Presentasi Statistika Industri

Statistics for Managers using Microsoft Excel
6th Edition
Chapter 2 Organizing and Visualizing Data
Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
2-1
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you learn:

The sources of data used in business
The types of data used in business

To develop tables and charts for numerical data To develop tables and charts for categorical data
The principles of properly presenting graphs

2-2
A Step by Step Process For Examining & Concluding From Data Is Helpful In this book we will use DCOVA
Define the variables for which you want to reach conclusions Collect the data from appropriate sources Organize the data collected by developing tables Visualize the data by developing charts Analyze the data by examining the appropriate tables and charts (and in later chapters by using other statistical methods) to reach conclusions
2-3
Types of Variables
DCOVA
Categorical (qualitative) variables have values that can only be placed into categories, such as yes and no. Numerical (quantitative) variables have values that represent quantities.

Discrete variables arise from a counting process Continuous variables arise from a measuring process
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Types of Variables
DCOVA
Variables
Categorical
Examples:

Numerical
Marital Status Political Party Eye Color (Defined categories)
Discrete
Examples:

Continuous
Examples:

Number of Children Defects per hour (Counted items)
Weight Voltage (Measured characteristics)

2-5
Levels of Measurement
DCOVA A nominal scale classifies data into distinct categories in which no ranking is implied.
Categorical Variables
Personal Computer Ownership Type of Stocks Owned Internet Provider
Categories
Yes / No Growth / Value / Other Microsoft Network / AOL/ Other
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Levels of Measurement (cont.)

DCOVA An ordinal scale classifies data into distinct categories in which ranking is implied
Categorical Variable Student class designation Product satisfaction Faculty rank Standard & Poors bond ratings Student Grades
Ordered Categories Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior Satisfied, Neutral, Unsatisfied Professor, Associate Professor, Assistant Professor, Instructor AAA, AA, A, BBB, BB, B, CCC, CC, C, DDD, DD, D A, B, C, D, F
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Levels of Measurement (cont.)

DCOVA
An interval scale is an ordered scale in which the difference between measurements is a meaningful quantity but the measurements do not have a true zero point. A ratio scale is an ordered scale in which the difference between the measurements is a meaningful quantity and the measurements have a true zero point.
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Interval and Ratio Scales

DCOVA
2-9
Why Collect Data?

DCOVA
A marketing research analyst needs to assess the effectiveness of a new television advertisement. A pharmaceutical manufacturer needs to determine whether a new drug is more effective than those currently in use. An operations manager wants to monitor a manufacturing process to find out whether the quality of the product being manufactured is conforming to company standards. An auditor wants to review the financial transactions of a company in order to determine whether the company is in compliance with generally accepted accounting principles.
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Sources of Data
DCOVA
Primary Sources: The data collector is the one using the data for analysis
Data from a political survey Data collected from an experiment Observed data
Secondary Sources: The person performing data analysis is not the data collector
Analyzing census data Examining data from print journals or data published on the internet.
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Sources of data fall into four categories
DCOVA
Data distributed by an organization or an individual A designed experiment
A survey An observational study
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Examples Of Data Distributed By Organizations or Individuals

DCOVA
Financial data on a company provided by investment services. Industry or market data from market research firms and trade associations. Stock prices, weather conditions, and sports statistics in daily newspapers.
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Examples of Data From A Designed Experiment
DCOVA
Consumer testing of different versions of a product to help determine which product should be pursued further. Material testing to determine which suppliers material should be used in a product. Market testing on alternative product promotions to determine which promotion to use more broadly.
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Examples of Survey Data

DCOVA
Political polls of registered voters during political campaigns. People being surveyed to determine their satisfaction with a recent product or service experience.
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Examples of Data From Observational Studies
DCOVA
Market researchers utilizing focus groups to elicit unstructured responses to open-ended questions. Measuring the time it takes for customers to be served in a fast food establishment. Measuring the volume of traffic through an intersection to determine if some form of advertising at the intersection is justified.
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Categorical Data Are Organized By Utilizing Tables

Categorical Data
Tallying Data
One Categorical Variable Summary Table
DCOVA
Two Categorical Variables Contingency Table
2-17
Organizing Categorical Data: Summary Table

