie is waining the auuience about the uifficulties of
meuuling with love. The chaiacteis iecognise the seiiousness of Puck's eiioi
anu attempt to iectify the situation foi the loveis involveu.
SO1TS9
What hast thou uone. thou hast mistaken quite
Anu laiu the love-juice on some tiue-love's sight:
0f thy mispiision must peifoice ensue
Some tiue love tuin'u anu not a false tuin'u tiue.
M5![ ZTSO09
Then fate o'ei-iules, that, one man holuing tioth,
A million fail, confounuing oath on oath.
SO1TS9
27
William Shakespeaie, G /$)9288"3 F$%+*[9 ,3"(8 (eu.) Petei Bollanu (0xfoiu, 1994), p. 164.
$#
About the woou go swiftei than the winu,
Anu Belena of Athens look thou finu:
All fancy-sick she is anu pale of cheei,
With sighs of love, that costs the fiesh bloou ueai:
By some illusion see thou biing hei heie:
I'll chaim his eyes against she uo appeai.
28
The play enus happily once all is iestoieu to its iightful place, but it ieflects the
contempoiaiy woiiies suiiounuing magical influence within love. Although it
was a seivice some people yeaineu foi, it was equally one they feaieu.
L4*($#%
Bealing was one of the cential ioles fulfilleu by the cunning folk anu
wizaius of this peiiou. It was also one of the aieas in which witches' anu
wizaius' techniques coulu most vaiy. With limiteu meuical knowleuge,
insufficient foou anu a veiy unhygienic enviionment, the people of the peiiou
weie constantly at the meicy of uiseases.
29
This in tuin meant that theie was a
high moitality iate in this peiiou, paiticulaily foi infants.
Su
0nueistanuably,
eaily mouein people weie uespeiate foi aiu when they oi theii ielatives fell ill,
anu cunning folk weie a populai meuicinal iesouice. This feai of uisease anu
ueath uiu not only ielate to the inuiviuual anu theii families; people weie
equally feaiful foi theii whole way of life. As Emma Wilby suggests, 'the uelicate
balance between foou piouuction anu neeu was highly uepenuent upon the
28
Shakespeaie, /$)9288"3> pp. 19S-2.
29
Anuiew Weai, \'&U#")%" ] 03(-*$-" $' 7'%#$9+ /")$-$'"> LMMNALYSN (Cambiiuge, 2uuu), p. 11.
Su
Beinaiu Capp, 'uenuei anu Family' in Beat Kmin (eu.) 5+" 723&1"(' 4&3#) LMNNALSNNP G'
K'*3&)2-*$&' $'*& 7(3#; 8&)"3' <$9*&3; (0xfoiu, 2uu9), p. S9.
$$
health of animals'.
S1
This was because, in oiuei to make a living, people neeueu
the animals anu theii piouuce to eat, uiink oi sell; consequently 'foi a pooi
family the loss, oi even tempoiaiy unpiouuctivity of an animal iepiesenteu
genuine haiuship'.
S2
Thus when the ailment of eithei a family membei oi
livestock was so seveie it coulu not be tieateu at home, the fiist poit of call was
often the local white witch oi wizaiu. The healing they pioviueu coulu be foi
both magically anu natuially causeu ailments, though iequests foi magical
healing uo seem to have been moie fiequent. Sometimes wizaius woulu claim
to specialise in uealing with ceitain ailments, while otheis woulu ueclaie they
weie able to ueal with them all.
SS
Cunning folk became specialists in iemoving
black witchciaft fiom victims, so much so that theie aie iecoius of physicians
senuing theii patients to cunning men anu women when theii own meuical
knowleuge was exhausteu.
To unueistanu the techniques useu by cunning folk foi healing, it is
useful fiist to consiuei some basic meuicinal piemises of the eaily mouein
peiiou. Neuical knowleuge in this eia was not veiy ieliable anu, as a iesult,
many people weie willing anu uespeiate enough to tiy any othei means to cuie
themselves oi theii ielatives.
S4
Theie was a thin line between magic anu official
meuicine in eaily mouein Englanu, anu when looking fiom a mouein
peispective it is often uifficult to uiscovei what types of healing constituteu
magic. As Keith Thomas notes, 'many seventeenth-centuiy piesciiptions which
seem magical to us weie in fact baseu on obsolescent assumptions about the
S1
Wilby, C2''$'% H&#I> p. S2.
S2
Ibiu., p. S2.
SS
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 21u.
S4
Simon Walkei, 5+" 4$*-+"9 &. <"3*.&3)9+$3" (Stiouu, 2uu4), p. 67.
$%
physical piopeities of natuial substances'.
SS
Theie weie a numbei of geneial
piesumptions about the human bouy that weie useu as the bases of both official
anu unofficial healing. Foi example many at the time believeu in the 'uoctiine of
signatuies' that infeiieu that eveiy heib oi plant ieflecteu the way it coulu be
useu by the way it lookeu.
S6
Theiefoie, 'a yellow blossom inuicateu a likely cuie
foi jaunuice, oi a ioot shapeu like a foot became a iemeuy foi gout'.
S7
In hei
woik on witchciaft in Scotlanu, Chiistina Lainei has noteu this oveilap between
what she teims official anu unofficial healing.
S8
She suggests that although
official healing was scientific theie weie many elements of meuicinal
knowleuge that weie shaieu with magical piactices. Lainei obseives that one
might consiuei 'the weaiing of an amulet as a cuie foi colic as unofficial
meuicine, but foi the seventeenth-centuiy weaiei it was baseu on
contempoiaiy scientific assumptions'.
S9
The situation in Englanu was similai
anu this can make it uifficult to uistinguish between unofficial anu official
meuicine. Bowevei, peihaps the main uiffeience between the two was the
wizaiu's willingness to iuentify a magical oiigin foi a patient's pieuicament.
0ften they confiimeu that the victim 'was haunteu by an evil spiiit, a ghost, oi
"faiiy", oi that he hau been "oveilookeu", "foiespoken", oi in plainei language,
bewitcheu'.
4u
The oveiall ambience that was cieateu when caiiying out othei types of
magical piactice was equally impoitant foi the white witch when healing. As
SS
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 224.
S6
Ibiu., p. 224.
S7
Ibiu., p. 224.
$)
Chiistina Lainei, 7'"8$"9 &. D&)P 5+" 4$*-+A<2'* $' 6-&*#(') (Euinbuigh, 2uuu), p. 1S9.
S9
Lainei, 7'"8$"9 &. D&)> p. 1S9.
4u
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 219.
$&
Thomas states, 'all thiee constituents of piimitive healing weie thus piesent at
one time oi anothei: the spell, the meuicine anu the special conuition of the
peifoimei'.
41
0nce theii mysteiious piesence was establisheu, they coulu
continue with theii magical healing. This coulu take many foims, but Thomas
has founu thiee cential iueas unueilying folk healing in this peiiou:
The fiist is that uisease is a foieign piesence, anu this assumption was
shaieu by official healeis as well. The seconu is that ieligious language
possesseu a mystical powei which coulu be ueployeu foi piactical
puiposes. The thiiu was that the woiking of ceitain chaims anu potions
oweu theii efficacy to the healei himself. It was this last belief which
pioveu so ueauly to the healei when inveiteu.
42
With these beliefs as a founuation, the cunning man oi woman woulu
then pioceeu to cuie theii patient. Theie aie many examples of cunning folk
healing clients in couit iecoius, foi example in Lonuon, 148u }ohn Stokys was
listeu as using 'magic spells foi feveis'.
4S
In 162S in West Biiugfoiu,
Nottinghamshiie, Richaiu uiiton was piesenteu in couit 'foi caiiying his chilue
to be cuieu by the stioaking boy'.
44
Simon Walkei notes that sometimes,
cunning folk involveu in healing weie known as 'stiokeis' because, as the name
suggests, they woulu stioke 'the afflicteu aiea with a chaim'.
4S
0ne type of
magic that was fiequently calleu upon was the powei of the wiitten chaim anu
ieligious woius. The use of olu Catholic piayei, often ieciteu in Latin, was a well
establisheu iemeuy offeieu by cunning folk in this peiiou. Not only weie such
41
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 21S.
42
Lainei, 7'"8$"9 &. D&)> p. 1S9.
4S
Baii, ?".&3"> p. 8u.
44
Ibiu., p. Su.
4S
Walkei, 5+" 4$*-+"9> p. 6S.
$'
piayeis believeu to holu gieat healing powei, but also it 'was common foi those
accuseu of chaiming oi soiceiy to ueny the chaige by asseiting inuignantly that
they hau uone nothing by magic, but hau meiely helpeu people by theii
piayeis'.
46
0ne example of this type of healing thiough wiitten chaim anu
piayeis, involves a cunning woman nameu Naigaiet Neale in Aluebuigh,
Suffolk, in 1S97:
She taketh upon hei to cuie uiseases by piayei, anu theiefoie hath
iecouise of people to hei faiie anu nighe. 6+" -&'."99"9 that she useth a
piayei to uou, anu then the pateinostei the cieeu anu an othei piayei
ueviseu, anu befoie theis she useth to washe. |Sentenceu to stanu in
chuichj having a papei on hei biest wiitten in capitall letteis, foi
witchciaft anu inchantment, with a white iouu in hei hanu.
47
Anothei example comes fiom Naiustone in Kent, in 1SS7,
Cowuale being of the age of a hunuieu yeais is suspecteu of
inchanntemente anu wicheciafte anu beinge examineu saith that he
helith people onlie by piayei havinge no iespect to the mannei of the
sicknes appoinctinge v Patei Nostei v Aves anu a Cieu to be seiue.
48
It is cleai fiom both examples that olu piayeis weie consiueieu a poweiful
magical tool, though foi some theii appeal may have giauually faueu. As Wilby
notes, 'aftei the Refoimation.many of the piayeis tiauitionally useu by
cunning folk became contioveisial because they ietaineu theii Catholic
46
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 211.
47
Baii, ?".&3"> p. 1SS.
48
Ibiu., p. 176.
$(
content'.
49
But, ieligious texts weie not the only wiitten chaims that weie given
to patients; cunning folk also 'piesciibeu "Chaims of woius" to be useu ovei the
victim, |anuj heibs, bags of seeus, oi holy wiitings weie also iecommenueu to
be woin by the victim'.
Su
Keith Thomas has suggesteu that these tieatments
helu even moie magical powei because many of the patients that weie given
them weie illiteiate. Thus the mysteiy was incieaseu anu as a iesult moie likely
to woik.
S1
The cunning man woulu often pioviue wiitten chaims in auuition to
'magic iituals, piayeis anu heibal meuicines, theieby appealing to the physical,
psychological anu spiiitual neeus of the sick'.
S2
An example of this type of
wiitten chaim can be seen below in Figuie 1. This chaim was founu in a watei
bottle in a stable wall in a house in Ceiiuigion, west Wales.
Figuie 1. Chaim fiom Ceiiuigion West Wales in Biian Boggaiu, 'Wiitten Chaims anu the
0ccasional cuise', G1&*3&1($&9, S }uly 2uuu. http:www.apotiopaios.co.ukwiitten_chaims.htm
(1Sth }uly 2u1u)
49
Wilby, C2''$'% H&#I> p. S4.
Su
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 12S.
S1
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 214.
S2
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 1u9.
$)
The chaim is faiily typical foi the peiiou, paiticulaily with the abiacauabia
tiiangle visible in the bottom left-hanu coinei. Although the woiu 'abiacauabia'
touay conjuies up images of magicians pulling white iabbits out of hats anu
floweis fiom theii sleeve in a joculai mannei, the woiu hau much uaikei anu
poweiful connotations in the past.
SS
Thioughout the eaily mouein peiiou, the
woiu was consiueieu a poweiful magical spell.
S4
Because of such potent
associations, the tiiangle was a common featuie of wiitten chaims. Theie weie
numeious ways to wiite the abiacauabia chaim, two examples of which aie in
Figuie 2. In the example on the left 'the woiu can be ieau fiom top left to top
iight, oi fiom the bottom to the top iight. Anu each lettei foims pait of a
uiagonal line'.
SS
Both }ohn Aubiey anu Reginalu Scot noteu that the abiacauabia
chaim coulu waiu off fevei.
S6
As Scot iemaikeu, 'Abiacauabia wiitten on papei,
with a ceiteine figuie joineu theiewith, anu hangeu about ones necke, helpeth
the ague'.
S7
SS
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 1Su.
S4
Ibiu., p. 1Su.
SS
Walkei, 5+" 4$*-+"9> p. 6u.
S6
Ibiu., p. 6u.
S7
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 1u9.
$*
Figuie 2. Two types of Abiacauabia tiiangles useu in many wiitten chaims.
Theie weie numeious othei types of wiitten chaims useu by cunning
folk that appeaieu fiequently in this peiiou. 0ne example was a paiticulai
favouiite in Lincolnshiie, useu to cuie the ague,
Fathei, Son anu Boly uhost,
Nail the Bevil to a post,
Thiice I stiike with holy ciook,
0ne foi uou, one foi Wou anu one foi Lok
S8
In this chaim the cunning man oi woman has calleu upon both Chiistian anu
Pagan gous to cuie the victim's uisease. As Walkei notes, 'Wou is the Saxon
Wouen, anu Lok is the Noise Loki' anu the stait of the chaim is iecognisably
Chiistian.
S9
Aubiey gives two othei examples of chaims useu uuiing this peiiou.
Be states:
S8
Walkei, 5+" 4$*-+"9> p. S9.
S9
Ibiu., p. S9.
%+
When I was a boy a chaime was useu foi (I think) keeping away evil
spiiits; w
h
was to say thiice in a bieath,
Thiee blew Beanes in a blew blauuei,
Rattle, blauuei, iattle.
6u
Be goes on to note that 'foi a cuie of y
e
quaiten ague the Physitian anu Poet
Samonicus piesciibeu this spell, /^&'$^ K#$()&9 _2(3*28 9211&'" *3"8('*$'.
61
It
is appaient that theie weie numeious methous of wiiting chaims, uepenuing
upon the type of magic that was iequiieu anu the piefeiences of the magician
himself. Bowevei, wiitten chaims weie not the only means of uispelling uisease
oi piotecting fiom evil.
M'7$'#/ *#+ M.'74D7$'# K.':O(*D) ,$7DFD.*K7
Cunning folk not only pioviueu veibal piesciiptions but also offeieu
potions to cuie illness oi piotect fiom evil. Theie is much less eviuence anu
infoimation on potions in compaiison with wiitten chaims.
62
Bowevei, in
geneial, cunning folk seem to have useu theii expeitise in heib-loie to cieate
the potions. They appeai to have maue heaity use of, 'bay, iue, sage anu
iosemaiy'.
6S
Potions weie not only useu foi healing, many weie also useu foi
piotection. In fact numeious potions ieflect one of the piimaiy ioles of cunning
folk anu wizaius in this peiiou: theii ability to iuentify maleficient magic anu to
cuie it. This was one of theii vital ioles, anu as Robin Biiggs suggests, 'any tiuly
iounueu pictuie of witchciaft must incoipoiate the ways in which ceitain
6u
Aubiey, !"8($'9> p. 12.