DCOVA
A summary table indicates the frequency, amount, or percentage of items in a set of categories so that you can see differences between categories.
Summary Table From A Survey of 1000 Banking Customers Banking Preference?
ATM Automated or live telephone Drive-through service at branch In person at branch Internet
Percent
16% 2% 17% 41% 24%
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A Contingency Table Helps Organize Two or More Categorical Variables
DCOVA Used to study patterns that may exist between the responses of two or more categorical variables Cross tabulates or tallies jointly the responses of the categorical variables For two variables the tallies for one variable are located in the rows and the tallies for the second variable are located in the columns
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Contingency Table - Example

DCOVA
A random sample of 400 Contingency Table Showing invoices is drawn. Frequency of Invoices Categorized Each invoice is categorized By Size and The Presence Of Errors as a small, medium, or large No Errors Errors Total amount. Small 170 20 190 Each invoice is also Amount examined to identify if there Medium 100 40 140 are any errors. Amount This data are then organized Large 65 5 70 Amount in the contingency table to the right. 335 65 400
Total
Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 2-20
Contingency Table Based On Percentage Of Overall Total

No Errors Small Amount Medium Amount Large Amount Total 170 100 65
DCOVA
Errors
20 40 5
Total
190 140 70
42.50% = 170 / 400 25.00% = 100 / 400 16.25% = 65 / 400

No Errors Small Amount Medium Amount Large Amount Total
2-21
Errors 5.00% 10.00% 1.25% 16.25%
Total 47.50% 35.00% 17.50% 100.0%
42.50% 25.00% 16.25% 83.75%
335
65
400
83.75% of sampled invoices have no errors and 47.50% of sampled invoices are for small amounts.
Contingency Table Based On Percentage of Row Totals

DCOVA
Errors
20 40 5
Total
190 140 70
89.47% = 170 / 190 71.43% = 100 / 140 92.86% = 65 / 70

No Errors Small Amount Medium Amount Large Amount Total
2-22
Errors 10.53% 28.57% 7.14% 16.25%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
89.47% 71.43% 92.86% 83.75%
335
65
400
Medium invoices have a larger chance (28.57%) of having errors than small (10.53%) or large (7.14%) invoices.
Contingency Table Based On Percentage Of Column Total

DCOVA
Errors
20 40 5
Total
190 140 70
50.75% = 170 / 335 30.77% = 20 / 65
No Errors Small Amount Medium Amount Large Amount Total 50.75% 29.85% 19.40% 100.0%
Errors 30.77% 61.54% 7.69% 100.0%
Total 47.50% 35.00% 17.50% 100.0%

2-23
335
65
400
There is a 61.54% chance that invoices with errors are of medium size.
Tables Used For Organizing Numerical Data

Numerical Data
DCOVA
Ordered Array
Frequency Distributions
Cumulative Distributions
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Organizing Numerical Data: Ordered Array

DCOVA
An ordered array is a sequence of data, in rank order, from the smallest value to the largest value. Shows range (minimum value to maximum value) May help identify outliers (unusual observations) Day Students
Age of Surveyed College Students
16
17
17
18
18
18
19 22 18 23
19 25 18 28
20 27 19 32
20 32 19 33
21 38 20 41
22 42 21 45
2-25
Night Students
Organizing Numerical Data: Frequency Distribution

DCOVA
The frequency distribution is a summary table in which the data are arranged into numerically ordered classes. You must give attention to selecting the appropriate number of class groupings for the table, determining a suitable width of a class grouping, and establishing the boundaries of each class grouping to avoid overlapping.
The number of classes depends on the number of values in the data. With a larger number of values, typically there are more classes. In general, a frequency distribution should have at least 5 but no more than 15 classes. To determine the width of a class interval, you divide the range (Highest valueLowest value) of the data by the number of class groupings desired.
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Organizing Numerical Data: Frequency Distribution Example

DCOVA
Example: A manufacturer of insulation randomly selects 20 winter days and records the daily high temperature
24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30, 32, 13, 12, 38, 41, 43, 44, 27, 53, 27
2-27

DCOVA
Sort raw data in ascending order:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Find range: 58 - 12 = 46 Select number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 15) Compute class interval (width): 10 (46/5 then round up) Determine class boundaries (limits):

Class 1: Class 2: Class 3: Class 4: Class 5:
10 to less than 20 20 to less than 30 30 to less than 40 40 to less than 50 50 to less than 60
Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55 Count observations & assign to classes
2-28

DCOVA
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Class
Midpoints
Frequency
10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50 50 but less than 60 Total
15 25 35 45 55
3 6 5 4 2 20
2-29
Organizing Numerical Data: Relative & Percent Frequency Distribution Example

DCOVA
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58 Relative Frequency
Class
Frequency
Percentage
3 6 5 4 2 20
.15 .30 .25 .20 .10 1.00
15 30 25 20 10 100
2-30
Organizing Numerical Data: Cumulative Frequency Distribution Example

DCOVA
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Class
10 but less than 20
Frequency Percentage
3 15%
Cumulative Cumulative Frequency Percentage

3 15%
20 but less than 30

30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50
6
5 4
30%
25% 20%
9
14 18
45%
70% 90%
50 but less than 60

Total
2
20
10%
100
20
20
100%
100%
2-31
Why Use a Frequency Distribution?

DCOVA
It condenses the raw data into a more useful form
It allows for a quick visual interpretation of the data It enables the determination of the major characteristics of the data set including where the data are concentrated / clustered
2-32
Frequency Distributions: Some Tips

DCOVA
Different class boundaries may provide different pictures for the same data (especially for smaller data sets)
Shifts in data concentration may show up when different class boundaries are chosen
As the size of the data set increases, the impact of alterations in the selection of class boundaries is greatly reduced When comparing two or more groups with different sample sizes, you must use either a relative frequency or a percentage distribution
2-33
Visualizing Categorical Data Through Graphical Displays

Categorical Data
Visualizing Data Summary Table For One Variable Bar Chart Pie Chart Pareto Chart Contingency Table For Two Variables
DCOVA
Side By Side Bar Chart
2-34
Visualizing Categorical Data: The Bar Chart
In a bar chart, a bar shows each category, the length of which represents the amount, frequency or percentage of values falling into a category which come from the summary table of the variable.
Banking Preference
DCOVA
Banking Preference?
ATM Automated or live telephone Drive-through service at branch In person at branch Internet
%
16% 2% 17% 41% 24%
Internet In person at branch Drive-through service at branch Automated or live telephone ATM 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%
2-35
Visualizing Categorical Data: The Pie Chart

DCOVA
The pie chart is a circle broken up into slices that represent categories. The size of each slice of the pie varies according to the percentage in each category.
Banking Preference
Banking Preference?
ATM Automated or live telephone
%
16%
16% 2%
ATM 2% Automated or live telephone Drive-through service at branch In person at branch Internet
24%
Drive-through service at branch

In person at branch Internet
17%
41% 24%
17%
41%
2-36
Visualizing Categorical Data: The Pareto Chart

DCOVA

Used to portray categorical data (nominal scale) A vertical bar chart, where categories are shown in descending order of frequency A cumulative polygon is shown in the same graph Used to separate the vital few from the trivial many
2-37
Visualizing Categorical Data: The Pareto Chart (cont)

DCOVA
Pareto Chart For Banking Preference
100% 100%
% in each category (bar graph)
60% 40% 20% 0% In person Internet at branch Drivethrough service at branch ATM Automated or live telephone
60% 40% 20% 0%
Cumulative % (line graph)
80%
80%
2-38
Visualizing Categorical Data: Side By Side Bar Charts DCOVA
The side by side bar chart represents the data from a contingency table.
No Errors
Errors 30.77% 61.54%
Total 47.50% 35.00%
Small Amount Medium Amount
50.75% 29.85%
Invoice Size Split Out By Errors & No Errors

Errors
Large Amount
Total
19.40%
100.0%
7.69%
100.0%
17.50%
100.0%
No Errors
0.0%
10.0%
20.0% Large
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
Medium
Small
Invoices with errors are much more likely to be of medium size (61.54% vs 30.77% and 7.69%)
Visualizing Numerical Data By Using Graphical Displays

DCOVA Numerical Data
Ordered Array
Frequency Distributions and Cumulative Distributions Histogram Polygon Ogive
Stem-and-Leaf Display
2-40
Stem-and-Leaf Display
DCOVA
A simple way to see how the data are distributed and where concentrations of data exist METHOD: Separate the sorted data series into leading digits (the stems) and the trailing digits (the leaves)
2-41
Organizing Numerical Data: Stem and Leaf Display
DCOVA
A stem-and-leaf display organizes data into groups (called stems) so that the values within each group (the leaves) branch out to the right on each row.
Age of College Students
Day Students
18 18 18
Age of Surveyed College Students
Day Students 16 17 17
Night Students
Stem Leaf
1 2 3 4 8899 0138 23 15
Stem
1
Leaf
67788899
19
22
19
25
20
27
20
32
21
38
22
42
Night Students 18 23 18 28 19 32 19 33 20 41 21 45
2
3 4
0012257
28 2
2-42
Visualizing Numerical Data: The Histogram
DCOVA
A vertical bar chart of the data in a frequency distribution is called a histogram.
In a histogram there are no gaps between adjacent bars.