61
Ibiu., p. 12S.
62
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 11u.
6S
Ibiu., p. 11u.
%"
people establisheu theii claims to be able to ieau - oi uetect - witchciaft'.
64
As
pieviously suggesteu, peihaps the piincipal ieason foi meeting a cunning man
oi woman was to combat a maleficient witch's cuise. Cunning folk weie the
contempoiaiy expeits on pieventative measuies against black witchciaft anu
coulu offei a lot moie help in this aiea than any physician. They not only offeieu
piotective chaims anu potions, but they coulu also iuentify anu cuise the
witch.
6S
0nlike the situation with wiitten chaims, which veiy iaiely suivive to
touay, a consiueiable numbei of Witch-bottles have been founu.
66
Witch-bottles
weie potions cieateu to bieak bewitchments anu to cause the black witch, who
cast it, haim. The aichaeological aspects of this topic have hitheito been
neglecteu in the wiuei histoiiogiaphical stuuy of witchciaft.
67
Yet such
uiscoveiies offei us tangible eviuence of countei-magic useu against maleficient
cuises. The bottles weie known as 'bellaimines' anu came in vaiious sizes; see
Figuie S foi an example.
68
64
Robin Biiggs, 'Ciicling the Bevil: Witch-Boctois anu Nagical Bealeis in Eaily Nouein
Loiiaine', in Stuait Claik (eu.) =('%2(%"9 &. 4$*-+-3(.*> F(33(*$B"> K)"&#&%; (') /"('$'% $' 7(3#;
/&)"3' C2#*23" (Basingstoke, Lonuon, 2uu1), p. 161.
6S
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 1uS.
66
Walkei, 5+" 4$*-+"9> p. 61.
67
Biian Boggaiu, 'The Aichaeology of Countei-Witchciaft anu Populai Nagic' in 0wen Bavis anu
Willem ue Blcouit (eus.) ?";&') *+" 4$*-+ 53$(#9> 4$*-+-3(.* (') /(%$- $' 7'#$%+*"'8"'*
723&1" (Nanchestei, 2uu4), p. 167.
68
Boggaiu, 'The Aichaeology', p. 17u.
%#
Figuie S- 'A seventeenth-centuiy bellaimine witch-bottle fiom Felmeisham, Beufoiushiie. It
testeu positive foi uiine' in Simon Walkei, 5+" 4$*-+"9 &. <"3*.&3)9+$3", (Stiouu, 2uu4) p. 96.
The bottles weie useu to countei the maleficient magic of a black witch. It was
believeu that by buiying oi buining the bottle the witch woulu be maue to feel
gieat pain anu consequently woulu ieveal heiself, causing hei magic to cease.
69
ueneially the potions consisteu of haii, uiine (belonging to the victim of the
cuise) anu pins, though othei items have been founu.
7u
The contempoiaiy
}oseph ulanvill, who uefenueu belief in the existence of witchciaft, mentions
69
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 648.
7u
Ibiu., p. 648.
%$
witch-bottles in 6()2-$9829 *3$281+(*29. Be uesciibes how a woman who hau
been suffeiing ill-health was tolu by a cunning-man that hei uisease was causeu
by a 'ueau Spiight'.
71
To combat the cuise, he instiucteu hei husbanu to 'take a
bottle, anu put his wife's 0iine into it, togethei with Pins anu Neeules anu Nails,
anu coik them up, anu set the Bottle to the fiie, but be suie the Coik be fast in it,
that it not fly out'.
72
ulanvill goes on to uesciibe how the coik uiu fly out anu the
countei-magic was unsuccessful, so when the cunning-man ietuineu he tolu the
husbanu to 'buiy it in the Eaith; anu that will uo the feat'.
7S
Aftei this, the wife
soon iecoveieu to full health. Biian Boggaiu states that by 2uu4 '187 English
examples of these bottles anu othei vessels...|hauj come to light... 0f these, 1u8
(S8 pei cent) aie pie-17uu, twenty-one (11 pei cent) aie post-17uu anu fifty-
eight (S1 pei cent) coulu not be accuiately uateu'.
74
These finuings, paiticulaily
when combineu with ulanvill's uesciiptions, woulu suggest that witch-bottles
weie a significant pait of the wizaiu's aimouiy against black witchciaft.
0veiall, theie was cleaily gieat vaiiety in the techniques anu tools
employeu by cunning folk in eaily mouein Englanu. Bowevei, theie was also
significant oveilap between them. Foi example the powei attiibuteu to the
woiu 'abiacauabia' seems to have been univeisal, anu was iecogniseu even by
those who uiu not wielu magic themselves. The use of abiacauabia is also
ielateu to the geneial ieliance of white witches anu wizaius on wiitten chaims.
These appeai to have been one of the main pieventative methous cunning folk
useu against uisease anu black witchciaft. Even when theie weie uiffeiences in
71
}oseph ulanvill, 6()2-$9829 *3$281+(*29 (1681), pp. 2uS-2u8.
72
ulanvill, 6()2-$9829> pp.2uS-2u8.
7S
Ibiu.> p. 2u8.
74
Boggaiu, 'The Aichaeology', p. 17u.
%%
piactices, the thinking behinu them seems to have linkeu back to coie beliefs
shaieu by all cunning folk, anu often by the populace in geneial. Bowevei, it
may be that it was these vaiiations in piactice that meant people woulu tiavel
many miles, ciossing paiish boiueis, in oiuei to see a specific witch oi wizaiu.
Peihaps this was because they tiusteu the methous useu by this cunning man
moie than otheis closei to home, oi that the cunning man they visiteu hau
gaineu a goou ieputation in the aiea they neeueu help.
A question histoiians often ask in ielation to witches' magic is whethei
oi not they themselves believeu in theii powei, oi if it was all a uelibeiate anu
well planneu fiauu. Bowevei, this is uifficult to answei, as theie is veiy little
uiiect eviuence of cunning folk's piivate beliefs. Neveitheless, in all piobability
theie weie examples of both kinus of cunning folk. Some will have believeu in
theii powei whole-heaiteuly, wheieas otheis will have useu ueception anu
sleight of hanu to con theii vulneiable clients. As Bavis suggests, even with
these con men 'this uoes not necessaiily mean that eithei they oi those who
weie awaie of such tiicks questioneu the geneial efficiency of white
witchciaft'.
7S
This section has ievealeu how peivasive anu neeueu cunning folk
anu wizaius weie. Theii seivices, techniques anu tools uiew on the meuical anu
social iueas of the time, whilst offeiing moie than any othei element of society.
Peihaps theii gieatest asset was not any of theii magical equipment oi
complicateu spells but simply the faith that the people of Englanu hau foi theii
supeinatuial expeitise.
76
Noieovei, the way in which white magic fascinateu all
levels of eaily mouein society must have alloweu cunning folk moie fieeuom.
7S
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 129.
76
Walkei, 5+" 4$*-+"9> p. 67.
%&
Without this faith in, anu ieliance on, cunning folk anu wizaius, theii techniques
anu tools woulu have been ienueieu useless.
%'
III
?0-:%5 82-0(
We have seen in pievious chapteis that those who claimeu to be cunning folk
anu white magicians weie fiom a wiue cioss section of the eaily mouein
society. Although those that piactiseu highei foims of magic have been
mentioneu pieviously, the focus of the uisseitation so fai has been on the
cunning folk who piactiseu lowei types of magic. It is often uifficult to
uistinguish between high anu low magic, but in geneial this uistinction was
ielateu to the level of euucation neeueu to caiiy it out. Foi example, as we have
seen in the techniques anu tools section, many foims of magic uiu not neeu any
acauemic knowleuge to unueistanu anu caiiy out, such as the sieve anu sheais
methou. A lot of cunning folk weie iuial piactitioneis who ielieu on an
inheiiteu knowleuge of heibs anu goou people-skills. By contiast, theie weie
some aieas of magic that combineu the supeinatuial anu the highly intellectual,
anu these weie consiueieu high magic.
1
As Thomas suggests, 'by this peiiou
populai magic anu intellectual magic weie essentially two uiffeient activities,
oveilapping at ceitain points, but to a laige extent caiiieu on in viitual
inuepenuence of each othei'.
2
0wen Bavies noteu some significant uiffeiences
between cunning folk anu those that uabbleu in highei magic,
Fiist, unlike cunning-folk, astiologeis weie oveiwhelmingly uiban
baseu. Seconu, by no means all cunning-folk piactiseu oi even pietenueu
1
}ames Shaipe, K'9*328"'*9 &. ,(3I'"99> 4$*-+-3(.* $' 7'%#(') LMMNALOMN (Lonuon, 1997), p. 68.
2
Keith Thomas, !"#$%$&' (') *+" ,"-#$'" &. /(%$-> 6*2)$"9 $' 0&12#(3 ?"#$".9 $' 6$@*""'*+A(')
6"B"'*""'*+A-"'*23; 7'%#(') (Lonuon, 1991), p. 271.
%(
to employ astiology. Thiiu, cunning-folk uealt with a much moie uiveise
vaiiety of pioblems, such as vetinaiy auvice. Fouith, although some
astiologeis, like cunning-folk, also piactiseu heibalism, they uiu not
opeiate in the same way.
S
Bighei magic is also pieuominantly associateu with the elites of eaily mouein
society. This iuea was well establisheu in Englanu by this peiiou, peihaps in
pait, because of the King's touch. This is a piactice which 'was initiateu by
Euwaiu the Confessoi anu the full ceiemonial was laiu uown in the ieign of
Beniy vII'.
4
The powei of this belief was veiy stiong, anu this can be seen in a
lettei sent to }ohn Biowne, who was collecting infoimation about this kinu of
expeiience in 168S:
Ni. ?3&U',
... I was veiy much afflicteu with the Bistempei vulgaily known by
the Name of the \$'%9A7B$#, fiom seven yeais of age, until the time that I
ieceiveu Bis Najesties most giacious Touch: I was so much afflicteu with
it, that at some times my Face woulu be so Tumefieu, that I coulu haiuly
see out, oi speak plain: my Cheeks anu Neck weie full of ulanuules, anu I
hau such a iunning 0lcei in my uppei Lip, that at some times it appeai'u
like a Baie-Lip, anu in a veiy bau conuition I continueu fiom the yeai
1648, until the yeai 1662, at which time all my Fiienus auviseu me to get
the Favoui of being Toucht: ... So ... I waiteu upon Bis Najesty as I was
uiiecteu, anu ieceiveu Bis Bivine Touch; which hau so goou effect upon
me, that in two oi thiee uays I was veiy much at ease; anu by that time I
S
0wen Bavies, 4$*-+-3(.*> /(%$- (') C2#*23" LO`YALaML (Nanchestei, 1999), pp. 2SS-6.
4
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 228.
%)
got home, which was within a foitnight, I was peifectly well, to the gieat
uloiy of uou, the Eteinal Bonoui of Bis Sacieu Najesty, anu the Lawful
Beiis of the Ciown, whom uou pieseive.
fiom
b&23 <28:#" 6"3B('*, Philip Williams.
Fiom my Bouse at the ulobe in 4+$*"9AG##"; in C+('-"3;A=('" =&')&',
,"-X 1u. 168S.
S
Bighei magic was almost entiiely white magic, although as with all magic theie
weie invaiiably actions that uiu not fit this pattein.
6
Levack offeis a list of the
vaiious foims of highei magic puisueu in this peiiou:
The most common foims of high magic aie alchemy, which is the
changing of base metals into piecious ones, anu uivination (also known
as conjuiing) which is the use of vaiious means to acquiie seciet oi
otheiwise unknown knowleuge. Astiology, the use of the position of the
stais to obtain such knowleuge, anu neciomancy, the use of the spiiits of
the ueau foi similai puiposes, aie the most commonly known methous
of uivination, but moie than a hunuieu uiffeient methous, incluuing
scapulomancy (uivination by inspecting animals' shoulueis),
uactyliomancy (by means of fingei-iing) anu oneiioscopy (by the
inteipietation of uieams) have been employeu by vaiious societies.
7
S
}ohn Biowne, G)"'&-+&$3()"#&%$( &3> G' ('(*&8$-IA-+$323%$-(# *3"(*$9" &' %#(')2#"9 ]
9*328("9 (1684), pp. 189-191.
6
Biian P. Levack, 5+" 4$*-+A<2'* $' 7(3#; /&)"3' 723&1" (Bailow, 1996), p. 7.
7
Levack, 5+" 4$*-+A<2'*> p. 7.
%*
0ne of the main subjects these highei magicians weie involveu in was astiology.
At the time, astiology lay somewheie between science anu magic in
contempoiaiy opinion. It seems to have bluiieu the line between magic anu
science, though many people appeai to have seen it as white magic. }ames I in
his ,("8&'#&%$" wiote:
Theie aie two thinges which the leaineu have obseiveu fiom the
beginning, in the science of the Beavenlie Cieatuies, the Planets, Staiies,
anu such like: The one is theii couise anu oiuinaiy motiones, which foi
that cause is calleu Astionomia:... the law of the Staiies: Anu this aite
inueeu is one of the membeis of the Nathematicques, anu not onlie
lawful, but most necessaiies anu commenuable. The othei is calleu
Astiologia... the woiu, anu pieaching of the staiies: Which is ueviueu in
two paites: The fiist by knowing theieby the poweis of simples, anu
sickenesses, the couise of the seasons anu the weathei, being iuleu by
theii influence: which pait uepenuing upon the foimei, although it be
not of it selfe a paite of Nathematicques: yet it is not unlawful... The
seconu pait is to tiuste so much to theii influences, as theieby to foie-
tell what common-weales shall floiish oi uecay: what peisones shall be
foitunate oi unfoitunate: what siue shall winne in anie battell: What
man shall obteine victoiies at singulai combate: What way, anu of what
age shall men uie: What hoise shall winne at matche-iunning; anu
uiveise otheis have moie cuiiouslie then piofitably wiitten at
laige...This paite now is utteilie unlawful to be tiusteu in, oi piactizeu
&+
amongst chiistians, as leaning to no giounu of natuial ieason: anu it is
this pait which I calleu befoie the uevils schole.
8
This extiact fiom ,("8&'#&%$" ieveals how astiology coulu be vieweu as pait of
both lawful anu illegal piactices, anu how some paits weie seen as science
while otheis weie consiueieu magic. This bluiieu position meant that many of
the highei magicians, like theii iuial counteipaits, occupieu a piecaiious legal
position. Theie aie numeious examples of piactitioneis involveu in these kinus
of magical piactice, anu some of them helu piominent authoiitative ioles,
thioughout the peiiou. This chaptei will look at the piactice of highei magic by
consiueiing some of the people involveu in its usage in eaily mouein Englanu.
0ne example of the peimeation of magical beliefs into the highei
echelons of eaily mouein English society was }ohn Bee. Bee was an impoitant
figuie in Queen Elizabeth I's couit, anu was inteiesteu in astiology anu
antiquaiianism. In 1S66 he also commenceu 'the piactice of alchemy'.
9
Bee was
a 'philosophei, mathematician, technologist, antiquaiian, teachei anu fiienu of
people' anu was linkeu to many of the impoitant uevelopments of the English
Renaissance.
1u
Bowevei, amiust all this, he was also 'a magician ueeply
immeiseu in the most extieme foims of occultism'.
11
As Petei Fiench uesciibes,
Bee 'liveu in a woilu that was half magical, half scientific. Astionomy anu
astiology weie not yet completely sepaiateu... |anujchemistiy was not fully
8
}ames I, ,("8&'&#&%$" (eu.) u.B. Baiiison (1S97), pp. 12-14.
9
R. }ulian Robeits, 'Bee, }ohn (1S27-16u9)', Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &. F(*$&'(# ?$&%3(1+;, 0xfoiu
0niveisity Piess, Sept 2uu4; online eun, Nay 2uu6.
|http:www.oxfoiuunb.comviewaiticle7418 (2u }uly 2u1u).
1u
Petei }. Fiench, E&+' ,""> 5+" 4&3#) &. (' 7#$T(:"*+(' /(%29 (Lonuon, 1972), p. I.
11
Fiench, E&+' ,""> p. I.
&"
uiffeientiateu fiom alchemy'.
12
Bee hau a thiist foi knowleuge anu seemingly
hau no limits to the subjects he was fascinateu by. Contempoiaiies appeai to
have hau two veiy uiffeient views iegaiuing Bee. Those in the elite anu
intellectual ciicles he mixeu with helu him in veiy high esteem. By contiast,
many oiuinaiy people weie feaiful of him anu some believeu that he was a
black magician involveu in soiceiy.
1S
As Keith Thomas obseives, }ohn Aubiey
iecalleu 'how the Elizabethan astiologei, Thomas Allen, was maligneu by the
belief, "in those uaik times", that astiologei, mathematician anu conjuiei weie
all the same thing'.
14
0ne paiticulai aiea of magic in which Bee seems to have been involveu
was uivination. Bivination was quite a bioau aspect of eaily mouein magic; this
was usually iefeiieu to as sciying, anu was sepaiateu into uiffeient stianus,
'such as catoptiomancy (uivination by means of a miiioi), ciystallomancy (by a
ciystal), cyclicomancy oi lecanomancy (by a cup oi basin filleu with liquiu),
hyuiomancy (by watei in a natuial bouy), onychomancy (by an anointeu
nail)'.
1S
Bee appeais to have ielieu upon the fiist methou, catoptiomancy that
iequiieu a ieflective suiface oi miiioi. Be useu a '"show-stone", thiough which
Euwaiu Kelly anu othei meuiums communicateu with angels'.
16
In Figuie 4 we
can see some iemnants of the tools }ohn Bee useu foi this type of magical
uivination. The two smallei uiscs weie oiiginally accompanieu by anothei two,
which aie believeu to have been useu to suppoit 'the legs of Bee's table of
12
Fiench, E&+' ,""> p. 2.
1S
Ibiu., p. 4.
14
}ohn Aubiey, ?3$". =$B"9 (eu.) A. Claik (0xfoiu, 1898), p. 27, in Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 4Su.
1S
Richaiu Kieckhefei, H&3:$))"' !$*"9P ( F"-3&8('-"3[9 /('2(# &. *+" .$.*""'*+ -"'*23;
(0niveisity Paik, 2uu6), p. 97.
16
Kieckhefei, H&3:$))"' !$*"9> p. 97.
&#
piactice'.
17
The laigei uisc was useu to 'suppoit one of Bee's 'shew-stones', the
polisheu tianslucent oi ieflective objects which he useu as tools foi his occult
ieseaich'.
18
All of the items weie engiaveu with magical signs anu symbols
ielateu to Bee's occult stuuies anu piactices.
Figuie 4- 0iiginal anu iecieateu elements of }ohn Bee's occult tools in Biitish Nuseum, 'Bi Bee's
Nagic', Bate 0nknown,
http:www.biitishmuseum.oigexploiehighlightshighlight_objectspe_mlauui_uees_magi
c.aspx (1 August 2u1u)
William Lilly wiote about }ohn Bee in his autobiogiaphy, stating that 'he was a
veiy gieat Investigatoi of the moie seciet Beimetical Leaining, a peifect
Astionomei, a cuiious Astiologei, a seiious ueometiician; to speak tiuth, he
17
Biitish Nuseum, 'Bi Bee's Nagic', Bate 0nknownP
http:www.biitishmuseum.oigexploiehighlightshighlight_objectspe_mlauui_uees_magi
c.aspx (1 August 2u1u).
18
Biitish Nuseum, 'Bi Bee's Nagic'.
&$
was excellent in all Kinus of Leaining'.
19
Lilly also notes that Bee was pioficient
in chemistiy anu that he anu his companion weie inteiesteu in 'the 7#$@$3 oi
Philosophei's stone; which neithei \"##"; oi ,"" attaineu by theii own Laboui
anu Inuustiy'.
2u
Bespite this glowing tiibute, Lilly auueu that 'Bi. ,"" uieu at
Noitlack in Suiiey, veiy pooi'.
21
Like Bee many of the highei piactitioneis uabbleu in magic alongsiue
theii othei inteiests. They weie often scientists oi physicians whose inteiests
stiayeu into the iealm of magic, iathei than 'piofessional' wizaius. Richaiu
Napiei is anothei goou illustiation of such a figuie. Be was boin in Exetei in
1SS9, anu thioughout his life was gieatly inteiesteu in theology, alchemy anu
astiological meuicine.
22
Elias Ashmole collecteu Napiei's woik, Ashmole was 'a
geneiation youngei than Napiei, anu togethei with his gayei, uiunkei fiienus
William Lilly anu }ohn Aubiey, ieveieu the obscuie physician as a magus, a
piactitionei of piophetic anu healing magic who was the embouiment of the
heimetic tiauition in Englanu aftei }ohn Bee's ueath'.
2S
The following passage
offeis an insight into the piactices Napiei useu in his magical meuicine, anu also
shows the negative ieaction many people hau towaius such techniques anu
healing.
Ni Ashmole tolu me, that a woman maue use of a spell to cuie an ague,
by the auvice of Bi. Nepiei; a ministei came to hei anu seveiely
19
William Lilly, 5+" =(9* &. *+" G9*3&#&%"39P /3 4$##$(8 =$##;[9 +$9*&3; &. +$9 #$." (') *$8"9 .3&8 *+"
;"(3 LYNS *& LYSL (eu.) Katheiine Biiggs (Lonuon, 1974), p. 94.
2u
Lilly, 5+" =(9* &. *+" G9*3&#&%"39> p. 94.
21
Ibiu., p. 9S.
22
}onathan Anuiews, 'Napiei, Richaiu (1SS9-16S4)', Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &. F(*$&'(# ?$&%3(1+;,
0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, Sept 2uu4; online eun, Nay 2uu9.
|http:www.oxfoiuunb.comviewaiticle1976S (19 Aug 2u1u).
2S
Nichael NacBonalu, /;9*$-(# ?")#(8R /()'"99> G'@$"*; (') <"(#$'% $' 9"B"'*""'*+A-"'*23;
7'%#(') (Cambiiuge, 1981), pp. 14-S.
&%
iepiimanueu hei, foi making use of uiabolical help, anu tolu hei she was
in uangei of uamnation foi it, anu commanueu hei to buin it. She uiu so
anu hei uistempei ietuineu seveiely: insomuch that she was
impoitunate with the uoctoi to use the same again; she useu it, anu hau
ease. But the paison heaiing of it, came to hei again, anu thunueieu hell
anu uamnation, anu fiighteneu hei so, that she buint it again.
Wheieupon she fell extiemely ill, anu woulu have hau it a thiiu time; but
the Boctoi iefuseu, saying, that she hau contemneu anu slighteu the
powei anu goouness of the blesseu spiiits (oi Angels) anu so she uieu.
The cause of the Lauy Bonywoou's Bespeiation, was that she hau useu a
spell to cuie hei.
24
William Lilly is peihaps one of the best-known uabbleis in white magic.
Boin in 16u2, he became an astiologei, anu at some points in his life also
uabbleu in highei white magic.
2S
Be wiote about some of his magical
investigations anu his inteiest in them. Lilly also uesciibes how he fiist came to
stuuy astiology:
It happeneu one 62')(; 16S2, as my self anu a }ustice of Peace's Cleik
weie, befoie Seivice, uiscouising of many Things, he chanceu to say, that
such a Peison was a gieat Scholai, nay, so leaineu, that he coulu make an
Almanac, which to me then was stiange: 0ne Speech begot anothei, till,
at last, he saiu, he coulu biing me acquainteu with one 7B('9 in D2'A
24
}ohn Aubiey, /$9-"##('$"9 (Lonuon, 18S7), pp. 1SS-6.
2S
Patiick Cuiiy, 'Lilly, William (16u2-1681)', Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &. F(*$&'(# ?$&%3(1+;, online
eun, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, Sept 2uu4. |http:www.oxfoiuunb.comviewaiticle16661 (2u
}uly 2u1u).
&&
0&U)"3AG##";... that was an excellent wise Nan, anu stuuy'u the ?#(-I
G3*.
26
As was uiscusseu in Chaptei 0ne, many cunning men anu women gaineu theii
magical skills anu knowleuge fiom othei piactitioneis anu this seems to have
been the case with Lilly. Bowevei, the ielationship between him anu his magical
auvisei appeais to have souieu aftei a uisagieement ovei piactice. Be iecalleu:
The 0ccasion of oui falling out was thus; a Woman uemanueu the
Resolution of a Question, which when he hau uone, she went hei way; I
stanuing by all the while, anu obseiving the Figuie, askeu him why he
gave the }uugement he uiu, sith the Signification sheweu quite the
contiaiy, anu gave him my Reasons, which when he hau ponuei'u, he
call'u me Boy, anu must he be contiauicteu by such a Novice! But when
his Beat was ovei, he saiu, hau he not so juugeu to please the Woman,
she woulu have given him nothing, anu he hau a Wife anu family to
pioviue foi; upon this we nevei came togethei aftei.
27
This account confiims the uishonest piactices of some cunning folk, a
chaiacteiistic that many authoiities in this peiiou weie conceineu about. But
Lilly's stein iesponse to this fiauuulent piactice ieflects his stiong belief in the
integiity of astiology. Aftei this uispute with Evans, Lilly seems to have been
even moie ueteimineu to mastei the techniques of astiology. Be stateu, 'I
apply'u my self to stuuy those Books I hau obtain'u, many times twelve, oi
fifteen, oi eighteen Bouis Bay anu Night; I was cuiious to uiscovei, whethei
26
Lilly, 5+" =(9* &. *+" G9*3&#&%"39> p. 21.
27
Ibiu., p. 2S.
&'
theie was any veiity in the Ait oi not'.
28
Thioughout his woiks, he uetails many
encounteis with clients whom he aius with his astiological expeitise. Be also
uiscusses some of the situations in which he utiliseu his skills anu some
instances when he felt it woulu be uangeious oi unwise to uo so. Foi example,
he notes that 'King Chailes the Fiist, in the Yeai 1646, G13$# 27, went unto the
6-&*9... Nany uesiieu my }uugement, in the Time of his Absence, to uiscovei the
Way he might be taken; which I woulu nevei be uiawn unto, oi give any
uiiection conceining his peison'.
29
Lilly was ceitainly awaie that his woik was
contioveisial, anu commenteu on some of the negative iesponses they
piovokeu. Be iecalleu that 'theie weie many lewu /"3-23;9 piinteu both in
Lonuon anu 0xfoiu, wheiein I was sufficiently abuseu, in this Yeai 1646...The
Piesbyteiians weie, in theii pulpits, as meiciless as the Cavalieis in theii
pamphlets'.
Su
Be notes as one illustiation of this negative backlash:
The Woius conceining me, weie these;
H3&8 *+[Q3(-#"9 &. *+" Sibyls 9& 9$##;>
5+" -239* 03")$-*$&'9 &. William Lilly>
G') ,3X 6;::(#)[9 6+&&"A=('" Philly>
uoou Loiu> uelivei me.
S1
William Lilly was an impoitant figuie in astiology, anu can illustiate many of
the factois associateu with cunning men anu women in this peiiou. Be ceitainly
uabbleu in highei magic, but it seems that, like many, he believeu it was
28
Lilly, 5+" =(9* &. *+" G9*3&#&%"39, p. 2S.
29
Ibiu., p. SS.
Su
Ibiu., p. SS.
S1
Ibiu., p. SS.
&(
scientific iathei than magical. Be is a goou example of the negative iesponse to
cunning men anu wizaius in this peiiou, a subject that will be coveieu moie
fully in the following chaptei. But he also cleaily ieveals the shaiing of
infoimation between highei magicians in the auvancement of astiology anu
similai subjects.
Like Lilly, Beniy Coley was gieatly influenceu anu guiueu by anothei
moie expeiienceu piactitionei. Be was boin 18 0ctobei 16SS in 0xfoiu, the son
of a joinei. Thioughout his eaily life he taught himself mathematics, astiology,
Latin anu Fiench in his spaie time.
S2
In '1669 he publisheu the fiuits of his
astiological stuuies as C#(B$9 (9*3&#&%$("> &3> G \"; *& *+" 4+&#" G3* &.
G9*3&#&%;[X
``
Bis woik was well ieceiveu, especially by William Lilly cwho haileu
it as complementing anu completing his own C+3$9*$(' G9*3&#&%;[X
S4
As a iesult
of the success of the C#(B$9> Coley ueciueu to 'launch an annual almanac in 1672,
which he continueu, unuei vaiious titles, until his ueath'.
SS
S2
Beinaiu Capp, 'Coley, Beniy (16SS-17u4)', Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &. F(*$&'(# ?$&%3(1+;, online
eun, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, Sept 2uu4. |http:www.oxfoiuunb.comviewaiticleS899 (4
Aug 2u1u).
SS
Capp, 'Coley, Beniy'.
S4
Ibiu.,
SS
Ibiu.,
&)
Figuie S- A page fiom Beniy Coley> C#(B$9 (9*3&#&%$(" "#$8(*(> &3> G I"; *& *+" U+&#" (3* &.
(9*3&#&%$" '"U .$#") (') 1&#$9+"), (1676)
The aumiiation between Coley anu Lilly was mutual, so much so that aftei Lilly
became seiiously ill in Novembei 167S, Coley helpeu him to complete his
annual /"3#$'$ G'%#$-$ 71+"8"3$9, anu 'aftei Lilly's ueath in 1681 Coley
continueu the title himself'.
S6
Figuie S shows a page fiom Beniy Coley's C#(B$9
(9*3&#&%$(" "#$8(*" which ieveals some infoimation on his astiological
piactices. It also uiscloses the links between astiology anu white magic. Coley
stateu that fiom 'what Bouse... pait of the Beavens...|the aspects of the planet
being stuuieuj falls in, we aie enableu to juug of what things have been past,
what conuition things aie at piesent, anu lastly, what foi the futuie may iealy
S6
Capp, 'Coley, Beniy'.
&*
be expecteu'.
S7
Coley's caieei ieveals the impoitance of passing knowleuge
between magical piactitioneis anu fuitheimoie shows the gieatei
oppoitunities foi those in the moie euucateu paits of society. The social status
anu leaining of cunning folk anu wizaius was an impoitant element in shaping
the way they woulu caiiy out theii magical piactice.
Anothei goou example of a piactitionei who incoipoiateu white magic
into his woik was William Biage. Biage hau an apothecaiy's shop in Bitchin,
anu offeieu meuical seivices to the local community. Be iejecteu a lot of the
official meuical piactices of the time anu insteau 'iegaiueu the planets anu stais
as a key pait of the natuial oiuei, significant both in causing uisease, anu in its
tieatment; plants, stones anu mineials weie all goveineu by the planets, anu
iemeuies shoulu be applieu only aftei taking piopei account of astiological
conuitions'.
S8
Be was well ieau anu knowleugeable on this subject anu he uiew
fiom both Euiopean anu uomestic souices. 'Amongst the "pieseivatives against
witchciaft" iecommenueu by Biage weie iosemaiy, mistletoe, ivy, coial, iue
anu lapis amiantes (asbestos in soliu stone foim)'.
S9
Bespite giowing scepticism
towaius witchciaft, Biage fiimly believeu it was a significant factoi in causing
uisease. Be was paiticulaily inteiesteu in possession anu he uiscusseu the ways
in which this coulu be uiagnoseu anu cuieu.
4u
Those that vomit, oi voiu by stool, with gieatei oi less toiments, Knives,
Scissois, Biyais, Whole Eggs, Bogs Tails, ciookeu Nails, Pins, Neeules,
S7
Beniy Coley> C#(B$9 (9*3&#&%$(" "#$8(*(> &3> G I"; *& *+" U+&#" (3* &. (9*3&#&%$" '"U .$#") (')
1&#$9+") (1676), p. 19.
S8
Beinaiu Capp, 'William Biage', in Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &. F(*$&'(# ?$&%3(1+;
(http:www.oxfoiuunb.com).
S9
Simon Walkei, 5+" 4$*-+"9 &. <"3*.&3)9+$3" (Stiouu, 2uu4), p. 64.
4u
Capp, 'William Biage'.
'+
sometimes thieaueu, anu sometimes with Baii, Bunules of Baii, pieces of
Wax, pieces of silk, live Eels, laige pieces of Salpetei; concluue they aie
bewitcheu; anu that such have been vomiteu, oi voiueu by stool, anu that
fiom witchciaft.
41
This quotation taken fiom his woik entitleu ,($8&'&8(%"$( uepicts the key
beliefs suiiounuing uemonic possession in this peiiou anu ieveals Biage's fiim
belief in its existence. In anothei passage he auvises the ieauei how to uiagnose
anu help a victim of possession.
The Reauei is heie to be auveitiseu, that he mistake not; Be must inquiie
what went befoie, what was eaten, anu if a suspecteu witch was
offenueu: Seconuly, Be must consiuei whethei such might not be
geneiateu in the Bouy: Thiiuly, Be must see how many such stiange
things they vomit oi egest.
42
Like Biage, the antiquaiy Abiaham ue la Piyme hau an inteiest in white
magic, though he woulu appeai to have been involveu in it to a lessei extent
than those pieviously uiscusseu. Be is a useful example, nonetheless, because
fiom the age of twelve he kept a uiaiy that offeis some goou examples of highei
magic. Piyme stuuieu at Cambiiuge, wheie 'he uiu not confine his attention to
the oiuinaiy acauemic stuuies, but applieu himself uiligently to natuial histoiy,
chemistiy, anu to what was then consiueieu by many a cognate subject,
magic'.
4S
Peihaps this inteiest in magic stemmeu fiom an expeiience expiesseu
41
William Biage, ,($8&'&8(%"$( (166S), pp. 4-S.
42
Biage, ,($8&'&8(%"$(, p. S.
4S
Chailes Be La Piyme, 'Pieface: Nemoii of the family of Be La Piyme' in Abiaham Be La
Piyme, 5+" ,$(3; &. G:3(+(8 ," =( 03;8"> *+" b&3I9+$3" G'*$_2(3; (eu.) C. }ackson (Suitees Soc.
S4, 187u), p. xviii.
'"
in one of the eaily comments in his uiaiy. Be uesciibes in 168u how his family
hau moveu into a hall that hau stoou empty foi 'a long while by ieason of the
gieat uistuibancys that hau been theie by spiiits anu witches, of whome theie
aie many uieaufull long tales; but howevei we have not...heaiu oi seen anything
moie than oiuinaiy'.
44
This subject continueu to intiigue him at univeisity anu
until 169S he seems to have been inteiesteu in stuuying piactical elements of
magic.
4S
In 1692 he wiote:
Yesteiuay I was at Ni Ball's the booksellei, asking foi a magical book, -
"Zouns," says he "Boct. you'l iaise the uivel," at which I laugheu. "But
haik you," says he, "I have a fiienu about 7 miles off who has lost a gieat
many cattle by witchciaft, anu he is now in the town at the Thiee Tuns,
piathee go with me thithei to him, anu tell him what he shall uo to save
the iest."
46
Although he was still stuuying at this point anu ueclineu to help because he uiu
not know how, this inciuent ieveals the type of assistance people wanteu fiom
highei magicians as well as fiom cunning folk. Not eveiyone believeu this type
of magic was positive howevei, anu theie is also a cleai illustiation of this in Be
La Piyme's uiaiy. Be wiites on 8 }anuaiy 169S that 'this uay I ieceiveu a veiy
kinu tho'a veiy seveie lettei fiom the famous Ni. Eum|unuj Bohun... Be
peisuaueu me exceeuingly to uesist fiom all magical stuuuys, anu lays a
company of most black sins to my chaige, which (he sayu) I committeu by
44
Be La Piyme, 5+" ,$(3;> p. S.
4S
C. E. A. Cheesman, 'Piyme, Abiaham (1671-17u4)', Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &. F(*$&'(# ?$&%3(1+;,
online eun, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, Sept 2uu4.
|http:www.oxfoiuunb.comviewaiticle228S2 (2u Aug 2u1u).
46
Be La Piyme, 5+" ,$(3;, p. 22.
'#
uaiing to seaich in such foibiuuen things'.
47
This lettei appeais to have affecteu
Piyme significantly anu as a iesult his piactical inteiest in the stuuy of magic
seems to have uissipateu. Theie aie still sections of his uiaiy that uo howevei
offei insight into continuing inteiest in white magic.
These men ieveal much about the iole of highei magic in eaily mouein
Englanu. The liteiatuie of the peiiou also thiows some light on this type of
magic. We have alieauy seen how Shakespeaie's play 5+" 5"81"9* was imbueu
with magical iefeiences, in paiticulai focusing on elite involvement. Piospeio,
the poweiful wizaiu at the centie of the play, is intiouuceu as a Buke who has
lost his lanus anu title. This fact becomes appaient to the auuience when
Piospeio ieveals the tiuth of his banishment to his uaughtei Niianua.
MTSUM1TS
Tis time
I shoulu infoim thee faithei. Lenu thy hanu,
... Sit uown;
Foi thou must now know faithei.
RRR
Twelve yeai since, Niianua, twelve yeai since,
Thy fathei was the Buke of Nilan anu
A piince of powei.
30TC98C
Sii, aie not you my fathei.
MTSUM1TS
47
Be La Piyme, 5+" ,$(3;, p. 27.
'$
Thy mothei was a piece of viitue, anu
She saiu thou wast my uaughtei; anu thy fathei
Was Buke of Nilan; anu thou his only heii
Anu piincess no woise issueu.
30TC98C
0 the heavens!
What foul play hau we, that we came fiom thence.
0i blesseu was't we uiu.
MTSUM1TS
Both, both, my giil:
By foul play, as thou say'st, weie we heaveu thence,
But blesseuly holp hithei.
48
In this scene we, like Niianua, witness the ievelation that hei fathei was a
Buke. This ievelation also means that he is an elite magician. The involvement
of this chaiactei in the play may have been Shakespeaie's acknowleugement of
the paiticipation of highei levels of society in white magic. The play was wiitten
in 161u-11, theiefoie he may have been awaie of }ohn Bee's involvement in the
Elizabethan goveinment anu his uabbling in white magic anu was peihaps
commenting on such a chaiactei. Shakespeaie may also have been influenceu
by contempoiaiy chaiacteis such as Ruuolf II of Bapsbuig who hau a penchant
foi occult sciences.
49
Ruuolf appeais to have been paiticulaily inteiesteu in the
stuuy of alchemy, as weie many in this peiiou, anu he followeu the woik of
numeious contempoiaiy alchemists.
Su
Although Shakespeaie may not have
48
William Shakespeaie, 5+" 5"81"9* (eu.) Baviu Linuley (Cambiiuge, 2uu2), pp. 98-1uu.
49
R.}.W. Evans, !2)&#. KK (') <$9 4&3#) (Lonuon, 197S), p. 197.
&+
Evans, !2)&#. KK, pp. 196-2u7.
'%
consciously been commenting on these men, the chaiactei of Piospeio uoes
ieveal the pievalence of highei magic in this peiiou.
Ben }onson's play 5+" G#-+"8$9* is also a goou illustiation of the elite
connections involveu in magic. The play focuses on two conspiiatois who aie
given a goou oppoitunity when Lovewit is foiceu to leave his home in Lonuon
uue to an outbieak of plague. Bis Butlei, }eiemy sets himself up as 'Captain
Face' anu enlists the help of Subtle anu a piostitute, Bol Common. Subtle poses
as an alchemist anu the play centies on the vaiious visitois who come to Subtle
foi help, not iealising they aie being scammeu. By using the uecauent setting
the cunning man gives his clients the impiession that he is of gieat woith anu
social stanuing.
&C!1
When all youi alchemy, anu youi algebia,
Youi mineials, vegetals, anu animals,
Youi conjuiing, cozening, anu youi uozen of tiaues,
Coulu not ielieve youi coips with so much linen
Woulu make you tinuei, but to see a fiie;
I gave you countenance, cieuit foi youi coals,
Youi stills, youi glasses, youi mateiials;
Built you a fuinace, uiew you customeis,
Auvanceu all youi black aits; lent you, besiue,
A house to piactise in -
U5OIV1
'&
Youi mastei's house.
&C!1
Wheie you have stuuieu the moie thiiving skill
0f bawuiy since.
U5OIV1
Yes, in youi mastei's house.
You anu the iats heie kept possession.
S1
Bespite being a counteifeit cunning-man, the elite chaiactei the gioup cieate
can ieveal a gieat ueal about populai expectations. They assume that the
cunning man will seem moie convincing anu authoiitative if he appeais to have
a high social status.
This chaptei has exploieu the extent to which white magic peimeateu all
levels of eaily mouein society. Although we shall see in the following chaptei
that inteiest in magic at the highei levels of society uissipateu iapiuly, we can
see it hau a consiueiable impact foi some time. All of the men who have been
uiscusseu appeai to have been well euucateu anu this social position anu male
uominance confiims the finuings fiom the fiist chaptei. Those involveu in the
magic teimeu 'highei' weie pieuominantly those with financial anu social
access to the infoimation, while those without such access weie left to the
lowei levels of magical piactice. Although theie was a uiviue, the two uiffeient
types of magic ieveal how piominent cunning folk anu wizaius weie in this
peiiou. Noieovei, expeitise uoes seem to have filteieu uown fiom one level to
S1
Ben }onson, 5+" G#-+"8$9* (eu.) F.B. Naies (Welwyn uaiuen City, 1967), pp. 14-S.
''
the othei, affecting the piactices of both gioups of cunning folk. The highei
magicians uiscusseu in this chaptei also show the impoitance of peisonal
contact between magical piactitioneis, foi most of the men uiscusseu heie weie
heavily influenceu by the woik of anothei. 0nce again this woulu seem to
emphasise the finuings of the fiist chaptei, anu suggest that uespite the
intellectual gap between iuial cunning folk anu theii highei counteipaits, theie
weie also many similaiities in theii piactices.
'(
Iv
<:% @%5&%(/$0"# 3:0$% 30$(:%& >2(%,
84*7FQ$/ 7F4 $"/7 *#+ +4/4.64+ N'.7$'# 'K 7F4 %''+ E$7DF |William
Peikins,16u8j
1
ueoige Fox, the leauei of the Quakei movement, encounteieu a man in 16SS
claiming to be a wizaiu in Beufoiushiie. Fox states that whilst attenuing a
meeting with a justice of the peace, }ohn Ciook, he came acioss Nicholas
uieaton, who ueclaieu he was a 'tiiei of spiiits'.
2
uieaton stateu that he coulu
tell people theii foitunes, finu theii lost oi stolen goous anu iuentify the culpiits
of ciimes against them. Fox was incenseu by the wizaiu's claims anu challengeu
him to piove his poweis thiough sciiptuie in fiont of the ciowu. uieaton was so
ashameu when he was unable to piesent soliu founuations foi his magical
claims that he ian fiom the meeting. Fox was satisfieu that he hau manageu to
convince the people of the uishonesty behinu the wizaiu's claims.
S
In the pievious sections of this uisseitation we have seen who cunning
folk anu wizaius weie, the ways in which they went about theii tiaue anu the
populaiity anu iespect they gaineu. Bowevei, this chaptei will consiuei the
hostility they coulu also face. This will be exploieu by consiueiing the two
spheies in which white magicians faceu ciiticism: in the law anu fiom
contempoiaiies. Befoie consiueiing the legal situation foi the cunning folk anu
1
William Peikins, G ,$9-&239" &. *+" )(8'") G3* &. 4$*-+-3(.*X 6& .(33" .&3*+ (9 $* $9 3"B"(#") $'
*+" 6-3$1*23"9> (') 8('$."9* :; *32" 7@1"3$"'-" (Cambiiuge, 16u8), pp. 1S4-6 citeu in }ames
Shaipe, K'9*328"'*9 &. ,(3I'"99> 4$*-+-3(.* $' 7'%#(') LMMNALOMN (Lonuon, 1997), p. 87.
2
ueoige Fox, 5+" E&23'(# &. D"&3%" H&@, (eu.) }ohn L. Nickalls (Cambiiuge, 19S2), pp. 2u7-2u8.
S
Fox, E&23'(#> pp. 2u7-2u8.
')
wizaius in this peiiou, it is impoitant to consiuei the wiuei position taken
against witchciaft. The law against witches in the eaily mouein peiiou was
vaiiable anu went thiough seveial amenuments. The law focuseu piimaiily on
the black witch, but to many contempoiaiies, 'hei white sistei was equally as
bau, because she too woikeu with Satan'.
4
Nany even believeu that 'in some
ways the white was woise than the black, because whilst hei ueeus uiu not
enuangei the physical wellbeing of hei clients, she put theii immoital souls at
iisk'.
S
The negative view suiiounuing cunning folk in this peiiou can also be
seen in the /(##"29 /(#".$-(328, which states that 'although it is quite
unlawful... bewitcheu peisons... iesoit to wise women, by whom they aie veiy
fiequently cuieu, anu not by piiests anu exoicists. So expeiience shows that
such cuies aie affecteu by the help of uevils, which is unlawful to seek'.
6
Beiniich Kiamei anu }acob Spiengei, also wiote that:
evil spiiits use witches to inflict such gieat loss of tempoial possessions
on theii neighbouis anu innocent people, that they aie, so to speak,
compelleu fiist of all to beg the witches foi help, anu then to submit
themselves to the couises of action the witches take...I once knew
someone who hau settleu in the uiocese of Augsbuig. Befoie he was
foity-foui, his hoises hau suffeieu the effects of haimful magic, one aftei
the othei. Bis wife became uepiesseu, consulteu witches, anu, as a iesult
of what they uiu, even though |theii couises of actionj weie not
4
Simon Walkei, 5+" 4$*-+"9 &. <"3*.&3)9+$3" (Stiouu, 2uu4), pp. S1-S.
S
Walkei, 5+" 4$*-+"9> pp. S1-S.
6
Ibiu., p. SS. The /(##"29 /(#".$-(328 was not publisheu in Englanu until ielatively iecently. As
a iesult, most people in Englanu woulu not have hau access to it at this time. Bowevei, the piece
shows that the views of the English weie in line with those on the continent.
'*
wholesome, he uiu pieseive fiom magical injuiies the othei hoises he
bought aftei that.
7
This attituue towaius cunning folk seems to have unueipinneu much of the
legislation against witchciaft. This will be uiscusseu fuithei in this chaptei to
unueistanu the extent to which white witches coulu face peisecution.
IF4 V*E
The situation foi cunning folk anu wizaius in law was not as cleai as that
faceu by those accuseu of black witchciaft. Neithei 'chuich noi state instigateu a
systematic campaign of suppiession', but cunning folk uiu face some significant
attempts to suppiess theii activities.
8
0p until the seventeenth centuiy the law
was pieuominantly conceineu with the social uistuibance white witchciaft
coulu cause, iathei than the heietical anu ieligious implications.
9
0ne type of
magic that they felt hau a paiticulai powei to piovoke social uisoiuei was love
magic, anu as a iesult theie aie numeious iecoius of ecclesiastical authoiities
heaiing this type of tiial.
1u
Foi example, Ewen iecoius an inuictment in
Yoikshiie in 168u. It states, 'Kitchell Baiiison of the City of Yoik in the county
of city of Yoik... on 1u Nov... at Buistall, exeiciseu uiveis incantations anu
conjuiations anu consulteu evil spiiits, with the intention of piovoking }oyce
Nassey to illicit love'.
11
This was peihaps because, as pieviously uiscusseu, love
magic usually hau the piomise of maintaining social ielationships, but also hau
the ability to split them. Foi example, a wizaiu coulu cast a spell to stiengthen
7
Beiniich Kiamei anu }acob Spiengei, 5+" /(##"29 /(#".$-(328(eu.) P.u. Naxwell-Stuait
(Nanchestei, 2uu7), p. 122.
8
0wen Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> C2''$'%A.&#I $' 7'%#$9+ <$9*&3; (Lonuon, 2uu7), p. 4.
9
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 2.
1u
Ibiu., p. 2.
11
C'L'Estiange Ewen, 4$*-+-3(.* (') ,"8&'$('$98(Lonuon, 197u), p. 4u6.
(+
the love in a stiuggling maiiiage, theieby ieinfoicing anu upholuing an
impoitant bonu. Bowevei, they coulu use the same powei to aiu an auulteious
ielationship oi to foice someone to fall in love with the client. In this way a
powei that coulu be useu to cieate haimonious social ielationships coulu be
inveiteu. Love magic was not the only type of enchantment the authoiities
feaieu coulu incite social uisoiuei. Thief uetection was also vieweu with
consiueiable concein.
12
This was not because of the magic itself, but because if
the witch oi wizaiu accuseu the wiong peison they coulu cause seiious social
fiiction.
When English white witches uiu face legal pioceeuings they weie
geneially tiieu in ecclesiastical couits iathei than seculai, anu theii penalties
weie thus usually spiiitual.
1S
Nacfailane states that 'cunning folk weie...
piosecuteu as 'witches', especially at the ecclesiastical couits. Inueeu, it is
aiguable that it was piimaiily against cunning folk that the visitation aiticles
weie uiiecteu'.
14
Theie aie examples of these ciimes in the Chuichwaiuens'
piesentments in the Q@.&3)9+$3" 0"-2#$(39. In the Banbuiy Peculiai on 1u
Septembei 1619 one piesentment stateu, 'foi witchciaft soiceiy chaimes foi
help foi people anu cattell, we can say some what but foi the moie peifecting of
oui piesentment we ciaue time till the next visitacon'.
1S
As Nacfailane notes, 'in
1SS4 the Catholic Bishop, Bonnei, hau enquiieu "whethei theie be any that uo
use chaims, witchciaft, soiceiy, enchantments, false soothsayings, oi any such-
12
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 2.
1S
Biian P. Levack, 5+" 4$*-+A<2'* $' 7(3#; /&)"3' 723&1" (Bailow, 1996), p. 11.
14
Alan Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.* $' 52)&3 (') 6*2(3* 7'%#(') (Lonuon, 197u), p. 11S.
1S
Siuney A. Peyton (eu.) 5+" C+23-+U(3)"'9[ 03"9"'*8"'*[9 $' *+" Q@.&3)9+$3" 0"-2#$(39 &.
,&3-+"9*"3> 5+(8" (') ?(':23; (0xfoiu, 1928), p. 299.
("
like thing"'.
16
Similaily, in 1S71 'Bishop Sanuys askeu foi the piesentment of
"any that useth soiceiy, witchciaft, enchantments, incantations, chaims,
unlawful piayeis, oi invocations in Latin"'.
17
These examples cleaily
uemonstiate that the focus of the chuich's involvement in the piosecution of
witchciaft was pieuominantly on white witchciaft. They weie as against white
witchciaft as black, but peihaps felt the legal piovisions foi white witchciaft
weie not as thoiough as those against maleficient magic.
The eaily mouein state was also inteiesteu in the suppiession of
witchciaft, anu as a iesult laws weie passeu conceining both black anu white
witches. Two weie paiticulaily significant in uemonstiating the position of the
law towaius cunning folk thioughout the peiiou. The fiist was the 1S6S 'Act
agaynst Conjuiacons Inchantments anu Witcheciaftes', which begins by noting
how the absence of any pievious laws iegaiuing witchciaft hau causeu many
pioblems. It then focuses on the conceins suiiounuing black witchciaft, stating
that if any peison was founu guilty of the 'piactise oi exeicise |ofj any
Witcheciafte Enchantment Chaime oi Soiceiie, wheieby any pson shall happen
to bee killeu oi uestioyeu' they woulu be put to ueath.
18
This section is focuseu
on maleficient magic, though peihaps if any white witches' healing spells went
awiy, as we have seen occui, they may have also founu themselves facing
peisecution. Although this clause is focuseu on black witchciaft, the final pait of
this statute seems to have been uiiectly aimeu at cunning folk anu wizaius. It
stateu:
16
Nacfailane, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 67.
17
Ibiu., p. 67.
18
C. L'Estiange Ewen, 4$*-+ <2'*$'% (') 4$*-+ 53$(#9> 5+" K')$-*8"'*9 .&3 4$*-+-3(.* .3&8 *+"
!"-&3)9 &. L`O` G99$T"9 +"#) .&3 *+" <&8" C$3-2$* GX,X LMMaALO`Y (Lonuon, 1929), p. 16.
(#
That yf any pson oi psons shall fiom anu aftei the sayu fiist uaye of }une
nexte coming, take upon him oi them, by Witcheciafte Enchantment
Chaime oi Soiceiie, to tell oi uecleaie in what Place any Tieasuie of
uolue oi Sylvei shoulue oi might bee founue oi hau in the Eaithe oi
othei seciet Places, oi wheie uooues oi Thinges lost oi stolen shoulu be
founue oi becume, oi shall use oi piactise anye Soiceiye Enchantment
Chaime oi Witchciafte, to thintent to piovoke any pson to unlaufull love,
oi to huite oi uestioye any pson in his oi hei Bouy, Nembei oi uooues;
that then eveiy suche pson oi psons so offenuing, anu being theiof
laufully convicteu, shall foi the saiu offence suffei Impiysonment by the
space of 0ne whole yeie w
th
out Bayle.
19
Bavis has suggesteu that cunning folk anu wizaius weie in fact the cential focus
foi the Act, but that aftei its passing, a 'fieiy zeal of iepiession' was spaikeu
against black witches iathei than the Act's oiiginal taigets.
2u
This is peihaps a
key example of the ielationship between the populace anu authoiities when
hanuling cunning folk. The populace seem to have, on the whole, iegaiueu black
witchciaft as the biggest thieat, wheieas in contiast, the authoiities often
seemeu to have focuseu theii effoits on clamping uown on both types of magic.
The laws passeu often ieflecteu this, as we can see in 16u4 when the 'Acte
against Conjuiation Witchciafte anu uealing with evill wickeu Spiiits' was
passeu.
21
It went along veiy similai lines to the 1S6S act passeu in Elizabeth's
ieign. 0nce again it begins with a focus on maleficient magic, but the enu of the
Act woulu appeai to be focuseu on iemoving cunning folk anu wizaius. As Bavis
19
Ewen, 4$*-+ <2'*$'%> p. 17.
2u
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 7.
21
Ewen, 4$*-+ <2'*$'%> p. 19.
($
suggests this act embouieu the view King }ames I hau put foiwaiu in his
,("8&'&#&%$" a few yeais pieviously.
22
Foi example, in one of the chapteis of
the book, he states,
Phi. But I piay you likewise foiget not to tell what aie the Bevilles
iuuiementes.
Epi. Bis iuuimentes, I call fiist in geneiall, all that which is calleu vulgaily
the veitue of woiues, heibe, anu stone: which is useu by unlawful
chaimes, without natuiall causes. As likewise all kinue of piacticques,
fieites, oi othei like extiaoiuinaiies actiones, which cannot abiue the
tiue touche of natuiall ieason.
2S
0p until the late seventeenth centuiy the focus of the Law's effoits to
quash white magic hau stemmeu fiom moial ieasoning anu feais suiiounuing
social uiscoiu. Bowevei, ovei the couise of the centuiy the attituues of the
elites in authoiity began to change anu so uiu theii opinion of cunning folk anu
wizaius. Although they weie no moie appioveu of than they hau been
pieviously, theii piecaiious legal position hau alteieu. The authoiities became
ieluctant to use a law which they felt incieasingly was eiioneous oi foolish.
Insteau they felt that a 'new law was neeueu, one that uistinguisheu between
witches anu cunning-folk, anu between ieality anu fiauu'.
24
This change in
opinion can be cleaily vieweu in the changes biought in by the 17S6 Witchciaft
Act. 0nuei this Act all of the existing statutes against witchciaft anu magic weie
iepealeu anu new legislation was intiouuceu, 'punishing such peisons as
22
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 8.
2S
}ames I, ,("8&'&#&%$" (eu.) u. B. Baiiison (1S97), p. 11.
24
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> p. 2u.
(%
pietenu to exeicise oi use any kinu of witchciaft, soiceiy, inchantment, oi
conjuiation'.
2S
Anyone founu guilty 'faceu a maximum sentence of one yeai's
impiisonment without bail, anu quaiteily appeaiances in the pilloiy on maiket
uays'.
26
This new Act piactically eiaseu the possibility of witchciaft as a ieality
but left cunning folk anu wizaius exposeu to piosecution as fiauus. Belief in
supeinatuial agency was being ieplaceu by suspicion anu uoubt amongst those
in authoiity. The magical acts that pieviously weie feaieu weie now iegaiueu
as impossible anu as a iesult anyone claiming to caiiy out such acts was
consiueieu uelibeiately fiauuulent. So, wheie the legal situation became moie
positive foi those pieviously accuseu of black witchciaft, it in tuin became moie
uifficult foi cunning folk anu wizaius. As Bavis states, 'cunning folk weie... tiieu
foi what they coulu not piactise iathei than foi what they coulu'.
27
!'#74:N'.*.2 !'::4#7
It was not only fiom the law that cunning folk faceu conuemnation.
Although, as pieviously seen, cunning folk weie often iespecteu by theii local
community foi the skills they weie able to offei, they weie not always so
welcome. As Lainei has suggesteu, although the iole of the local witch oi wizaiu
was poweiful, it was 'two-eugeu'.
28
By openly aumitting a supeinatuial powei,
cunning men anu women left themselves vulneiable to accusations of black
witchciaft. Shoulu anything go wiong when they tiieu to heal a client, the
situation coulu veiy easily be tuineu aiounu against the piactitionei.
29
What
2S
Bavies, 0&12#(3 /(%$-, pp. 2u-1.
26
Ibiu., pp. 2u-1.
27
Ibiu., p. 21.
28
Chiistina Lainei, 7'"8$"9 &. D&)P 5+" 4$*-+A<2'* $' 6-&*#(') (Euinbuigh, 2uuu), pp. 1S8-9.
29
Fieueiick valletta, 4$*-+-3(.*> /(%$- (') 621"39*$*$&' $' 7'%#(')> LYdNAON (Alueishot, 2uuu),
p. 19S.
(&
may have oiiginally lookeu like an attempt to save a patient by using a potion
coulu look like a uelibeiate attack if the patient uieu. This situation was maue
woise by the lack of any uistinction in Canon law between black anu white
magic, which suggesteu 'that the healei...|couluj be uangeious'.
Su
We have seen
some examples of the piecaiious position cunning folk anu wizaius inhabiteu
thioughout this uisseitation. Theie aie numeious otheis, foi instance the case
of Susan Snappei fiom Rye, who was saiu fiequently to communicate with
spiiits 'anu on one occasion was taken in a vision to meet the Queen of the
Faiiies who "woulu give hei a living"'.
S1
At fiist she was ielatively populai in hei
community, foi example, 'in 16u7... she attempteu to help the mayoi in his last
sickness with some "planet watei"'.
S2
Bowevei, 'Susan Snappei was too keen a
publicist about the powei of the spiiits she commanueu, awe tuineu to
suspicion among hei neighbouis anu in 16u8 she was founu guilty anu
conuemneu foi witchciaft' .
SS
Also, in }eisey 1S8S, }eanne Le vesconte was
sentenceu with 'the (3* )$(:&#$_2" )" 9&3*$#"%", "towaius both peisons anu theii
goous, in infecting some, anu cuiing otheis"'.
S4
As pieviously uiscusseu, couits weie woiiieu about the possibility of
fiauu anu ueception in ielation to the seivices offeieu by white witches anu
wizaius. In the eailiei chapteis we have seen that thioughout this peiiou
money was a uangeious subject foi the cunning man oi woman, anu chaiging
Su
Lainei, 7'"8$"9 &. D&)> pp. 1S8-9.
S1
Anthony Fletchei, G C&2'*; C&882'$*; $' 0"(-" (') 4(3P 6299"@ LYNNALYYN (Lonuon, 197S),
p. 162.
S2
Fletchei, G C&2'*; C&882'$*;> p. 162.
SS
Ibiu., p. 162.
S4
Baiiyl 0giei, 'ulimpses of the 0bscuie: The Witch Tiials of the Channel Islanus' in Latei Stuait
Englanu' in Angela NcShane anu uaithine Walkei (eus.) 5+" 7@*3(&3)$'(3; (') *+" 7B"3;)(; $'
7(3#; /&)"3' 7'%#(')> 799(;9 $' C"#":3(*$&' &. *+" U&3I &. ?"3'(3) C(11 (Basingstoke, 2u1u), p.
184.
('
foi theii seivices coulu often put them in a uifficult position. Bowevei, as belief
in supeinatuial powei staiteu to uecline in the seventeenth centuiy,
pieuominantly among the elites, this appeais to have become moie of an issue.
As authoiities became incieasingly sceptical about magical abilities, theii feais
about cunning folk changeu. They no longei woiiieu about the uevil's impact
anu the possible uestiuctive natuie of magical poweis, insteau they weie
incieasingly peituibeu by the financial ciimes cunning folk may have
committeu. The cunning man, ueoige Sowton, is a goou example of the hostility
many felt towaius wizaius. Antony Fletchei has founu that 'The Bench,
believing that ueoige Sowton, the Sompting butchei anu magician, hau by "the
invocation of spiiits anu othei uyvelise aites" ueceiveu many people, hau him
bounu ovei in 16uS'.
SS
Fletchei suggests that it is uncleai 'whethei the }Ps hau
eviuence that Sowton habitually oveichaigeu oi cheateu his clients, oi whethei
they meiely uistiusteu his paiticulai bianu of faith healing'.
S6
Whatevei the
ieasoning, the chaiges uo not seem to have affecteu Sowton's success in his
local aiea. In Felpham, Sussex, 162S }ohn Waltei was piesenteu:
foi going to one Sowton, a chaimei, anu fetching fiom him a chaime to
cuie the wife of Anthony Nashe. |Latei, in 1624--j Theie is a common
iepoit that eithei Anthony Nashe oi his wife uiu iesoit to one Sowton,
anu theie was sent fiom him a bottell of watei anu a papei with ciosses
anu chaiacteis upon it to be hangeu about the womans necke.
S7
SS
Fletchei, G C&2'*; C&882'$*;> p. 16S.
S6
Ibiu., p. 16S.
S7
Paul Baii (eu.) ?".&3" *+" ?(U); C&23* (Lonuon, 1972), p. 17u.
((
Ben }onson exploieu this woilu of faith anu allegeu fiauu in his woik, 5+"
G#-+"8$9*. The thieat to cunning men of this peiiou fiom the law is mentioneu
uuiing an aigument in the opening scene, Face tells Subtle;
Away, this biach! I'll biing thee, iogue, within
The statute of soiceiy, tiicesimo teitio
0f Baiiy the eighth: ay, anu peihaps, thy neck
Within a noose, foi launuiing golu anu baibing it.
S8
This quote iefeiences the position cunning folk helu in the witchciaft acts, as
soiceiy was consiueieu a maleficient ueeu. }onson is paiticulaily iefeiencing
the Witchciaft Act of 1S42 which, like the latei acts maue specific mention of
white witchciaft.
S9
The act hau lapseu befoie the 1S6S act was eventually
biought in to ieplace it. Anothei example of suspecteu fiauu comes fiom Essex
anu shows that often those who visiteu a cunning man oi woman anu thought
they hau been tiickeu, weie piepaieu to uncovei the fiauu:
A Butchei in Essex, having lost some cattle, iesolveu he woulu go to a
Cunning Nan to finu out what hau become of his animals... This ueceiving
witch, seeing his oppoitunity of gaining a fee foi the puipose in hanu,
useu his Conjuiations in a ioom contiiveu foi his usual impostuies.
Piesently, a confeueiate came in wheie the two men weie, coveieu ovei
with a bull's hiue anu a paii of hoins on his heau. The pooi butchei, now
sitting anu looking in a looking glass maue foi that puipose, behelu it in
the teiiible object. It was maue less cleai to his eye than if he hau lookeu
S8
Ben }onson, 5+" G#-+"8$9* (eu.) F.B. Naies (Welwyn uaiuen City, 1967), pp. 2u.
$*
Ewen, 4$*-+ <2'*$'%> pp. 1S-4.
()
iight upon the sight, but he was chaigeu by the Conjuioi not to look
behinu him, foi if he uiu the Bevil woulu be outiageu.
4u
Aftei the consultation the butchei followeu the auvice the cunning man hau
given him to finu out wheie his cattle hau gone. Bowevei, when the auvice
pioveu useless the butchei became suspicious of the wizaiu's techniques anu
planneu a way to expose his fiauuulent skills. Be ietuineu to the same cunning
man anu askeu him to help him once again. Bowevei, this time 'the Butchei hau
appointeu his boy to stanu neai at hanu outsiue the house with a mastiff uog. At
the Butchei's whistle, the boy, as he was appointeu, let go the uog, which came
in piesently to his Nastei anu seizeu upon the knave in the bull's hiue'.
41
The
butchei eventually calleu off the uog, but only when he felt that he hau 'wittily
uiscoveieu the cheating ciaft of Conjuiing'.
42
Not all attempts to expose fiauuulent magical claims weie successful,
anu sometimes the cunning man oi woman succeeueu in confiiming theii
supeinatuial abilities. In Balu Neauow, Nyuule, Richaiu uough iecounts an
example of a faileu attempt to catch out a cunning woman. Be uesciibes how
Reece Wentlocke, who was ienowneu foi misbehaving in his local aiea, went to
visit the local white witch aftei one of his cows hau been stolen. uough states:
that hee went to a woman, whom they calleu the wise woman of
Nontgomeiy, to know what was become of his cow; anu as hee went hee
putt a stone in his pocket, anu toulu a neighboui of his that was with him
that he woulu know whethei she weie a wise woman oi not, anu
4u
Thomas Auy, 'An Essex Cunning Nan Exposeu' in Petei Baining (eu.) 5+" U$*-+-3(.* 0(1"39>
C&'*"81&3(3; !"-&3)9 &. *+" U$*-+-3(.* <;9*"3$( $' 799"@ LMYNALONN (Lonuon, 1974), p. 191.
41
Auy, 'An Essex Cunning Nan Exposeu', p. 192.
42
Ibiu., p. 192.
(*
whethei she knew that hee hau a stone in his pocket. Anu it was sayu,
that when hee came to hei, shee sayu thou hast a stone in thy pocket, but
itt is not soe bigge as that stone wheie-with thou uiust knocke out such a
neighboui's haiiow tines.
4S
This instance shows that cunning folk anu wizaius weie sometimes able to
confiim belief in theii magical attiibutes, but moie impoitantly all the pievious
examples show that they often hau to piove theii skills. It woulu be quite easy
to see theii populaiity at a local level, anu assume that was the geneial situation
foi cunning folk, but the populace, like the law, coulu be ciitical of the poweis of
white witches anu wizaius.
The piimaiy feai foi the populace appeais to have uiffeieu significantly
fiom that of the law anu authoiities. The law was focuseu on the moial anu
social implications of the piactices of cunning folk. In contiast, the populace
seem to have been focuseu both on fiauu anu on the possibilities of a white
wizaiu's poweis going wiong oi tuining maleficient. Love magic was
unuoubteuly a contentious aiea of magic but the lines suiiounuing healing
coulu also become bluiieu, paiticulaily if the white magician cuieu some
victims by passing a uisease oi cuise to anothei. This thieat of tiansfeience
coulu be useu to uo goou as well as haim. Foi example, Ewen uesciibes a case
wheie a white witch useu this type of magic:
William Collingwoou of Eulingham testifieu: }ane Caii of Lemenuon tolu
him that a chilu of heis having taken "a shiieking anu ciying", upon a
4S
Richaiu, uough, 5+" <$9*&3; &. /;))#" (eu.) Baviu Bey (Baimonuswoith, 1981), pp. 2u7-8.
)+
woman saying twice, "heie's a fine chilu". She calleu in Naigaiet
Stothaiu, who took the chilu anu spoke to it, anu "put hei mouth to the
chilu's mouth anu maue much chiiping anu sucking", anu saiu "she
woulu waiiant the chilu well enough". Naigaiet Stothaiu then sitting on
a stone "began to iave heiself anu iift anu gaunt", anu aftei she left a calf
went mau anu hau to be killeu. She believeu that the uistempei hau been
taken "off the chilu anu laiu upon the calf".
44
This case ieveals how this type of magic coulu be useu in a positive way, but
people coulu be feaiful of the negative possibilities of such powei. Anne Ellis of
Penley, Flintshiie, was also involveu in this type of confusion between positive
anu negative magic. Elizabeth }effieys testifieu on S }une 16S7 that when hei
uaughtei hau fallen veiy ill about two yeais befoie, she hau askeu Anne to come
anu visit hei. Elizabeth saiu that theie was a iumoui that Anne hau haimeu 'the
son of Elizabeth Tayloi' anu believeu theie was a possibility that she hau
haimeu hei uaughtei as well.
4S
When Anne came, Elizabeth uesciibeu latei
how:
Anne having blesseu the chilu, it shoitly afteiwaius iecoveieu. Anne
boasteu that she coulu put any uisease upon any one. The chilu, again
falling sick with a swelling all ovei hei bouy, tolu hei mothei that it was
always so when Examinate |Anuiew Ellisj fell out with Anne Ellis. The
chilu uieu. Examinate fuithei testifieu that Naigaiet, uaughtei of
William Bughes, with othei chiluien, having taken bieau fiom the house
44
Ewen, 4$*-+-3(.*, p. S2S.
4S
Ibiu., p. SS2.
)"
of Anne Ellis, she became veiy angiy anu mutteieu to heiself. When
Anne is uispleaseu "she uoth huit".
In this example we can cleaily see that a woman involveu in healing was
uemoniseu aftei claiming to wielu powei ovei the health of the people aiounu
hei. Although they weie willing to accept hei help when theii ielatives fell ill,
they uiu not like the hints of a moie maleficient powei.
Nany people agieeu with the law's position on witchciaft but weie
uiiven piimaiily by theii ieligious conceins. Some of the haishest ciitiques of
cunning folk weie by the puiitan wiiteis of the peiiou. These wiiteis weie
against all foims of witchciaft as they felt theie was always a link to the uevil,
but they seemeu to ieseive most of theii fuiy foi white witches. The geneial
piemise behinu this hatieu was that although both kinus of witches hau
obtaineu theii poweis fiom the uevil anu in uoing so hau gone against uou, the
fact that the white witches anu wizaius 'useu these poweis unuei the pietence
of uoing goou maue them uoubly woithy of censuie'.
46
An example of this type
of angei anu uislike towaius cunning folk can be seen in the wiiting of William
Peikins. Be stateu that:
It hath beene the oiuinaiie custome of some men, when they haue hau
any thing ill at ease, piesently to go oi senu to some wise man, oi wise
woman, by whome they haue beene infoimeu, that the thing is
bewitcheu; anu to winne cieuit to theii answei, some of them haue
offieu to shew the Witches face in a glasse: wheieof the paitie hauing
46
Shaipe, K'9*328"'*9 &. ,(3I'"99> p. 86.
)#
taken notice, ietuines home, anu uetecteth the man oi woman of
witchciaft.
47
Be theiefoie felt that it was society's 'uuetie, to abhoiie the wizzaiu, as the
most peinicious enemie of oui saluation, the most effectuall instiument of
uestioying oui soules. yea, as the gieatest enemie to uous name, woiship, anu
gloiie, that is in the woilu, next to Satan himself'.
48
Also, Peikins felt that
cunning folk anu wizaius 'uiu "a thousanu folu moie haime" than "bau" witches;
they weie "the iight hanu of the uevil"'.
49
Complaints about cunning folk weie
not just taigeteu at iuial piactitioneis, highei magicians also faceu ciiticism. As
we have seen in a pievious chaptei, William Lilly was a ienowneu astiologei
anu also uabbleu in white magic. This ieputation meant that he too was
taigeteu by those who felt magic was the woik of the uevil. A goou example of
this is }ohn vicais' piece entitleu, G%($'9* 4$##$(8 =$A#$".
Su
In it vicais uenounces
Lilly's woik anu suggests that Lilly is a liai who cons those who visit him foi
help:
Bow vain, how light, how foolish, & how naught,
Aie all that piaise Thee. & thy books have bought.
...To Li-Lie now, all men may well say, fie,
Because youi Name saies, twice, to you, you lye.
...Thus, Lies foi weeks make- up a iust New-yeai;
47
Peikins, ,$9-&239", p. 2u8.
48
Ibiu., pp. 177-8.
49
Ibiu., p. 176, citeu in Stuait Claik, 5+$'I$'% 4$*+ ,"8&'9> 5+" K)"( &. 4$*-+-3(.* $' 7(3#;
/&)"3' 723&1" (0xfoiu, 1997), p. 464.
Su
See Appenuix 1 foi full text.
)$
0 biave! What Almanakei have we heie.
This exceipt uepicts his uistiust of the lying astiologei who he believeu fooleu
his gullible clients into following his auvice. In a similai tone, }ames Piimiose
wiote uisappiovingly about the piesence of a wise woman at a sick man's beu.
S1
Be wiote about the white witch's tiicks anu bogus cuies, anu enueu his poem
with an Angel pushing the witch away fiom the beu in oiuei to let the physician
help. Piimiose suppoiteu the meuical piofession, anu uespiseu cunning folk:
Loe heie a woman comes in chaiitie
To see the sicke, anu biings hei iemeuie.
You've got some giievous colu, alas! (quoth she)
It lies soie in youi bones, no pait is fiee.
Bis pulse is weake, his viine's coloui'u high,
Bis nose is shaipe, his nostiills wiue, he'le uie.
They talke of Rubaib, Sene, anu Agaiicke,
0f Calsia, Tamaiinus, anu many a tiicke,
...But loe an Angell gently puts hei backe,
Lest such eiioneous couise the sicke uoe wiacke,
Leaus the Physitian, anu guiues his hanu,
Appioves his Ait, anu What he uoth must stanu.
S1
See Appenuix 2 foi the full poem anu the pictuie that accompanies his wiiting.
)%
Tis Ait that uou allowes, by him 'tis blest
To cuie uiseases, leave then all the iest.
S2
In both these examples, the sense that cunning men anu women weie losing the
piestige anu powei they once hau seems cleai. Both souices weie wiitten in the
miuule of the seventeenth centuiy, anu as pieviously suggesteu, by this point
scepticism suiiounuing magical belief was giowing amongst the elites. To some
extent this will have spieau thiough society anu these souices ieveal the
peivasiveness of the scepticism cunning folk faceu.
Foi the most pait, cunning folk anu wizaius weie not facing uiiect anu
physical attacks, but iathei the slow anu much moie uevastating loss of iespect
anu ieputation. As Beboiah Willis suggests, 'consulting them came to be seen as
backwaiu "supeistition", if not something uaikei'.
SS
Teims conceining
witchciaft became jokes anu insults because the oiiginal meanings weie
iemoveu fiom them. A faint echo iemains touay when we consiuei the light-
heaiteu use of abiacauabia anu the iomantic connotations of bewitching. The
Quakeis in paiticulai weie often subject to accusations of witchciaft anu this
meant that foi many in the highei levels of society the powei these magical
piactitioneis once hau was lost to insult anu iiuicule.
S4
As a iesponse to being
ueclaieu soiceieis anu witches, the Quakeis taunteu puiitans like Immanuel
Bouine with the same language. Bouine stateu, 'Yea they call us Conjuieis,
S2
}ames Piimiose, 0&12#(3 733&239 &3 *+" 733&239 &. *+" 1"&1#" $' 8(**"3 &. 0+;9$-I (16S1).
SS
Beboiah Willis, /(#"B&#"'* F23*23"> 4$*-+A<2'*$'% (') /(*"3'(# 0&U"3 $' 7(3#; /&)"3'
7'%#(') (New Yoik, 199S), p. 92.
S4
Baiiy Reay, 5+" e2(I"39 (') *+" 7'%#$9+ !"B&#2*$&' (NewYoik, 198S), p. 6S.
)&
Antichiists, witches, uevils, liais'.
SS
The teims associateu with cunning folk anu
white magic, weie useu as eveiyuay insults. By uoing so, the powei they hau
once wielueu was significantly uebaseu.
Bowevei, although it is cleai that iiuicule was a giowing pioblem foi the
white witches anu wizaius of the time, many people still maintaineu theii belief,
well into the nineteenth centuiy. It is peihaps moie uifficult to uncovei this
suppoit because its ioots weie at the veiy bottom of society anu, as pieviously
noteu, the wiitten souices we can leain fiom touay aie shapeu by the thoughts
anu opinions of the elites. So, while the authoiities began to lose inteiest in, anu
iespect foi white magical piactitioneis, local populai suppoit foi cunning folk
iemaineu stiong. Foi these people, Thomas has suggesteu that it can be
assumeu that a 'wizaiu was noimally iespecteu by his customeis, anu that only
when one of them fell out with him was the mattei taken up at a highei level'.
S6
Even when the law was veiy stiict people uiu not necessaiily feel piosecution
was the iight way to hanule cunning folk anu wizaius. Foi example, Ewen founu
that, in 1S7u, 'the gaolei of Canteibuiy Castle actually ieleaseu a witch because
he believeu that she uiu moie goou by hei physic than the pieacheis of uou's
woiu'.
S7
This chaptei has shown that the peisecution anu hostility that cunning
folk anu wizaius faceu uepenueu on the level of society making the juugement.
SS
Immanuel Bouine, G )"."'-" &. *+" 6-3$1*23"9> (') *+" <&#; 61$3$* 91"(I$'% $' *+"8> (9 *+"
-+$"." $2)%" &. -&'*3&B"39$"9 &. .($*+ XXX U$*+ ( B$')$-(*$&' &. *+(* +&'&23 )2" *& 8(%$9*3(*"9>
8$'$9*"39> (') &*+"39 XXX $' ( 3"#(*$&' &. ( )$912*(*$&' (* C+"9*"3.$"#) $' *+" -&2'*; &. ,(3:;>
:"*U""' 9&8" 8$'$9*"39 &. *+" D&91"## (') E(8"9 F(;#&3> (' "33$'% e2(I"3 XXX P U$*+ 9&8"
('$8()B"39$&'9 21&' ( #;$'% 3"#(*$&' &. *+(* )$912*(*$&' (16S6), p. A2.
S6
Keith Thomas, !"#$%$&' (') *+" ,"-#$'" &. /(%$-> 6*2)$"9 $' 0&12#(3 ?"#$".9 $' 6$@*""'*+A(')
6"B"'*""'*+A-"'*23; 7'%#(') (Lonuon, 1991), p. 29S.
S7
Ewen, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 69.
)'
The law anu the authoiities changeu theii position ovei the peiiou but weie
equally auveise to the piactices of white witchciaft as that of black. 0iiginally
theii uistiust of cunning folk appeais to have been because of moial anu social
ieasons but latei they expeiienceu a giowing sense of uisbelief towaius
witchciaft piactices. As a iesult of this tuin, cunning folk anu wizaius weie seen
as uelibeiate fiauusteis, while black witches weie seen as innocent victims. The
geneial populace weie willing to agiee with the haishei methous of the
authoiities when it came to fiauu anu tiansfeience but theii suppoit foi
cunning folk anu wizaius was stiong. The white witches fulfilleu ioles in society
that weie seen as necessaiy, anu because of this the people weie fai moie
inteiesteu in stemming black witchciaft than white. They saw no ieason to
peisecute those that uiu them goou. The peisecution white witches faceu was
theiefoie somewhat outweigheu by the oveiwhelming populai uemanu foi such
piactitioneis. 0nly when this neeu was met by alteinative seivices in the latei
nineteenth centuiy, uiu theii niche uisappeai.
S8
S8
Bavies, 4$*-+-3(.*> p. 269.
)(
!"#(+/&0"#
C D"##$#%\:*#P '. * D"##$#%\E':*#P */ 7F42 *.4 74.:4+P $/ 7' ;4
K'"#+ #4*. 464.2 7'E#Q*#+ 7F'"%F 7F4 (*E/ *.4 'DD*/$'#*((2 N"7 $#
K'.D4 *%*$#/7 7F4:P /7$(( $7 $/ * %*$#K"( 7.*+4R |Robeit Southey, 18u7j
1
In the latei pait of the nineteenth centuiy 'a Wells cunning-man tolu a couple to
buin salt on theii fiie at miunight, anu to iepeat the following veision of a well-
known cuising ihyme:
This is not the thing I wish to buin
But Nis. ____'s heait of ______ Someiset to tuin
Wishing thee neithei to eat, uiink, sleep noi iest
0ntil thou uost come to me anu uo my iequest
0i else the wiath of uou may fall on thee
Anu cause thee to be consumeu in a moment - Amen.
Aftei chanting this they hau to walk backwaius upstaiis iepeating the Loiu's
Piayei backwaius, anu then not to speak anothei woiu until they weie in beu'.
2
This is just one example of the continuing piesence of cunning folk thioughout
the nineteenth centuiy. As 0wen Bavies obseives, 'cunning-folk weie one of the
most influential but now little known gioups of inuiviuuals in nineteenth-
1
Keith Thomas, !"#$%$&' (') *+" ,"-#$'" &. /(%$-> 6*2)$"9 $' 0&12#(3 ?"#$".9 $' 6$@*""'*+A(')
6"B"'*""'*+A-"'*23; 7'%#(') (Lonuon, 1991), p. 29S.
2
0wen Bavies, G 0"&1#" ?"U$*-+")> 4$*-+-3(.* (') /(%$- $' F$'"*""'*+AC"'*23; 6&8"39"*
(Tiowbiiuge, 1999), p. S9.
))
centuiy piovincial society'.
S
Bespite the many uifficulties they hau faceu fiom
authoiities anu contempoiaiy ciitics, theii impoitance within eaily mouein
society cannot be uenieu. Why this faueu in the nineteenth centuiy is an
impoitant question, but it is one best saveu foi futuie investigation.
As we have seen in Chaptei Two, cunning folk commanueu a significant
amount of iespect anu suppoit fiom much of the population of Englanu at this
time. Without this faith in theii spells anu tieatments cunning men anu women
woulu have been unable to sustain theii position foi so long. This suivival may
also be ielateu to the finuings of chaptei thiee. It is cleai that white magic
peimeateu the lives of even some of the highest intellectual elites, which must
have maue such piactices moie geneially acceptable. The peisecution anu
hostility they sometimes faceu fiom contempoiaiy authoiities also ieveals the
extent to which the populace was often willing to uefenu cunning folk. Although
the law placeu cunning folk anu wizaius alongsiue black witches, the populace
appeai to have uisagieeu. As a iesult, white witches anu wizaius can ieveal the
unueilying belief anu neeus of the people. Because the majoiity of souices we
have fiom this peiiou weie left by those at the highei enus of society, who hau
access to euucation, it is easy to become clouueu by elite iueas. Cunning folk anu
wizaius offei us an oppoitunity to entei the minuset of all layeis of society.
Fiom the eviuence uiscusseu, it appeais the main ieason foi the
populaiity of cunning folk was that they pioviueu a myiiau of seivices that
weie otheiwise unavailable. 0ne of the main seivices white witches pioviueu
was piotection fiom black witchciaft. In the past the Catholic cleigy hau offeieu
S
Bavies, G 0"&1#" ?"U$*-+")> p. 27.
)*
some suppoit in such situations, but aftei the Refoimation, the people of
Englanu weie left without any official help of this kinu. Piotestantism still
taught that these haimful supeinatuial poweis existeu but it offeieu no
piotection fiom them. With no police foice, anu no insuiance companies, theie
was also a uespeiate neeu foi help ovei lost oi stolen goous. As a iesult cunning
men anu women became impoitant figuies. Although theie weie official
meuical seivices at the time, these weie often veiy expensive oi peihaps
inaccessible so a witches healing magic was ielieu upon by many. Cunning folk
anu wizaius pioviueu seivices that people often hau no othei way of secuiing.
White witches anu wizaius uiu witness some changes in theii position
ovei the peiiou. As we have seen, in the uppei levels of society theie was a
significant uecline in belief in the supeinatuial towaius the enu of the
seventeenth centuiy. Bowevei, although this maue the authoiities incieasingly
suspicious about cunning folk anu wizaius, many oiuinaiy people uiu not shaie
this outlook. Changes in elite attituues uiu not uampen the wiuespieau populai
belief. Inueeu, theie aie some cases wheie villageis weie so uespeiate to iiu
theii community of a witch that, with no law aftei 17S6 to aiu them, they
iesoiteu to lynching. The spell at the stait of the conclusion shows that the
belief in white magic was still pievalent in the nineteenth centuiy. The
scepticism of the elites hau faileu to completely filtei thiough to all levels of
society. The seivices cunning folk caiiieu out weie too impoitant foi the
populace to lose faith. It was not until these seivices became ieuunuant that the
cunning man anu woman lost theii poweiful image.
*+
The cunning folk anu wizaius of this peiiou in Englanu aie fascinating
chaiacteis. They seem to have gaineieu a significant amount of suppoit anu yet
they left veiy little papei eviuence of theii iole oi even theii existence. As a
iesult, theie aie elements of theii histoiy that will unfoitunately be foievei
unavailable to the histoiian. Bowevei, the fiustiating seciecy that often cloakeu
theii piactices, unueilines the exciting natuie of theii iole. As Thomas iemaiks,
'the piactice of magic of any bianu set the soiceiei a little apait fiom the iest of
the community anu although the wise woman might have hunuieus of clients
she was always peicheu piecaiiously on the biink of social isolation'.
4
This
epitomises the situation foi the cunning man anu ieveals why this topic is so
inteiesting anu challenging. This uisseitation has biought into the limelight an
aiea of witchciaft that has mainly iesiueu in the shauows. It has ievealeu the
impoitance of cunning folk anu wizaius in unueistanuing the social
enviionment of eaily mouein Englanu.
4
Thomas, !"#$%$&'> p. 291.
*"
'AA%#,0(%&
1.
}ohn vicais> G%($'9* JJ$##$(8 =$A=$" f(#$(9g =$##$", (16S2)
*#
2.
}ames Piimiose, 0&12#(3 733&239 &3 *+" 733&239 &. *+" 1"&1#" $' 8(**"3 &.
0+;9$-I,
(16S1)
*$
B0C+0"-52A:7
@50.257 D"/5(%&
Auy, Thomas, 'An Essex Cunning Nan Exposeu' in Petei Baining (eu.) 5+"
U$*-+-3(.* 0(1"39> C&'*"81&3(3; !"-&3)9 &. *+" U$*-+-3(.* <;9*"3$( $' 799"@
LMYNALONN (Lonuon, 1974).
Bouine, Immanuel, G )"."'-" &. *+" 6-3$1*23"9> (') *+" <&#; 61$3$* 91"(I$'% $'
*+"8> (9 *+" -+$"." $2)%" &. -&'*3&B"39$"9 &. .($*+ XXX U$*+ ( B$')$-(*$&' &. *+(*
+&'&23 )2" *& 8(%$9*3(*"9> 8$'$9*"39> (') &*+"39 XXX $' ( 3"#(*$&' &. ( )$912*(*$&' (*
C+"9*"3.$"#) $' *+" -&2'*; &. ,(3:;> :"*U""' 9&8" 8$'$9*"39 &. *+" D&91"## (')
E(8"9 F(;#&3> (' "33$'% e2(I"3 XXX P U$*+ 9&8" ('$8()B"39$&'9 21&' ( #;$'%
3"#(*$&' &. *+(* )$912*(*$&' (16S6).
Bowei, Eumonu, ,&-*&3 =(8: 3"B$B")> &3> 4$*-+-3(.* -&')"8'V) $' G''"
?&)"'+(8 P ( 9"3B('* &. +$9> U+& U(9 (33($%'") (') "@"-2*") *+" #"'* (99$T"9 #(9*
(* 6(#$9:23;> :".&3" *+" 3$%+* +&'&23(:#" *+" =&3) C+$". ?(3&' 4$#)> Z2)%" &. *+"
(99$9" P U+"3"$' $9 9"* .&3*+ +"3 9*3('%" (') U&')"3.2# )$(:&#$-(# 29(%" &. ( 8($)>
9"3B('* *& /3X D&))(3)> (9 (#9& +"3 (**"81* (%($'9* +$9 )(2%+*"39> :2* :;
13&B$)"'-" )"#$B"3") P :"$'% '"-"99(3; .&3 (## %&&) C+3$9*$('9 *& 3"()> (9 ( -(B"(*
*& #&&I *& *+"89"#B"9> *+(* *+"; :" '&* 9")2-") :; 92-+ $'*$-"8"'*9 (Lonuon,
16SS).
Biowne, }ohn, G)"'&-+&$3()"#&%$( &3> G' ('(*&8$-IA-+$323%$-(# *3"(*$9"
%#(')2#"9 ] 9*328("9 (1684).
Coley> Beniy, C#(B$9 (9*3&#&%$(" "#$8(*(> &3> G I"; *& *+" U+&#" (3* &. (9*3&#&%$"
'"U .$#") (') 1&#$9+") (1676).
Coopei, Thomas, 5+" /;9*"3$" &. 4$*-+-3(.*> 5+" 6"-&') ?&&I"W 6(*+('
53('9.&38") $'*& (' G'%"## &. =$%+*> "@13"99$'% +$9 )('%"3&29 K81&9*23"9 2')"3
D#&3$&29 6+"U"9X 781#$.$") 61"-$(##; $' *+" ,&-*3$'" &. 4$*-+A-3(.*> (') 92-+
9#"$%+*9 &. 6(*(' (9 (3" $'-$)"'* *+"3"2'*&X J"3; '"-"99(3; *& )$9-"3'" *+" 91"-$A
0#(%2" 3(%$'% $' *+"9" )(;"9> (') 9& *& +$)" &23 9"#B"9 .3&8 *+" 9'(3" *+"3"&.
(Lonuon, 1622).
Be La Piyme, Abiaham, 5+" ,$(3; &. G:3(+(8 ," =( 03;8"> *+" b&3I9+$3"
G'*$_2(3; (eu.) C. }ackson (Suitees Soc. S4, 187u).
Biage, William, ,($8&'&8(%"$( (166S).
Fox> ueoige, 5+" E&23'(# &. D"&3%" H&@ (eu.) }ohn L. Nickalls (Cambiiuge, 19S2).
ulanvill, }oseph, A philosophical enueavoui towaius the uefence of the being of
vvitches anu appaiitions (1666).
*%
ulanvill, }oseph, 6()2-$9829 *3$281+(*29 (1681).
uoouaie, }ulian, Naitin, Lauien, Nillei, }oyce anu Yeoman, Louise, 'The Suivey
of Scottish Witchciaft' (4 August 2u1u) Case of Issobell Sinclaii, 28 Febiuaiy
16SS.
uough, Richaiu 5+" <$9*&3; &. /;))#" (eu.) Baviu Bey (Baimonuswoith, 1981).
Baii, Paul (eu.) ?".&3" *+" ?(U); C&23* (Lonuon, 1972).
}ames I, ,("8&'&#&%$" (eu.) u.B. Baiiison (1S97).
Kiamei, Beiniich anu Spiengei, }acob, 5+" /(##"29 /(#".$-(328, (eu.) P.u.
Naxwell-Stuait (Nanchestei, 2uu7).
Lilly, William, 5+" =(9* &. *+" G9*3&#&%"39P /3 4$##$(8 =$##;[9 +$9*&3; &. +$9 #$." (')
*$8"9 .3&8 *+" ;"(3 LYNS *& LYSL (eu.) Katheiine Biiggs (Lonuon, 1974).
Peikins, William, G )$9-&239" &. *+" )(8'") (3* &. U$*-+-3(.* 9& .(33" .&3*+ (9 $* $9
3"2"(#") $' *+" 6-3$1*23"9> (') 8('$."9* :; *32" "@1"3$"'-"X H3(8") (') )"#$2"3")
:; /X 4$##$(8 0"3I$'9> $' +$9 &3)$'(3$" -&239" &. 13"(-+$'%> (') '&U 12:#$9+") :;
5+&X 0$-I"3$'% ?(*-+"#&23 &. ,$2$'$*$"> (') 8$'$9*"3 &. H$'-+$'%.$"#) $' 799"@X
4+"3"2'*& $9 ()$&;'") ( *U&.&#) *(:#"R &'" &. *+" &3)"3 (') +"()"9 &. *+"
*3"(*$9"R ('&*+"3 &. *+" *"@*9 &. 6-3$1*23" "@1#('")> &3 B$')$-(*") .3&8 *+" -&3321*
$'*"313"*(*$&' &. *+" ()2"39(3$" (161u).
Pitt, Noses, G' (--&2'* &. &'" G'' E".."3$"9> '&U #$B$'% $' *+" -&2'*; &. C&3'U(##>
U+& U(9 .") .&3 9$@ 8&'*+9 :; ( 98(## 9&3* &. ($3; 1"&1#" -(##V) .($3$"9> (') &. *+"
9*3('%" (') U&')"3.2# -23"9 9+" 1"3.&38") U$*+ 9#(B"9 (') 8")$-$'"9 9+"
3"-"$B") .3&8 *+"8> .&3 U+$-+ 9+" '"B"3 *&&I &'" 1"''; &. +"3 1(*$"'*9 (1696).
Piimiose, }ames, 0&12#(3 733&239 &3 *+" 733&239 &. *+" 1"&1#" $' 8(**"3 &.
0+;9$-I (16S1).
Shakespeaie, William, G /$)9288"3 F$%+*[9 ,3"(8 (eu.) Petei Bollanu (0xfoiu,
1994).
Shakespeaie, William, 5+" 5"81"9* (eu.) Baviu Linuley (Cambiiuge, 2uu2).
vicais> }ohn, G%($'9* JJ$##$(8 =$A=$" f(#$(9g =$##$" (16S2).
D%("#,257 D"/5(%&
Aubiey, }ohn, /$9-"##('$"9 (Lonuon, 18S7).
Aubiey, }ohn, !"8($'9 &. D"'*$#$98" (') E2)($98" (Lonuon, 1881).
*&
Biiggs, Katheiine, G 6(81#"3 &. ?3$*$9+ H&#IA5(#"9 (Lonuon, 1977).
Biiggs, Robin, 'Ciicling the Bevil: Witch-Boctois anu Nagical Bealeis in Eaily
Nouein Loiiaine', in Stuait Claik, (eu.) =('%2(%"9 &. 4$*-+-3(.*> F(33(*$B">
K)"&#&%; (') /"('$'% $' 7(3#; /&)"3' C2#*23" (Basingstoke, Lonuon, 2uu1) pp.
161-178.
Biiggs, Robin, 4$*-+"9 (') F"$%+:&239 (Lonuon, 1997).
Capp, Beinaiu, 'uenuei anu Family' in Beat Kmin (eu.) 5+" 723&1"(' 4&3#)
LMNNALSNNP G' K'*3&)2-*$&' $'*& 7(3#; 8&)"3' <$9*&3; (0xfoiu, 2uu9) pp. SS-4S.
Claik, Stuait, 5+$'I$'% 4$*+ ,"8&'9> 5+" K)"( &. 4$*-+-3(.* $' 7(3#; /&)"3'
723&1" (0xfoiu, 1997).
Bavies, 0wen, G 0"&1#" ?"U$*-+")> 4$*-+-3(.* (') /(%$- $' F$'"*""'*+AC"'*23;
6&8"39"* (Tiowbiiuge, 1999).
Bavies, 0wen, D3$8&$3"9P G <$9*&3; &. /(%$- ?&&I9 (0xfoiu, 2uu9).
Bavies, 0wen, 0&12#(3 /(%$-> C2''$'%A.&#I $' 7'%#$9+ <$9*&3; (Lonuon, 2uu7).
Bavies, 0wen, 4$*-+-3(.*> /(%$- (') C2#*23" LO`YALaML (Nanchestei, 1999).
Evans, R.}.W. !2)&#. KK (') <$9 4&3#) (Lonuon, 197S).
Ewen, C'L'Estiange, 4$*-+-3(.* (') ,"8&'$('$98 (Lonuon, 197u).
Ewen, C. L'Estiange, 4$*-+ <2'*$'% (') 4$*-+ 53$(#9> 5+" K')$-*8"'*9 .&3
4$*-+-3(.* .3&8 *+" !"-&3)9 &. L`O` G99$T"9 +"#) .&3 *+" <&8" C$3-2$* GX,X LMMaA
LO`Y (Lonuon, 1929).
Fletchei, Anthony, G C&2'*; C&882'$*; $' 0"(-" (') 4(3P 6299"@ LYNNALYYN
(Lonuon, 197S).
Fiench, Petei }. E&+' ,""> 5+" 4&3#) &. (' 7#$T(:"*+(' /(%29 (Lonuon, 1972).
Bougkin, Kathaiine, 'uenuei, Ninu anu Bouy: Feminism anu Psychoanalysis' in
}onathan Baiiy anu 0wen Bavies (eus.) 0(#%3(B" G)B('-"9 $' 4$*-+-3(.*
<$9*&3$&%3(1+; (Basingstoke, 2uu7) pp. 182-2u2.
Boggaiu, Biian, 'The aichaeology of countei-witchciaft anu populai magic' in
0wen Bavis, anu Willem ue Blcouit (eus.) ?";&') *+" 4$*-+ 53$(#9> 4$*-+-3(.*
(') /(%$- $' 7'#$%+*"'8"'* 723&1" (Nanchestei, 2uu4) pp. 167-186.
Bunt, Robeit, 0&12#(3 !&8('-"9 &. *+" 4"9* &. 7'%#(') (19uS).
Kieckhefei, Richaiu, H&3:$))"' !$*"9P ( F"-3&8('-"3[9 /('2(# &. *+" .$.*""'*+
-"'*23; (0niveisity Paik, 2uu6).
*'
Lainei, Chiistina, 7'"8$"9 &. D&)P 5+" 4$*-+A<2'* $' 6-&*#(') (Euinbuigh,
2uuu).
Levack, Biian P. 5+" 4$*-+A<2'* $' 7(3#; /&)"3' 723&1" (Bailow, 1996).
NacBonalu, Nichael, /;9*$-(# ?")#(8R /()'"99> G'@$"*; (') <"(#$'% $'
9"B"'*""'*+A-"'*23; 7'%#(') (Cambiiuge, 1981).
Nacfailane, Alan, 4$*-+-3(.* $' 52)&3 (') 6*2(3* 7'%#(') (Lonuon, 197u).
Naishall, Petei 'Ann }effeiies anu the Faiiies: Folk Belief anu the Wai on
Scepticism' in Latei Stuait Englanu' in Angela NcShane anu uaithine Walkei
(eus.) 5+" 7@*3(&3)$'(3; (') *+" 7B"3;)(; $' 7(3#; /&)"3' 7'%#(')> 799(;9 $'
C"#":3(*$&' &. *+" U&3I &. ?"3'(3) C(11 (Basingstoke, 2u1u) pp. 127-141.
0giei, Baiiyl, 'ulimpses of the 0bscuie: The Witch Tiials of the Channel Islanus'
in Latei Stuait Englanu' in Angela NcShane anu uaithine Walkei (eus.) 5+"
7@*3(&3)$'(3; (') *+" 7B"3;)(; $' 7(3#; /&)"3' 7'%#(')> 799(;9 $' C"#":3(*$&'
&. *+" U&3I &. ?"3'(3) C(11 (Basingstoke, 2u1u) pp. 177-192.
Peyton , Siuney A. (eu.) 5+" C+23-+U(3)"'[9 03"9"'*8"'*[9 $' *+" Q@.&3)9+$3"
0"-2#$(39 &. ,&3-+"9*"3> 5+(8" (') ?(':23; (0xfoiu, 1928).
Reay, Baiiy, 5+" e2(I"39 (') *+" 7'%#$9+ !"B&#2*$&' (New Yoik, 198S).
Rollison , Baviu, 5+" =&-(# Q3$%$'9 &. /&)"3' 6&-$"*;R D#&2-"9*"39+$3" LMNNALSNN
(Lonuon, 1992)
Scaiie, ueoffiey, 4$*-+-3(.* (') /(%$- $' 9$@*""'*+ (') 9"B"'*""'*+ C"'*23;
723&1" (Basingstoke, Lonuon, 1987).
Shaipe, }ames, K'9*328"'*9 &. ,(3I'"99> 4$*-+-3(.* $' 7'%#(') LMMNALOMN
(Lonuon, 1997).
Shaipe, }im, 'Women, Witchciaft anu the Legal Piocess' in Baiien 0luiiuge (eu.)
5+" 4$*-+-3(.* !"()"3 (0xfoiu, 2uuS) pp. 289-Su2.
Thomas, Keith, !"#$%$&' (') *+" ,"-#$'" &. /(%$-> 6*2)$"9 $' 0&12#(3 ?"#$".9 $'
6$@*""'*+A(') 6"B"'*""'*+A-"'*23; 7'%#(') (Lonuon, 1991).
valletta, Fieueiick, 4$*-+-3(.*> /(%$- (') 621"39*$*$&' $' 7'%#(')> LYdNAON
(Alueishot, 2uuu).
Walkei, Simon, 5+" 4$*-+"9 &. <"3*.&3)9+$3" (Stiouu, 2uu4).
Weai, Anuiew, \'&U#")%" ] 03(-*$-" $' 7'%#$9+ /")$-$'"> LMMNALYSN
(Cambiiuge, 2uuu).
*(
Wilby, Emma, C2''$'% H&#I (') H(8$#$(3 61$3$*9> 6+(8('$9*$- J$9$&'(3;
53()$*$&'9 $' 7(3#; /&)"3' ?3$*$9+ 4$*-+-3(.* (') /(%$- (Biighton, 2uuS).
Willis, Beboiah, /(#"B&#"'* F23*23"> 4$*-+A<2'*$'% (') /(*"3'(# 0&U"3 $' 7(3#;
/&)"3' 7'%#(') (New Yoik, 199S).
3%C&0$%&
Anuiews, }onathan, 'Napiei, Richaiu (1SS9-16S4)', Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &.
F(*$&'(# ?$&%3(1+;, online eun, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, Sept 2uu4; Nay 2uu9.
|http:www.oxfoiuunb.comviewaiticle1976S (19 Aug 2u1u).
Capp, Beinaiu 'Coley, Beniy (16SS-17u4)', Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &. F(*$&'(#
?$&%3(1+;, online eun, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, Sept 2uu4.
|http:www.oxfoiuunb.comviewaiticleS899 (4 Aug 2u1u).
Capp, Beinaiu, 'Biage, William', in Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &. F(*$&'(# ?$&%3(1+;
(http:www.oxfoiuunb.com).
Cheesman, C. E. A. 'Piyme, Abiaham (1671-17u4)', Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &. F(*$&'(#
?$&%3(1+;, online eun, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, Sept 2uu4.
|http:www.oxfoiuunb.comviewaiticle228S2 (2u Aug 2u1u).
Cuiiy, Patiick 'Lilly, William (16u2-1681)', Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &. F(*$&'(#
?$&%3(1+;, online eun, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, Sept 2uu4.
|http:www.oxfoiuunb.comviewaiticle16661 (2u }uly 2u1u).
Biian Boggaiu, 'Wiitten Chaims anu the 0ccasional cuise', G1&*3&1($&9, S }uly
2uuu. http:www.apotiopaios.co.ukwiitten_chaims.htm (1Sth }uly 2u1u).
Biitish Nuseum, 'Bi Bee's Nagic', Bate 0nknown.
http:www.biitishmuseum.oigexploiehighlightshighlight_objectspe_mla
uui_uees_magic.aspx (1 August 2u1u).
Robeits, R. }ulian, 'Bee, }ohn (1S27-16u9)', Q@.&3) ,$-*$&'(3; &. F(*$&'(#
?$&%3(1+;, online eun, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, Sept 2uu4; Nay 2uu6.
|http:www.oxfoiuunb.comviewaiticle7418, (2u }uly 2u1u).