The class boundaries (or class midpoints) are shown on the horizontal axis. The vertical axis is either frequency, relative frequency, or percentage. The height of the bars represent the frequency, relative frequency, or percentage.
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Visualizing Numerical Data: The Histogram

Class Frequency Relative Frequency
DCOVA
Percentage
3 6 5 4 2 20
.15 .30 .25 .20 .10 1.00
15 30 25 20 10 100
8
Histogram: Age Of Students
Frequency
6 4
(In a percentage histogram the vertical axis would be defined to show the percentage of observations per class)
2
0 5 15 25 35 45 55 More
2-44
Visualizing Numerical Data: The Polygon
DCOVA
A percentage polygon is formed by having the midpoint of each class represent the data in that class and then connecting the sequence of midpoints at their respective class percentages. The cumulative percentage polygon, or ogive, displays the variable of interest along the X axis, and the cumulative percentages along the Y axis.
Useful when there are two or more groups to compare.
2-45
Visualizing Numerical Data: The Frequency Polygon

Class 10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50 50 but less than 60 Class Midpoint Frequency 15 25 35 45 55 3 6 5 4 2
DCOVA
Frequency Polygon: Age Of Students
(In a percentage polygon the vertical axis would be defined to show the percentage of observations per class)
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 15 25 35 45 55 65
Frequency
Class Midpoints
2-46
Visualizing Numerical Data: The Ogive (Cumulative % Polygon)

DCOVA
Class 10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50 50 but less than 60 Lower % less class than lower boundary boundary 10 20 30 40 50 15 45 70 90 100
Cumulative Percentage
Ogive: Age Of Students

100 80 60 40 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Lower Class Boundary
(In an ogive the percentage of the observations less than each lower class boundary are plotted versus the lower class boundaries.
2-47
Visualizing Two Numerical Variables: The Scatter Plot

DCOVA
Scatter plots are used for numerical data consisting of paired observations taken from two numerical variables
One variable is measured on the vertical axis and the other variable is measured on the horizontal axis Scatter plots are used to examine possible relationships between two numerical variables
2-48
Scatter Plot Example

Volume per day 23 26 29 33 38 42 Cost per day 125 140 146 160 167 170
Cost per Day
DCOVA
Cost per Day vs. Production Volume

250 200 150 100 50 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 Volume per Day
50
55 60
188
195 200
2-49
Visualizing Two Numerical Variables: The Time Series Plot

DCOVA
A Time Series Plot is used to study patterns in the values of a numeric variable over time
The Time Series Plot: Numeric variable is measured on the vertical axis and the time period is measured on the horizontal axis
2-50
Time Series Plot Example

DCOVA
Number of Franchises 43
Number of Franchises
Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Number of Franchises, 1996-2004

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1994 1996 1998 2000 Year 2002 2004 2006
54 60 73 82 95 107 99
2004
95
2-51
Using Pivot Tables To Explore Multidimensional Data
DCOVA
Can be used to discover possible patterns and relationships in multidimensional data. An Excel tool for creating tables that summarize data. Simple applications used to create summary or contingency tables Can also be used to change and / or add variables to a table
All of the examples that follow can be created using Section EG2.3
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Pivot Table Version of Contingency Table For Bond Data

DCOVA
First Six Data Points In The Bond Data Set
Type Intermediate Government Assets Fees Expense Ratio Return 2008 3-Year Return 5-Year Return Risk 0.61 7.6 6.3 5.0 Average 158.2 No
Intermediate Government
Intermediate Government Intermediate Government Intermediate Government Intermediate Government
420.6 No
243.1 No 24.7 No 462.2 No 497.7 No
0.61
0.93 0.49 0.62 0.27
8.9
11.1 7.3 6.9 11.4
6.7
7.4 6.5 6.0 7.7
5.3 Average
5.0 Above Average 5.4 Above Average 4.8 Average 5.9 Above Average
2-53
Can Easily Convert To An Overall Percentages Table

DCOVA
Intermediate government funds are much more likely to charge a fee.

Can Easily Add Variables To An Existing Table
DCOVA
Is the pattern of risk the same for all combinations of fund type and fee charge?
Can Easily Change The Statistic Displayed
DCOVA
This table computes the sum of a numerical variable (Assets) for each of the four groupings and divides by the overall sum to get the percentages displayed.
Tables Can Compute & Display Other Descriptive Statistics
DCOVA
This table computes and displays averages of 3-year return for each of the twelve groupings.
Can Drill Down Into Any Cell In A Pivot Table DCOVA

Double click in any cell to see a worksheet displaying the data that is used in that cell. Below is the worksheet created by drilling down in the short term corporate bond / fee yes cell.
2-58
Principles of Excellent Graphs

DCOVA
The graph should not distort the data. The graph should not contain unnecessary adornments (sometimes referred to as chart junk). The scale on the vertical axis should begin at zero. All axes should be properly labeled. The graph should contain a title. The simplest possible graph should be used for a given set of data.
2-59
Graphical Errors: Chart Junk

Bad Presentation
DCOVA
Good Presentation
$
4
Minimum Wage
1960: $1.00 1970: $1.60
Minimum Wage
2
1980: $3.10
0
1990: $3.80
1960
1970
1980
1990
2-60
Graphical Errors: No Relative Basis

Bad Presentation
Freq. 300
DCOVA
As received by students.
Good Presentation
% 30% 20% 10% 0% FR SO JR SR
As received by students.
200
100 0 FR SO JR SR
FR = Freshmen, SO = Sophomore, JR = Junior, SR = Senior

Graphical Errors: Compressing the Vertical Axis

Bad Presentation
Quarterly Sales
$
200 100 0 Q1 Q2 50
DCOVA
Good Presentation
$
Quarterly Sales
25
0
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
2-62
Graphical Errors: No Zero Point on the Vertical Axis

Bad Presentation
$ 45 42 39 36 J F M A M J Monthly Sales
DCOVA
45 42 39 36
0
Good Presentations
Monthly Sales
Graphing the first six months of sales
2-63
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, we have Organized categorical using a summary table or a contingency table. Organized numerical data using an ordered array, a frequency distribution, a relative frequency distribution, a percentage distribution, and a cumulative percentage distribution. Visualized categorical data using the bar chart, pie chart, and Pareto chart. Visualized numerical data using the stem-and-leaf display, histogram, percentage polygon, and ogive. Developed scatter plots and time series graphs. Looked at examples of the use of Pivot Tables in Excel for multidimensional data. Examined the dos and don'ts of graphically displaying data.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America.
2-65

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Statistics for Managers using Microsoft Excel

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

The sources of data used in business

The types of data used in business

The principles of properly presenting graphs

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Marital Status Political Party Eye Color (Defined categories)

Number of Children Defects per hour (Counted items)

Weight Voltage (Measured characteristics)

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Levels of Measurement (cont.)

Levels of Measurement (cont.)

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Interval and Ratio Scales

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Why Collect Data?

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Sources of data fall into four categories

Data distributed by an organization or an individual A designed experiment

A survey An observational study

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Examples Of Data Distributed By Organizations or Individuals

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Examples of Data From A Designed Experiment

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Examples of Survey Data

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Examples of Data From Observational Studies

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Categorical Data Are Organized By Utilizing Tables

Two Categorical Variables Contingency Table

Organizing Categorical Data: Summary Table

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

A Contingency Table Helps Organize Two or More Categorical Variables

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Contingency Table - Example

Contingency Table Based On Percentage Of Overall Total

42.50% = 170 / 400 25.00% = 100 / 400 16.25% = 65 / 400

Errors 5.00% 10.00% 1.25% 16.25%

Total 47.50% 35.00% 17.50% 100.0%

42.50% 25.00% 16.25% 83.75%

Contingency Table Based On Percentage of Row Totals

89.47% = 170 / 190 71.43% = 100 / 140 92.86% = 65 / 70

Errors 10.53% 28.57% 7.14% 16.25%

Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

89.47% 71.43% 92.86% 83.75%

Contingency Table Based On Percentage Of Column Total

50.75% = 170 / 335 30.77% = 20 / 65

Errors 30.77% 61.54% 7.69% 100.0%

Total 47.50% 35.00% 17.50% 100.0%

Tables Used For Organizing Numerical Data

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Organizing Numerical Data: Ordered Array

Age of Surveyed College Students

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Organizing Numerical Data: Frequency Distribution

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Organizing Numerical Data: Frequency Distribution Example

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall