:HE

APACHE CAMPAIGNS:

VALUES I N ICONFLICT

A thesis presented to t h e Faculty of

the U.9.

Army

Command a n d G e n e r a l S t a f f C o l l e g e i n p a r t i a l fulPillment o f the requirements f a r t h e degree

M A S T i i i O F N I L I T A R Y A R T AN0 X I E N C E

3r':

Lsawenwort?, Kansas i3 8 5

85-3362

Siinie o f ~:aiididaLc:

CPT (1')

I.inda . I . Kedman
V a I i i ~ ~in s

'I i t 1c o t ' l ' l w s i s :

'The Aliaclic C a m p a i g n s :

Conflict

The opi nioris ;ind conclilsions expressed hei.ei.ri a r e I lime n f this student: ,+iii:hor and do not n e c e s s a r i Ly represent the views o f the U,S. : \ r m y Command and General Stat I Ct~Lk!):eor ; m y o t h e r governiiienl i t 1 .igt:nry. (References L O L h i a s t t i d y should i n r l i i d i : the foregoirig s t a t e m e n t . )

ABSTRACT
THE A P A C H E S A M P 4 I G N S : i l a l u e s i n C o n f l i c t . b y C a p t a i n L i n d a J . Reaman, IJSAR, 1b8 p a g e s .

T h i s s t u d y e x a m i n e s t h e e n g a g e m e n t s between t h e U. S. A r m y a n d t h e Apache I n d i a n s from 1 8 4 6 t o 1886. It att e m p t s t o d e t e r n i n e what e f f e c t s t h e v a l u e s o f t h e s o l d i e r s and w a r z i o r s had u p o n t h e c o n l ' l i c c s o c c u r r i n g durinq t h i s fart.y-year period.
T h e e x a m i n a t i o n r e v e a l e d t n a t many i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s h e l d b y t h e s a l a i e r s a n d Apache u a t r i o r s {were d i r e c t l y

c o n t r a d i c t o r y , a l t h o u g h most c o n c e p t u a ; v a l u e s were n o t . Instrumental !/aiues assigned t 3 such c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s a s land u s e , gropecty ownership, c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e . rel i g i o u s F J i t P - . an0 'amily and group l o y a l t v d i f f e r e d snar31{. C o ~ c e p t u a L v a l u e s For b o t h i J c t i o n s i d e n t i c i e r j t h e ?and as i m p o r t a n t , sought c l e a r and s w i f t j u s t i c e f o r -rimes, gave freedom o f e x p r e s s i o n t o r e l i g i o u s bel i e f s , and emphasized t h e primary i m p o r t a n c e o f Family and g r u u p !ava:ties. I n i t i a i l y , : ? e Apac3e a n d F r o n t i e r A r m y c o - h a b i t e d t h e 5 o u r h w e s t iiea:;sf!.iiLy. Then, a s Army r e q u l a r s and v o l l ? v o : v e d i n a c E l 3 n s whic+i g a v e e x p r e s s i o n , ~ n t e % c oecarnt? s Cc :?e instrwmem!ai , i a l u e s t 3 e : ~ ? n n a r s e c ! a n d t h e a p a c h e < i m 7 : ~ ; es ~ ~ i e dd:f3:(? . ?ruotza. 'lilLzarv p o i i c i e s o f a x t e r m i n a t i o n 3nc a p a c n e d e s i c a f a r r e v e n g e s u p p o r t e d its continuation. c g n c l u s i o v : 3 f t n i s s t u d y is t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n s c r u m e n t a ; :raLues Led t o i n c r p a s e d c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n tne A r m y and 43ac3es. L a s t i n g o e a c e cam? o n l y w h e - b o t h # w a r r i o r s f o c u s e d ,117 s n a r e d c 3 n c e o t u a l v a L u e s .
;+e

ACKNOWLEDCENENTS

I uould like to express

m y appreciation to my

Advisory Committee for their suppor

m y research and writing this year.

arid guidance during

For intellectual stimmy

ulation and timely encouragement, I particularly thank Committae Chairman. Major (Chaplain Erwin Wichner.

His

guidance has been invaluable in the completion o f this stuoy.

M y gratitude also goes to Lieutenant Colone? Rov
only

Stephenson and Colonel Don martin, Junior, not their assistance

as

for

First Reader and Consuiting Faculty

Advisor respectfully. but also for their personal interest and concern.

i3ls.o ::lank

the library stafFs at Haskell Inaian

Coliege. Kansas Yniversity, and the Arm:! .Command anc Csnera1 Staff Co!?ege for their assiscance in obta.ining re-

searcn matezials for this study. Finaliy, I thank m y family for ::ne:r asristanco

in zyoing and r e ~ r o d u c i n g the t~azious t r a f ~ s o f tnis paoer

and for their understanding througnout the entire 3rncess.

Tc

MeLinda and

Ron

--

many thanks.

T A B L E OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE

:NTAOOUCTION

PROBLEm STATENENT OEFINITIONS GENERAL I N T R O D U C T I O N R E V I E W OF L I T E R A T U R E SACKGROUNO FOR THE C O N F L I C T NOTES CHAPTER TWO

12 13 19 22

APACHE S O C I A L I Z A T I O N AN11 NORmS

27
28

ENVIRONmE?JTAL S U R V I V A L SOCIAL SURVIVAL S P I R I T U A L POWERS

35
LO

sunmARY
NOTES CHAPTER THREE REGULARS 'I 0 L ?I N TEE R S AUX T L I A R Z E S 5C3UTS SUPWARY VOTE 5 CHAPTE3 FJUR TNSTRUmENTAL VALUES EXCEPTIONAL BEHAVIORS CONCEPTUAL VALUES NOTES CHAPTEi7 F:UE VEFIGING UqLUE': RESDLUTIONS 53NCLUSiONS 7ES3NMEVOA iIOFIS YCTES

a9

56

A R m Y S O C I A L I Z A T I O N AN0 NORNS

60

so
72 75

?a

31 87
91

93
115 118 120

12:
125 128 123 131 127
1 39

9 I ? L TCICRAPYY
?PC5\lOi.Y *I

apocwix 9
4DOEUOtX Z

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

War. i n b o t h t h e g e n e r a l a n d s p e c i f i c s e n s e s , i s a t a n g i b l e expression o f a c o n f l i c t o f values... War c r e a t e s a n d s u s t a i n s many human v a l u e s . p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l : liberty, equality, f atern i t y . p r i d e , l o y a l t y , and r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s .

I n l a t e January
mander a t F o r t NcLane, after-action chief

1 8 6 3 , G e n e r a l J o s e p h R.

West,

Com-

s u b m i t t e d t o t h e War D e p a r t m e n t a n the "greatest

r e p o r t on t h e c a p t u r e a n d d e a t h o f

t h e Apache h a d oroduc s d. "2

The r e p o r t c o n t e n d e d t h a t

t h e c h i e f h a d b e e n t a k e n d i r e c t l y i n a s k i r m i s h w i t h a com.pany of C a l i f o r n i a ! l o l u n t e e r s u n d e r t h e command
,if Captain

E. 0.

S h i r l a n d and j e i i v e r e d s t r a i g n t

t o G e n e r a l West.

The 'uatc3

a c c o u n t g o e s on t o s t a c e t h a t d e s p i t e heauy s e c : u r i t v - - a o f one s e r g e a n t and n i n e men--the midnight.

c h i e f rusned h i s guard about Yet, other

He was s h o t t o d e a t h t r y i n g t o e s c a o e . '

v e r s i o n s o f t h i s i n c i d e n t h a v e been to1.d.

According t o Daniel

E . C o n n e r , a p r o s p e c t o r who was p r e s e n t . w i t h S h i r l a n d ' s men,

mangas C o i o r a d a s . the 'chief brought int:o custody, had been trucn.
of

l u r e d from h i s band o f w a r r i o r s Sy a w h i t e F l a q o f

As h e a p p r o a c n e d a l o n e a n d u n a r m e d t o m e e t t h e ? a r t , !

soldiers,

h e wa:;

q u i c k l y surrounded and e s c o r t s d back t o w h e r e t w o men w e r e assignee: t o g u a r d from Genet31 West,

tci

C a p t a i n S h i r l a n c l ' s camp, him. T h a t nigh::,

aftar a visit

-.he men bar(?

g u a r d i n g him a p p l i e d heated Sayonets

che c h i e f ' s

f e e t a s harassment.
t h i r d gouging,

When h e v i g o r o u s l y p r o t e s t e d a f t e r t h e

they s h o t him repeatedlv. 4

Was t h e c h i e f c a p t u r e d o r trapried?
i n effect, o r k i l l e d i n line-of-duty soldiers?

Was h e m u r a e r e d .

a c t i o n on p a r t o f t h e

Answers t o these q u e s t i o n s l i e o n l y p a r t i a l l y
t h e y l i e more f u l l y w i t h t h e v a l u e s o f t h e

w i t h "facts":

p e r s o n s viewing those facts.

The c h i e f may b e s e e n a s a

n o b l e w a r r i o r who was v i c t i m i z e d b y t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g p o w e r ,
g r e e d . a n a hatred o f t h e e n c r o a c h i n g white c i v i l i z a t i o n .

Or h e m a y b e i d e n t i c i e d a s a n u n t r u s t w o r t h y , r u t h l e s s s a v a g e ,
b e s t d e a d , s o a s t o b e g i v e n no p o s s i b l e e s c a p e t o r e t u r n

t3 a l i f e of wanton k i l l i n g o f t h e lociil c i t i z e n s .
m o r e o b j e c z i v e ' ~ i e i u sm a y b e h e l d .
The

Or o t h e r ,

r e O o r t i g i v e n here a r e

anly

t u o o f t 3 e many

accounts of t h i s widely-publicizea

incident.5

Yet t h e y

r e p r e s e n t t h e most Frequently recountec! v e r s i o n s ; and i n their discrepancies, they succinctiy i l l u s t r a t e a consistent p r o b l e m the m i l i t a r y e n c o u n t e r e d i n its d e a l i n q s d i t a t h e Apache--how f r o n t i e r and
best ts carry o u t a nissiori
t3
ti3

p r o t e c t the

eszablish acceptaole r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h such

3s

a savage peoole

t h e Apache a o p e a r e d t o 38.

PROELEY STA7EYENT
This thesis contends t h a t

t3e c l a s h

ii

instrumental

v a l u e s h e l d b y b o t h A p a c h e a n d 4 r m y p e r s o n n e l i n t h e ear:./
y e a r s e x t e n d e d :he

c o n f l i c t s a n d t 3 a t a g r s a t e r f o c d s oq

common c o n c e p t u a l v a l u e s i n t h e 1870's a n d 1 8 8 0 ' s z r o m o t e d p e a c e b e t w e e n t h e two N a t i o n s . To d e t e r m i n e a b a s i s f o r t h i s c o n t e n t i o n , t h i s s t u d y a n a l y z e s t h e r o l e o f ?ersonal and c u l t u r a l v a l u e s i n t h e e n g a g e m e n t s b e t w e e n t h e U.

5. military forces ( t o include

v o l u n t e e r s a n d a u x i l i a r i e s a s w e l l a s r e g u l a r Army p e r s o n n e l ) a n d t h e Apache n a t i o n .
t h e Army's

T h e f o l l o w i n g c h a ~ t e r sw i l l r e v i e w

c a m p a i g n s a g a i n s t t h e Apache, w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r
of

scrutiny

the values demonstrated by t h e combatants--

i n c o n t r a c t t o o r i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h those of t h e i r opoonents.
of

The impact t h e s e v a l u e s h a d b o t h on t h e c o u r s e
'38

b a t t l e and on c o n t i n u i n g r e l a t i o n s wil? a l s o

examined

as a part of t h e a n a l y s i s .
OE' :I!

3N5

APACHE:

Anthrapologically,

t h e t e r n "apache"

is aoplied

t o a l l S o u t h w e s t e r n A t h a o a s c a n I n d i a n s w i t h t?,e e x c e p t i o n o f Navajo. T h u s , "Apache" I n c L u d e s a LarSe a n d s o m e w h a t

d i v e c s e g r o u p o f t z i e e s such a s Tlescalera, N e d n i . C h i r i c a h u a , J i c a r i l l a . Westerr., ' u h i t e M o u n t a i n , a n c :darm S p r i n g s . ? p a c n e s - and related t r i b e s . For ourocses of sirnplificatian,
1 2se

t h e b r o a d term t 3 i 7 c l u d e a 1 1 : h e
er,

Apache n a t i o n t a k e n 50gec.h:Jhers d i s i l n c c i a n s aze

n a t j u s t one

3 :

a few g r i u o s .

clear and s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e r3c3rds, I ' u i l i oresr3nT t n e

s o e c i f i c d e s c r i o t i c n i n an a t t o m p t z o m a k e C h e d i s c u s s i o n

e a s i e r f o r t h e rsader t o follou.
3

BELIEFS:

As stated in F M 2 2 - 1 0 0 , beliefs are "assumptions

people,

or convictions that one holds to be true regarding

concepts or things." They are learned as a part of one's socialization. C3MMITMENT:

As stated in FC 2 2 - 1 , a commitment is t3e

dedication and willingness to recognize and support national. Army, and unit goals over individual desires. It includes

entrusting oneself to accomplish these goals and involving oneself in duties and resoonsibilities. Although this

pnrasing specifically applies to the Army, the meaning

o f c3mmitment here given is relevant also to any group-

inai,Jidual relacionsnip. and vloulo thus be applicable to Aoacne a s : d e l i , i f such dedication to grouo goals o v e r individual
ones

is evident.

CULTURE: A syscem at' values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors adopted by individuals for the ~ u r p o s eo f grouo canesiveness. bonds o f
t5e

It is developed and reinforced through the

group. 5 aroadly Speaking, all personal tcaits and

HUMAN F4CTCRS:

abilities o f t>e Cluman being--mental, physical, moral, and soirltual. These will be 1-ne focus o f the foll3wing st.Jdy,
anb

soldiers a s tce values o f t ~ e

In

Indians ,are identiFieC

their iuman acti3ns and t5ougnts.

4s

JUSTZCE:
In

defined i n FC 2 2 - 1 ,

justice i.5 a consistencv

aoplyinq scandarzs, granting rewards and punisnments

w i t h f a i r n e s s and c l a r i t y of e q u a l i t y .
w i t h a c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s of

I t i s meted o u t
not sacrificing

t h e whoie.

P e o p l e a f f e c t e d by an a c t i o n w i t h o u t t a k i n g t h e i r needs i n t o account. 7
NORMS: A s s t a t e d i n FM 2 2 - 1 0 0 ,

norms a r e " r u l e s o r Formal

r e g u l a t i o n s " t h a t members o f t h e g r o u p f o l l o w .

norms a r e t h e o f f i c i a l o n e s p a s s e d a s law o r g e n e r a l standards. I n f o r m a l norms a r e t h e u n w r i t t e n o n e s t h a t

a p e r s o n f o l l o w s t o "belong" t o t h e g r o u p through conforming t o its a c t i o n s or thoughts.

These i n f o r m a l norms

may o r may n o t be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e f o r m a l norms t h a t

are established. VALUES: Broadly, values a r e somerhing important t o t h e

i n a i v i d u a l , grouo, 1r organizacian involved i n i n t e r a c t i o n

w i t h others or i n inaividuai activity.

According t o

FM 2 2 - 1 0 0 .

values a r e " a t t i t u a e s about tne worth o r i m Ralph Linton's

gortance of oeople, concepts, o r things." dePinition.

'IAnyt3ing zaoaale
OF

groducing s i m i l a r choice

responses i n several

s o c i e t y ' s memoers" i n d i c a t e s a

r e i a t i o n s n i p b e t u e e n v a l u e s and b e h a v i z r which i s p e r t i l e n t t o t n i s stuoy. Futhermore, h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between

i n s - r u m e n t a ? u a ? u e s ( c o n c r e t e , c o n c i s e v a l u e s ! and

m-

c e o c u a l svaiues ( a b s t r a c r . , g e n e r a l i z e d a n e s ) i s : e f e r e n c e a
i n z5e d i s c u s s i o n w h i t 7

T r a d i t i o n a l Army v a l u e s
THE i \ R M Y ,

are articulated i n

F.0

100-1,

Chapter

h.

The

10

The v a l u e s i d e n t i f i e d oh those pages,

though certainly

n o t a n e x n a u s t i v e list of Army d a l u e s . are referred t o

a s t h e P r o f e s s i o n a l Army E t h i c .

The Polowing e x p l a n a t i o n s

o f t h e v a l u e s a r e from FC 2 2 - 1 ( 3 - 2 ) :
Loyalty to the Institution:
The f i r s t F u n d a m e n t a l v a l u e c a n b n r e s t a t e d by u s i n g

two s u p p l e m e n t a r y v a l u e s .
(1)

L o y a l t y t o t h e Nation a n d i t s h e r i t a g e .

Army

l e a d e r s t a k e a n o a t h t o s u o ~ o r ta n d d e f e n d t h e
Constitution.
The i d e a l s OF f r e e d o m , j u s t i c e ,

t r u t h , a n d e q u a l i t y were f o u n d e d o n a n e t h i c o f human d i g n i t y a n d worth.

This

solemn act s i g n i ' i e s

ideals

a t o t a l c o m m i t m e n t t o serve t h e N a t i o n ' s

ii whatever caoacity called uoon.

and t o s a f e g u a r d

the N a t i o n ' s

interests.
To meet h i s o r h e r

(2)

L o y a l t y t o t h e Army.

r e s p o n s i b i l i t v to the Nation,

t3e :;oldier must

be l o y a l t o t h e m i l i t a r ; , a n d c i v i l i a n c h a i n o f

command.

This Loyaity

TUS:

flow i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s - -

downward, l a t e r a l l y . and uoward. Loyalty to the U n i t :

T h e r e i s a t w o - d a y o o i i g a c i o n b e t w e e n t h e l e a d e r ant1

t h o s e wno a r e l e d .

!They are! d e v o t e d t o each o t h e r .

The

development o f conesion <lows a common

=ran
OF

many

rPsources. hut to a

~ u r p o s ? 'and a i e n s e

hehnging

purposeful unit that cares for its w m b e r s are central to its growth. Personal Responsibility: Each soldier must acc pt he obligation to do each

specified and implied task to the best of his/her ability and to assume responsibility for individual actions.
For

leaders, this value requires a willing acknowledgement o f responsibility not only f o r what they do, but also for what their subordinates do. This value also includes a

responsibility to behave ethically. Selfless Service: Self-interest must often 5 e sacrificed for what is
best

for the unit.

selfless leader will encourage tearno

work that is essential F a r a cshesive. effeczive unit.SENERAL I N T R O D U C T I O N

This study examines va!.ues of the Aoacne an0 the

U.

S. A r m y o f the frontier a s :hey affect the Apache

aecause values tnemsel?res are intangibie,

campaigns.

f o r the aiscussion which follcws z e l a w , t5ev have Sesn

abstracted from the words and actisns of the pa?tl:ipancs

o f the various military enqapements and From histsricai

reccrds of those actions.

Since t:ese

e?cc!untsrs 3CCLIrZ?d
3 ~ ~ 0 -

i n different Southwestern Locations, witn dicfarent

nents. and during different ~ e r i c o so identified are not erDected ts

be

i time,

the . ~ a ? u e s
Che

: > e

same fa? all

military personnel n o r f o r a11 tne Aoache involves.

It

The changes.

i n f a c t , provide a b a s i s f o r understanding

some o f

the c o n f l i c t s and r e s o l u t i o n s t h a t o c c u r r e d .
T h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s from
EC

22-1 a p p r o p r i a t e l y

note t h e conditions of v a l u e differencw: Values v a r y a c r o s s s o c i e t i e s , c u l t u r e s , and organizations. (and) Individuals assign degrees This of importance t o t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e s . o r d e r is t r a n s i e n t : t h a t i s , o u e r time, v a l u e s v a r y i n degrbe of importance. Thus, i t is not a question of holding a o a r c i c u l a r value, b u t r a t h e r how i m p o r t a n t i t i s c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r s a t t h a t particular p o i n t i n t i m e . ,

..

The s a r t i c u l a r v a l u e s an i n d i v i d u a l h o l c s a r s n e i t h e r completely s t a b l e or unstable. However, t h e main c o r e o f v a l u e s i s r e a s o n a b l y c o n s i s t e n t a c r o s s time The more c e n t r a l t h e v a l u e s , t h e Values chanqe, more r e s i s c i v e t h e y a r e t o c n a n g e . o r a t l e a s : v a l u e r e a L i g n m e n t , c a n be i n f l u e n c e d b y manv d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s .

...

In

i h a a ' t e r -wo t h i s s t u o y c o n c e - t r a t e s

on

iaenti-

fyinr: jrimary values e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e general s o c i a l i z a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g o f t h e Aoache. C h a u t e r T h r e e looks

a c A r m y v a l u e s a n d p e r s o n a l v a i u e s o f t h e u a r i e t y o f mer comprising the milicary o f t h e f r o n t i e r . Chapter Four

a n a l y z e s t h e v a i u e s or' t h e 3 o P o n e n t s a s t 3 e y i n t e r a c t e d - i t looks a t c 3 n f l i c t i n g v a l u e s , a t c 3 m p a t i b l e o n e s , a n d a t the changes i x values t h a t evolved aidring the Deriods of warfars. Chaocar F i v e p r e s e n c s c o n c l u s i o n s and recom-

mendations for ' ~ r t h e r s t u d y .

R E V I E k l OF I-I:ERA'UR!: T h e g r e a t e x p a n s i o n w e s t w a r d was a 3 a p u i a r t o p i c

F o r w r i t e r s a c r o s s t h e U. S .

A u n d r e d s :!f 13

personal

n a r r a t i v e s , and even h u n d r e d s more f i c t i o n a l a c c o u n t s of

F r o n t i e r a d v e n t u r e s , were p u b l i s h e d t h r a u q h o u t t h e n i n e teenth century.

I t seems a s i f t h e excitement O F t h e

movement west c a p t u r e d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f r e a d e r s O F a l l ages and n a t i o n a l i t i e s . actions sold quickly.

t h e period of

S t o r i e s of I n d i a n s and c a v a l r y
That is, " l i t e r a t u r e " re a t e d t o

I n d i a n Wars a b o u n d s .

Not a l l o f

t is

h e l p f u l t o h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h e r s , however, s o t h e t a s k of identifying valid or authentic sources is a c r i t i c a l reading a c t i v i t y .

F o r t h i s s t u d y , o f g r e a t e s t r e l e v a n c e a r e any
sources which reveai somethinq o f participants. the values of the stories

T h u s , SotP. o f F i c i a i and "enhanced"

on t h e

o r r e D o r t s bear

aim o f r e s e a r c h .

Cf primary s i q n i are oTficlai

Ficance as a resource of tne p e r i o d , o i c3urse.

government docurnenrs, i n c l u d i n g t r e a t i e s and p r e s i d e n t i a l directives. The m i l i t a r y a c t i o n s a l s o i r o d u c e d numerclus

These

o f F i c i a l reDor-15, o r d e r s , a n d p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t s .
w i l l be i n c l u o e a a s they prclvide r e l e v a n t d a t a . l o

News-

paper accounts of i n t e r a c t i o n s between c i t i z e n s , s o l d i e r s , a n d A p a c h e s became o o o u l a r d a i l y r e a d i n q f r o m s o a s t t o c o a s t . Some o f t h e s e a r e a c c u r a t e . o n - s i t e r e c 3 r d s ; o t h e r s a r e 5ea:say. 2 e l i a b l e s t a t e m e n t s f r o m n e w s p a o e r s a r e good r s v e a l somethinq

d a t a s o u r c e s , b u r t h e o i a s e a a c c o u n t s 3:so
of

t h e v a l u e s o f a r i t e r and o u b l i s h e r .

60th types a r e

r e l e v a n t h e r e . 11
llr

A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t w h a t happened d u r i n g
t h e campaigns has been recorded

i n p r i v a t e j o u r n a l s of

m i l i t a r y a n d c i v i l i a n c i t i z e n s who e i t h e r p a s s e d t h r o u g h
t h e Southwest o r r e l o c a t e d f o r permanent

residence t h e r e . 1 2

Photographs and o a i n t i n g s produced v i s u a l r e c o r d s of t h e p e r i o d a s well.

''

S e s i d e s these t y p e s o f s o u r c e s w h i c h

f o c u s o n f a c t u a l r e c o r d i n g , many p e r i o d h i s t o r i e s systenrat i z e t h e i n d i v i d u a l b i t s and p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o p r o v i d e c l e a r e r , more c o m p r e h e n s i v e v i e w s . P a r t i s a n ones.

not j u s t

Sucn s t u d i e s a s t n o s e b y I J t l e y , D u n l e v .

a n d T s r r e l l a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s g r o u p i n g . 1L However, *.he F l o o d o f H o l l y w o o d - s t y l e , melodramatic

p r o d u c t i o n s w n i c P ar'3 w e s t w a r d movement s p a w n e d f r o m t h e l a t e nineteenth zertury t h r c u g h the p r e s e n t has caused c u r r a n t m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s and c o n f u s e d p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e

h u m a n f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e " A p a c h e Wars. 1115

From

many p o p u l a r c o m i c s , n o v e l s , m o v i e s a n d e x c i t i n g n a r r a t i v e s , s t e r o t y p e s -.merge t o e n t e r t a i n a p u o l i c s t i l l c u r i o u s a b o u t
a oeople unfamiliar

In l i f e s t y l e a n d b e i i e f - j .

These

~ O O U -

l a r s t e r o t y o e s of the "Indian Warriors" ( T r i b a l d i s t i n c t i o n s

are n o t always c l ? a r ! a r e s t a r k l y s i m p l i s t i c .
Lummis'

description o i

'3.3

Apache a s he v i e w s t h e m f r o m F o r t 9 o w i e

s u m m a r i z e s t h i s image: Wot o m i v is t h e ( t h e A p a c h e : t h e m o s t w a r l a v i n g o i american I n d i a n s , he i s a l s o T H E E 3 S 5 '5 ;7 R R I 0 R . He i s s t r o n g t o a n ? n a u r a n c s ; i m p l y i m p o s s i b l e i n a mora e n d u r a b l e

15

He h a s t h e e y e 3 f a h a w k , t h e s t e a l t h of a coyote, t h e courage a f a t i g e r - - a n d its

country.

mercilessness. l b

G e n e r a l stereotyDes

of

the participants i n f r a n t i e r

f i g h t i n g a l s o i n c l u d e d t h e p o p u l a r image of a m i l i t a r y f o r c e o f good h u m o r .
yet carefully disciplined, arriving

with the best o f timing to save those citizens threatened

by t h e s a v a g e s .

Through s u p e r i o r s k i l l and l e a d e r s h i o ,

t h e c a v a l r y m e n a n d i n f a n t r y a c h i e v e d s u c c e s s w i t h minimum

losses,

i n e e i s o d e a f t e r e o i s a d e o f t h i s f i c t i o n a l West. 1 7 S u c h images a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f a 1 : a w i n g
battle

a c c o u n t s by a n e n l i s t e d t r o o o e r o f t3e S i x t h Cavalry, f l n t a n Mazzanovich:

W e were f u l l y e x o o s e o ',a t n e f i r e a ? t h e i n d i a n s , For t h e ground u a s l e v e l . Sometimes, a s i d e a c v a n c e d , 'ue ~ w _ o u ? c s k r i ~ ea z i a c a 'where . :?e g r a s s u a s t e n o r -iitesn i n c h e s t a l i ; t h e n w e w o u l d l i e down f l a t . I c a n ' t say how c l o s e t h e b u l l e t s were d r o o o i n g , b u t t h e y certainly made a most u g l y s o u n d . 3 u l l e t s t h a t r i c z c h e t a r e m o s t d a n g e r o u s . f o r i' a n e o: t h o s e s t r i k e s y o u , i t makes a t e r r i b l e u o u n d . When a b u l l s : would w h i s t l e p a s t w i t n a z-z-zi.9 z - z - z i n g ! i t was Q u e e r haw t h e men w o u l d 3 u c v t h e i r l e a d s . F r g m t i m e t o t i m e we mavea s:owly firward. Our o f f i c e r s were b a c k o f t n e l i r e , m o v i n g t o - a n d f r o s o t h e i n d i a n s w o u i 3 no; g e c a j e a o o n t h e m .
U f f i c e r r , too. heloed c r e a t e t h e dramatic image
held of neroes i n action. Reco:zes
in

ia

i a r i s h ' s 9lS:srV

~f
if

A r i z o n a i s o n e o f C a p t a i g l o n n C. T r e m o n y ' s a c c a u n t s
h i s hand-to-hand

fign:

gi:?

33

3oacne apccnent.

LZ

is,

a s Farish s t a t e s , "as thri:ling t n e West."

a s any o f

t h e s ~ o r i e so f

I n t n i s l o n g Gassage, 3remony c a o t u r e s nost

i 6

of

the general Hollywood p i c t u r e s : The l a s t c h a r g e o f my s e c o n d p i s t o ; h a d b e e n e x h a u s t e d ; my l a r g e k n i f e l o s t i n :he t h i c k d u s t on t h e r o a d , and t h e o n l y weapon l e f t me was a s m a l l double-edged. b u t s h a r p and keen, dagger. A r o b u s t a n d a t h l e t i c A p a c h e , much h e a v i e r t h a n m y s e l f , S t o o d b e f o r e me, n o t m o r e t h a n t h r e e f e e t off. Cremony's a c c o u n t g o e s o n t o s t a t e how t h e y

..

thrust

a t e a c h o t h e r w i t h t h e i r weapons, w i t h the force.

t u m b l i n s t o t3e grounu savage"

He g r a p p l e d w i t h t h e " d e s p e r a t e

o n l y t o l o s e t h e a s c e n d a n c y t o t h e Aoache. on

C r ~ m o n ygoes

1 was c o m p l e t e l y a t h i s m e r c y . 5 i s triumph and d e l i g h t g l a r e d from h i s g l i t t e r i n g b l a c k eyes, and he r e s o i v e d t o l o s e n o t h i n g o f h i s savage enJoymenc. Y o l d i n g me down w i t h t h e g r 3 s c o f a g i a n t , a g a i n s t w h i c h a l l o f my s t r u g g l e s seemed wnolly vain, he r a i s e d a?ZFt ; r i s long i n a r 2 k n i f s , arc! s a i d - - " o i n d a v l i c k o v e e 3 a s - a v - q c , d e e d a n t a t s a n , " unich n e a n s , " T n e u n i t e - s y s a an. y o u w i i l soon be dead." I t h o u g h t a s he d i d , a n d i n t h a t f r i g h t f u l moment made a n a s t y c m m e n d a t i o n s o f my s o u l t o t h e B e n e v o l e n t , b u t 1 am a f r a i d t h a t i t was n i n g l e d w i t h Some schema t o g e t g u t o f n y p r e d i c a m e n t , if possible.
Czemony c o n t i n u e s

...

t o r e l a t e how h i s " 5 r r a c i c

and

useless"

li'e

p a s s e c i n r e v i e w b e f o r e h m i n what was' j u s t . time. He t h o u g h t c e r t a i n y h e was doomed.

an i n s t a n t o f

To e x 3 r z s s t h e s e n s a t i o n s I u n d e r ' d e n t a t t h a t moment i s n o t w i t h i n t n e , a r o v i n c e 0'' l a n q u a g e I g a v e m y s e l i uo f o r l o s t - - a n o t h e r v i c z i m t o S p a c n e Perocitv---:Vet) The l o v e o i l i f e i s a i t r o n g f e e l i n g a t avy t i m e ; 3 u t t o be k i l l e d L i k e a z i g ; by an A p a c h e , seemec ~ r s - e m i n e n t l y c r a a c f u l a n d concamelious. Down came t h e m u r d e r c u s k n i f e , a i m e d f u l ? a t my t h r o a t . . .

....

17

Again, Cremony summoned strength to dodge the strike and was able to bite the warrior's thumb, which had come within reach o f his mouth. overturn of the power positions.
I circled his body and plunged my sharp and faithful d a g g e r - t w i c e between his ribs, just under his left arm, a t the same time making another convulsive effort to throw off his weight....In a few moments ( I ) had the satisfaction of seeing my enemy asping the last under my repeated thrusts. 1 8

This allowed the

Lummis. mazzanovich, and Cremony present images drawn from their first-hand observations i n the arsas and from their participation in the military-apache encounters. However, pictures such a s these tell only a portion
OF

the

interaction; these Jopular stories have been extracted From a fuller

truth.

The w o r k s of L u m m i s and Mazzanovicn

provide further descriptions o f notable behaviors and attitudes of both apache and white soldiers beyond the
obvious

stereotypes given here.

work,

Cremony is given to an and, a s an eye-ditness,

'exaggeration throughout his

h e 5 a s a oerspective uhich impresses those who reao ? i s

drama-filleo accounts.

Such "elaboration" o f details

aoout the doache-Yilitary confrontations distort tne truth, however. When expanded or
fdl?

accounts

of

the

people invo?ved are not a s widely circulated as are the dramatic and sensational but partial ones, the "Ceal" picture is lost. Yisconceptions about values anG

a t t i t u d e s replace tentative descriptions; perceptions r e f l e c t i n g p r e j u d i c e s and a n t i p a t h y m u l t i o l y .

of
A

lack

v a l i d knowledge and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a p e o p l e i r o v i d e s

a r i c h ground f o r p r e j u d i c e , F e a r , and d i s t r u s t t o grow. I n d e e d , t h o s e a t t i t u d e s p r e v a i l e d among b o t h Apache a n d s o l d i e r and h a v e been p a s s e d on t h r o u g h t h e c e n t u r y f o l l o w i n g t h e i r wars. A l t h o u g h much h a s b e e n w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e I n d i a n W a r s , my c u r s o r y r e v i e w o f t h i s l i t e r a t u r e n a s n o t i d e n t i f i e d any s t u d y p a r t i c u l a r l y f o c u s i n g on t h i s c o n f ! i c t v a l u e s b e t w e e n t h e Aoache a n d A r m y .
B A C K G R O U N C E O R THE C O N F L I C T

in

Because t h e aoposing F o r c e s h a d emerged F r g m qui.e di,Jargent s a c i a l , p o ; i t i c a l , s o i z i t u a l anb r r i i ? i t a r v nack--

g r z u n d s , n e g o c i a t i o n s t o a v e r t n i l i t a r y c o n i l i c t c o u i d Se e x c e c t e d t o have
anly

limited sucsess.

many v a l u e s a n d

b e l i e f s he13 b y one o r t h e o c 3 e r Z a r t y seemed c o n f u s i n g o r s e n s e l e s s o r t i r s c t l y u n a c c e p t a b ? e muhen seen t n r g u g h ethnocentric eyes

0

the othars.

Even l o n - ~ o n f L i c t i l g cgncsrl f3r

vaiues ( p a r s l l e ? o r comoatirle ones, e.g.,

f a m i l y ! w e r e d i F E I c d l t f o r Aoache a n d s o L d i e r t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d c o m m u n i c a c e commonly. 2 a d i f f e r e r c e s dsua?!:, Glaring sehavLorai attlr.udes againsc

z f o v o ~ e d, a r e ; u d i c e d

t h e o p ~ o n e n t s . ? + u s . some ~ c i n t so f s i g n i f i c a n t s i m i ? a i i : \ /
i n values

ere ncr. r e c o g n i z e c e a r ? y
19

i n che

rslationsnio

n o r made a p a r t o f t h e o f f i c i a l g o v e r n m e n t ( a n d t h u s A r m y ) o o l i c y a s a p o s s i b l e b a s i s f o r d e v e l o p i n g b e t t e r a n d more peaceful relationships."

I t was n o t u n t i l t h e war h a d

stretched over s e v e r a l decades t h a t a t t e n t i o n t u r n e d t o

s o l u t i o n s which emphasized v a l u e s s h a r e d b y t n e w a r r i n g
parties.

P e a c e i n v o l v e d a m e r g i n g o f some v a l u e s a n d a l s o some v a l u e c h a n g e s For b o t h t h e s o l d i e r s a n d t h e A p a c h e .

T h e q u e s t i o n a r i s e s , however, r e g a r d i n g c a u s e s .

What

brought aoout these changes?

Was i t o n l y t h e power o f
what

t h e m i l i t a r y t h a t b r o u g h t t h e Apache t o s u r r e n d e r ? h a o p e n e d i n t h e c o n t a c t s betwee7 :he

Did

segarate cultures?

? h e c o m m o n v a l u e s e v e r o l a y a ? a r t i n t h e movemenc oe2cP? i n s u e r s co t h e s e a u e s t i g n s zan oe = i u n d From s u c n a s c r u c i n y , some

t3wa:t

Sy r e v i e w i n g t n e a c t i o n .

d i s t i n c t i v e c a t e g o r i e s o f v a i u e s e m e r g e . and f r o m tnem. some e s t i m a t e o f v a l u e c h a n g e s c a n b e made. One o f t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s o i v a l u e s i n c l u d e s r i g h t s

of

l i f e (and death:,

l i b e r t y (and s a a t i v i c y , or reserva-

t i o n s t a t u s ) , a n d t h e p u r s u i t 0 7 n a o o i n e s s t h r o u g h work and ? l a y ) . CancepELial v a l u e s r e l a t e o t o t h e s e r i g b , : t s

a o p e a r a s s i g n i i l c a n t 50 b o t h s i d e s r . h r o u g n o u t t h e W a r s , alt?ough the instrumelcar values a s s o c i a t e d iuikh rhen initia;ly v a r i s a e x t e n s i v e l y c r a m s o i o i e r s t o Roacne.

20

However, during the final years of the conflicts. members o f tne two cultures exhibited more similarities in the values related to these basic rights. 2 2 Another category o f values r e l a t e s to the traditional Army values--loyalty to the Nation (larger group) and to fellow combatants (unit or band), personal responsibility and selPless service. 2 3 These a r e broadly those

which have endured as a part o f the U. S. military since its creation. They ultimately tie together national values
by

based on the Constitution and affirmed

each officer
by

acceptinq the charge of leadership to him governing body.

the nationa!

These values also guide the action o f

the enlisted soidiers a s they carry o u t the orders o f the a?ficsrs ta aczompLi5h
country's values.
B

mission defined according ta the

Although Aoache warriors took n o oath at a commissioning, haa n o -0nstitution or Congress to give them a Crameworx to guioe 3eveloDment o f values; nonetheless. they cperated 3 y following definite values #which also
f i t into this catagcry o f Professional a n 0 Jersonal 10ya;-

ties.

Their c o o s

3 F

behavior differed; yet they did haws

an e t - i z a l code i y dhic? their actions were judgea and guiaeo. Concepr.~lalvalues of the two cultures aDoear

similar; instrumental ones, however. a o p a a r a s stumbling blocks to frienclv relations. 24

21

Many F a l s e a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e Apache and t h e i r F i g h t i n g prowess o r m o t i v a t i o n s t o F i g h t have been i d e n t i fied.

To c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e myth f r o m F a c t , t o d i s t i n g u i s h
the Following chapters

r e a ? a c t i o n s from Hollywood s c r i p t s ,

r e v i e w t h e engagements between t h e Apache and t h e U.

S.

Army

a s p r e s e n t e d i n o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s and o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l accounts. These pages w i l l g i v e f i r s t a c u r s o r y r e v i e w beliefs. and v a l u e s o f t h e b a s i c

of the general attitudes,

g r o u p s From w h i c h t h e s o l d i e r s and Apache w a r r i o r s emerge, and t h e n p r o v i d e t h e a n a l y s i s o f that interaction.

NOTES

1. H . L . P a r s o n s , Some Human R o o t s o f I n h u m a n Illar, c i t e d i n NOS 11, T r a i n i n g S u o p o r t P a c k a g e , E t h i c s a n d O r o f e s s i o n a l i s m . A u g u s t 1 9 8 2 , paqe 10-13.

(1915),

2. Thomas E. 150.

Farish. History o f Arizona,

I1

3. J a n u a r y 2 8 . 1863. O f f i c i a l R e c o r d s , 5 e r I , V o l 5 0 , p a r t 2 , op. 2 9 6 - 9 7 . Also S h i r l a n d s report to M c l e a v e , d a t e d 22 J a n u a r y 1863, e n c l o s e d . Nk1/1853 9G JL, NORS g i v e s a q u i t e s i m i l a r a c c o u n t .

L1. O a n i e l E . C o n n e r , J o s e g h 2 e d d e i o r d Walker a n d t h e A r i z o n a A d v e n t u r e (Norman, OK: Oklanoma U n i v e r s i t y

J r e s s 1 9 5 6 J , D P . ?&-LIZ.
5. Amonq o t h e r a c c o u n t s a r e t h o s e g i v e n b y Norman a. I J i l t s e v . a r a v e b l a r r i o r s ( C a l d w e l L , I D : The C a x t o n o r i n t e r s , L t d . , 1963), DO. i & a - i 5 1 a n d i l o b e r t M. Uc!ey. F r ~ n t i e r s m e n i n a l u e (New Y o r k : ? l a c m i l l a n , 1 9 6 7 ! , P O . 250-25.3. I n t n e a c c o u n t g i v e n b y l o h n 1. T e b b e l i n T h e cornoact H i s t o r v o f t h e I n d i a n Yars ( N e w Y o r k : Yawthor-1 9 o O k s . Inc.. 1 9 1 3 5 ) . ; a n e r a 1 luesz i s :eocr.ed t o have t ~ l c the sentries: Wen, t h a t o l o m u i o e r e r h a s g o t a w a y f r o m e v e r y s o l d i e r c3rnmand a n d l e f t a t r a i : o f n l o o d 5 0 0 m i l e s a l o n g the s t a c e l i n e . I w a n t h i m dead o r a l i v e t o m o r r o w morning. 00 you u n d e r s t a n d ? I (want h i m d e a d ! ( 0 . 1 9 6 )
6. F u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f c a l t u r e and s o c i a l i z a t i o n may S e n o t e d i n 3 r e n t o n 9 e r r y a n d Yarry L . r i s c h e r , Race tloughton N i f f i i i ano Ethn;c q e l a t i o n s , P t h ed. (goston:

co., i S ? S . !
7. :7 a o d i c i o n t o t 3 e Ar.3ys d e f i n i t i o n 3 i J u s t i c e g i v e n here, a l i s c u s s i o n o f i t as a leadership t r a i t i s g i v e n o n p a g e 1-L1 o f FC 2 2 - 1 .

a . R a l p h . L i n t o n , The ProSlem o f Universai Jalues ? a o e r s i n Yonor i i T e t h o c and P o z s o e c t i w s i n A n r h i J o c l o a v : !vinn . eapo?Ls: ! ~ i i . s a n 0 . \ u a L l i s . 0. 2 o c e r : 7 , S o e n c e r . ! J n . ; \ / e r s i t y o f M i n n e a o o l i s P r e s s , 456). 3 p . l k 5 - l u 7 . L i n t o n ofers an example t o i l l u s t r a t s a d i t f e r e n c s betdeen i n s c z u m e n t a i and c o n c e p t u a l i i a l u e s : modesty i S a 33nC00taal value; t n e methoo o f p r o o e r l v c o w e r i n g t h e body--e.r]. i w e ~ r i n g l o i n c l o t n s 3r l o n g d r e s s e s o r t r o u s e r s - - i s a n instrurnanta! value.
2:

9. A d d i t i o n a l l y , one m i g h t c o n s i d e r v a i u e s s u c h a s those i d e n t i f i e d on evaluative inst-uments a s the O f f i c e r E v a l u a t i o n 3 e p o r t and t h e E n l i s t e d E v a l u a t i o n A L L t h e s e a r e based on t h e fundamental n a t i o n a l Report. v a l u e s mentioned i n t n e C o n s t i t u t i o n and embraced i n t h e Far F u r t h e r discussion of values "American way o f l i f e . " a n d v a l u e c h a n g e s , s e e Berry a n d T i c h e r , p o . 3 6 - 3 9 .

10. F o r g e n e r a l Army r e c o r d s , t b i s s t u d y r e l i e s A n n u a l War D e p a r t m e n t R e p o r t s , C o n g r e s s i o n a l d o c u m e n t s and u n i t records a s available. O t h e r m a t e r i a l h a s been c i t e d b e l o w f r o m s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s when s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n s is n o t o t h e r w i s e a c c e s s i b l e .

on

11. A l t h o u g h s u c h n e w s o a p e r " c o v e r a g e " was a n exaggerated and s e n s a t i o n a l i z e d account of events, s e v e r a l n e w s o a p e r s d i d make a n e f P o r t t o s r a d u c e f a c t u a l s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t i n c i d e n t s o c c u r r i n g i n *,?@ i s o l a t e d s e t t l e m e n t s a l o n g t h e r o u t e s t h r o u g h Apache t e r r i t z r y . Particularly, t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o C h r o n i c l e a n d t h e New Yor4 Times c a r r i e d r e g u i a r n e w s f r o m t h e a r e a , and Lumrnis' C a t e l i n e Fort. gowie p r o v i d e d d e t a i l e d Sketches g f c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e and m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t y t h e r e .

12. A u t o b i o g r a o h i e s or' ; e n e r a : C ~ S O K ,G e r o n i m o , a n d G e n e r a l ' l o w a r d ? r o v i . d e o e r s a n a i iqsisn!: i n c o t h e ADacheAzmy r e i a t i o n s . A l s o , s e v e r a l d i a r i e s , j o u r r . a i s and l e t c e c s f r o m b o t h e n i i s t e d a n d o f f i c a r g e r s o n n e l and frzm a few Aoacne g i v e ~ o i c et o d i f f e r e n t s e r s o e c t i v e s a n t n e e n c z u n t e r s . Among t h e s e e y e - w i t n e s s s t a t e m e n c s a r e z h c s e oy S r e n v i i l e Goodwin. A n t o n M a z z a n o v i c h . C e o r 5 e F a r s y t h . l a s o n 3 e t Z i n e Z v E v e B a l l , Zonn S c u r k e . a n d 3 r i t : o n g a v i s .
13. N o t a b l y t n e w o r k s CI? ' l e o r g e C . J a t L i n , F c e d e r i c R e m i n g t a n , a n d S e t h E a s t m a n i c a n c a s s i c t o r i a i cammen-s o n t h e time a n d p l a c e o f f r a n c i e r ~ ~ T I z V czir~n. : ; It n e i r : u i i e l y publicizod works, t h e s e arkisis :zczrdee oarsona; J a r t r a i t s o f t h e A:my a n a Yndian c o m o a t a n t s , a s u e ? l a s o i c t u r e s rJf l i ? e f a c i n g them : h r o u g h o u t t > e ? q v i ? o n n e n t . jee the p a i n t i n g a t Aopendix C .
1f.b. Among t h e c z m p r e h e n s i ~ ~hei s ~ o r i s s or' t h e m e : ' O r c o n f l i c t s S e c w e e n t h e Apacne a n o ::TI\/ a r s t ? o s e b y Georqe Z0r.n i e b b e ? , , C r o g n a n , : d i l l i a m H. ~ a c k i e , J o n n 'J. 2 a l : s v . Dan T h r a p o . a n d S o b e r : fl. U t L ? ? .

15. Clne m i g h t c o n s i o e r 7 e . rz . the upole a r r a y af "Cowboy a n 0 I n d i a n " m o v i e s , t e l e * i : s ; o r . i e r i e s a n d t h e

countless Western novels which have been popular througnout the past century and a haif. Such works overflow with common stereotypes which cloud true accounts o f action, reaction and personal exchanges. Furthermore, these works particularly encourage pictures of total evil against pure right; and in so depicting the ooposing sides in an incident. often ignore propriety in their historicity.
16. Charles F . Lummis, Oateline Fort Bowie, E d . Dan L. Thrapp (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979) p. 4 E .

17. As D o n Rickey, Jr. states in his article, "The Enlisted Yen o f the Indian Wars." military Affairs. 23 (1959-1960). D O . 05-96, I f . . .the commonlv held c0ncepr.s o f Indian Wacs enlisted men are the produce o f romantic distortion, paucity of basic research materials, and too many bad movies!" Fighting did not occupy most o f their time--but the myth that it did and that the soldiers were always successful continues in such current statements ,as a recent comic strio in the Kansas C L t v Times. 1 L 1 January 1985. It reads: "3etter late than i\lever"--"Small conso1a:ion to the sc3leees when the cavalry is tardy."
19.

Farisn. The Historv of Arizona, I , 2 7 4 - 4 7 5

One o i the naggi7g questions regardi?g U . 5 . 2C. mi:itary policy io!lowed when cighting the Indians relates to this value--Could a strategy be considered moral when it specifically aimed at using surprise attacks to find and destroy Indian illag ages where women and children wouid unquestionably be gresent and suffer death or injury? Similarly, fanacicai claims against the Apache a 5 brutal savages rang out each time they killed o r captJred 'women and childran. Neither side acceoted the ttought chat the other side ?ad high values for the l i f o o f the fami1.y. Attitudes related t~ this perspective wi?l 3e discussed further in Chapters Two and Three.
21. Linton. p. 4 7 2 . He qotes. "The values whose contravention brings the sharpest and most immediate response are tnose a t the instrumental Level. Thus. two societies which share the same basic c o n c e o c ~ a ?value mav fail to realize the fact because o f their cIi?fSr?nC uays of inolementing i e The values o n rhich tnere is most complete aqreemenc 3;e chose whi-h have to :do w i t h t7e satisfaction of the primary needs o f individuals . ' I

....

25

These two p o i n t s a r e e v i d e n t i n t h e c o n f l i c t between t h e A p a c h e a n d U. 5. m i l i t a r y .

22. Changes i n v a l u e s a r e a i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s o n a large scaie. A l t h o u g h d i r ' f e r e n t bands w i t h i n t h e t r i b e s o f t e n followed q u i t e s i m i l a r paths t o secure s a f e t y or t o g a i n p r o p e r t y f r o m t h e i r d e p r e d a t i o n s , a c c o u n t s do n o t f o c u s o n c o l l e c t i v e a t t i t u d e s so much a s o n t h e a t t i t u d e s and b e l i e f s o f t h e g r e a t l e a d e r s f o r t h e a c t i v i t i e s - - t h e w a r c h i e f or w a r r i o r s . However, changes i n b e h a v i o r w i l l b e i d e n t i f i e d a s c o l l e c t i v e when t r i b a l members f o l l o w the leader. L i n t o n ' s a r t i c l e notes t h i s about values i n a changing society: "To understand the r e l a t i o n of values t o t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a s o c i e t y , one must r e c o g n i z e t h a t v a l u e s a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f any s o c i e t y ' s c u l t u r e and t h a t , w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r o r i g i n , t r a n s m i s s i o n , and i n t e g r a t i o n , t h e y f o l l o w t h e same r u l e s a s o t h e r c u l t u r e elements. The n o r m a l s o c i e t y c o n s i s t s o f a n o r g a n i z e d , s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g gr3up of i n d i v i d u a l s which p e r s i s t s f a r b e y o n d t h e l i f e s p a n o f any one o f i t s component members. I t s p e r s i s t e n c e i s made p o s s i b l e b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f a c u l t u r e , e . j . , an o r g a n i z e d s e r i e s o f i d e a s a n d b e h a v i o r pat:erns ( d n i c h a r e t r a n s m i t t e d Fr.om g e n e r a t l o n t o generation dithin the society. The c u l t u r e a s a w h o l e o r o v i o e s t e c h n i q u e s a y w n i c h t h e members o f t h e s o c i e t y can b o c h s a t i s f y c h e i r i n d i v i d u a l needs and c o o p e r a t e t o w a r o ccmmon 2 n d s ." ( 2 . :& 7 )

2 3 . From t n e O f F i c e o i t n e S e c r e t a r y o f t h e A r m y comes t n i s s t a t e m e n t : " T o t a l A r m y l e a d e r s h i p i s Fgundeo u p o n t h e t i m e - t e s t e d p r i n c i p l e s o f L e a d e r s h i n ana i s i n t e n d e d t o d e v e l o p i n a l l members e n d u r i n g v a l u e s o f - L J y a l t y t o t h e N a t i o n and i t s h e r i t a g e Loyalty t o the Army Layalty t o the Unit Selfless Service Personal 3esponsibili:y" ( 7 Oecember 7 9 8 1 )
24. To 3 e s u r e , t h e w a r r i o r n o v i c e t r a i n i n g a n d t a b o o s a n d r i t u a i s c e l a t e d t z i t d o c o n s t i t u t e a t y p e or' c o m m i s s i o n i n g and : e s t r i c c i o n . This r i t u a l i s discgssed m o r e f u l i y i n C h a p c e r Two. See ; d e s t e r n Aoache R a i o i n o a n d W a r f a r e , C r e n v i l l e C a o a w i n ; Tne A o a c n e W a r r i o r s , G e o r g e a a l d w i n : a n d An Aoache : - i ? e - W a y , X o r z i s E . I ? P l 2 r .

CHAPTER TWO APACHE SOCIALIZATION AN0 NORMS

I t matters n o t b y what process o r method o f s c h o o l i n g t h e Apache h a s become t h e most treacherous, bloodthirsty, v i l l a i n o u s and u n m i t i g a t e d rascal upon earth: i t i s q u i t e s u f f i c i e n t t h a t h e i s s o , , a n d t h a t h e is incapable o f improvement.
D u r i n g much o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , d i r e c t e n g a g e m e n t s b e t w e e n v a r i o u s U . S. Army u n i t s a n d d i v e r s e b a n d s o f N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e t e r r i t o r y west of the flississippi Aiver sought t o establish clear social and political r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the Natives and t n e c i t i z e n s and government o f the United S t a t e s .
The missicin

o f t h e A r m y a t t h a t time d e r i v e d f r o m t h e i m p e r a t i v e s o f

national exoansicn.

A s Utley mentions i n h i s discussion

o f t h e n a t i o n a l f o c u s on M a n i f e s t D e s t i n y , " . . . p r o t e c t i o n of t h e f r o n t i e r populations and t r a v e l r o u t e s from h o s t i l e I n o i a n s p l a c e d t h e l a r g e s t d e m a n d on t h e A r m y . " L

Military
ha:?

engagements w i t h the various tribes d u r i n g the l a t t e r

o f t h e c e n t u r y a ? e c ~ l l e c t i v e l yc a l l s d " t h e I n d i a n Wars". b u t t h e a c t i o n d i o n o t b e a r much s i m i l a r i t y t o o t h e fought during the peziod--e.g.

war';

ex i, : an t h e C i v i l War o r t h e Y

Besides F a c i n g u n c o n v e n t i o n a l f i g h t i n g t a c t c s ,
t h e A-my

met a f a r m i g a b l e f o e i n t h e A p a c h e .

The t e r r i -

t o r y o v e r w h i c h t h e men f o u g h t was u n f a m i l i a r a n d u n 27

u n f r i e n d l y t o t h e m i l i t a r y newcomers, homes a n d s a f e t y f o r ninqs of t h e Apache.

yet i t provided from t h e b e q i n -

Thus,

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e A r m y a n d t h e Apache, v a l u e s and b e h a v i o r s The g o i n t o f

c r i t i c a l differences i n attitudes,

p r o v i d e d a b a s i s f o r problems t o a r i s e .

v i e w e x p r e s s e d b y C a p t a i n Cremony s u g g e s t s o n e p e r s o e c t i v e frequently taken, b u t t h e p r o c e s s o r method o f

s c h o o l i n g t h e Apache w e n t t h r o u g h d o e s mean s o m e t h i n g wnen o n e c h o o s e s t o u n d e r s t a n a who a n d w h a t t h e "enemytT really is. The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n c a t e g o r i z e s a r e a s o f Apacne gr3uos: e n c u l t u r a t i o n and r e l a t e d v a l u e s i n t o t h e s e b r o a d environmental survivaL; s o c i a l s u r v i v a l ana lewelooment o f the

s o i r i t u a l powers.

F o c u s i s on '.he

y o u t n t o f i t i n t o t h e g r o u p and t o f u l f i l l t h e g r o u p ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l r a l e s a c c o r d i n g t o " t r a d i t i o n " . ENVIRONMENTAL SURVIIJ!AL: Even f r o m e a r l i e s t youch, Apache m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s

l e a r n e d s k i l l s and a t t i t u d e s 'unich c a u l d enhance t h e i r s u r v i v a l t h r o u g h o u t l i f e i n an e n v i r o n m e n t b o t h n a t u r a l a n d human h o s t i l i t i e s . teeminq w i t h

Although the various the

oands o f t h e Apacean t r i j e s c u e i t i n o i s t a n t p a r t s o f S o u t h w e s t a n d r a n g e d down i n z a N e x i c g a n d they a l i f a c e d h a r d s h i p s o f t-,e cer:ain

LIO

i n t o Calgrado.
LI

anc weacher.

See t h e mao a t A p p e n o i x A for a b r a a d v i e w o f

the t e r r i c o r y

ia

included.

To d e v e l o p F i t n e s s f o r

living in such environ-

m e n t , o n e p a r t i c u l a r f o c u s o f t h e young Apacne's t r a i n i n g
l a y on d e v e l o p m e n t o f a p h y s i c a l h a r d i n e s s .

From t h e h a r s n r e a l i t i e s o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d
the d i f f i c u l t conditions of

the semi-nomadic

l i f e of the

t r i b e , t h e Apacne d e v e l o p e d d e f i n i t e v a l u e s t o p r o v i d e g e n e r a l g u i d a n c e f o r s u r v i v a l i n d a i ? y l i f e a s well a s d u r i n g warfare.

A

r e v i e w o f p a r t i c u i a r s or' t h e t r a i n i n g

a n d t h e p r o g r a m m i n g o f v a l u e s commonly h e l d w i t h i n tne
t r i b e s i s p r o v i d e d 3eLow a s a a a c k g r o u n d t a t n e L a t e r

d i s c u s s i o n o f the values i n c o n f l i c t . First. t r a i n i n g Segan e a r l y t o e n a b l e t h e apache and dangers o f their e n v i r 5nose k i n d s

t o s u r v i v e i n <he oiP'icuLcies onrnerrc. Sricn t r s i n i n g i n v o l v e c

o i acti\lities

which produced enaurance,

screngch, or a general hardiness.

A;?

Apacner ? e a r l e d t o v a l u e t 3 e s e t r a i t s , ? o r t h e y were

e s s e n t i a l to l i f a . G e r o n i m o r o r g u n t s c e r t a i n g a m e s h e was e n c o u r a g e d to play,
for i n s t a r c e , wnich involved running and q u i c k -

n e s s i n movement.

3 u t i n s t r u c t i z n a l a f f o r ' - . s w e n t beyoni:
11 i m o i a n t i n q a v a l d e For s u r v i v a l s k i l : s

mere c h i l d ' s c:av

Adams'
of

s t u d y ass%ssas t h e s c h o c i i n q a s c r i t i c a l i n

many

t h e camps:

i l n e A o a c n e = a t h e r 5 x o L a i n e d t o ':is

son ! t h a t ?

a n A p a c i e ' s o e s t i r i e n c s were n o t h i s r e l a t i d e s S u t h i s rain, e y e s i p h t , h a n d s a n d l e 3 s . O f t h e s e t 'iis l e g s d e r e 3 e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m o o r .. tant.-

Often,

young Apache m a l e s were s e n t t o run l o n g d i s t a n c e s t o be used as necesThey

t o d e v e l o p t h e i r speed and endurance. s a r y s k i l l s when r a i d i n g

or

g o i n g on t h e w a r p a t h .

may h a v e h a d m i s s i o n s o f c a r r y i n g m e s s a g e s f r o m t h e i r band t o a n o t h e r ,

o r t h e y may h a v e b e e n g i v e n c h o r e s o f
These r u n n i n g

h e r d i n g h o r s e s w h i c h h a d w a n d e r e d away.

s k i l l s were t o b e u s e f u l t h r o u g h o u t l i f e and were v a l u e d h i g h l y by

all.

Goodwin's n o t e s i n d i c a t e t h a t r u n n i n g a b i l i t y a i s o impacted upon t h e assignments a w a r r i o r m i g h t e x p e c t a s a member o f a w a r party--"The s p e a r m e n were a l w a y s

t h e b e s t r u n n e r s . 117 Further, r u n n i n g a b i i i t y was i n some i n s t a n c e s

thou h t t o be r e l a t e d t o possessicn of with s p e c i a l Dowers. "There were

(or association
sung 50

'Leg songs'

c u r e t i r e d l e g s on t h e warpath." ceca Is

one o f ~ O O d w i n ' s s o u r c e s r e j u v e n a t e Cne

.'

Such s i n g i n g m i g h t e f f e c t i v e l y

uhole party,

ift h e p o w e r was a D p r o o r i a t e l y c a l l e d o u t .

F o r some o c h e r s t h e g o w e r was moce d i r e c t l y p e r s o n a l i n application. Sucn a s p o s s e s s e d r u n n i n g power were n o t a s lwere t h o s e who m i g n t Oe ' l e g songs'. Cooawin's sources gower appea:ed:

q e c e s s a r i l y m e d i c i n e men, c a l l e d on t o s i n g g e n e r a l

g i v e t h i s a s a n a c c o u n t o f now t h e r l ; n n i n g

Some men h a s o a l k e ' h o ' n d i ( r u n n i n g o o w e r ) . T h a t way t h e y c o u l o r u n f a s t o n t n e w a r p a t n . A man who h a s t h i s p o w e r c a n r u n l o n g d i s t a n c e s , a n d e v e n on t h e s n o r t e s i day c o u ? d

...

30

r u n from F t . G r a n t t o F t . A p a c h e a n d g e t t h e r e i n midafternoon.9 Even though n o t a l l w a r r i o r s c o u l d r u n t h a t f a s t , t h a t l o n g , t h e a b i l i t y t o g o l o n g i d s t a n c e s w i t n s t r e n g t h ,and e n d u r a n c e

was i m p o r t a n t t o e a c h man.

A t a n g e n t t o t h e s k i l l o f r u n n i n g was d e v e l o p m e n t iof

k n o w l e d g e o f t e r r a i n a n d t h e e f f e c t s o f weather o n t r a f f i c a b i l i t y of
the countryside.
t h e area

E a r l y on.

Apache y o u t h l e a r n e d

the layout of

t h e band rangea.

E a c h member l e a r q e o

a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water a n d p a s s a g e p o i n t s t h r o u g h t h e m a u n t a i n s

and deserts.

T h a t i s , i n r u n n i n g f r o m p l a c t ? t o p l a c e , Ailache
.ind

w a - r i i o r s g a i n e d w a l l a b l e f a m i l i a r i t y y i t h t!ieir h a n i t a t

its

wsy5

of supnorting or hindering their

l i f e and movement.

3 u i L a i n q ,;elera: was 3 i s o n e c e s s a r y .

s t r e n g t h i n arms aria u p p e r b o b i v s

T h e male A p a c h e u a s sometimes g i v e n

r a t h e r s i m p i e S u t c h a l l e n g i n g t a s k s t o do a s a m e a n s t o g a i n

such s t r e n g t h as neeaed.
3rfler t h e i r s o n s 'a
of

Adams n o t e s t h a t some f a t h e r s w o u l d

" f i g h t a cree, s t r i k i n g t h e rougn n a r k to

i t s :ruci< w i t h t h e i r hands a n d b r e a k i n g i t s b r a n c h e s '

111

tougnen the muscles and develop general s t r e n g t h .

T o l e r a n c e o r t h e a x t r e m e s o f c l i m a t e was d e v e l o o e o naturally,
deser:

!'or r.he q o a c h e c r i b e s r a n g e d t h r i l u g n m o u n c a i n dnc

cold and exhaustin13 n e a t .
a b i l i t y t o dark e f f e c - i v e i y

r s g i o n s t h r o u g n bi;:er

h o w e v e r , 9 e y o n c t a l r r a n c e is :ne
i n sucn axtromes--and

t h a t was a n o t h e r v a l u e t o t h e Aoac3e.

31

Conditioning o f the youth to withstand heat and cold sometimes took measures that appear abusive Sy today's social standards.

A father might have his son

go stand in the snow for a Jeriod

o f time without any clothing on,

or he might require his son

11

to labor in the heat of a summer day--or days--without water.

He might have him go without sleep f o r

a period

of

days, to

learn to conquer sleepiness.

Drastic measures such as these

indicate how much importance was attacned to a survival based

on individual endurance and strength.

The Apache had to be

physically hardy to survive; and the fate o f the whole band depended on the ability of each these traits. The Apacne also ?ad to Learn deceocive skills t o survive i n the environmen:.
:raining
OF

the memoers to develop

for survil~ai from nostlle

actions o f other Inaian trines. Plexican o r American soldiers included the arts a f steal::, ance. and deceztion as w e l l a n endur-

A culture wnose daily Life involved raiding and ~lossible

warfare ha0 to be constantly alert and guarded in movement. Warriors had to be cautious in railing
t3

avoid Giving enemy They ?ad 50 be

time a n d opportunity to thwart their efiarts. quick but deceative in :sturn

trios to tneir rancnerias to

avoid being caught and punished 3 r t.3 avoid Leaving a trail

= o r t3e soiaiers or enemies to f i r u the cam0 and attacK in

reprisal.
O f course, their primary use O F oeception to protect

themselves came zhrough their :nor-ugh ~ n a w l e d ~oe f their

22

m o u n t a i n s and d e s e r c s .

They knew w h e r e h i c i n g D l a c e s l a y ;

t h e y knew e v e r y t r a i l t h r o u g h t h e a r e a . But they also had t o l e a r n c e r t a i n s k i l l s i n 2 r a c t i -

cing deception.

One was t o o p e r a t e w e ? l a t n i g h t .

To do t h i s ,

y o u t h were sometimes i n v o l v e d i n " s e a r c h " Also, t h e Apache made m o s t t r i p s - - e v e n women, men,

games a t n i g h t . night.

s o c i a l ones--at

On s u c h t r i p s ,

and c h i l d r e n a l l had t o e x h i b i t However, a combination O F

a d e p t n e s s o f n i g h t movement. l 2

f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t e r r a i n a n d c a r e f u l t i m i n g was i n v o l v e d i n t h e i r b e s t u s e O F d a r k n e s s as an a d v a n t a g e .
I t muas i m o o r t a n t

t h a t t h e c y c l e s o f n a t u r e be u n d e r s t o o d and F i g u r e d i n w i t h any p l a n n i n g : t n e y u s e d t o f i g u r e 3n g e t t i n g t o t h e enemy c o u n t r y when t h e moon was i u i l . They u o u i d s e t t n e t i m e s o t h a t t h e y w o u l d a r r i . i e t h e r e j u s t a b o u t t n e d a y t h a t t h e moon w o u l d come u p :n t h e e v e n i n g f u i i 3 . . . T h i s was s o ? h e . / cou:: trswe? best a t n i g h t .
I n the o l d times

--

A b i l i t y t o nove a t n i g h t and e d g e o f m o o n c y c l e s a n d how f a r

L'

remain undetected, knowl-

one c o u l d t r a v e ? i n h o w mucn ?lany o t h e r S k i i i s wore 3 o i s e i e s s mowe-

.isle

u a s n o t a l i '.he

Opache l e a r n e d .

inwolveo i n successFui scealth--suc? ment, covering o f

CZJC~S.

a s almcs:

e:c.

And t h e s e w e r e s k i 1 1 5 t h a r .

n i g h t 3 e demanded f z r l o n g d i s t a n c e m o v e m e n t s : When we ? a d i o c r o s s 3Den c o u n t r y , we a l w a v s u r a i t e d f o r e w e n i n p , a n 0 ?wen t h e n w e w e r ? v e r y c s r e f u l l o t t o l e a v e any t z a c k s . S o m e t i m e s we gsed t o lralk j u s t on o u r t a e s t o l e a v e a smal? track. and s o m e t i m e s u e k e o t ,I man o u t S e n i n o t o b r u s n a v e r o u r t r a c k s w i t h same b ~ s n e s . 0'-r o l d war p a r t i e s u s e d t o t r a v e l f a r i n t o f l e x i c 3 t h i s way. 1 4

33

F o r concealment,

t h e Apache l e a r n e d t o use m a t e r i a l s t h e t e r r a i n and d a r k -

o f n a t u r e a t hand as w e l l a s f e a t u r e s of ness.

One i n c i d e n t i l l u s t r a t e s t n e e x p e r t i s e t o w h i c h t h i s

s k i l l c o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d a n d s u g g e s t s how v a i u a o l e s u c h a b i l i t i e s w o u l d be: One A m e r i c a n who l a t e r b e c a m e f r i e n d l y w i t h t h e Apaches d e s c r i b e d t h i s s k i l l . ' W h i l e c r o s s i n g a n e x t e n s i v e p r a i r i e , d o c t e d h e r e and t h e r e by a few S h r u O S a n d d i m i n u t i v e b u s h e s , " h e w r o t e , " Q u i c k < i l ? e r !an Apache n e k n e w ) v o l u n t e e r e d t o show me w i t n w h a t d e x t e r i t y a n Apacne c o u l d c o n c e a l h i m s e l f . e v e n where no s p e c i a l o p p o r t u n i t y e x i s t e d f o r such concealment Ue S r o c e e d e d a s n o r t d i s t a n c e u n t i l d e came t o a s m a l l bush, h a r d l y s u f f i c i e n t t o h i r e a h a r e . T a k i n g * i s s t a n d b e h i n d t h i s b u s h , he s a i d . " T u r n y o u r b a c k ana suait u n t i l I g i v e t h e s i g n a l . 'I... I said: " N o , I w i l l da:k forward u n t i l y o u t e l l ne t o s ~ o p . ' ~ (He) h a i l a d me z o s t o ~ and f i n c h i m . !I h a d gone b u t t e n , steos.) i r e t u r n e d t o t h e 5usn, went around i t t h r e e or Tour t i m e s . l o o k e d a b o u t i c i n e v e r y di:eccion--there u a s no ooss:ole cover- i n s i g n t ; t h e p r a i r i e was s m o o t h a n d u n o r o k e n , a n d i t seemed a s i f t h e e a r t h h a d o p e n e d a n d s w a l l o w e d t h e man. ( F i n a l l y ; I c a l l e a a n d b a d e x i m come f o r t h - - - h e r o s e l a u g h i n g and r e j o i c i n g , w i t h i n two i a e t o f t h e p o s i t i o n I t n e n o c c u o i e d .

...

...

...

...

l d i t h Lnc:eaib:e a c t i , J i t y a n d s k i l l ne haa b u r i e d h i r n s e i f u n d e r t h e t h i c k gamma g r a s s . w i t > i n s i x f e e t a i :>e b u s h , a n d h a d c o v e r e a i i m s e l f , w i t h o e x t a r i z y z h a t one m i g h t h a v e t r o c d e n upon h i m without discovering h i s person. Such s k i l l i s e s s e n t i a l :o a n A o a c i e , f o r i t e n a o ? e b h i m b o t h t 3 amoush h i s enemy a n b t o e s c a p e f r o m them. I 5 I n d C v i d u a L i l e a r n e o L o s u r v i v e b y t h e i r cwn e f f o r t s a n d s k i l l s . Thev w a n t e o t o s u r v i v e t o h e l p t h e g r c u p , develop inoeoendeot s u r v i v a o i l i t y , b u t t h e y eacr. h a d t o

e s p e c i a l l y o n tP,e r u n .

36

SOCIAL S U R V I V A L O a i l y l i f e o f t h e Apache r e q u i r e d c e r t a i n o t h e r i m p o r -

tant s k i l l s , too.

many o f t h e s e r e l a t e s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e

n e e d s o f t h e community a s a w h o l e .

Because o f t h e s c a r c i t y

o f n a t u r a l l y p r o v i d e d f o o d a n d water i n much o f t h e i r l i v i n g a r e a , t r i b a l members l e a r n e d ways o f m a k i n g e f f i c i e n t u s e o f w h a t was a v a i l a b l e . S h a r i n g e f f o r t s t o p r o v i d e f o o d was t h e

norm a n d h i g h l y v a l u e d .
8 0 t h m a l e a n d f e m a l e c h i l d r e n were e x p e c t e d t o h e l p
t h e women g a t h e r i u t s a n d b e r r i e s w i t h

t r i p s to the Forests

o f t e n l a s t i n g a l l day.

They a l s o went t o t h e f i e l d w i t h t h e i r

3 a r z n t s t o l e a r n f a r m i n g - - p l a n t i n g a n 0 c u l t i v a t i n g o f cr:)os used
by

t h e whole g r o u p .
on

Tnac i s , e v e n b e f o r e :he
uith

Apacne

were g l 3 c e o "farminq", harvest--a

raser,dacions

t3e i o o e o f t h e i r 1 a a r n i n G

t h e y d i o know s o m e t h i n g a o o u t g r o w i n g c r o o s .

=all

time o f p r e s e r v i n g food--was

important so t h e u i n -

t e r ' s d i r t h cauld oe a l l e v i a t e d .
o f t 5 e i r c r i i p s , Gar3nimo r e c a l l s :

Discussing the importance

m e l o n s w e r e g a t h e r e d a s t h e y Nuere c o n s u m e a . (However:. i n t h e a u t u m n p u m p k i n s a n d b e a n s ' were g a t n e r e d and p l a c e 0 i n b a g s ano b a s k e t s ,

e a r s o f c 3 r n ulera t i e d c o g e t h e r g y t : i e h U S K S , a n d t h e n t h e Clarwest was c a r r i e c o n :he 3 a c k s o f p o n i e s up t o ? u r homes. H e r e :he ::ern muas s h e l l e d . a n d t h e h a r v e s t s t o r e d away i n - 3 v e s 3r o t h e r i a c l u a e o p l a c e s t o c e u s e d i n t n e w i n t e r . 15

So 5 y e x a m o l a a n d o i r e c t i n s t r u c t i o n . t h t !

Apacne Faod h a c
CO

l e a r n e d ttlat n a t u r e ' s s u o p l y o f f o o d was L i m i t e d :

b e specially cared f o r and preserved. but also supplemented with t h o s e items gained from raids. P a r t i c u l a r l y , if n o t

enough summer produce was realized, raiding became vital

as a s o u r c e o f s u s t e n a n c e .

And a l l t h e a c t i v i t i e s r e -

quired to feed the Apache were community ones

--

with

products o f the labor shared a s were the responsibilities. The division o f labor between men and women indicated siqni f i c a n t i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s a r o u n d t h o s e s e x r o l e s , too.
Wen r a i d e d o r f o u g h t t o b r i n g i n m e a t o r p r o v i s i o n s :

till-

i n g t h e l a n d was m o r e 3 e f i n i t e l y w o m e n s a n d c h i l d r e n s work. Warriors used the products women raised, a s did Coodwin records the

women use provisions men procured.

warrior use o f the food stares when readying rations F o r war parties:
On t h e w a r g a t n , dunen w e s t a r t e d out. w e a i w a y s g o t food r e a d y t o t a k e a l o n g . W e used to pack mescal o n o u r backs, also b u c k s k i n s a c k s F i l l e d w i t h g r g u n d c3rn. They used to pound the Fruit o f the prickl y p e a r u p i n t o dry c a k e s a n d let it h a r d These cakes were e n f o r u s t o t a k e along. a b o u c e i g n t i n c k e s in d i a m e t e r . also we h a d g r 3 u n d b e r r i e s in b u c k s k i n sacks. Illhenever d e s t 3 o D e d t o c a m p , w e d o u l d mix these berries with mescal an0 water a n d e a t thern.17

a lack o f individual ownersniz ciaims 3r ielfi s n ( i , n a i v i d u a l s ) us? o f c r o p s o r n u n c s d g a m e c h a r a c t e r ized the tribal relations. T h u s , m e m b e r s uorked in t h e
3f

f i e l d s o r w e n t o n runts 3r c a i a s f a r c h e b e n e f i t

all.

Rccordingly, greac emonasis was 3Laced on learning the

36

s k i l l s necessary t o bring i n something t h a t aided t h e survival of a l l

--

a successful crop or a successful

raid.

S e l f l e s s service appeared t o be a h i g h i n s t r u m e n t a l

v a l u e a m o n g t h e Apache i n t h i s w a y . The folloiuinq n a r r a t i v e o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s f o l l o w i n g a s u c c e s s f u l r a i d i l l u s t r a t e how t h e v a l u e s d i s cusses above are synthesized i n such an imoortant part of Apache l i f e : ( W h e n ) .ue w o u l d s t a r t on o u r way b a c k home, h e r d i n g a l l o u r s t o c k a n d p a c k i n g t h e r e s t o f t h e t h i n g s we n a d c a p t u r e d , we k e p t two g o o d men o u t i n f r o n t , a n d two o t h e r men way o u t b e h i n d as guards. The rest o f u s herded t h e stock a l o n g i n t h e middle. I f t h e men o u t i n f r o n t saw a a n g e r a h e a d , t h e n t n e y w o u l d c3me S a c k a n d t e l l u s a n d we w o u l d change our direction; T h i s is t h e w a y we t r a v e l l e d , n e w m r s l e e p i n g a t n i 3 h t , a n d goirrg f a s t u n t i l w e were o u t or' t 3 e c o u n c r y a n d c l o s e t o home. Ue h a d t o watch a l l t h e s p r i n g s on o u r w a y , a s t h e r e (were l i k e l y t a b e same P e x i c a n s l i v i n g near them. T h i s w a y sometimes we o n l y g c t water o n c e a d a y , ometimes o n c e i n two o r t h r e s d a y s . 1 3 Coooeration, cunninq, endurance, a n c naneuver.ability Sucn
a s d e s c r i b e d n e r e make u p c n i y a p a r t o p t h e v a l u e s i n

t h e whole 3perati3n:
When we g o t s a f e l y o u t o f t h e M e x i c a n c o u n c r y , t h e n we s t o p p e d a n d s e n t t w o men b a c x a l o n g w a y s t a s t a y a n d g u a r a . T h e n we w o u l d make camp f o r a c o u p l e of days a n d r e s t u p . Now we u a u l d f i x a l l !3u: m o c c a s i n s u p , a n b o u r r o p e s , a n d cook uo l o t s o f bee? a n d make g r u b UP i n t o a pack. : u s t a s we h a d d c n e b e f o r e w h e n we s t a r t e d o u t f r o m 9 o m e . T h i s way w e w o u l c n ' t h a v e t o make a f i r e a g a i n .

Now we s e t o f f a g a i n . When we g o t p r e t t y n e a r home, u p t o w a r d s o u r m o u n t a i n s , t h e c h i e f would s e n d a man a h e a d t o t e l l a l l o u r r e l a t i v e s t h a t we w o u l d g e t b a c k on a c e r t a i n d a y , a n d t o meet u s a t a c e r t a i n p l a c e a n d t o g e t r e a d y f o r u s . Then o u r r e l a t i v e s w o u l d b e h a p p y when t h e y h e a r d Nuhat we h a d d o n e . When we g o t i n e v e r y t h i n g sge b r o u g h t b a c k we d i v i d e d among o u r people. "Good. t h a n k y o u . " t h e y w o u l d s a y . ' g
T h e g r o u p ' s s p o i l s were t o s u s t a i n t h e w h o l e b a n d , e v e n

though t h e i n d i v i d u a l s d i d n o t a l l c o n t r i b u t e e q u a l l y t o
their acquisition. Thus.

a s p i r i t o f community d e v e l o p e d
Survival
3f

among t h e members o f t h e b a n d .

a l l depended

v e r y c l e a r l y on t h e s k i l l s and c o u r a g e o f t h e w a r r i o r s .
A nan's

" w a r r i o r " s u c c e s s was a b a s i c m e a n i n g t o h i s l i f e . spending t h e i r

3.f

T h e young males emulated t h e w a r r i o r s .

e a r l y y e a r s f i n e tuning t h e s k i . l l s required

t h e man.

Yaunq womerl l e a r ~ e dt o s e r v e a n d s u ~ 0 3 r tt h e d a r r i o r r o l e s . Other f a c t a r s r e l a t e d t o t h e r a i d i n g p a r t i e s a l s o i l l u s t r a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e g r o u p t i e s w h i c n came i n t 3 p l a y a s t h e r a i d i n g p a r t i e s were formed. The Apache l e a r n e d

how c o g e t s o m e t h i n g t h a t was n e e d e d f r o m someone )who h a d it

--

a good and n e c e s s a r y a c t f o r s u r v i v a l : F o u r o f f i v e o r s i x o r t e n men who w e r e good = r i e n d s t o g e t n e r w o u l d g o o u t r a i d i 7 g . !de u s e d t o 60 t h i s i n 3 r d e r t o g e t h o r s e s f r o m t-e Mexicans. W e u s e d t 3 go t 3 w h e r e t 5 e Y e x i c a n s #were L i v i r l q a n d c a p t u r e l o t s o f their gonies. When we a r c u q h t t h e s e b a c k t o J U T c o u n t r y we b u t c h e r e d them t o eat. The h o r s e h i c e s we u s e d f o r m a k i n g a u r moccssin s o l e s w i t n . J u s t a s we h a d r a i c e d t h e Mexican a n d Pima a n d P a p a g o b e f o r e . now we r a i a e o t h e

...

38

White People. W e t o o k t h e i r h o r s e s and c a t t l e . and d r o v e them b a c k t o o u r c o u n t r y a n d u s e d them. C o w h i d e s we u s e d t o make moccasin s o l e s o f . W e a l s o made some i n t o buckskin (Americans) had r i f l e s , c a p s , p o w d e r , a n d b u l l e t s , a n d we c a p t u r e d these f o r ourselves. We k e p t on f i g h t i n g t h e Americans w i t h these. Now when we k i l l e d t h e m we t o o k t h e i r s h o e s and panes and s h i r t s and c o a t s and b o o t s , a n d used them f o r o u r s e l v e s , a n d d r e s s e d l i k e A m e r i c a n s we h a d s e e n . I f we 3aw some A m e r i c a n s i n b i g wagons. we w o u l d g o t o them a n d c a p t u r e t h e i r o u t f i t . In t h e s e wagons we f o u n d l o t s o f f l o u r , b l a n k e t s and c a l i c o , and a l l o t h e r t h i n g s . W e t o o k w h a t we w a n t e d o u t o f t h e m a n d used i t f o r o u r s e l v e s . Out o f t h e c a l i c o we s t a r t e d m a k i n g d r e s s e s f o r t h e women.2g

...

A l t h o u g h t h e r e was a s t r o n g s e n s e o f c o m m u n i t y among t h e w a r r i o r s
3f

t h e band,

t h e b r o a d e r sense o f as s u g g e s t e d h e r e i n t h e

h u m a n i t y was n o t a s t r o n g o n e , separation o f "our5elves" t>e raids.

f r o m t h o s e wno f e l l v i c t i m t o

The 9 p a c l e s h a r i n g t n i s n a r r a t i v e w i t h G o o O -

w i n l a k e s no m o r a l judgment a b o u t t h e i r c a p t u r i n g and t a k i n g p r o p e r t y o r l i f e form t h e Mexicans, White People. Pima,

or

What was n e e d e d f o r t h e A p a c h e was t a k e n t h e whole.

4

a t gr'eat r i s k and used f o r t n e good o f

u t i l i t a r i a n e t h i c provided larameters of f o r t h e group. :moortantly, then,

good and baa

i t e m s u e r e w a l u a O ? e t!l
t3

t h e l p a c h e because o f
did not

their utility

them:

b u t t h e Apache

seem t o g n d e r s t a n c t h a t t n e owners.

they m i g h t have e o u a i The A p a c h e d e ' i n e ? Property

o r h i g h e r ~ a l u ef o r

rights quite differently W i t h i n t h e i r own t r i b e s ,

than a i d Mexicans o r Americans. t h e apache l e a r n e c t h a t s n a r i n p 29

was t h e norm:

i n s o f a r as o t h e r

--

outsiders

-or

m i g h t be

i n v o l v e d . what P r o p e r t y t h o s e P e o p l e m i g h t have c o u l d b e soon t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e Aoache.

i f t h e l a t t e r had
perceived

t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o g e t i t and h a d an a c t u a l need f a r i t .

I t a p o e a r s a s t h o u g h c o n s i d e r a t i o n was n o t A double standard

given t o u t i l i t y outside the t r i b e . was f o l l o w e d , and s u c h a s i t was,

i t created social dip-

f i c u l t i e s when t h e Apaches were a s k e d t o b u i l d p e a c e f u l r e i a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h o s e on whom t h e y h a d waged t h e i r w a r s and a g a i n s t whom t h e y had C o n d u c t e d m u l t i t u d e s o f raids.

CI

A t h i r d s e c O F b e h a v i o r s i n d e n t i f i e d among t h e

Apache r e l a t e s t o s o i r i t u a l b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s . each aember of t h e band, :narac:eristic.

For

s p i c i t u a l Dower was an h o n o r e d had soecia:

Xoc e v e r y w a r r i o :

oowecs.

b u c any t r i b a l member
ccsoence :a

--

male o r ? $ m a l e a l i k e

--

gave

c e r t a i n s o i r i c u a l o r a c t i c e s and b e l i e f s .

The i c a c n e s wers a r s l i g i a u s g e o p l e i n t n i s r s p a r o .
T h e Wes:ern

Apache t z z q

(suoernatu-al zower) a s e t o f aos::ac: anc

m u a s

~ J S St~ ~

r e f e r t o one o r a l l o f

invlsi5:le

i o r c s s w h i c h were b e l i e v e d t o d e r i v e * i o m c e r o f animals,
p l a n t s , m e t a r o l o g i c a i anenomena,

t a i n :?asses

kO

a n d m y t h o l o g i c a l f i g u r e s w i t h i n t h e u n i v e r s e a s t h e y understood it.
son Any o f

t h e "powerstf c o u l d b e a c q u i r e d b y a p e r -

--

b u t i t was b y no means e a s y .

If properly handled,

t h e power c o u l d b e used

f o r a v a r i e t y o f ~ u r o o s e s . however,

a n d t h e p e r s o n who h e l d t h e p o w e r was s o u g h t o u t b y o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e t r i b e on s p e c i a l o c c a s i o n s f o r a s h a r i n g

o f t h e knowledge, a b i l i t y , o r o t h e r aspect o f the power.

I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t t h r o u g h p r a y e r s a n d s i n g i n q o f a n p r o e r i a t e c h a n t s , t h e p a r t i c u l a r m e d i c i n e man o r woman c o u l d C0nt:OL and m a n i p u l a t e t h e tfpower,'f and i n t3at way

h a v e some e f f e c t o v e r t h e a f f a i r s o f o t h e r s .
F:om

:he

?Oache w a r r i o r s h e
3P

i n t e r v i e w e d , Cirodwin
The d i -

r e c o r l e d several c e s c z i p t i o n s

these oowers.

wersi:y

ciear!.~ s u g g e s t s a pervasive a e l i a i ana p r a c t i z e

r e l a t e d t o tP,em:
The i m p o r t a n t Dower # o r war is i n a a k e " + a r f ("enemies - a g a i n s t aower'l). I t is r e a l war p o w e r . T h i s power comes from Uayanezgane
most

ndi

the

( " U i ? l e r o f Monsters") frgm i n t h e b e g i n n i n q h e was t h e o n e who w e n t a l l o v e r :he sa:t> d o i n g t n i n g s a n d k i l l i n g m o n s t e r s , a n d h e was t h e F i r s t one t o ~ s e 3 i s gywer I n a o i n g t h i s . s o I*. a l l
i3mes
F:gm

7im.

As i n a a l l v a r a c t i c a ? t r a i n i n g .

!:>en,

we F i n d ? > a t

epi-izual
kina 3 : '
SUCCPSS

i s a l s o on t h a t mdhic> ' u o u l c s r i n g some

:n

e3e Aoac3e e n u e a v o r s a q a i n s :

!;loss
JUT.

f c m

'vnom : h e y

3 : s

zo ~ r ? s t their

? i , ~ i f l ga r t o : 3 r r ?

tnei:

rsveTge.
a c r f i t i a n a i J a r s a g e s . u n i c 3 i:lus:raca
che 'various

forms

t h a t t h e power c o u l d t a k e i n c l u d e t h e s e s t o r i e s f r o m
interviewees:

Goodwin's

I F y o u h a v e " e n e m i e s - a g a i n s t Dower" a n d y o u o n l y h a v e a k n i ? e a n d a n o t h e r man a t t a c k s y o u w i t h a gun, t h e n , y o u c a n w i n o u t and k i l l h i m i f you u s e t h e power and l i k e n y o u r s e l f t o a mountain l i o n . A l s o , if y o u u s e t h i s and c a l l y o u r s e l f m o u n t a i n l i o n . and a man s h o o t s y o u w i t h a gun, e v e n then y o u w i l l g o t m and k i l l h i m , even i f you have nothing.

li

Geronimo,
s t r o n g powers.

though n o t a c h i e f ,

was r e g a r d e d t o h a v e

I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t h e c o u l d n o t S e k i l l e d
Also.

by a gun i n b a t t l e .

one o f

t h e w a r r i a r s Goodwin i n -

t e r v i e w e d s a y s t h a t such men a s t h i s ,

who h a d p o w e r o v e r

guns would i n b a t t l e say words o v e r i t , and p u t t h e i r power i n it. Furthermore, y o u c o u i d a l s o g e t h i m :a

put t h e i r mwe?

i n y o u r gun ? o r you, p r a y ower i t , so y o u w o u l d newer m i s s

anvthirrg.

T h i s c 3 u l d b e done F o r i u , n t i n g as well as w a r . then he would 2ray

i t . 26

A l s o i f a F i g n t was c o m i n g a ? F s o o n .

o v e r h i s own g u n t h i s way and p u t h i s p o w e r i n

Anocher w a r r i o r soaks o f
O u C 3n

a s i m i l a r D o w e r h e he:d.

Uhile

a r a i d t a s t e a l h o r s e s , h e h a c a dream:

"5 d r e a m e d t h a t somecne t a l k e d t o me. " t o m o r r o w

a man u e a r i n g a l o n g o e a r d a n o a m u s t a c 5 e u i l l t a k e t h e r a p e away F r o m y o u . " (This neant t h a t h e w o u l d be a t t a c k e d a n d t h e a e r s o n w o u l d s t e a l h i s horses.) ( L a t e r ) ! J h i l e I was r i d i n q , I l o o k e d nac!k a w e r t h e c a n y o n t a t h e s o u t h a n d saw some p e o p l e c o r n i n g s l c w ~ v3n S i g n o c s e s l . . \Jaw 8dnil.e t h e y s n o c a: ne I s a i i a few u o r d s t o my ~ c w e r , "Hal: the:: ;uns UD: Son': !eC :hem s n o o t a t .ne. L e i z3e 3 u i l s t . s G O awe:." When I s p s k e t h e s e w o c c s l a c o n e o f my h o r s e s g o t hur'.. and I g i d n ' t even hear t h e sounds 3 i t h e S u l l o ' , s . I n t h o s e d a y s 'ue u s e d t a a r a v i n war l i k e t h i s . 2 5

...

42

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r c o r d s o f b o t h Coodwin a n d O p l e r , the

Acrache s a n g " p r a y e r s " b e f o r e a l l c r i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s , n o t

j u s t i n war.

R a i d i n g was a l s o i m p o r t a n t . a l t h o u g h war Warfare and raidO n a raid,

p a r t i e s o f t e n r a i d e d a s well a s f o u g h t .

i n g were s e p a r a t e a c t i v i t i e s t o t h e A p a c h e .

i t was i m p e r a t i v e to a v o i d e n g a g e m e n t s w i t h t h e e n e m y .
T h e i n t e n t was t o t a k e p r o v i s i o n s a n d r e t u r n w i t h o u t loss.

Warfare. h o w e v e r , s o u g h t o u t t h e e n e m y f o r p h y s i c a l r e t r i bution;
t h e s u b s e q u e n t r a i d i n g was merely an a d d i t i o n a l

d e f e a t t h e Apache d e a l t a n o p p o n e n t .

26

F o r b o t h a c t i v i t i e s t h e Apache s o u g h t s u o p o r t from
s o i r i t u a l powers. g o a d t o a :eck!.sss

A l s o t h e S e l i e i t h a t a 3ower was n o
31

i n c a u t i o u s w a Z 2 i o r Serwed t o l i m i t

a c t i o n s u n i c h 'uoulb i n c r e a s e t3e d a n g e r t 3 t h e g r o u p .

Apaches u s u a l l y a t t a c k e d a t n i g n t o r P r o m c o v e r e d p o s i t i o n s
d u r i n g t h e d a y , a n d o n l y when v i c t o r y seemed p r o b a o l e .
T h e y d e f e r r e d t o a n enemy m o r e n u m e r o u s

t h a n t h e y , seek-

i n g 3 e a c e F u l a g r e e m e n t s 'with t h o s e t r i b e s o r n a t i o n s acpearing mightier than they.

They valued possessions o f

t h e bes'. m e d i c i n e o r g r e a t e s t p o w e ? s , a n d d i d n o c c 3 a l l e n q e e n e m i e s t > e y b e l i a v e d 5 3 h a v e s t r o n g e r 3oweTs t h a n t h e y . 27 t > e y could avoid 3 eonflic',.

1s ? o r s s r s . n o n i a ? a c t i v i t i e s ,
t h e Apache h e l d w a r

if

3 a n c e s a n d , ~ i c - . c r : r d a n c e s a s a q e a n s o i b r i n g i n g all t h e
p e o p l e a n 0 g o w e r :a h e a r on t h e s v e n t . Again,
Only

the distinceion

3etsleen w a r i a r a a n d r a i a i n g is c ? e a c .

a f t e r t h e Apache

r e t u r n e d from war d i d t h e y h o l d a s p e c i a l v i c t o r y d a n c e f o r " j u s t p l a i n c a t t l e r a i d s " t h e r e was n o war d a n c e o r

--

v i c t o r y d a n c e . a c c o r d i n g t a t h e warriors t h a t Coodwin i n t e r viewed. P r a y e r s were c h a n t e d f o r b o t h , b u t c e r e m o n i e s d i f -

fered.

Warpath was a m e a n s o f s e e k i n g j u s t i c e f o r w r o n g s
C a u t i o u s de-

a g a i n s t one o r many o f t h e t r i b e ' s member%.

l i b e r a t i o n p r e c e d e d d e c i s i o n s t o make war, a n d o n c e t h e d e c i s i o n was made. P r a y e r s were s u n g t o i n v o k e t h e powers

needed f o r s u c c e s s .

T h e war d a n c e s e r v e d a s o n e means o f

o e t i t i o n i n g t h e Great S p i r i t f o r a s s i s t a n c s i n e f f o r t s t o avenge l a s t relatives. According t o dpacne t r a d i t i o n . o n l y

t h o s e w a r r i o r s who h a d p r o v e d t h e m s e i v e s ( c o m o l e c e a t h e i r
n o v i c e i n t e r n s h i s ) '2ont an w a r a a t h .
The war

victory dance

uas a l s o a rostziczse aczivity, ailowing g a r t i c L p a t l a n . o i

t h o s e !wno h a d f o u q n r . i n t h e o a c t l a b e i n g 2 e l e O r e t a c .
'

''

This

was a s r a i s e f o r p o w e r s l s a a i n g t o v i c t o r y . t r i b e s e x h i b i t e d a c3nsistant:y as this. P l n o t n e r a c t i v i t y :hrcugh

tbeir spiritua:
ano a l s o t h e i :
was n o t ,
gi.m as,

A 1 1 Apacne

s t r o n g s p i r i t u a l Focus Sucn

,uhiz? t n e Apache z r o u g n t
t3eiz slariaring
This a a t h
-he

;lowers

t o :ear

as a 2 a r t o f

d a i l y L i f e u a s c h e sweat b a t h .
3

?owever,

:Leansing

c e r e m o n y L i k e t h a : . 3:

b u t u a s -3::e:

a oosi:ive

inst:uct;onal

ocezzzunity.

:~lhena e n g o c 3 a c ~c:3m t ? , e wargat:: the'! , u o u l a a ,, l. Cake a s w e a t 3a:n. TLley s u a u l 2 5 e 3 : 1 dirt:! a n c u o u l o w a n t - 5 wasn t 5 e m s e l v e s . They u o u l a s i n g 3 0 : z s i (nastiness s o n g s ) a n o b y , l o i n 9 t h i s

They d i d n o t s i n g a l l these songs. There were t o o many o f t h e m . W e sang a o o u t twelve n a n t a s i ( c n i e f s o n g s ) . after t h a t we s a n g a n y s o n g s we w a n t e d t o , d i 7 i 3 i (power s o n g s ) f o r any Dower. S n a k e , L i g h t n i n g , Deer-- a n y k i n d i t d i d n o t matter. The t w e l v e c h i e f s o n g s a r y c a i l e d c h i e f s o n g s bec a u s e i n t h e m t h e p e o o l e a r e i n s t r u c t e d how t o l i v e . just as a chief i n s t r u c t s h i s oecole i n t h e w a y s o f l i v i n g when h e t a i k s t o t h e m e a r l y i n t h e morning. W e only sing four of t h e s e s o n g s a t a time i n sweat b a t h , t h e n I t t a k e s t h r e e times i n sweat b a t n come o u t . t o s i n g them. Then t h e f o u r t h time w e sing e make t h e sweat b a t h b i g a n y k i n d o f song. W a big e n o u g h t o h o l d e i g h t t o twelve men one. The day a f t e r w e g o t B a c k t h e women u s e d t o wash o u r h a i r o u t . T h e s e c o n d d a y we t o o k t h i s sweat O a t h . W e d i d i t i n tne aaytime, never a t night. Not o n l y t h e men who h a d b e e n t o war w e n t i n t h e sweat b a t h . b u t men who h a d s t a y e d home a ? s o u e n t s e c a u s e t h e y w o u l d w a n t tz - e a r t h e stzries o f u n a t h a o o e n e d . 2 2
t h e y would gray.

--

--

Other a c t i v i t i e s t h a t z c c u r r m a f t e r t h e s u c ~ e s s f u L
war o r r a i d i n c l a c e d t h e d a n c s f a r d i s t r i s u t i o n o f
the

spoils.

T h i s was a s o c i a l a c - a s i o n

but a l s o one wnicn

e x h i a i t s apache 3 e l i e f s i n aowers: A f t e r c a n t i n g b a c k =:om a r a i d o r t h e w a r p a t h l o t s o f h o r s e s and American c a t t l e . t h e y w o u l c n o l d a d a n c e , c a r t h e women, c a l l e d i n d i bioidcao'i:a! (enemies their orooerty The:? m ~ o u ?oe c l o t s of peoole dZnC9;. t3ere. T h e women d i d n ' t d a n c e f o r n o t h i n g . Uhen t h e y were s i n g i n g . t h e women w o u l d c a l l o u t a n d a s k co: a 3 . 0 1 ~ 8 ,o r b l a n k e t , o r c a l i c o a l l kinds of things. T h e men d i d t h i s a l s o . a n d t h o s e wno ? a d c a o t u r e a t n e s e t h i n g s w o u l d g i v e :hem t z t n e o e o o l e who a s K e l :?is w a y ? O r
with

--

them.;'J

I n t e wa:ious

san:ss

anc 3a;>s.

:he

Aoacne found

w a y s o f s n a r i n g :?~eir s a i r i z a a l e x o e r i e n c s s a s 'dell as

t h e i r m a t e r i a l ~ o o c s . 5cl:i:ual

i o n c o r n s apoea:

as n a t -

u r a l a n d communal. P e r h a p s m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g o f a l l p e r s o n s who p o s e s s e d

P o w e r s was t h e " t r u e " m e d i c i n e man.

H e was h e l d i n h i g h e s -

teem t h r o u g h o u t t h e t r i b e a s w e l l a s i n t h e smaller b a n d s
where h e m i g h t s t a y .
T h e s e men were l o o k e d u o a n t o p r o -

v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y song t o p r o t e c t , c u r e , o r h e a l , o r t o a n y w a y a i d t h e members o f t h e g r o u p . b e a t tom-toms.

He w o u l d s o m e t i m e s

d a n c e , s i n g , or s p r i n k l e c e r t a i n c o n c o c t i o n s For

u p o n t h e p e r s o n ( 3 ) b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o h i s nowers.

c u r i n g a p e r s o n . h e was g i v e n a p a y m e n t , a n a f o r s p e c i a l " b l e s s i n g s n f o r t h e w a r p a t h . h e w o u l d e x p e c t some o f t h e s p o i l s brought back.

T h e s n e c i a l g o w e r s o f suc.? nen e l -

e v a t e d t h e m t o p o s i t i o n s o f esteem among a n y t : i b e

or

oand.

t l i t h o u g n t n e y were n c t c h i e f s , t h e y h a d g r e a c i n Proolems a r o s e
In the

f l u e n c e an a c t i o n s o f t h e warriars. r e i a t i o n s h i o between t h e
Army

a n d A a a c h e when t h e v a l u e

o f t h e m e d i c i n e man was n o t a o e q u a c e l y : e c o g n i z e d . "

L 3 a r n i n g a11 c e r e m o n i e s , songs, a n d r i t u a l s u s e d t a i n v o k e s p i r i t u a l o r e s e n c e a r a s s i s t a n c s was n o c nandat3:y

F o r eac? c h i l d . Many s o n g s were known o n i y b y

t h o s e slho became n e o i c i n e men; some wers known o n l y b y

~ u o m e n ; a n d some c n i y b y w a r z i z z s .
Apache,

However,

' 3 :

sac7

t h e r e was

70

o o u b t :.?,a:

:ne

3cwers c a l l e o a n t h r z u g h

song o r specia;

" t a l k s " h e l d :ne

7:

3 r e a ~ a s ti a O O r Z a n C e f o r

t h e o n e who h a d L.3e Dower.

?lave a a o w e r u a s v a l u a b l e t o

t h e Apache.

T h u s , f o r many Apaches.

the s p i r i t u a l element

p e r m e a t e d l i f e a n d t i e d t o g e t h e r t h e framework f a r h i s o r her e x i s t e n c e . E n c u l t u r a t i o n r e g a r d i n g powers a n d b e l i e f s i t was a n

i n v o l v e d some s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g , b u t m o r e o f t e n . i n f l u e n c e through modeling.

S e v e r a l s u p e r s t i t u t i o n s governed activities o f daily life. J a s o n a e t z i n e z m e n t i o n s p a r t i c u l a r ones t h a t

seemed t o b e h a r d f o r many Apache t o o v e r c o m e :

The A p a c h e n o t i o n was t h a t i f you h a n d l e d a d e a d c o y o t e you w o u l d d e v e l o p some b a d h a b i t

such a s t w i t c h i n g your mouth. j e r k i n g y o u r o r even g o i n g c r a z y . I f you t o u c h e d a snake. t h e s k i n would p e e l o f f your h a n d s I ' you n e t a s n a k e i n y o u r p a t h . y o u s h o u l d - mar4 a : l o s s a n t h e g r a u n d i n Front o i
head,

...
,

Furthermore. several taooos or special rastrictL3ns

.on c e r t a i n a c z i o n s > e r e :a

5e g o s e r - i e a 3 u r i n g r : i t i c a L

:ieriads

of

lifs:
On t h e ,uarztatn t n e r e u e r e s p e c i a l t e r m s a n d words f3r e v e r y t h i n g , n o t t h e r e g u l a r s o e e c n . On s t a r t i n g s o u t h f r o m i i l h i t e R i v e r , o n t h e w a y t h e Inen u s e d j u s t r e g u l a r s o e 9 c h u n c i l t h e y c r a s s e d :he G i l a R i v e r . j u t f r o m : > e r e a n t i l l r-e:/ r e c z 3 s s e d i t o n t 3 e way b a c k , t h e v h a d C.z ';se : n i s s p e c i a l 5 o e e c 3 Far ins t a n c s , 'unen t h e y zame a n t h e ' z e s h : r a i l or' t h e s n e q y , i n s t s a d o i s a y i n g , "Here is w n e r e t h e e n e n v DassecI g y , " t h e y w i l l say c i 2 o l i o k

...

(somet-i'lq ?as 3een d r a g g e d 3 y ? e r e ) , and a n o t n e r .da-/ i s ' e h a t l ? k ( h e r s i t h a s >oOOe'3 a l o n g I l < e a E -gg,.--

Taoaas

?3r

3.

'di??

u n i l e be? h u s a a n c i i gone a n

raia

3r

t o ,uar wer? 3 L s a z z S e a o s e r , i e d :
he

She ar3vs e v e r y n o r n i n g 'or P3cr aays a f t e r q o e s : $ v e r v t i n e i n e ou;ls a a o c a ' n e a t

o f f t h e f i r e , s h e p r a y s t h a t h e may g e t w h a t he wants. She must o n l y u s e o n e end of the f i r e p o k e r t o p o k e t h e f i r e t i l l he g e t s b a c k . T h i s a p o l i e s also t o g r o w n d a u g h t e r s i n t h e same w i c k i u p . I n t h e case o f a s i n g l e man whose mother a n d g r o w n s i s t e r s l i v e i n h i s w i c k i u p , t h e y d o t h e same.Z8 T h r o u g h o u t t h e Apache n a t i o n , c e r t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t
b e l i e f s and v a l u e s

aopear as a p a r t o f t h e s p i r i t u a l p o w e r s
The c o n c e p t u a l

a n d s p i r i t u a l f o c u s commonly h e l d by a l l . v a l u e s aopear t o be u n i v e r s a l o n e s :

b e l i e f s o f man's i n -

a d e q u a c y i n t h e face o f m a n y " s i t u a t i o n s a n d o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f b e i n g s w i t h powers e x c e e d i n g one's own

and who

w i l l g i v e h i m a i d i f h e c a n l e a r n t h e c o r r e c t method o f a p p r a a c h i n g thern.S5

48

What values are understood from such a life a s here described?

00 tribal values appear to have priority

Just what a r e the primary

over those of the individual? ones?

Perhaps the most important point to be made in a

generalization about Apache values is that they clearly related to both individual and tribal wants. Customs

and traditions developed the ruarrior through strict cultural influences, but each person's actions were influenced to a degree b y personality factors as well.
As

a re-

s u l t , paradoxical and inconsistent behaviors sometimes stemmeo from the seoarate value sources. o f an dxact vaLue identification
a

-L.3

3riority racing For all Apaches is However, certain

topic heyono the scope o f this itudy. grouo value appear

be hignly ranked among the various As Linton

individuals in the numerous tribes and bands. sugpests in his

essay

on values, the conceotual values

have the broades-, similarities; inst:amenta; more variety

--

ones incluoe 36 amcng tne Aoacne as a m o n p other peooies. want ano freedom Pram fear were
gb-

Freedom vious;y values.

desized aoove many ~ t h e rsignificanz conceotua? The 4pac3e z3mmunic,/'s a f f o r c s

to

endure lardshiz

and risk 1 i . = e i n gaining even a casic suOsistence indicate a high ranking far "c-eedom From want." The emonasis
O n

deceptive ooeracions, o n mcbiie Living quarters. a n 0 o n

LIQ

c a r e f u l guarding of from fear:

g r o u p movement s u g g e s t t h a t " f r e e d o m These v a l u e s had

i s also a primary value.

h i s t o r i c a l l y been m a i n t a i n e d a t a h i g h c o s t t o t h e Apache e v e n b e f o r e t h e Apache a n d s o l d i e r s e n g a g e d i n c o m b a t . The

--

Apache c o n t i n u e d t o h o l d t h e v a l u e s a n d c o n t i n u e d t o p a y

f o r them i n l i v e s and t i m e .
plundered t o stand o f f want,

' 8 e c a u s e t h e Apache r a i d e d o r t h a t value impacted s i g n i f i c a n t l y

o n t h e A r m y a s i t e n t e r e d t h e Apache l a n d s . Another value, urally for Freedom o f religion.

37
existed nat3f

t h e Apache b e f o r e t h e y became s u b j e c t s and wards o f t h e U.S. Government.

mis-

sionary efforts t h e Southwest,

Throughout

the r e l i g i a u s expression of

t h e N a t i v e Am-

ericans reflected several similarities, t r i b e s may h a v e > a d a f z w

even though difCecent ritual,

v a r i a n c e s i n ,warsnip f o r q .

or belief.

The 3pach.s h e i d s t r o n g b e l i e r ' s b u c r e s o e c t e d they d i d n o t o r i e n t e f f o r t s particular beliefs.

t o require

t3e b e i i e f s of others;

any o t h e r s t o a d c p t : 3 e i r

The c o n c e p t O F
An0 t n e

a m i s s i o n a r y r e l i G i o n was c o n f u s i n g t o t h e A o a c h e .

c o n c e p t o f a S a v i o r ( j e s u s C h r i s t ) was a l s o i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . However, a l l n a t u r a l t h i n g s were v a l u e d a n d t r e a t e d a c c a r d i n g 3a t o t h e v a r i o u s S e l i e f s a n d s u o e r s t i t u t i o n s n e l d a b o u t them. zecognition of an a p o r o p r l a t e r e a c t i c n anc :egulac perf3rmnCe t>e

E x e r c i s e o f gowers,
t3 s i g n s ,

u t i l i z a t i o n J F m e d i c i n e nen,

o f cersmonies o r ocservarion L I ~ taboos dere a l l 3 ? a r t of

Freedom o f w o r s h i c l e n j o y e d o y gagement w i t h t h e A r m y .

t h e g o a c h e p r i o r t o t h e i r en-

5J

est values involved in interoersonal relations.

The word

o f a warrior a r o f any person with whom some 3ealinps 3r trades are being conducted was to be taken a s lizezal and oinainq. 3reacnes in agreements made conditions = o r aven5-

inq tne wrong

--

within tne Aoacne tribes a s well a s ?e-

tween whites and Apaches.

A s for selflessness, the warrior who carrier3 3ut

?is raid t o 2ai.n food and material items for tne gr3ua or :>e warrior wno jcinea a raioing 3ar:v
23

assist

F : ~ D I ~

:I ?,is

aue-.5i?g a u r g n c , iotn exniaitac a ,c:ncer+ i s invcivemenc

may

anc lavaltv

-,. - c.hers.
stimulated

not
3

have 3een 2ers3nallv zersccal 2 o n c t : :ne

-2

--

oc7er t-an t:irciugr, Ru:

F - i e n c o r kinsnip o o n a s .

t3e warrior rssoonding

za:-:-, .--~:a:?y

-.ne

apaeal Fcr helj ziiolavec: self:.ssness,

?e

onen

risKed ?is lice to assist a friend securo Faoc ano ; r c v i s i a n s

3r

,is

amily

1 n try-

Lng .o

?or tze tzioe.

r i s ~

L.Iowever, n c t all warriors were mocivatee :s ?;fa

only

50 sdo3o:t

anotner.

Also,

acc3roinq

-3

Aoacne

;usrice, a s eat.- apacne felt wrongeo. > e cir s n e c3ulc sxac: jurisnment of a se?=-de:ermineo

-. n a t is,

magnitude ar.d z i s u .

a war:i3:

such ai nlanqaa Colorscas. - o c ? i s a ,

2:

ie-crnimc :ec o t n e r a ints oartle to avence d r ? n ~ s3 n c

t o s i m o l y carry out oersocal hatred.

315.3

S o m e warriors fougnt

or raiaea because it brouqnt them esteem and glory oersonal recognition.

--

Those warriors w h o fought most

Conceptual values o f l o y a l t y , h o n e s t y , and s e l f !essnpss w e r e i n * i o h e v i d e n c e among t h e A p a c h e , t o o .

Y e t t h e b e h a v i o r g i v i n g meaning t o t h e s e v a l u e s d i d n o t

a l u a y s p a r a l l e l t h a t w h i c h wa3 t h e norm f a r t h e W h i t e American. L o y a l t y was l a r g e l y s u o ~ o r z e dh y k i n s h i p b a n d s

The s i z e and makeup of

and by band a f f i l i a t i o n s .

raidinp

p a r z i e s v a r i e d from one r i d e t3 a n o t h e r .

That is, sucn

, u a r r L o r a s Geronimo c o u l d h e 3een o n o n e ? a i d w i t h o n l y
z;uo
i

3r

t h r e e a t h e r n e n : 3not.le:
uith

:ine

? e may h a v e J e e n a i 'rromen an!: c n F l a r e n .

- i. l i a t e d

t w e n c j o c 5 e r 5 , Fnc:uoing

an6 s t i l ;

a n o t h e r a c c s s i g n , 5 e nay h a v e f a u q n t : u i t h a g r z u c
70

a ? z n e n u n c r e d 'rrar:i:zs and s i t i L 1 s s : a b l i s h e d
-osir.ion.
Layai:v
o i

a s a >a::

a i a war > a r t ' / .

_- C>arlsaa
s.~:-L.

t h e 4cac-e y a r r i a r in a l e a c e r s h i c

? i s fzLl:aers

N u a s

q e c t by

lis

...

The v a i d e o f hones',y n e a n t a L i t e r a ? t e l i i n g

9?
OX^:):

:rut?
:a

'or

e a c h par': J ? a n a 5 r z s n e . r ~ c z ~ n c ? u d e d .

The

w h i c h t h i s v a l u e nay h a v e 3so.r n e l d is dPSC:iSeC

by

F a r i s n i n h i s : e i ! ~ c : i 3 o s an 1 2 ~ 1 i s e :
He y a 3 3 n a n 'who ~ : : r ? e a 3 L i ' a : , was 3 : 2 a v s t z u C ? i u ! i n a:? ' . C i ~ g s . n i s r e L i q L z I n was c r u t ? ana lgvalt;. 4 e s a i d t s me c n c ? , : :e" C 7 i c r a s u a . a mar s;.ouLd n e v e r L i e ! " o L i ? ( ~ : "Vo, r e s 8 - c ~ i z l o t . b u t 3 gr?az He s a i c : nany : c . " . _ " T S a t is c z u e , 3 u : the'! 1- i nan a s k s j a u a r : i n e e c 10: J O F:, q u e s : i z r we J C nc: d i s h t a a n s u e ? , :ue Z ( I U ? ~ i C i i m c l y s a y : ";d o n ' : u a n c 'a ':a:\ a b c u z tna:."

...

PIC?

a n l y t h i s Famous w a r r i o r , b u r t h e g e n e r a :

31lpuiaco

3 ' '

t n e Aoacne n a t i o n r e g a r z e d hcnes:y

t o z e one c i :>e

str3ng-

s a v a g e l y and i n c a u t i l u s l y t o s e e k such p e r s o n a l a c c l a i m were n o t f n l l o w i n g q e n e r a i Apache t r a d i t i o n s and n o r m s , n o w ever. The d e g r e e o f payment t o be a x a c t e d f r o m an enemy

f o r a wrong committed v a r i e d , t h e n , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
t e n s i t y o f anger or hatred of the avenger.

in-

Apache t r a d i t -

i o n d i d n o t have a s o e c i f i e o punishment f o r e a c h "czime" a i t3ough payment i n 4 i i d u s u a l l , / s a t i s f i e d t ? e wronged 2ar:y.

I ! a 8uar:iar

we:?

k i l l e d i n S a t t L e . :*e

s u r ' l i 5 ~ L n q f a m i l : ilas ~nac-

a l l s u e d t 3 t a k e gunlsnmenc measures 3s t>ev c n o s e ui:>

s u e r g r i s o n e r s ) haooenec :a
some e a r t a r e s

3e d e i i v e r s d .

v r t h i s :oason.

gccur:?c

some c 3 o t i v e s uero 3 e l d a s s l a v e s . killad cuc:i~nt. Apache j u s t i c e

C3e

a n c same w e r e i u s :
was

5rutai:y

incivi-ua l y aaminisracsc. 3 u c

as s a n c z i o n e o 3 v

'..-ibe

been a pooular o n e , s u ~ p ~ r t ez o y such sve-witness descriitions a s t?is o n e C-emony ~ i v e s : Kindness and goierosicy Jrovoke nis contemot, and h e regards t 3 e m a s weaknesses. Chasrisement d c e s not p r o c u r ~?is vengeance with any more certainty than want 3 f caution. i n e ma? Who deems it the ?ignest ac-ievement tz become a aextergus robber is scarcelv an ocjecr ir lwnom to regose confiaencs.b2

I n all : : i b e s

and thrzughcu'. all activliies, Acac3e Licestatus and i t s r e l a t e d

stria dia 5 i v e hiph value r z warria:

skills. +owever, "',ner
3

:zr.cizns ~ l a c etnat ;art o i tie

523-

Scacne's : i = s i n r z
? = = z e d abcve.
of

.^ f ? r o ~ i = r 3 m :-,a: ~ e r s j e t t i v ei ;
'.re

Tc summarize

Imczr'.ant
as
3

:-arac:erlszizs
ninimum:

t3e Apacne. c?ne must i n c l l o e :?.e~e

:.
A .
7

... :.n SKL

Skill
: I

asaorinc

: J

zlinace anc terzai-

n e c s ~ r i v e -.ecnniouec-.

3.
k ,

?nysica, -:tness Lnceoenaence a:

and o ~ c u r a n c e sel'-i;fc1:ier,cy

5. 6.
7.
TO

znceraepencence a s "fami?y" oonds

3 e l i e c in " D o w e r s "
zeyonc znesel"

S e i i i f i n revence j u s t i z e

be s u r e , raicing ana uar-aro actiwiries : i n training a n e p r e ~ a r a t i o n O

:i-e
z :

cluaing :ne
:3s

anc c c n ~ u c tC ' e n e r ~ y 3 f fioacTe

raibs) consumea nucr o f : ? e

anc

flaily life.

But raids and warfare w e r e not daily occurrences.

Sy

Prompted b y survival and

vengeance n e e d s of :he

group, the

raids were reactions reflecting cerzain group vaiues, a s we?l

NOTES

1.

(Glorietta.

NM:

J o h n C. C r e m o n y , L i f e Amonq T h e A p a c h e s , The Rio C r a n d e P r e s s , 1 9 7 0 ) . p. 3 2 0 .

2.
p.

R o b e r t N. U t l e y , F r o n t i e r s m e n i n B l u e ,
R o b e r t M. U t l e y , F r o n t i e r R e q u l a r s . pp. 45-46.

2.6.

3.

4. See A p p e n d i x A F o r a map o f A p a c h e t e r r i t o r y which shows t h e great d i s t a n c e i n c l u d e d i n Apacheria.

5. G e r o n i m o . P . 2 L . S e e a l s o o t h e r b i o q r a p n i e s s u c h a s t h a t b y Adams. G e r o n i m o (?Jew Y o r k : C. P. Putnam. Sons, 1 9 7 1 ) . Adams s t a t e s : " T h e ApacHe c o u l a c o v e r a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e i n a day on f o o t t h a n t h e b e s t m o u n t e d s e v e n t y m i l e s o r e v e n more. O n a social cavalry units t r i p , t h e women a n d c h i : d r e n were n o t e x p e c t e d t o e q u a l t h i s D a c e , b u t t h e y were r e q u i r s d t o w a l k m u c h f a s t e r t h a n a n y w h i t e woman o r c h i l d n o r m a i l y c o u l d , F o r t f l e w a r r i o r s c g u l d n o t b e a s k e o t o p r o t e c t l a g g a r d s . " (9. S S ! .

--

6.
7.

Adams, 2. & G .

Goodwin,

0.

262.

8.

G o o d w i n , P . 274.

9 . G o o d w i n , p . 273. The c a l l i n g o u t o f p o w e r s i s a s i g n i C i c a n t f a c t o r i n Apache c o n d u c t o f warfare a n d S p i r i t u a l v a l u e s are discussea more raiding activities. f u l l y below i n t h i s c n a p t e r .
The d i s t a n c e ? e r e n e n t i o n e d i s a o o r o x i m a t e l y 80 miles o v e r rough t e r r a i n . S e e Cne f l a p a t t a c h e o a t App e n d i x E For d i s t a n c e s . B c u r k e a l s o n o t e s t h a t o n e or' t h e Apache s c o u t s e m p l o y e d b y G e n e r a l C r o o k o n h i s 1 8 8 3 c a m p a i g n t r a v e l l e d o v e r s i x m i l e s 3wer t h e m o u n t a i n s i n l e s s t h a n an h o u r ( 5 0 m i n u t e s ! : "qe reachea u s a t 1.05, a n d h a n d e d t e n e r a ? C r o o k a l o t s 3 a t e d 1 2 . 1 5 . " (3. 7 5 )
10. Adams, p . L 9 . Geronimo a l s o n o t e s t h e copu l a r i t y o f S U C - , e x e r c i s e s a s o u l l i n g :JP t r a e s 3 n d l i c k i n g up h u g e r o c k s . S e e G e r o n i m o . 0. 5 6 . 11. :ason B e t z i n e z . I = g u a h t w i t h Geronimo. see aLso ( H a r r i s b u r g , PA: S t a c k p o l e , t 3 . , 1 9 5 9 ! , 2. 2 7 .

56

Adams a n d G e r o n i m o For s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s . 12. 13. 14. 15.

16.
17.

E e t z i n e z , pp. 50-52.
Goodwin,
D.

261.

Goodwin, p p . 2 5 7 - 2 5 0 .
Adams, p p .

71-72.

Adams, p . 4 9 .

Goodwin, p . 2 5 6 . Goodwin, p . 2 5 9 . Goodwin, p . 260. Goodwin, pp. 262-263.

18.

19.
20.

21. L i n t o n , p . 466 " S o c i a l v a l u e s w h i c h a r e u n i v e r s a l l y o r e s e n t a r e o f t h e utmost interest s i n c e s o c i e t i e s r a t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s a r e t h e u n i t s i n t h e human s t : u g g ? e f o r s u r v i v a l . They a l s o e s t a b l i s n t h e Limits w i t h i n w h i c h many v a l u e s a r e o p e r a t i v e . " L i n t o n ' s s t a t e m e n t s Seem p a r t icularly a ~ ~ l i c a o h l e r e , a s d i s t i n c t i o n s between t h e oop o s i n g s o c i e t i e s s e o a r a t e them a s " v a l i d " j u d g e s o f accUDSaS;e a c t i o n s . ~ i n t z nF u r t h e r s t a c e s t > i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i u f societies: "...the i n d i v i d u a l ' s tribe represents for hin t h e L i m i t s o f h u m a n i t y a n d t h e Same i n d i v i d u a l who w i l l e x e r t h i m s e l f t o a n y l e n g t h s i n b e h a l f o f a f e l l o w t r i b e s m a n 'nay r e g a r d t h e n o n t r i b e s m a n a s F a i r game t o b e e x p l o i t e d b y a n y It p o s s i b l e means

...

22.
23.

Goodwin. p . 2 7 0 .
Goobwin, p . 271.

2 & . Goodwin, p . 2 7 3 . O t h e r p o w e r s t h a t m e o i c i n i ? men w e r e c a l l e d a n t o u s e i n c i u a e c l " s n e m i e s - a g a i n s t ~ o w e z " t o make h a i l a n d w i n d o n t h e e n e m y , a n d " b a t p o w e r " w h e r e o y I t,he m e d i c i n e man made w a r r i o r s l i k e b a t s t o be e l u s i v e : a fight. Also, N a ' : t l u k . a gcwec w i t h s o n g s u s e o 5 3 f o c i t e l l cominq 2 u e n c s on t h e w a r p a t h u a s an i m o o r t a n t 3 n e .
25.
26.

Goobwin, p p . 2 7 1 - 2 7 2 . Thrapp, pp. x i - x i i

27. Gooowin, p . 2 9 7 . I n F a r i s h ' s A-llstJrv O F A r i z a n a , t h e Apache a r e d e s c r i b e a i n t h e s e w o r d s :

57

"An Apache never attacked unless fully convinced of an easy victory. They would watch for days, scanning every move, observing every act, and taking note o f the party under espionage and of all their belongings. Their assaults were never made on the spur of the moment by bands accidentally encountered; they were invariably the result o f l o n g ittatching patient waiting, careful and rigorous observation and anxious counsel." (Farish, I, 200.)

--

28. 29.

Goodillin.

p.

2 8 1 . and see also Opler,

p.

75.

Goodwin. p . 2 @ l .

-31.
32.

30. Also. when Colonel Carr arrested the Rpacne Medicine Man, Nock-aye-det-Klin-ne, he ignored the importance this person was given within the tribe. Sefore Carc could get MM to the Fort, his unit was attacked b y Apaches who had Followed. The scouts a : s o fled in confusion, with three being later convicted by court-martial and hanged. This incident well illustrates differences between the Apache and soldiers regarding spiritual values. See Sidney a. arinckerhoff, "Aftermath of Cibicue" ihe Smoke Trail (Fall 1928). p p . 1 2 2 - 1 2 3 .
Betzinez, p . 3 6 . Retziner.
p.

27.

33.
3b.

Goodwin, p . 25i. Goodwin, p . 2 5 7 .

3 5 . Linton, p . &55. Spiritually reiated instrumental values of the Apacne included many rites and superstitutions which were interpreted as despicable and irreligious by soldiers whose spiritual values difcered. A source of opinionated judgment was this oifference in religious beliefs.

36.

Linton,

p.

b61.

2 7 . This choice c f action - - to raid rather than to farm was a cultural interpclation, an instrumental value which changes during the caurse a? the contact between Army and Anache nations.

38.
p.

Ooler,

D.

23.

39. John Rourke. Gentile Graanization o f the Apache, 16. Sometimes the changing associations o f warriors into bands o r clans confused tne Army whose ideas o f Loyalty
58

t o u n i t m e a n t a n a s s i g n m e n t t o o n e company f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f enlistment. T h i s became a n i s s u e more r e l e v a n t t o t h e A r m y , h o w e v e r , when t h e Apache s c o u t s w e r e e n l i s t e d a s d n a i d .

40.
41.

Farish.

History of

Arizona,

Vol

1 1 , p . 229.
(Tucson:

George B a l d w i n , Cremony, p .

The W a r r i o r Apaches.

0. S. K i n g , 1 9 6 5 ) .

d2.

320.

59

C H A P T E R THREE

A R M Y SOCIflLIZATION A N D N O R M S

" T h e r e seems t o b e a s u e c i a 1 s e n s e i n w h i c h sccisty a s a whole l o o k s t o t h e military p r o f e s s i o n a s a f i n a l r e s e r v o i r o f i t s most p r e c i o u s human v a l u e " '

What p r o m p t e d a c t i o n s a n d j u d g m e n t s o f s o l d i e r s

b a t t l i n g t h e Apache w a r r i o r s m a y be b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d t h r o u g h a r e v i e w o f t h e character a n d c o n d i t i o n of t h e men i n t h e F r o n t i e r A r m y .

The v a l u e s ,

a t t i t u d e s , be-

l i e f s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s b r o u g h t w i t h them i n t o t h e c a m p a i g n s n e c e s s a r i l y i m p a c t e d a n how t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p d e w e l o o e d .
The f o l l o w i n g paragraphs w i i l d i s c u s s t h e c o m m i t n e n t ,

s k i l l s , and v a l u e s typica;
and s n i i s r e a

of the soldiers

--

both officer

--

uho

u e r e c a l l e d u p o n t o f i g h t t h e ApaCnE?.

Regarding commitment and s k i l l s , one n u s t n o t e

same d i s t i n c z i z n b e t w e e n r e g u l a r s , v o l u n t e e r s , a u x i l i a r i e s ,

and s c o u t s .

T h e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s o f men o f t e n s e r v e d t o -

q e t n e r on a s s i g n m e n ~ s . b u t each r e f l e c t s a u n i g u e z h a r a c t e r .

P r z ~ f e s s i o n a : 'attars

Ellisted:
rarry-

T h e r z g u ? a - s muera t h e n o s t d i v e r s i f i e d l o : ,
inq out

their military assignments with wideiy diPcerinc

4monp t h e

commitments.

r a n k s were m a n y v e t e r a n s , " h a r d

b i t t e n men" wno ~ l a ee x D e r i e n c e d b o t h t h e C i v i l War a n d

60

These campaigns a g a i n s t h o s t i l e I n d i a n s d u r i n g t h e 1 8 5 0 ' ~ . ~ men w e r e m i l i t a r y p r o f e s s i o n a l s , g e n e r a l l y w e l l - t r a i n e d and

I n the e a r l y

r e a d y t o c a r r y o u t any m i s s i o n g i v e n them. of t h e Apache campaigns.

years

t h e s e v e t e r a n s were t h e m a i n s t a y o f

t h e s m a l l R e g u l a r F o r c e w h i c h was a s s i g n e d t o t h e W e s t . However, composed o f t h e p o s t - C i v i l War r e g u l a r Army was m o s t l y 1) y o u n g men who j o i n e d t o s e r v e

new s o l d i e r s :

as " s o l d i e r s o f t h e r e p u b l i c " as had t h e i r honored f a t h e r s , Scothers, 2)

3r o t h e r m a l e r e l a t i v e s d u r i n g r h e C i v i l War;

r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s from Eurooe

--

many o f them t a k i n g t h e

o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a r n E n g l i s h a n d become o r i e n c e d i n A m e r i c a n ways t h r o u q h m i i i t a r y s e r l ~ i c e ; t h e N o r t h and t a e South,

Fir
The

and 3 ) Neqroes

--

from

30th

some l i t e r a l l y h o m e l e s s ,

exceDt

A r ~ y .

After

1975,

fewer veterans

remained w i t a i n the adventure seekers

9 e g u l a r A r m y buc i n c r e a s e d numbers o f ano s o c i a l runaways e n l i s t e d .

I n c r e a s e d demands f o r men t o t o accept

p r g t e c t the f r o n t i e r drove r e c r u i t i n g e f f o r t s a n d a s s i g n men : 3 t-e

f r o n t i e r w i t h very l i t t l e traininr:

i n what t h e y were t o face.

Q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g the Army's ye<

de-

p r o f a s s i o n a l i s m ar3se d u r i n g t h i s t i m e o f expansion.

t > e L e a d e r s a n d men w o r k e d t o c a r r y o u t t h e i r q i s s i o n , s p i t e 'larsh criticisms. as

The v a r i o u s c a t a g o r i e s o i e n i i s t e o s e r v i c e . expected, mission; exhibited different but overall, one o f L e v e l s o f commitment tne concerns f o r Army

t o the leaders

61

f r o m the top o f

the Chain O F Command all the way down to

the Frontier unit commanders was the high rate o f desertion.

As a matter O F fact, the rates were o f such concern to

Lieutenant General P . 6. Sheridan, commanding General of the A r m y in 1 8 8 l r . that he concluded his reoort condemning those who deserted: Men desiring to reach the West are often withAscribing n o value o u t means o f doing s o . whatever to the sacred oath o f enlistment. they become recruits simply and solely in order to procure Government eransporcacion (westward, fuily intending to desert u o o n arriving at their western stations. Others, enlisting without this original purpose o f deserting. are enticed b y the higher wages they find orewailing in the l e s t , or are allured b y excitements o f mining regions. They invent some valueless excuse f o r -.heir discontenr. with the service, and desert at tne first convenient oooortunity. Scme deser: diciousiy: without any particular reason: a f t e r deserting :3ey g o t o some renote Zlace, whers :hey a r ~ drk n o w n , re-enlist under false names, and r s peat this crime indefinitely i P they s o choose. Many are utterly incorrigiole offenders: they enlist, desert, are aoprehendea or Surrenaer, are tried b y courts-martial and are punished by imprisonment. Rfter serving their sentences o f confinement, they again enlist at olaces escaue recognition and are senc to new comoanies. Here, becoming dissatisTLed wit? their stations o f their officers, even i ? n o t detected. they will reveal themselves a s former deserters, whereupon the law admits. o f n o aiternative but to immeaiateiy discharge them, without punishment, as havinq fraudulently enlisted, a s did the notoricus "bocnty jumpers" o f the last war. 7 Seneral Sheriden continues among the bad lot
of

to

call them the "uc:st

On

eLlments"

deserters.

the whole, he LamOasts

the men who desert a s not fitting into tne Army ~ r o f e s s i o n -

a l i s m anyway a n d o n l y d o i n g i t harm by t h e i r t a n g e n t a n d

transient relationships. Through t h i s o f f i c i a l condemnation. suggesting that values

Of

Sheridan is

loyalty, honesty, and selfless

He i s t h u s

s e r v i c e a r e l a c k i n g among s u c h a s w o u l d laave.

s a y i n g t h a t s u c h v a l u e s o u g h t t o be amonq t h o s e e x h i b i t e d
by

t h e s o l d i e r who p e r f o r m s h i s j o b d a i l y .

That soldier

who s e r v e d w i t h t h e r e g u l a r s h a d t o o v e r c o m e f e a r , b o r e -

d o m e , a n d h a r d work a s s i g n m e n t s t o make i t t h r o u q n a n e n l i s t m e n t term.

I t iuas n o t e a s y , b u t many l o y a l men k e p t

t h e Army f u n c t i o n a l a n d s u c c e s s f u l i n c a r r y i n g o u t t h e

m i s s i o n g i v e n them. C e r t a i n l y , f e a r o f t h e o p p o n e n t a f f e c t e d t3e p e r f o r m a n c e at many o f t h e men.

Exoecting the worst p o s s i o l e

t r e a t m e n t i n L i c e o r d e a t 2 , some s o l d i e r s c h a s e t o d e s e r t
r a t h e r t h a n f a c e t h e e n e m y y e t t o b e met.

Even t h o u g h

t h e s o l d i e r m i g h t h a v e h a d o n l y ramor f o r i n f o r m a t i o n ,
t h e m o u n t i n g f e a r m o t i v a t e d r e a c z i o n s among t h e t Z O 0 p s .

R i c k e y n a t e s t h e c o n d i t i o n i n t h e s e words:

No a s p e c t o f I n d i a n Wars h l s t o z y h a s b e e n d i s c o r t e d a s much a s 2 a s t h e s u b j e c t O f comb a t ulith h o s t i l e I n d i a n s . For t h e e n l i s t e d man a n I n d i a n c a m a a i g n m e a n t g z u e l i n g : r o s s count:y marches i n e x t r e m e s 3 i h e a t a n d C O ~ I J , slim r a t i o n s o f = o o d a n d w a t e r , a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y 3f catching an Indian b u l i e t or arrow. P i t c h e d k a t r l e s were r a r e i n I n o i a n t h o u g n m o s t s o l d i e r s viesue0 t h o campaigns h o s t i l e w a r r i o r s a s b e i n g good f i g h t e r s . Rr?c r u i t s o f t e n reflected a fear of Indians t h a t g e n e r a l t y a c c o m p a n i e s a c o n t e m p l a t e d s:rugg!e w i t h t h e u n k n o w n , a n d s o l d i e r s sometimes t e n d -

--

63

e d t o a t t r i k i u t e a l m o s t s u o e r n a t u r a l powers A 1 1 4new t h a t i n t h e e v e n t t o the Indians. o f a d e f e a t , o r i f o n e were c u t o f F f r o m t h e command, t h a t h e h a d b e t t e r u s e h i s l a s t c a r t -

r i d g e on himself.8 F a c e d w i t h s u c h a g r i m p r o s p e c t , some l e f t t h e a r e a : some stayed t o fight.

The d e s i r e f o r s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n d i r e c t e d

each s o l d i e r a c c o r d i n g t o h i s v a l u e s : l o y a l t y t o t h e u n i t
and t h e A r m y t e m p e r e d some t h o u g h t s o f f l e e i n g .

Yet d e -

s e r t i o n r a t e s remained h i g h , f o r (whatever r e a s o n . ? J u t a l l was n o t t h r s a t e n i n g t o t h e l i f e o f frontier soldier.

the

Among t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f f i e l d s e r v i c e .

t h e men f o u n d t e d i u m a s w e l l a s e x c i t e m e n t a n d f e a r :

On t h e f r o n t i e r , t n i s s e r v i c e was e s c o r t i n g . o a t r o l l i n g , scouting, a n d a t times campaigns o r e x o e d i t i o n s a g a i n s t l a r g e f o r c e s of h o s t i l e I n d i a n s E s c o r t d u t y was For t h e m a j o r i t y of t 3 e t r o o p s always distasteFu1, 5 u t es:~rzing a buil gr Iroxtr t r a i n was t h e u o r s t . Esco:ting a gove r n m e n t o r c o n t r a c t o r s m u l e t r a i n was l e s s t e d i o u s b u t more a i ? F L c u l t . 9

...

General F o r s y t h r e c a l i s his experiences w i t , a n d how h i s men r e a c t e d :

this 3uty

From t h e moment a mule t r a i n e n t e r e d a n o s t i l e I n d i a n c o u n t r y u n t i l I 5 ? e f t it. t h e r e r a g e d a c a n t e s t o f wits b e t u e e n :he a f f i c e r i n c h a r g e and t h e w i l d e s t , s n r s w o e s t , n o s t cunning n o r s e t h i e v e s t h a t e v e r t h e s u n s h o n e an. The I n d i a n s more e a g e r t h a n when on t h e t r a c x o i an.$. t r a i n , were u n t i r i n g in p u r s u i t of t ? e i r p r e y . R e g u l a r Arny p e r s o n n e l a s s i g n e d
io

the f r o n c i e r
313-

were g e n e r a l l y l e s s s k i i l e d i n s i l r , J i v a l an0 maneuver e r a t i o n s than t h e i r opponents. of t h e t e r r i t o r y a n d l a c k

3F

Their lack

if

knowledge

unoerstandinq a ? 3oache

methods and motivations o f t e n l e f t t h e s o l d i e r unpreparsd t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e m i s s i o n e a s i l y or s u c c e s s f u l l y .

Y e t , t h r o u g n extreme d i f f i c u l t i e s , m a n y s o l d i e r s
c o n t i n u e d t o serve well.

Parker praises those r e g u l a r s

who s t a y e d t h r o u g h h a r d s h i o s a n d met t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f

frontier service:
o n t h e p l a i n s a n d m o u n t a i n s were e n g a g e d I n

...

f o r more t h a n t w e n t y years o u r s o l d i e r s

a (warfare a l m o s t a s d i s a s t r o u s a s our s t r u g g l e W e fought f o r the preservatf o r t h e Union. i o n o f t h e Union a n d t h e y f o u g h t f o r "The R e d e m p t i o n o f t n e West." T h e i r s e r v i c e was equally as arduous as ours. T h e same l o n g m a r c h e s , camp a n d g a r r i s o n l i f e , a n d t h e i r many b a t t l e s w i t h h o s t i l e I n d i a n s were e q u a l l y a s d a n g e r o u s a n d f a r more h o r r i b l e m a n y times o v e r , i n r e s u l t s t h a n we e n c o u n t e r e d d u r i n g t h e C i v i l War. 1 1 C o m m i t m e n t , t h e n , was a f a c t o r t h a t k e p t s o m e o f
t h e nen FLghEing, : f e s p i t a d i r e c o n a i t i o n s .
F3r one part-

i c u l a r grcluo o f r e g u l a r s , t h e b l a c k s o l d i e r s , c o m m i t m e n t
appeared t o be c?e s t r o n q e s c ,
i f service Loyalty and per-

formance a r e i n d i c a t o r s o f such:

A l l i n 3 1 1 t h e b l a c k s o l d i e r s made a g o o 0 a p p e a r a n c e a n d e a r n e d :he r e s p e c t a n d s u o POI: o f t h e i r o f f i c e r s . Officers t2Sti f y i n g befclre C o n g r e s s r e g a r d i n g A r m y r e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n : a 7 8 a r g u e d t A a t t h e b:ack r e g i n e i t s were c r a c x o u t f i t s a n d o u g h t t o b e r e t a i n e d f o ? C.ne g o o d o f t n e s e r v i c e . An I r n y s u r g e o n s t a t i o n e d a t ' t . S.i1? statec! t h a c t > e b l a c k s :3ok " m o r e i n t a r e s t i n t h e i r p e r s o n a l a p p e a r a n c e t h a n t h e ,white s o l d i e r s .
i'hornoson r s g a r d s 3 s e v e n * i g h e r r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e s k i l !
ana 1 c y a l t . y o f
the nlack u n i t s ,

I ,

12

t h e r e c u e s t by General
t h e 2btli o r 2 5 t h

? l i l e s t o r e p l a c e :he

1st Infantry w i t h

65

Regiment ( 1 8 8 6 ) .

I n a d e s i r e t o have t h e b e s t t r o o p s a -

v a i l a b l e f c r c a m p a i g n i n g a g a i n s t t h e r e o e l i i n g Apaches, M i l e s p a i d t r i b u t e t o these regiments by preference for e i t h e r of them. enlistees? Mazzanindicating his

And w h a t o f

the foreign-born

o v i c h r e c o u n t s one i n c i d e n t w h i c h s u g g e s t s a c o n c e r n r e g a r d i n g t h e i r commitment: W h i l e t h e w a t e r c a r r i e r s w e r s gone, a b i t o f comedy was s t a g e d b y a n I r i s h m a n o f 3 u r t r o o p s . He was h o i d i n g h o r s e s . As I h a v e s t a t e a , t h e Indians uere Daying consideraole a t t e n t i o n t o o u r m o u n t s d i t h t h e i r rifle F i r s . The name o f t h i s I r i s n m a n was O e l a n e y . He t h o u g h t t n e I n d i a n s w e r e g e t k i n g t o o r o u g n , s o h e drODoed t h e b r i d l e r e i n s a n d made a d a s h i n a n e f C o r t t o p u t a s much c i s t a n c e a s j o s s i b l e 3 e t d e e n h i m s e l f and t h e savages. L i e u t e n a n t Owszton c a L L e a 7 i m t o come b a c k , b u t 3 e l a n e y h a 0 S u s i n e s s aLsewhere, and k e o t o n r u n n i n g . Ue a l l h a d t o Lauqh, f o r i : suss z e a l l y f d n n v Oouzt?ass Equna a ?cod, s a f e 2Laca : t z 'watch t h e r e s t o ? t h e ewenis , u n f o l z ) . ' -

...

...

Some w h i l e l a t e r , rock,

t 3 i s soldis:

emerges From b e n i n a a tne unit, and obeys f i i s

c r a w l s Sack t c t h e i e s t o f

c o m m a n d e t ' s o r d e z t 3 " s o o v e r t h e r e a n o ge-. scme a m m u n i t i o n : t h e n get. G O h e r s a n d r e d e s f l y o u r s e l f . " Y a z z a n c w i c n rec3:zls:

" O e l a n e y d i e a s a r d e r e o . a n c d h e n n a i f way UD, t u r n e d r c u n d a n d s a i d mwieh 3 G r i n , a e j a o b e r s , C L w i l l ? L a z e away i n t o t h e f l now. 11:

I

~ a r t a i n l yo n e i n c i d e n t o o e s n o t s-cw a l l

I O ~ C U C :

that lihar

--

o r euen a n a j c r i t y

--

m i g n r . 3aws e x n i g i t e d .

tfie i n c i d e n t suggests,

neverzneless.

is - . ? a t s u c h I n l i s t -

28s may n o t h a v e 'Jeen f ~ i i yo r i a n - , a a c e c l a r d i n q z n e n a t u r e

66

and e x t e n t o f

t 9 e i r expected service :uithin the Army.

15

F i n d i n g t h a t r e a l i t y c o n t r a s t e d so s h a r p l y w i t h e x p e c t a t i o n s
c r e a t e d a t t i t u d e p r o b l e m s among many s o l d i e r s native-born aliks.

--

foreign or

15
t h a t many

Ostrander o u t l i n e s t h e "rude awakening"

of

the troops f a l t : As we g o t f a r t h e r i n t o I n d i a n c o u n t , r y , I found t h a t t h e enthusiasm f o r the w i l d s o f t h e West 1 h a d g a i n e d f r o m B e a d l e ' s d i m e n o v e l s g r a d u a l l y l e f t me. The z e a l t o b e a t t h e f r o n t t o neLo my comrades subdue t h e savage l n d i a n s w n i c 3 had bee0 s t i m u l a t e d b y t n e c o n s t a n t c a l l s For t r a o o s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h my h a n d s a t h e a d q u a r t e r s also was g r e a t l y r e d u c e d . My c o u r a g e h a d l a r g e l y oozed o u t !dhi?e I l i s t e n e d t o t h e b l o o d c u r c l i n y t a i e s t h e o l d t i m e r s rsci!:ed. B u t : muas n o t a l o n e i n c h i s F e ! ~ ? i n q . lllhen we g o t i n t o t ? e c 3 u n t r y w n e r e I n d i a n a t e a c x s v e r e l i k e l y t3 haODen a n y moment, I F o u n o t h a t R ? I R C ' / o r n e r p e r s o n :n ? : r e outfit. inclzdinq 3 u r seasoned s c o u : s was e x e r c i s i n g a : t n e w i t and c a u c i a n possible c u a v o i a c o n t a c r . w i t h t h e n o b i e r e d men. i n s t e a d o f l o o K i n q f o r t r o u b l e a n d a c h a n c e t c ~g u n i s h t 3 e ? a v a g i n g I n d i a n s , t h e w h n l e command 1: was ::ying t o get tnrcuqh wizhout a f i g h t .

--

--

Many r e g u l a r s , participants
3 i

!?en,

may h a v e 3 e s n somewnat r e l u c t a n t e'ien i 5 o l i e d i e n t t o o r d e r s

t n e zamoaigns,

3FfLcsrs: Prafessiorlal F ~ C T J ~ S Amcnq t h e ; ? g u l a r b a t t l e against

+.he Aoacne,

o f f i c e r s wno
a 3rest

le:: t n e men i n t o
age. exUD

diver'jity of

~ e r i e n c e , 3nd p r o i ? s s i 3 n a L i s m a l s o a o o e a c s . t h e s e c o n t r a s t s i n :3e sarly

Utley

sums

F i z n c i e r A r m y i n these words:

3 n '.he

c n e n a n d t ? e r ? :were i l i q o r o u s anC

57

ambitious young line o f f i c e r s g l o r y i n g i n t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f p r o f e s s L o n a l i s m s o dramat i c a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d o f lrlexico and s t r i v i n g t o p e r o e t u a t e t h e m i n t h e d i s m a l l i t t l e f o r t s i n t h e West There were a l s o o i d e r o f f i c e r s who l a i d t h e g r o u n d w o r k f o r t h e new p c o f e s s i o n a l i s m b a c k i n t h e 1830's a n d 1 8 4 0 ' s a n d who s t i l l h a d v a l u a b l e years of s e r v i c e a h e a d o f them O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e were t h e d e a d b e a t s , n o n s e r v e r s . a n d n a r r o w m a r t i n e t s whose abi l i t i e s h a d b e e n d u l l e d S y age, boredom, a n d alcohol.18

...

...

A r a t h e r u n p l e a s a n t image 3 f p o s t c c m m a n d e r s h a s s u r v i v e d

t h e p e r i o d , s u p p o r t e d by comments such a s those o f G e n e r a l

G e o r g e C r o o k , w h o , a s a new l i e u t e n a n t , saw " p e t t y t y r a n t s " who " l o s t n o o p p o r t u n i t y t o s n u b t h o s e u n d e r t h e m , a n d p r i d e d themselves i n saying aisagreeaole things.
Most o f them had

b e e n i n ccmmand oi small p a s t a s o l o n g t h a t t h e i r h a b i t a n d m i n d s h a u n a r r o w e d Cown

t3

tnei:

t h e y were t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e O F

surroundings '3 selfishness."

...

Generaily

Other negative picturas o f f-gntier

o f f i c e r s have

b e e n g i v e n a s wel;
Low p a y .

Sy

m i l i t a r y n i s t o r i a n s s u c h as ; J t l e y .

slaw p r o m o t i o n s a n d j e i e r a l s t r s s s r e l a t e r ? t o t h e

n a n a g e m e n t o f u n n a o o y , p o o r l y Fee, c l o t 3 e d . a n d q u a r t g r e d m e n , a n d t o t h e a d j u s t m e n t s t a d r a s t i c s h i f t s b e t w e e n Soredom a n d Fear, e x a c t e a a h e a v y t o l l on the c ? = i c e r c o r 3 s c 3 r o u g h o u c

the period a f the

i n u i a n :dars.

Jf

C O U P S ~ ,

t 3 e C i v i l War

t o o k m o s t o f f i c e r s F o r a t l e a s - , o n e p e r i o o ; 3 u c many 3 z h e r s resigned, o r joined volunteers i c o have a qiqner rank:. P r o f e s s i o n a l i s m a m o n g o f f i c e r s 5ecame more n o t i c e a b l e a n d

was e s t a b l i s h e d a s a n o r m zinl'/ d u r i n g t h e 0 0 s : - C i v i i

war

68

p e r i o d ( a l t h o u g h t h e o f f i c e r c o r p s c o u l d b o a s t o f a 736, 20 West P o i n t e d u c a t e d f o r c e b y t h e m i d 1 8 5 1 ~ ~ s ) .
As o n e o f

t h e k e y commanders i n l a t e r y e a r s , Gen-

e r a l Crook b r o u g h t w i t h h i m , and i n f l u e n c e d h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s t o e x h i b i t as w e l l , a c h a r a c t e r d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f many o f

t h e e a r l y commanders.

His e x p e r i e n c e s a s a y o u n g

l i e u t e n a n t had a r o v i d e d h i m w i t h l e s s o n s h e wanted t o a v o i d
repeating.
4 s O i v i s i o n Commander, h e s e t h i g h s t a n d a r z s

f o r w e l l - t r a i n e d and committed ( l o y a l ) t r o o p s .

l'hrough ? i s

l e a d e r s h i p . h e f o c y s e c on t h e r e a l i t i e s :YF m i s s i o n a n d j e termination t o zesolve (not j u s t end) t h e c o n f l i c t s .

be

a l s o i n f l u e n c e d s e v e r a l 3 c h e r s t o a d o p t s u c h p q s i t i o n s :n t h e l a s t days o f
:.he

wars.

2:

The k i n d o f 3 i v e r s i t y i n :3mmitment

e v i d e n c e d a:nonq

e n l i s t e d p e r s o n n e l was f o u n a a l s o among t h e i r L e a d e r s , although during rne l a s t years of the century, both e n l i s t e d a n d o f f i c e r w e r e d e v e l o p i n G more p r 3 f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s . Yec +wen t n e n . the o f E i c e r c3r3s did n o t Drovide unifier1

and c o n s i s t e n t p r o i s s s i o n a l l e a o e - s h i g . and l o y a l t i e s kounc t h e c o r g s t o g e t h e r . i s t e d among t h e \ u a r i o u s 3 u a : z s L i i g c a v a i r y ; s t a f f agaiilst l i n e ; regula: s e n s i a n and ;eaLousy Iidiari wars.
-5e

Uo common f r a a i c i g n s
qarmony n e v e r e x -

factions

--

infantzy u s

u s volunteer

--

dis-

2 r e v a i i e . t t k r o u g h o u c :he

i i e r i ~ d3 f
:3P

r::ztion

- .

r e s u l t e d i n a ' ~ a r y i n ga e g r e e

a i s r u p t i o n i n ei':~:L.s

t o accomolish u n i t missions.

Als:I,

i t n a a a n e g a t i v e imoact on t h e e s c a b l i s n m e n t iif s a t i s f a c t o r y
69

relationship with the Aaache. If indeed the en:isted ranks and the officer corps

seem to exhibit unclear and inconsistently heid values of loyalty, honesty and selfless service. one need l o o k only a little wider and higher to see other elements of the Army providing n o better model for character traits in regard to carrying out the frontier mission. provided the directives.

A divided source

With a cnange in presidential With a change

in

directive. the A m y s mission cnanged.

philasoohy of -he Secretary a? War. the Arqys 3perationaL focus changed. With a change in leadershio in the field. Men were led into diferont

the 4rrn.y~tactics changed.

kinas of
hr.

battles against the Aoacne with different objectives 22 different times during the forty-year period. Whether

Sheriaani externinacion ?olic./, G r a n t s peace ?oiicv, CrooKs food o r builets policy, ar H o w a r a i Bible policy was the order, the Army \was to carry it aut. Such shifting

o f oolicy from tne t o p and shifting 3 F tactics i n the field

brought significant negative influences into f k e relationship, a s will be discussed further in Chaptsr Four below.
5 C C I A . L A N D R E L L G i O U S FACTORS

--

EYLISTE3 IFID OFFICES:

AlthouGh they ooerated a s a single Forcs. army regulars uere not a iociaLl>/ unified ~ r z u p . They uerz a fighting group, but the nen J i 3 nat have rll:~ra1l,y similar bacKgraunds, nor were they exeecced to inrerTingie

70

socially, grouo

especially

those of

different

rank.

The l a r g e r

--

the c i v i l i a n environment norms.

--

d i d not always support Christ-

t h e Regular Army s o l d i e r ' s ian religious beliefs Army was o n e o f regulars. followed,

The p r e v a l e n c e o f

( h e l d i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s ) among t h e

t h e s t r o n g e s t common i n f l u e n c e s among t h e though n o t always

Judeo-Christian principles.

p r o v i d e d a frame o f r e f e r e n c e used t o e v a l u a t e

enemy a n d c o m r a d e a l i k e .

23
on t h e R e g u l a r Army s o l d i e r ,

Summarizing i n f l u e n c e s then.

we s e e t h a t R e g u l a r A r m y p e r s o n n e l w e r e o f t e n n o t and s u r v i v e i n t h e campaign

well-prepared o r trained t o f i g h t

e n v i r o n m e n t a g a i n s t t h e Apache a n d t h a t c o m m i t m e n t p r o b l e m s aboundeo. Cenerall'/, s u r v i v a l s k i l l s of tne Regular Arny

w e r e i n i t i a l l y SueaK.

P e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e : i v i l i a n was n o t t h e k e y f o r s o c i a l s u r -

community and t h e o f f i c e r s vival

--

a l t h o u g h t h e r e was a p r o f e s s i o n a l i n t e r d e c e n d e n c y (The A r m y g r o t e c t e d c i v i l i a n l i f e and P r T o e r t y

for survival.

a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y ~ r o v i d e dt h e A r m y w i t h p r o v i s i o n s a n d horsas.) P z o t o c o l 'values f o r t h e s o l d i e r came p r i m a r i l v

through the m i Z i t a r y group,

w i t h s u c h common b e h a v i o r s a s

? a m b l i n g a n c a r i n k i n g o f t e n p r a c t i c e d e v e n t h o u g h :bey officiall:/

'Irere

unacceptaoie t o e i t h e r general society c r the

oroiassion o i the Army. 3ecause t h e g e n e r a l : u d e o - C h r i s t i a n s e r v e d as a i o u n d a t i o n f o r c i v i l i a n mores, Principles a degree of

71

common u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e l i g i o u s g u i d e l i n e s f o r l i f e e x -

i s t e d among t h e s e s o l d i e r s .

S p i r i t u a l u n i t y d i d not.

VOLUNTEERS

Professional Factors:
The second c a t e g o r y of t r o o p s ,
the volunteers,

p r o v i d e d key a u g m e n t a t i o n t o t h e p o s t - C i v i l War A r m y , somew h a t t h e same a s t h e y d i d d u r i n g t h a t g r e a t w a r .

That is,

t h e y were n o b i l i z e d i n r e s p o n s e t o t r o u b l e s w i t n i n c e r z a i n g e o g r a o n i c a i b o u n d a r i e s , b u t s t a y e a t o f i g h t beyond t 3 e i z i n i t i a l home a r e a .

211

UCley identifies c n a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e A r m y men a s follows: UolLnteer regiments u e r e mustered i n t o s e r v i c e f o r 5ezms v a r y i n g Frgm 5 n o n t h s t o 2 y e a r s . They w e r e t o b e e m p l o y e d w h e r e v e r a n d h o w e v e r The volunteer r e t h e a r m y needed them g i n e n t s capDed s t r a t a o f s o c i e t y b e y o n d t h e r e a c h of p e a c e t i m e r e c r u i t e r s , and t h e r a n k s F i l l e d w i t h men o f a p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l c a l iber u n u s u a l i n t h e t y p i c a l Regular u n i t b e f o r e i f 195s a m e n a h l e 53 a i s c i p l i n e , : h e y the uar. u e r e also m o r e h i g h l y f n o t i , ~ a t e d ana nore agq r e s s i , J e . W e s z e r - e r s p r e d o m i n a t e d , an0 most o f tnem s l a i m e d some e x g e r i e n c e w i t h f r z x i e r l i ' e and I n d i a n ways. A l t h o u g h many o f t h e i r campany a n d r e g i m e n c a i o f 9 i c e r s w e r e l a m e n t a o l y d e f i c i e n t , t h e y s e r v e 3 u n d e r a t o o commana a f more t n a n o r d i 3 a r y k n o w l e d g e a n d a b i l i : ? ! u i t n fsw e x c e o t i o n s , t n e r a n u i n g commanoers b o a s f e d f r o n c i e : e x p e r i e n c e . e i t h e r il :.?e ReGula: A m y , o r a c i v i l i a n p u r s u i t , a n a t p e y applied themselves w i t ? a z e a l r a r e i n a a r l i e r years.25

...

...

Among t n e ~ r . i t s were

t h e Cali'ornia

Column,

first

72

o c c u p y i n g t h e area a r o u n d a n d i n c l u d i n g T u c s o n i n 1862.

A l s o , New M e x i c o V o l u n t e e r s j o i n e d t h e e f f o r t s t o s u b d u e
t h e Apache.

P a r t i c u l a r l y notable i n t h e characteristics

o f t h e v o l u n t e e r s is t h a t t h e y b r o u g h t c l e a r e r e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e i r j o b w i t h them. T h e y were more f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e

c l i m a t e a n d t e r r a i n t h a n were t h e R e g u l a r A r m y p e r s o n n e l .

i t a p p e a r s , a n d c o u l d e n d u r e some o f i t s h a r d s h i p s w i t h
l e s s loss t h a n t h e R e g u l a r s c o u l d .
G e n e r a l H a l l e c k , whose

C a l i f o r n i a C o l u m n m a r c h e d t o t h e Ria G r a n d e f o r t h e f i r s t e n g a g e m e n t s . r e c e i v e d t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m m e n d a t i o n on t h e
a b i l i t y of
h i s men:

1 : is o n e o f t h e m o s t c r e d i t a b l e marches o n r ~ c o r 3 . I o n i y w i s h o u r ( 7 e g u l a r ) Army h a d t h e m o o i l i t y o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a C31umn.L5

9 u c , r e r - J i c e time For v o l u n t e e r u n i t s (was a n i n oefLnite factor. g s u a l l y , t h e time was s h o r t . a n d c o u i a ,

t h e v o l u n t e e r s on a p a r t i -

z!n o c c a s i o n a f f e c t t h e u s e o f

c u l a r campaign.

I n 1864, G e n e r a l C a r l t o n ' s l l a n t o

7 l a n k e t Arizona wich t r o o p s numerous enough t3 defeat a l l h o s c i l e s was z u r t a i l e c j y l a t e a u t u m n D e c a u s e C a l i f o r n i a companizs had reacned the end
3f

many o f t n e

t h e i r term o f
t3

s e r v i . z o , a n d i n o r d e r t o m u s t e r t3em o u t , C a r l t J n n a d

s u s c e n a t ? e Aoache c a m p a i g n s a n d to a s s u m e t h e d e f e n s i v e 27 8 ~ i t C ,3 r e a u c e d 4 r n y . Nevertheloss, r e g i m e n t s ,:31iz!J

the v o l u n t e e r s making

uc t h e sCat.2

on t o serve a g a i n s t

t h e doache Srzught.

73

a spirit for their work and fought fiercely during their terms. Their commitment was to bringing peace through Not always was it a

abrupt and decisive military action.

value for khem to be loyal to the profession of the Rrmy

or to exhibit self?ess service.

Their loyalties were

more often aligned with those persons among whom they lived from day to day. That is, the volunteers most directly

reflected the values and attitudes of the general public

in the area

--

with personal and bitter hatred sometimes

guiding their actions rather than Army values or p r o fessionalism. Such actions a s the raid on a Jicarilla

Aoache encampment near L a s Jegas is a prime example.

Al-

though this particular band had not Oeen recently active in deoredations, Yew Vexico voluntesrs carriad out a punishment attack o n them anyway. 2 9 Safety for tne public was tnought to lie in annihilation of the Apache, a thought which led t3 Some actions airectly violacing Army athics. One examcle cited by ierrsl:
r

reiates to the above zomoany of voiunteers a s they concludeb tSei? attact. Aoacne baby One soldier found an aoparsntly aoandoned aoproximately eight months old and stil;
His

--

stragoed in his carrier board. saying, Let me s e e :hat brat

reaction was to grab it, a littla fellaw He tied a rock

... V o u z e

now but will make a big injun Dy-zna-3y. ta the carrier and threw it anc C,e

baby into tSe rivet to

drown.

n o t i n g , " I o n l y w i s h 1 had more t o t r e a t t h e same

w a y . ,,29 P e r h a p s t h e words i n t h e s e examples a r e c o n j e c t u r e ,

b u t t h e a c t i o n o f k i l l i n g a l l Apaches

--

w n e t h e r women,

c h i l d r e n , o r c o m o a c a n t w a r r i o r s was n o t uncommon, e s p e c i a l l y by v o l u n t e e r s who s o u g h t t o r i d t h e i r h o m e l a n d o f a t h r e a t . S a f e t y was a h i g h v a l u e t o t h e s e s o l d i e r s

--

a freedom from

f e a r f o r l i f e made p o s s i b l e b y a n a b s e n c e o f A p a c h e s . S o c i a l and A e l i q i o u s F a c t o r s :
T h e v o l u n t e e r s were g e n e r a l l y a s o c i a l l y u n i f i e d

group.

T h e y had p e r s o n a l t i e s t o t h e community which t h e y

s e r v e d o r o f a s s i o n a l l y t o ~ r o c e c c . T h e y were Less s t r i c r t h a n (were q e g u l a r s i n o b s e r v i n g t h e c ? e a r d i s t i n c t i o n s ~ e t:ueeq q i l i t a r y r 3 n ~ 3 . N o r n s 'or the volunr.eers c3nduct:nq

military operacions often paralleled those f o r their general social standings. ;hat i s , v o l u n t e e r s sometimes valued t h e

i d e a s a n d a t t i t u d e s o f t h e l a r g e r g r o u p members a s m o r e a P p r g o r i a t e q u i a a n c e '3r aooeared to b e , r e l a i o n between

Army

a c t i o n than a g e n e r a l m i l i t a r y p o l i c y

F o r t h e v o i u n c e e r s t n e r e was a c ? e a r c c r ~ W I L ~

..,

o f t h e peop'e

and o o e r a t i o n of the

A d e f e n s e a ? t h e t e r r i t o r y was t 3 i n c l u d e s p e c i f L C

- c c 3 e s and t e c h n i c u e s t h a t " i t t n e l e a p i e ' s n e e d s .

AUXILIARIES

Profsssional Factors: The t h i r d c a t e g o r y o f s a i d i e r s , L o c a l m i l i t i a

75

a u x i l i a r i e s . a l s o included volunteers.

Particularly during these

t h e e a r l y p e r i o d s o f c o n t a c t and t h r o u g n t h e 1 8 6 0 ' 5 ,

v o l u n t e e r s d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d t h e g e n e r a l development o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e A r m y and t h e Apache. Their a t t i t u d e

and demeanor were e c h o e s O F t h e s t a t e v o l u n t e e r s , w i t h an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a r i a n c e toward l e s s m i l i t a r y s t r u c t u r e and control.

T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h h a t r e d o f t h e Apache d r o v e

a c t i o n s o f such f o r c e s a s t h e n i l i t i a is i n d i c a t e d i n t h e words o f A r i z o n a T e r r i t o r i a l 5 e c r e t a r . j Richazd McCorrnicK who w r o t e , "The s e n t i m e n t h e r e is i n f a v o r o f an u t t e r e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e r u t h l e s s s a v a g e s & n o have s o L o n g p r e v e n t e d t h e s e t t l e m e n t and aewelnomenz
3 i

:he

Territary."

30

An A r i z n n a t e r r i t o r i a l m i l i t i a was o r g a n i z e d under

K i n p 5 . UooLsey

t o carry o u t s ~ c h military ooeratisns as

needed.

'le h i r e a some t h i r t y I n d i a n f i g h t e r s and some Pima

a n d X a r i c o p a a u x l l i a i i e s t o c a r r y o u t r a i d s and a t t a c k s

a g a i n s t r a n c h e r i a s o f t h e Yavaoais, Western Apacne and Pinais.

One i o t a b l e i n c i a e n r . was ~ o o l s e y ' s l u r i n g t h i r t y
3F

w a r z i a r s i n t o h i s camp w i t h a r g m i s e s

Cobaccs and p ' i n o l e

o n l y t n f i r e o n tnem a s they g a t h e r e a . k i l l i n g t w e n t y - f o u r
of

t h e Apache.

Alrncugh he was a l s z 3 f P i c i a l ? : ! c r i t i c i z e d
on

l a t e r ?or a t t a c k s

Aoaccle r a n ~ ~ i e r i ai s n

W h i c h .domen

and

c h i l d r e n were k l l l e o i n ? a r q e ~ u c n c e r s . he d e f e n a e d i i m s a l f :
I t S i r i s n e x c t h i n g :a i m o o s s i S l e t o ? r e v e n t k i l l i n g squaws i n jumcing a r a n c h e r i a ewen were

we disposed to save .them. For my part I am frank to say that I fi ht o n the broad platform o f extermination. 3 1 Waolsey's values do not represent those o f all volunteers and auxiliaries, but he is more typical than not. During the same year. other elements o f volunteers (California units from Tucson and it. 8owie) under major Edward 8. Illillis, Captain Thomas T. Tidball and Captain Whitlock struck various rancherias o f Chiricahus. Coyotero. and Pinal Apaches, killing numbers o f women and children along with warriors. 32 With a personal-revenge involvement in resoluti3n o f the conflicts between Apache and the general populace, the volunteers fought as the grirnary Army elements during t3e first twenty years of the period being studied. Their commitment to combat involving total destruction of the Aoache served a s a basis. for further conflicts a s well a s revenge action and reaction continued. In attacking the Aoac3es indiscriminately, they oftan prompted an Aoac3e revenge action which escalated their attacks o n the soldiers. Illhen the Aoactie justice values !uezo discounted or ignoroo b y attacking units. cantinued conflict was certain. 5ociaL and Relioious Factors: These auxiliaries had similar social influences and religious influences to those the volunteers experienced. Their even shorter-term nilitary commitment allowed less time for being acculturated into the Army and adopting its values than that time given to the volunteer Armv personnel. auxiLiaries, as FIT For

voluntaers, the d i l l (wants) O F tnF!

LacaL community o f z e n promoted action rather than Army policy

exercising F U L L control or' the military eiforts.

SCOUTS
Prafessional Factors: The fourth category o f soldiers were scouts, Who became a part o f the Frontier Army in the last half of the period being studied. This quasi-military group in-

cluded civilian scout units and Indian scout units who were hired to fight separate from or alongside Regulars and volunteers. Although the scouts were initially n o n -

military personnel and designated a s trackers and guides

only,

they were later "en?isted" f o r combat service as

by

we?? and led in military actions ficers.

regular military af-

Such individuals were unique volunteers

--

re-

cruited specifically tc perform their scouting jabs and a?sa to fight againsz the qpache. General F a r s y t n :elis an early scout zomoany. haw he was hired
20

command

Ganecal theridan had called him

to his crffice one day in August, 1 8 6 8 :

" 1 have deter3ined to arqanize a sczuting p a r t y o f F i f t y men from among '.ne frontiarsmen living here an che border. 'here is na law that will permit me : a eniist them, ana I can c r n l y emnloy them as scouts through '.he quartermaster's department ,133

...

Co;syth

recsived his order a n -cur after he agreed

t3 head this scaut comoany far Zaneral Sheridan. You are to wirhout deiay. emolcry fifty ( S C j first-class iardy fr3n:iersmen, t 3 be usec a s scouts against the hostile Indians, La be commanded b y yourself, dith Lieutenant Seecher, Third Infantry, a s your suoardinate. You can enter inta such articles of agreement with these men a s will comoel obedience.'4
78

The e x p l a n a t i o n o f n i s r e c r u i t i n g e f f o r t s makes a n i n t e r e s t i n g pact of t h i s story. He r e v e a i s s e v e r a l the

p o i n t s r e g a r d i n g b o t h t h e commitment and a b i l i t y o f men who w e r e e m p l o y e d .

T h e r e 'was l i t t l e t r o u b l e i n o b t a i n i n g c a p a b l e a n d c o m p e t e n t men f o r my new command. H u n d r e d s o f men who h a d s e r v e d t h r o u g h t h e b i t t e r c i v i l s t r i f e o f 1861 t o 1865, e i t h e r f o r o r a g a i n s z t h e g o v ernment, had f l o c k e d t o t h e f r o n t i e r , and were s u i l l i n g and even a n x i o u s , t o a s s i s t i n p u n i s h i n g t h e I n d i a n s , w h i l e many a f r o n t i e r s m a n was o n l y t o o g l a d t o h a v e a n o p o o r t u n i t y t o s e t t ? e a n 013 s c o r e a g a i n s t t h e savages. I n two days, 1 had e n r o l l e d t h i r t y ngn a t F o r t H a r k e r . and m a r c h i i g f r o m t h e r e t o F o r t Hayes, s i x t y m i l e s :uestwara, I c o m o i e t e d my complement i n t w o d a y s m o r e . 35 Such a u x i l i a r i a s wers n u c 3 l i k e t h e 3 i : i t i a v o l u n t e e r s aescri'bsd and s t a t e They h a 0

i n ' t > e D a r s g r a o n s ssbove.

o o t n t h e s k i l l w i t h deaoons and knowledge o i the t e r r i ' . 3 r y t o a i d i n t h e i r zampaigns a g a i n s t t h e Apache. o f them h a d z e r s o n a l m o t i v e s or injury of someone t h e y k n e w . ;he P ? u s , many

f i g h t an0 avenge t h e o e a t n

l n d i v i c i u a l n e n w e r e h i r e d a s s c c u t s 3 s ule!:. p r a c c i c e was n o t a new o n e .

Men such as K i :

Z a r s o n ano

Bill t a a v

c o n t i r u e c t o be emoloyed w i t h t h e A r m y aven s c o u t s weze a l s o

~52.1.

thougn f u l l companies o f

Their

r e p u z a t i o n s a n o ~ e r s o n a ic o n n e c : i o n s
o v e r t h e scou:

mace '.?em

~ r e ' e r r ' 3 ~

c o m o a n i e s 3 y soma c o m m a n c e r s . ?.g., who s e r v e d b a t , , a s s c o u t an<! 3 s

K i t Carson,

c o m m a n d e r o f t h e N e w M e x i c o v o l u n t e e r s , was a c c l a i m e d i n

A r i z o n a h i s t o r y a s Ian I n d i a n f i g h t e r a n d s c o u t who h e l p e d
win t h e Southwest.

His word was a l w a y s k e p t : h e was t h e s o u l o f h o n o r a n d t h e I n d i a n s , k n o w i n g t h i s , resoected < i t C a r s o n . They a d m i r e d him f o r h i s f a i r d e a l i n g s and c a l l e d him l f f a t h e r , l t b u t i t may b e a s s e r t e d h e r e t h a t t h e i r r e s p e c t f o r h i m was i n s o i r e d b y t h e 3 & e a r o f h i s u n e r r i n g aim a n d f i g h t i n g b l o o d .
S u c h i n d i v i d u a l s c o u t s a s t h e s e a l s o impaczed an t h e rel a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e Apache a n d t h e m i l i t a r y , a y t h e i r a c t i n g as a l i a i s o n , as tracker, and as Fighter.
A t h i r d c a t e g o r y o f s c o u t s is p e r h a p s t h e m o s t

c o n t r o v e r s i a l i n u s e a t t h e time among t h o s e I n a i a n s u s e d ,

--

:he

Indian sc3ut.

And

t h e Aoacne u s e d a g a i n s t o t h e r
The i s s u e s of

Apache p r o v o k e d t h e m o s t a i s c u s s i o n .

Commit-

n e n t ano s e r v i c e a a i l i t y s u r i a c e a repeatealy.

These a u x i l -

iaries generated clear s t a t e m e n t s o f d i f f e r i n g o p i n i o n .

Many c o m m a n d e r s d i d n o t t r u s t I n d i a n s c o u t s s o t h e y d i d n o t e r n o l o y t h e m . o r c o n d e m n e c .?e.n z v e n u h i l e u s i n g t h e q
a s d i d LT.

McDonala i n
7

h i s

acagunt OF a n

:@a:

engagement:

, a my o r i e z t o qo gn, a n e x a i a n a t i o n t n a t a s o l d i e r Tad t o r i s k n i s L i f e L F n e c e s s a r y r-a carry o u t n i s o r j e r s , chev n o s t s o l e m n l y dem u r r e a : i e i t h e r would 3ny s i i g l e o n e 3 2 n s e n t .a g o t h r o u q h a n d J e v e l o p t n e p o s i t i o n a n m v p r o m i s e ;a make a l ? a v a i l a b l s d i s p a s i z i o n s t o c o v e r h i s ret-sat snouLd h e .?iscave? t3e enenys o o s i t i g n alit?ouc z e i v q k i l l e d 1 f i n a l l y C a u n c e o ;.?em a s ;,waras a n d s q u a w s a t z e m p t i n q t o shame t h e m .

...

...

In the position he

:gak.

lcOonaLc i q n o r e a 3r j i S c 3 u n t 2 d

a0

Apacne c o n c e r n s r e g a r d i n g w a r f a r e .

H e u s e d Army v a l u e s ,

n o t Apache v a l u e s i n t r y i n g t o goad h i s s c o u t s i n t o a
b a t t l e a r e a w h e r e t h e y c o u l d g a i n no a d v a n t a g e .
I n 1866.

Congress had a u t h o r i z e d the h i r i n g of

Indians a s scouts

--

and from 1866 t o 1 8 7 0 , a b a t t a l i o r

o f Pawnee S c o u t s had b e e n o r g a n i z e d i n t o m i l i t a r y u n i t s a n d e m p l o y e d a g a i n s t o t h e r I n d i a n s e f f e c t i v e l y . 38
In

many e a r l i e r i n s t a n c e s , I n d i a n s f r o m o n e t r i b e o r a n o t h e r had v o l u n t a r i l y r i d d e n i n t o b a t t l e w i t h t h e Army a g a i n s t

t r i b e s who h a d b e e n t h e i r l o n g - t i m e e n e m i e s ( s u c n a s t h e

P i m a who h e l p e d t r a c k t h e A p a c h e ) .

Sometimes t h e I n d i a n

a s s i s t a n c e was n o t a c c e p t e d , a s i n t h e c a s e o f C o l . K e a r n e y
n o t o m p l a y i n g ivlangas C o l o r a d a s a g a i n s t

t h e Nexicans.

In

many o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , t h e I n d i a n s c 3 u t P n g b r o u g h t a s k i : ? t o the u n i t whicn u a s o t h e r w i s e s e v e r s l y Lacking. Nex~ec-

t n e l e s s , f o r m a n y c o m m a n d e r s , t h e I n d i a n s c o u t was b e s t selected if c l e a r l y not akin to those tribes against h e would c i g n t . Use o f t h e I a r m S p r i n g s s c o u t s a c a i n s t t h e " S n a k e s " d u r i n g t h e 1866-;857 c a m p a i g n s i n t n e N o r t h w e s t was j u d g e d
?y

a s u c c e s s , and i r a i s e d h i g h l y General Halleck wrste:

G e n e r a l s i l a l l e c k and : c e e ? e

The o r ' c i c e r s a r s g n a n i m o u s i n f a v o r O F g?eac?'y i n c r e a s i n g t h e l u m b e r . As g u i d e s an0 s c 3 u t i , they a r e almost indisoensaole. G e n e r a l 5 t e e l e wroce: g e i n g a r m e d , mounzeo. a n d s u p o l i e d , a n d

81

backed by t r o o p s , t h e y c h e e r f u l l y led t h e way i n t o t h e m i d d l e o f t h e i r e n e m i e s . In the l a c e e x p e d i t i o n , they have done most of the f i g n t i n g and k i l l i n g . They have a l s o p r o v e d t h e m s e l v e s t o b e v e r y e f f i c i e n t when acting alone. They a r e v e r y e f f e c t i v e a s g u i d e s and spies and i n d e s t r o y i n g the spies of t h e enemy. I t i s my o p i n i o n t h a t o n e h u n d r e d , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e now e m p l o y e d . would exterminate t h e h o s t i l e bands b e f o r e t h e n e x t s p r i n g , w i t h troops enough i n t h e settlements t o prevent their g e t t i n g s u n p l i e s from t h a t source.39

Despite t h e p o s i t i v e r e p o r t s f r o m these commanders, t h e

g e n e r a l o f f i c e r supoor:

luas n o t u n a n i m o u s .

Among t h o s e

d i s t r u s t i n g t h e I n d i a n s c o u t s was Z e n e r a l a h i l i p S h e r i d a n :

I d o u b t if any process w h a t e v e r c a n , i n o n e o r two g e n e r a t i o n s , d e v e l o o ( i n t h e m ) t h e q u a l i t i e s n e c e s s a r y f o r :he r a n k a n d f i ; e 0 7 our arny Soldiers snould possess the azt r i b u c a s a f c i v i l i z e d men They ( A o a c n e s )

...

of 1 u r Thev c a n n o t a o o r e c i a t e r e s o o n s i b i l i t y oose 0: t ? e i a c r s o n e s s g f a n , ? a t > a :ace 50 a i s t i n c t i v e From :ha: governing t h i s country t h a t i t u o u l d b e n e i t h e r wise n o r e x p e d i e n t t o r e c r u i t o u r a r m y f r o m t h e i r r a n k s . kO

30 n o t a o s s e s s s t a b i l i t y o r t e n a c i t y

...

...

...

Also.

G e n e r a ? S h e r m a n i n s i s t e l t h a t t h e I n d i a n s , wnen

2526

b y t h e A r m y , b e r e s t r i c t e d t o s c z u t i n g g u t y anl.1.

HOW-

e v e r , w h e n p r e s s e d a n t 3 e d i r e c t i v e z v S e n e r a l Ylc2owell,
Commander o f t h e O i v i s i o n o f t h e J a c i F i c i n l e a : , g a v e t5e c o m m a n d e r r h e i n i t i a t i v e t a " d e c i d e haw
h i s rssources.

Sherman
-3

use

,,b :

q e g a r c l e s s 37 :heir

Jxpertise, Indian

S c o u t s b i d n o t f i n d r e a d y a c c e o t a n c e i n t 3 Cne a r m y .
The z u e s t i a r s J i !.?yalty

r e . n a i n e d a t :he

'orefront

o f t h e m i n d s o f n a n y ~ i l i t a r yn e n .

Alznoug? an17 t h e o n e

i n s t a n c e a t SLgicu invclvea any i n d i c a t i o n o i C3niuSiSn

82

o r t r e a c h e r y o n t h e p a r t o f s c o u t s , n o t a l l men who w e r e
asked t o serve b e s i d e t h e I n d i a n scouts c o u l d f o r g e t one q u e s t i o n a b l e incident. Anton Mazzanovich. Indians" e.g. that re-

c o r d s h i s d e s i r e t o make " g o o d of t h e scouts accompanying h i s

(i.e.

dead ones!

unit:

"They

are treacher-

o u s and n a t t o b e d e p e n d e d on i n an e m e r g e n c y . "42
Nonetheless,

t h e r e c o r d e d f a c t s show t h a t t h e
I n e v e r y case o f
actual

Scouts c o u l d n o t be dispensed w i t h .
O r

P o t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t between I n d i a n s and w h i t e s , the h o s t i l e s

Indians

iuere c a l l e d on t o h e l p t o d e f e a t
h o s t i l i t i e s fram b r e a k i n g o u t . G e n e r a l Seorge C r o o k ' s and a u x i i i a r i e s against

o r t o prettent

use o f

I n d i a n s as scoucs

t h e Apache r e f l e c t s some e l e m e n t s
n i l i t a r y acceotance.

of

the di'ferinq

l e v e l s of

In ?is

camoalgns agains-,

t h e 3pache i n ? 8 7 2 - 7 3 , h e employed p r i t r a d i t i o n a l enemies t h e apache r a i d s . 'lallock and S t e e l @ !

m a r i l y Pina and Maricooa I n d i a n s ,

or' t3e Apac!?e a n d o f t e n v i c t i m s o f

. h i 5 u5e f 3 l ? o w e d t i a t w h i c h Generals Lacer

recgmmended s o h i c h l y .

i n h i s S i e r r a n a d r e s eampaiqn. He s t a t e r ! his Phil-

CrgoK u s e d l p a c h e a g a i n s t

Aoache.

asoohy

i n 53ese t e r n s :

I n u a r i a r e w i t h t h e I n d i a n s , i: h a s b e e n my p o l i c y and t h e o n l y e f f e c t i v e one t 3 U S E THEY L I G A I N S T ElC9 O T H E ? . t o ooe r a t e a g a i n s t t h e Apache. we m u s t L]Se Aoache n e t h o d s a n d a p a c h e s o l d i e r s , o f c3urse u i t h w h i c e s o l a i e r s along They are indispensible. W e c o u l d n o t have mane a n y p r o g r e s s w i t h o u t t h e m Nothing

--

...

--

...

...

83

has ever been accomplished without their help.&3 Crook's statement continues t o attest to their Layalty and ability. Specifically he speaks to the "uproar

because the Chiricahua Indians have been employed as Scouts." Crook defends their use by declaring their

superiority o v e r any o f the other Apaches, and refers to A 1 Sieber and Frank Rennet as "cheerfully admitting that Apache scauts are indispensable." L L Whether white o r Indian, scouts Srcught skill and mobility ta t3e frontier Army and enhanced its ability to c a r r y
aut

its mission.

Yet the involvement

Arny

o f the inaians as Loyal and committed to the

U.S.

and

ideals was an unanswered auestion to many at :3e The commitment

OF

time and even Later.

the ,uhite scouts

was o f n o cancern. although the lack o f d i s c i ~ l i n eo f both Indian and civilian scouts displeased many commanders SUMMARY Tnese iiequiars, voluntesrs, auxiliaries ant3 scouts combined to serve as t3e frontier a r m y , taskec! with grotacting the citizens c f the Sout3west fram Apache hostile actions. Altnouqh they 3rouqht with :neq
3
0 : '

dithe

versity of values and attitudes, r?e instituticn

A r m y bound them tagethe:
F o r acr.icn.

In the C?.ain-ci-

Czmmand structure lay a n influence which could m o l d a unit into a single body

--

ooerating a s one.
8L

Even though

v o l u n t e e r s a n d a u x i l i a r i e s may h a v e a p p e a r e d l e s s d i s c i o l i n e d i n d r e s s and m i l i t a r y c o u r t e s i e s and l e s s conv e n t i o n a l i n t a c t i c s t h a n regular Army personnel, joint

o p e r a t i o n s showed t h e men t o b e more a l i k e t h a n d i f f e r e n t when t h e y w o r k e d t o g e t h e r a s a u n i t . were e v i d e n t .

In

I n s t i t u t i o n a l values

45

o p e r a t i o n s such a s t h a t o e s c r i b e d below, a

u n i t y o f s p i r i t seemed t o u n i t e t h e s e g m e n t s o f t h e d e -

tachment embarkinq

3n

its mission.

The a u t h o r ' s v a l u e

j u d g e m e n t i s a t t e r e a a s r e p r e s e n t i n g a l l o f t h e men:

... t h e young l i e u t e n a n t r a i s e s h i s h a n d h i s f i n a l inst;-uctions. Fours and q i , ~ e s rLght. "aarch." Foorud, g u i d e l e f t . ' ' and t h e s c l d i e r s move ' w i t 5 m e a s u r e d s t e p a c r o s s t h e oarade-ground t o t h e u a i t i n g wagons. "Fgurs : e f t , 'aarc3. h a l t , r i g h t dress. h c ran7 ." tne l i t r L e detachment s t a n d s i n l i n e , d r i l e ene s e n i o r s e r q e a n t , s a l u t i n g t u r n s I t o v e r t o t h e command o f t h e o f f i c e r . Sturdy, hardly fellows t h i s l i t t l e comoany o f A m e r i c a n i n f a n t r y m e n . f r o m t h e v e t e c a n weather-beaten s o l d i e r an t h e r i g h t :here t o t h e t l l o n d - ? a i r e d , r e d c 3 e e k e c l a d . who h a s b u t r e c e n t l y j o i n e d w i t ? t h e l a s t S a c c h o f r e c r u i t s ;cam :he sast., :coking i n t h e i r e a s y - f i t t i n g , s e r v i c e a o i r 2lue uniforms.reacy ?gr anything t h a c n a y t u r n LIP F r o m a ;ame o f b a s e S a 1 : . t o .g ' i ; h t w i t h :he s a v a g e s : t h e a g e n c y 3eco:r a r e s t i s z i n g , t o o , a n d a m c c l e y o r s c e s s i o n :if I n c i a n s . m o u n t e c a n c j i s m o u n c e c . w i t h z a i n c e a f a c e s , a r e moving Ir5 o u c t z i e l o s e a r r n For t h e h i d i n g w r e : c ? e s .
j l t i m a c a i y , t h e n , t h e 4 r x y 'wno f o u g h t t h e Apache was a m i x t u r e
t3e
g c

Ten dno

from a l :

zarts

2f

the United S t a t e s , E x p e r i e n c e and

territzries

From p a r t s a b r o a d .

85

"

i n e x p e r i e n c e combined in many of t h e u n i t s ; d e d i c a t i o n t o d u t y and p e r s o n a l m o t i v e s d i r e c t e d a c t i o n s a m o n g men. V o l u n t e e r s o f f s e t the i n a b i l i t i e s o f R e g u l a r s ;

r e g u l a r s exerted pressure to bring v o l u n t e e r s u n d e r t h e d i s c i p l i n e o f military law a n d order. T h e Army

a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n t h u s worked to b r i n g a b o u t unity in
d i v e r s i t y so t h a t a very difficult a n d d a n g e r o u s m i s s i o n c o u l d b e accomplished. T h e values o f t h e Army a s a

w h o l e , t h e n f i g u r e significantly in t h e relationship. a s e f f o r t s to a s s u r e the Nation's i d e a l s and A r m y e t h i c s g u i d e d t h e military action.

86

NOTES

1. COL. irl. 3 . W A K I N . SUPDORT PACKAGE, PO. 1-10.

CITE0

IN

M O S 11, T R A I N I N G

2.

Rickey,

p.

91.

3. Thompson, p . 1 1 2 . O f t h e 1 8 3 . 6 5 9 men who e n l i s t e d i n t h e Army s e r v i c e i n t h e decade 1865-1875, Thompson r e p o r t s t h a t 86,593 w e r e n o t A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s a t the time o f t h e i r enlistment. many m o r e h a d c l a i m e d citizenship only quite shortly before enlistment.

0. Thompson, P O . 1 1 2 , 1 1 0 - 1 1 5 . Thompson's s t u d y i n d i c a t e s t h a t b l a c k s e n l i s t e d f o r a a o u t t h e same r e a s o n s as w h i t e s , ! t o see t h e West, t o escape t h e d r u d g e r y o f t h e f a r n , o r t o r u n away f r o m s o m e t h i n g ) , b u t t h e i r d e s e r t i o n r a t e s w e r e l o w , e s p i r i t d ' c o r p s was h i g h , a s was p e r f o r m a n c e , d e s o i t e r a m p a n t r a c i s m .

5.

Rickey, z .

92.

5. S e c r e t a r v o f lllar R e g o r t s 1 8 7 ? , V a l . I, p . 1 2 . T h e r e was a n o v e r !G% o e s e r t i a n r a t e f o r t n e 2Cr a n d a 5alf year gerigd.

7.

S e c z s t a r v o f ldar ? e l o r : , Rickey, uelty.

3.

188L, Vcl.

I , p. 9 .

8. 9.
10. p.

95.

2. 5 a 7 .

Forsyth.

-he

Soldier

(?Jew Y o r k :

1 9 0 8 ) , Vo? I ,

?52.
11. 12. Parker, 3ucolement.
0.

L5.

1101 I , p . 3 n o t e d -.-a:

1111. S e c r e t a r v o f l i a r R e g o r t , 1889. as career o r i a n t e c s o l d i e r s , b l a c k s w e r e an e x c e g t i g n : : n o s t o t h e r s enlisting i n t h e f r o n t i e r army.

13.
1L.

Thomgsor,

Plazzanc-iz?.

p.
3.

!69.
1711.

iflazzanc-lcn.

15. Thcrnpscn. 2. 1 1 2 . He g i v e s a a d i t i o n a l s x a m p l e s i m m i g r a n t s J ~ O illere t r i c k e d i n t o a n l i s t m e n t , comhere o f u n a w a r e a f z s s i g n m e ? t r e sD0nsibili:ies. ~Letely

87

16.
17.

Utley, Thomoson, Rickey and Welty a l l agree Ostrander,

p.

o n this reaction as a common one.

11L.
p.

18. 19.

U t l e y , Frontiersmen ip 3?ue.

30.

( N o r m a n : University

Crook, His AutobiograDny, ed. Martin Schmitt, O T Ukclanoma press, 1 9 ~ 6 ) , p . 10

20. Utley, Frontiersmen in 8lue. D. 33.. In 1855-56. e . a -. the Pierce aaministration had been forced to fill 116 commissioned vacancies with civiiian appointees because the officer corDs was s o short in manpower. And, although these men lost no edge on "frontiership" to the W e s t Point graduates (who received n o education on fighting Indians), they lacked even tne basics of military operations and tactics. See Secretarv of War R e o o s t for 1856 for additionai statements s f concern. 21. Crook did no: receive SUP POT^ f r o m his Chainof-C3mmand f a r a : l nis ooerazional recommendations. This point wi:l s e discussed Further in Chaoter (r.
22. White, The Jacksonians, P P . '9b-6. Here is a descriptisn o f tnis weakness o f the coros. A l s o , consider the variances between Bartletz's, Grant's and Sherman's policies. See also Dunley's W o l v e s f o r t*e 81ue S o l c i e r s , P. L 5 . 23.

See Iremony,

PP.

320-321

For typical evalua-

tions. 2L. Le5is:ation in 1861 autnorized both a volunteer Army and a militia in aodition to the Regular Army. These three Army :omoonents were retained a s legal after the war a s well. See SEAT 268-11, J u l y 2 2 . 1 8 6 1 ; 274-9. July 2 5 6 , 1R61 ; 279-81, 29 July 1861 ; 287-91, 3 August 1861 ; 3 1 4 5 August 1861; 317-8; 6 August 1861. T h e s e documents are the basis f o r calling into service tne various military units which fought along the Frontier.
25.

Utley, Frontier Reoulars,

p.

259.

26. Aurcra H u n t , Wescern Frontier Draooons, (Glendale, C A : Westernlcre Press, ! S S a ) , p. 236.

2?.

Utlev, Frontier Reoulars, Terrell, P. 190.

I.

259.

28.

88

29.

Terrell.

p.

208.

50. L e t t e r 5 N a r c h 18611 t o P o s t o n , O I A New ?lexica F i e l d Papers, RC 75, NARS. Ouoted by U t l e y , F r o n t i e r R e o u l a r s , p. 256.

31. C l a r a T . Woody, a d . "The Woolsey E x p e d i t i o n s o f 18611" A r i z o n a a n d t h e West, b ( 1 9 6 2 1 , 1 5 7 - 1 7 6 .

32.

Utley,

F r o n t i e r Requlars,

p.

256.

33. F o r s y t h . p . 1 0 a n d U t l e y , F r o n t i e r R e g u l a r s . 53. I l t l e v n o t e s t h a t F o r s y t h ' s s c o u t company was l a t e r d i s b a n d e d a l t h o u g h i t had been s u c c e s s f u l d u r i n g i t s a c t i v a t i o n period.

0.

3*.
35.
36.
37.

Forsyth. Forsyth.

P.
P.

0.
1.

F a r i s h , PO. Farish,
o.

108-115. 89.

38. S e c r e t a r y or^ ldar R e p o r t , 1 8 7 9 , 1 ~ 0 1 I , iii. See also. S e c . - e c a r s / 3 r irlar - l e o o r c . 1880, p . 3 a n d 1 8 8 1 , s o . 1 3 3 - 0 ?:>K .JC-I~O: - a\ I O C B O L S .-eO'orts o n t h e u s e o f I n d i a n
SCOUtS.

39.

S e c r ~ t a r vs f

War R e o o r t .

1867, Vol

I,

pp.

73. 7*. 7 9 .
LO.

,-3mmission an I n d i a n a f f a i r s R e o c r t :!118, 18811, 3 p . 1 - 2 .

L : ,

Reoort.

Senate

3etzinez records the eagers c o u t i n g duty;. "(When t h e y ) s n l i s t a a a s s c o u t s and w e n t O F F w i t h t n e t r o o p s t o h u n t nown F e l l o w t r i b e s m e n , t h e y w e r e h a p p y 3 s birr! doqs i n 3 ' l e l a o f quai:." (2. 511). H e emphasizes '.heir need t o do s o m e t h i l g i n t e r e s t i n g and c h a l l e n g i n g ( o f walde t o them).
n e s s w i e h w h i c h ; \ p a c l l e s s i g n e d up f o r

3unls:/,

1. 5 7 .

LL2.
L:.

'flazranovtch,

p.

2119. l o w i f ? , PO.

~ u m m i i , ? a t e l i n e For:

12!l-?2::.

Lk. Lummis, p . 1 2 3 . H i s description of the hQUSe d i v i s i o n s f t n o u q h t is c l e a r h e r e . I n Crook's

Ln-

89

autobiography a r e o t h e r statements which i n d i c a t e d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n b e t w e e n w h i t e s c o u t s a n d commanders. C r o o k c l a i m s t h a t i t is n o t a l l w h i t e s c o u t s who d i s c r e d i t t h e I n d i a n s , however. b u t r a t h e r t h o s e " w h i t e s c o u t s o f t h e F r a n k L e s l i e s t a m p who w a n t t h e p o s i t i o n s f o r themselves.'* ( p , 1 7 2 ) .

45.

D u n l e y , PP.

67-68.

46.
(New Y o r k :

R u f f u s E. Zogbaum, H o r s e , F o o t a n d D r a o o o n s Harper, 1882) pp. 1 6 6 - 1 6 7

90

CHAPTER FOUR

"Nineteenth century whites f r e q u e n t l y a s s u m e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s were doomed b e c a u s e of u n w i l l i n g n e s s o r i n a b i l i t y t o change But t h e Indians of the t r a n s m i s s i s s i p p i West o f t e n d i s p l a y e d g r e a t adaptability i n trying circumstances, although they d i d not always adapt i n t h e ways w h i t e s t h o u g h t b e s t f o r t h e m .

...

T h e s t a g e was s e t :

1 ) One N a t i o n d e f e n d i n g i t s

t e r r i t o r y and l i F e ways:

2 ) a n army d e f e n d i n g a n o t h e r

p e o o l e who c h o s e t a m o v e t o t h a t t e r r i t o r y o r who - n u s t
t r a v e r 3 e t h e t e r r i t o r y o n t h e i r way f u r t h e r west.
Apac3e p o s i z i o n was c u l t u r a l l y d e f i n e d :
The

maintain tribal

i n t e g r i t y and s e c u r e s u r v i v a l needs. p o s i t i o n was o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d :

The Army's

protect the Frontier.

T?e A r n y ' s n i l i t a r y o o e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e Apache ( a n d t n e

A p a c h e ' s a g a i n s t t h e m i l i t a r y ) were t r i g g e r e d b y c i v i l i a n s

and by e l e m e n t s o f federal and s t a t e m e n t governme-ts

as

t h e two peoples sought t o s e c u r e their g e n e r a l u e l f a r e .

The Army,

as a n a x t e n s i o n a f

American societ,{ and

e n i a r c e r O F i t s w i l l a n d v a l u e s , a p p r o a c h e r : t h e ApaC70
lrith

inconsiscent behavior.

sometimes n e g o t i a c i n g treaties

f;r

i a n a ; s o m e t i m e s c o - a c c u o y i n g i t w i t n o u t a g r e e m e n t ; someAlthough c e r t a i n gen:hrough-

-.iaes r e m o v i n g t h e ; l p a c h e b y F o r c e . e r a l v a l u e s s e r v e d :a
OUT

g u i d e 9 . 5 . a r m y t r o o p emP!oyme?t

:he
as

p e r i o d 18&6-:886,
J

fluctuation in thei? priorities

s:zod

Tajar h i n d r a n c e t o aevelopment of e i f e c t i v e

91

and lasting peaceful relations with the Apache.

Apache

values cnanged some. too. during these years, in some ways increasing the conflicts, in others moving toward their resolution.

Some warriors chose to fight t o thedeath,

Others looked for

almost fanatical in their attacks.

safer and more distant locations within the territory. Still others sought peace.
How did these value changes occur?

The military

force alone did not bring a cessation

3f

hostilities, aiIt

though military operations were a sipnificant factor. uas a combination o f this force of the U.5. Army, aided

b y Apaches themselves, whicn set conditions ooening the

cross-cu?:ura:

-0mmunication necessary for establishing

ieaceful reiacions.

In examining unat haooened bezween :he Apaches

and the Army, tne fallowing zwo genera1i:ies One, in their invclvement in conflic: instigating factors are
?reposed.

--

re3ardless o f the

--

90th Apacne anc ?rTy personnel Fol?ad zarrizd them into Two.

Lowed cultural values that ini:ially

battie but which uitimately led them int3 peace.

'ly looking 3eyona tne instrumental :eve!, af certain values

Cawaro the conceptual lewe;, leaders O F bar.? farces were able ta effect more peeceiul re?a::gns. -hat is, wnen men

such a s General Otis qaward anc C ~ c n i s ebegan ta nec,otiate co-existence and General Zergge C Z ~ O Kand Chatto anc Chihuahua reacneo agreements, they focused
52
3n

cammon values which guided

c o o p e r a t i v e and f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s .

Both sides e x h i b i t e d

some c h a n g e s i n t h e v a l u e s w h i c h h a d e a r l e r l e d t o d i r e c t military conflicts. V a l u e s p e r t i n e n t t o t h e chan i n g slations are

grouped f o r d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s chapter i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g broad categories: framework i n s t r u m e n t a l and c o n c e p t u a l . the values o f Within the

o f these d i v i s i o n s ,

t h e Apache a nd

the m i l i t a r y r e l a t i n g t o matters of

group values (mission,

group i n t e g r i t y .
courage.

Law a n d o r d e r ) a n d g e r s o n a l v a l u e s ( L o y a l t y , as w e l l a s l i f e .

: n o r a l i - . y , and r e l i g i o u s f a i t h ) ,

l i b e r t y and t h e 1 u r S u i t o f
In reviewinq the

h a p a i n e s s w i l l be compared.
3 i

influence

t h e s e v a l u e s on t h e

camoaigns,

i t Secsmes e v i d e n t

t h a t t r r e o p p o n e n t s n a d many and y e t . ?articular

s i m i l a r c n a r a c C e r i s E i c s and d e s i r e s . methods o f s a t i s f y i n g

them were u n a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e o t h e r , This chapter w i l l

on t h e e f f o r z s

i. e.,

judged t o be immoral o r u n e t h i c a l .

d i s c u s s C3e v a l u e s i n c o n f l i c t a n d f o c u s s u c h men a s H o w a r d , peace.

of

Z z o o k , Cocnise, and Shihuehua t o b r l l q

I?lS;RUME~lTAL

!IAL1lE5:

C rouo

31

a L ues :

.fl i s s ia n .

Z n i t i a l i y tuhere t k e -loache a n d : h e

A r l y stgoc

in

a o o o s i t i o n m o s t o b v i o u s l y Jas o r t o n c e o t a n d u s e o f territory.

the

B o t h o e r c e i w e d t h e m s e l v e s -0 b e t h e ' I l s g i t i r n a c e "

a u t h o r i t y for t n e 3 r e a

--

"owners and managers'? as i t were,

y e t the d e f i n i t i o n s of

o w n e r s h i p a n d g o a l s o f management Clearly, the

p r o v e d t o be i n c o r n p a r a o l e and i n c o m p a t i b l e .

i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s each group a s c r i b e a t o t e r r i t o r y r e flected i t s own c u l t u r a l n e e d s

o r wants and customs.

the

These were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t relationship, other,

i n t h e e a r l i e s t phase o f

b u t as l i m i t s were p l a c e d on one From e a r ? y e f f o r t s the land,

or the
t o negotiate

c o n f l i c t resulted.

p e a c e f u l c o h a b i t a t i o n and use o f

b o t h f o r m a l and t r e a t i e s and

i n F o r m a l agreements were c o n c l u d e d .

However,

c o n t r a c t s t h a t w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d b e r w e e n s u c h Apache l e a d e r s a s Mangas C o l o r a d a s a n d C o c h i s e , were i n cnarge

3f

a n d t h e firmy o f f i c i a l s

who

Drocecting the e a r l y soarssly

l o c a t e d and

m o s t l y t r a n s i e n t ' u n i t e p o p u l a r i o n w e r e a n i s l e a d i n g i?dicator Snat good r e l a t i o n s u o u l e 3 :

-3ulCl

continue.

Eacn p a r t y n e l d an e t h n o c e n t r i c i n g and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e agreements.

v i e w o f t ? e meanAn a t t e m o c t a

s h a r e t h e t e r r i t o r y was m e r e l y a t i m e bomb o f c o n f l i c t t i c k e d away t c w a r d e x o l o s i o n .

F3r

'uhich

t h e Apache,

t h e S o u t h w e s t % a o b e e n a home ? O r g

fziught shed. :he

f o r ano z r e s e r ~ ~ eta n-ouqh c o n s t a n t ? a r a s n i p and b l o o d S e t t i e r s and s o i d i e r s z i r ~ v i z e e d ?ew t e r r i t a r i a l threats

Apaches c h a l l e n g e e o n t h e w arpac ?. Scutswest F:gm t'.eir

Ewer s i n c e -.he l l o a c h e

s e t t l e 0 i n :he lano,

o r i q i ? . a l Alaskan iomeHowewer, tne czmixq of The

t 3 e y w e r e known a s u a r l i k e .

t ? e S p a n i s h i n c r e a s e d the::

Fiqntinq experiences.

Roache F i r s t f o u q n t C o a n i s n i n w a o e r s h o p i n g t o O r i v e t h e m

3(r

away: t h e n t h e y f o u g h t M e x i c a n s who c a r r i e d on t h e e f f o r t
t o g a i n c o n t r o l o f Apache l a n d s .
They a l s o began t o F i q n t

a g a i n s t p r e v i o u s f r i e n d s among t h e I n d i a n s .

such as the

P u e b l o , whom t h e y t o o k o n a s e n e m i e s when t h e y a l i g n e d themselves w i t h S p a n i s h o r Mexican leaders. c o m m i t m e n t t o f i g h t f o r t h e i r l a n d was, t h u s .

The Aoaches

t h e i r mis-

s i o n t h a t became a n u n r e l e n t i n g a n d o b s e s s i v e d r i v e . E n c r o a c h m e n t s i n t o Apache l a n d s o r a t t e m p t s t o
restrict territorial freedom of
t h e Apache e v o k e d a n i m -

m e d i a t e a n d i n t e n s e r e s p o n s e t o p r o t e c t t h a t Anache a u t h o r i t y

t h r o u g h warfare.
of

The i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e regarcling d e f e n s e

t e r r i t o r y (mission) ranked as a grimary one.

~pac3es

g a v e t i m e , e n e r g i e s , a n 0 l i f e t o t3e v a l u e o f t h e i r t e r ricory

--

a s lome .and a s a i o u r c e o i f o o d 3na n r g t e c t i o n .

T h e a r e a w o u l d n o t De g i v e n up w i t h o u t a d e s p e r a t e s t i u q g i e .

B u t w h a t v a l u e d i d t h e t e r r i t o r y h a v e For t > e A r ~ y ? Many s o l d i e r s o f t h e r e g u l a r army n e i t h e r d e s i r e d t o b e

there i n t h e First place n o r p l a n n e d t o s t a y l o n g o n c e t h e y

goc t h e r e .

The h i g n :ate

o f Uesertion mentioned eazlie::

was, t o b e s u r e , c a u s e d b y a n u m b e r o f d i f e r e n t
o c h e r khan t h e unwi:linqness frontier.

facrors

o f s o l d i e r s t u SerJe o n t h e
3

8 u t o n e 3 o i n t c a n n o t be i g n o r e 0 i n v i e w Personally.

i:5

c o n s i s t e n c y t 3 r o u g r o u t tbe p e r i o d .
i n

saLziers

--

l a r g e numners

--

i n do t w a n t

t a b e i n t h e A r m y !?a:
t h o s e s o l d i e r s who :ema:.ned
06

f a c e d t h e Aoache.
with

Z v e n many g f

t h e i r i l n i t s r e c o r d e a i n a i c a t i o n s o f low o p i n i o n s

95

the area,

c a l l i n g the t e r r i t o r y a "~dasteland," a land and w o r t h l e s s . too,

"Godforsaken."

3
t h e Army appeared t o r e g a r d Camps

Institutionally,

t h e t e r r i t o r y as l e s s t h a n d e s i r a b l e t o occupy. and f o r t s were c o n s t z u c t e d t o be temporary and cantonement areas. were l a c k i n g . Prgvisions for

dwellings

long-term occupation foad, blankets,

Even such d a i l y m a t t e r s as pay,

and ammunition f o r

t h e u n i t s (whose o r e s e n c e would i n d i c a t e were s t a r k ? y

some i m p o r t a n c e t o m a i n t a i n i n g t h e f o r c e ) , n e g l e c t e d by t h e system.
Why,

then,

d i d t h e A r m y c h a l l e n g e t h e Apacne f o r t h e

space? mi:itary t?e Army

Army

Ift h e t e r r i t o r y m e a n t s o m e t h i n g i e q a t i v e t o t h e
and s o m e t h i n g p o s i t i v e t z t h e a o a c i e , le: t h o s e dlho o r l i e d i t , h a v e i:? why d i a n o t -.ne

d h a t 3:ought

i i t o c a n f l i c t w i t h t h e Llpacne o v e r t h e t e r r i t o r y ?
S e v e r a l F a c t o r s bear on t h e answer. Firs:, qot a l l

elements o f

t h e a r m y h e l d t h e , ~ i e w sm e n t i o n e a ii t h e o a r a V o l u n t s e r s d i f f e z e d from t h e ? e g u l a r s i n r e Many o f t2em z l a i m e d u n i z s o f z5e l a n d

Arny

g r a o h above,

garb t o t h i s value.
fgr their

own.

The n i l i t i a a n b v o l u n t e e r s y i t h i n :?e

i n c l u d e a m i n e r s a n d r a n c n e r s whose l i v e l i h o r ~ d'%as t n r e a t e n e d if Apaches were n o t k p g t o i f awn.

As s e t t l e r s .

t h e t e r r i t o r v t x e y :uantec: 'zr k: maKe t h e i :

z3eir

t h e y were :?anninq

SresenT

and f a t u r e e x i s t e n c e f r a m t h e land. u e r e much l i k e t h o s e o f F i g h t =or t h e use o f t h e Aoache

? h e i r instrurneqtai values

--

t h e y were w i l l i n g Their

t3

the l a n d as they d e s i r e d .

ii-

96

t e r e s t s were t o s e c u r e t h e i r p e r s o n a l s u r w i v a l a n d e c o n o m i c prosperity. These Ten s u p p l i e d t h e Army w i t h a p e r s o n a l

commitment t o f i g h t . S e c o n d , a b r o a d e r element o f t h e Army p r o v i d e d a v a l u e n e e d e d t o d i r e c t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n ' s t i m e , money, e n e r g y and l i f e t o c l a i m i n g t h e l a n d o f t h e Apache. From t h e

P r e s i d e n t t o t h e S e c r e t a r y o f War, t h r o u g h t h e S e c r e t a r y o f
t h e A r m y a n d t h e D i v i s i o n Commanders.

came t h e o r d e r s which
~ ) i

b o u n d t h e Army t o t > e t e r r i t o r y s o l o n g a s t h e m i s s i o n " p r o t e c t t > e f r o n t i a r " h a d n o t Seen c o m p l e t e d .

of
t h e U.

A s members

S. m i l i t a r y , o f f i c e r s a n d e n l i s t e d men a l i k e w e r e

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r e n f o r c i n g o f f i c i a l p o l i c i e s and laws o f t n e nation.

of
?n

s o d o i n g , t h e y were t o s e r v e n o t a s a group

i n d i v i u u a l s . b u t a s s i n g l e arm o f t > e g o v e r n m e n t ( t c e Instrumental values :elated

to

geopie).

a mission o f

s e c u r i n g t h e t e r r i t a r y f o r u s e o f t h e American c i t i z e n s drave t h e Army t a i t s f i r s t occuoation. Instrumental values

r e i a t a d t o ?ow c h i s m i s s i g n was t o S e a c c c m p l i s h e d d i f f s r e d
a u r l n g c e r t a i n years of

the period.

a r m y c r o l i c y re?:ec:'ed

d i f f e r e n t leadership g o a l s anc d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s 5 g i v e n them.

A s i t s n i s s i o n a i z t a t a d , t h e A-my

was t o

SUO@UI?

h o s t i l e s who t h r e a r e n e d t > e l i ' e

of

American s e t t l s r s ,ind
t h i s :n;s-

t 3 s e c u r e g a s s a g e s t 3 t h e West.
sion. :he

In c a r r y i n g g u t

Army's "!an@ c l a i n s " a l s o e v o l v e d f r o m a n a o -

d i t i o n a l ducy ta enforce provisions of various t r e a t i e , i

9?

negotiated,

t o i n c l u d e t h e Southwest.

With t e r r i t o r i a l

b o u n d a r i e s e s t a b l i s h e d by t r e a t y between M e x i c o and t h e
U.S.,

and w i t h r e s e r v a t i o n boundaries e s t a b l i s h e d by congressional acts, and/or i n f o r m a l agreements,

treaties.

t h e Army was q u i t e b u s y m o n i t o r i n g a n d c h e c k i n g A p a c h e movement when i t c a u l d . E a r l y i n t h e Army o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e Southwest,

t h e Apache and t h e m i l i t a r y h a d a v o i d e d d i r e c t c o n f l i c t m a i n l y b e c a u s e t h e 4 o a c h e t h o u g h t a n y o n e who d e f e a t e a t h e mexicans t o be t h e i r f r i e n d . E v e n when t h e Army s t a y e d

and Commissioner S a r t l e t t began an a t t e m p t t a e n f o r c e t h e Treaty of C u a d a l u o e H i d a l g o b y s t c ~ o p i n ga p a c h e r a i a s f r o m and hy p r o c e c t i n g vlexicans

'rcIm

A r i z o n a i n t a Mexica, caotivity,

Apache

these f i r s t

c l a s h e s were worked o u t w i t h c u t mangas C o l o r a d a s u s e d h i s 3 o s i t . i o n

w i a e s p r e a d ?loodsneo.' as c h i e f

t o a l l a y t h e v e n g e a n c e w e l l i n g w i t h i n Apache However. The 4Pache

p a r z i e s who f e l t w r c ~ n g e d b y t h e l o s s e s . d i d n o t campreheno t h e n a t u r e o f a n d l a n d t r e a t y b e t u e e n t h e U.5. l a n d c l a i m s O F i n a i v i d u a l U.S. 'acquired' land.

an i n t e r n a t i o n a l S o u n c a r y and M e x i c 3 n o t t 3 e a e r s o n a l

c i t i z e n s w i t h i n t i l e 1ew:y

J r i v a t e o w n e r s h i ? ~i L a n a was a n i n s t r u m e n t a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e Apache. Aoache,

7 0 :

value w i t h : i t t i e S i n c e :he area.

they

n o t t 3 e Mexicans,

c a n t r o l l s o she

could

u n d e r s t a n d hcw t ? . e A m e r i c a n s z a u l d

justify

t h e i r l a n a c l a i m s as coming From v i c t g r y a v e r t h e The ApacTe h a d , t h r s u g n w a r r i o r ?rowess. es-

Nexicans.

98

t a b l i s h e d b o u n d a r i e s a l l o w i n g them s u f f i c i e n t space t o

meet t r i b a l s u r v i v a l n e e d s .
ski?Ls finely tuned

They k e p t t h e i r f i g h t i n g

--

to raid o r to punish Rexicans o r

o t h e r Indian tribes as needed t o maintain their territorial control. T h e y h a d b e e n h a p p y t o s e e t h e U.S. soldiers

c h a s e t h e M e x i c a n s o l d i e r s away, a n d t h u s c o n s i d e r e d t h e m allies.
They r e g a r d e d Apache d o m i n a n c e s e c u r e when B a r t l e t t

a n d t h e small m i l i t a r y f o r c e l e f t t h e T u c s o n area w i t h o u t

warFaro.
pecting

g u t t h e w h i t e m i n e r s r e m a i n e d t o c o n t i n u e er'is-

for the gold they believed t o abound i n the mountains

o f apachedom. Yangas C o h r a d a s , as chief and spokesman f o r t>e

Yinores

i n t h e a r e 3 , f i r s t a t t e m o t e d t o r e d i r e c t t h e s e men

f r o m n i s t e r r i t o r y t o a n o t h e r a r e a u h e r e he c l a i m e o t h e y would f i n d more o f t h e y e l l o w d u s t and n u g g e t s . S i n c e he

h a d a h s e r v e d t n e i r e n e r g i e s expended i n search o f t h e ~ r s ,
dno s i n c e *e a n d h i s e e o o l e d i o n o t w a n t t h e w h i t e s i n

t h e i ? l a n d s , h e h a p e d t o e n t i c e t?em t a l e a v e b y t e : l i n q 7 t h e m O F a n o t h e r cliace where g o l d c o u l d b e f o u n d .

V P ~ ,

because he d i d not value the land f o r gold

t h a t is, d i d n o t s h a r e t h e same i n s t r a i m e n t a 1
he

a s i n e y :did

---

' ~ a l u eF o r i t (ant!
53

underestimated its worth t o these

niners

t h e inany a t n e r s \who w o u l d c a n i n u e ? a

l c i c k t:i r n e

So!dthwest i n s e a r c n o f t h e i n s t a n t w e a l t n t h e y b e l i e v e d t o
l i e i n u a i t =or t7em). These e a r l y m i n e r s b e a t Mangas

99

s e v e r e l y , b u t d i d n o t k i l l him.

T h e i r e x p r e s s e d aim

was t o d i s s u a d e h i m f r o m i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h t h e i r m i n i n g

e f f o r t s a n d t o l e a v e them a l o n e f o r t h e rest o f t h e i r
stay i n the territory.

Thus.

two s p e c i f i c c l a s h e s i n i n s t r u m e n t a l

v a l u e s related t o t h e mission o f p r o t e c t i n g t h e terr i t o r y appear i n these early i n c i d e n t s . forces defend accordingly. F o r Mangas. s u f f e r i n g such a humiliation as a unless The o p p o s i n g

r i e r s o n a l a t t a c k m e a n t loss o f esteem a n d p o s i t i o n .

h e c o u l d r e c l a i m h o n o r a n d e x h i b i t t r u e Aoache s t r e n g t h

a n d p r o w e s s o v e r t h e enemy.

He c h o s e t h e w a r p a t h t o s e e k

repayment f o r t h e a c t i o n both Dersonally and c u l t u r a l l y .

H i s o e r s o n a l vengeance lea
t3

t h e f i r s t l a r g e scale c r u e l

a n d b l o o d y wars o f t n e C h i r i c a h u a a n c Mimbres Apache against the whites.

8

These raids and attacks consequently

g e n e r a t e d a c t i o n s from t h e A r m y .

Apache claim a n d u s e o f

t h e l a n d d i r e c t l y c l a s h e d w i t h w h a t t h e A r m y was c h a r g e d
with protecting.

R e g a r d i n g r e s e r v a t i o n s f o r t h e Aoache. t h e i n

strumental values associated w i t 3 the land signLficantLy

a f f e c t e d t h e s o l d i e r s a n d Apaches.
The Army assumed a

n i s s i o n of enforcing reservation boundaries. a r r s s t i n g n o s t i l e s , e s c o r t i n g t h e m t o f s d e r a l s t o c k a d e s , o r t a new reservations, etc.

T h e 3 r m y was a l s o c a l l e d on t o : 3 u n t

a n d t a g t h e v a r i o u s members o f e a c h t r i b e a n d / o r S a n d d h o
100

s e t t l e d o n t h e r e s e r v a t i o n s a s t h e y were c r e a t e d .

They

a l s o were a s s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e g u a r d s f o r r e l o c a t i o n e f f o r t s
a n d t o p o l i c e r e m o v a l o r i n d i v i d u a l Apache p r i s o n e r s o f

war.

T h e Army t h o u g h t i t i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e A p a c h e to b e i n a n T h e Apache

exact place and observe p r i v a t e property lines.

s t i l i wanted t o l i v e o f f t h e l a n d .
Army r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o e n f o r c e r e s e r v a t i o n b o u n d a r i e s b r o u g h t s o l d i e r s i n c o d i r e c t c o n f l i c t w i t h A p a c h e s who d i d

n o t a c c e p t t h e limits o n t h e i r t e r r i t o r y a s r e d e f i n e d .

Re-

s e r v a t i o n o u t b r e a k s time a n d a g a i n b r o u g n t t h e Army a f t e r
t h e Apaches.

Fcr t h e Apache.

a new l i f e s t y l e was r e q u i r e d

Car l i v i n p a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c n n d i t i o n a o f t h e a r e a a n d t o
,he f e d e r a :

laws.

B e t z i n e z d e s c r i b e s s o m e o f t h e Apache

Pselings:
Ue were i s s u e d r a t i o n s O n c e a week a n d a s w e were n o t a l l o w e d t o w a n d e r away t o h u n t g a m e , we were e n t i r e l y d e p e n d e n t o n t h i s

issue

T h e g r e a t d i s a d v a n t a g e t o t h i s l i f e was t h a t I t i s t r u e t h a t many we h a d n o t h i n g t o d o .

...

I n d i a n s were l a z y s o f a r a s f a r m i n g was c o n c e r n e d , b u t who c o u l d f a r m i n t h a t d e s o l a t e country? (San Carlos) I : t h e y had b e e n s e t i n some k i n d o f a c t i v i t y i n iwhich t h e y were i n t e r e s t e d 3r e x p e r i e n c e d , t h e w a r r i o r s would h a v e beenlHaopy a n d would h a v e e x h i b i t e d great exertion.qs

7 e t z i n e z i n d i c a t e s . u n r e s t a m o n g t h e w a r r i o r s was n n t l o n g
He d e -

i:i q r c w i n q t o i u c h i n t e n s i t y t h a t o u t b r e a k s o c c u r r e d .

icrLbes t3is d e v e l o p m e n t :

Many o f o u r t r i b e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e w i i d e r o n e s f:om Plexico ( J u h , e.g.) had n e v e r l e a z n e d t o practice s e l f - c o n t r o l o r t o l i v e with their

101

misfortunes. This together w i t h the d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n with the surroundings b u i l t up among t h e N e t d a h e a n d C h i r i c a h u a s a n i n c r e a s i n g restlessness which spread t o a l l t h e bands. E v e n t h e u s u a l l y p e a c e f u l Warm S p r i n g s Apaches were a f f e c t e d . The o l d e r p e o p l e w i s h e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r home c o u n t r y The y o u n g e r men b e g a n t o t a l k o f g o i n g o n t h e warpath. A f t e r c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f u s i o n and a r g u m e n t t h e more w a r l i k e s p i r i t p r e v a i l e d . The d a y come when many w a r r i o r s b e g a n s t e a l i n g a n d b u y i n g guns a n d a m m u n ' t i o n a n d o t h e r wise preparing for c o n f l i c t . l b Although m i l i t a r y leaders of t n e Army a n d c h i e f s

o f t h e A p a c h e t r i b e s made a t t e m p t s t o n e g o t i a t e p e a c e
between t h e p e o p l e of United States, t h e Apache n a t i o n a n d o f the

these d i f f e r i n g

n o t i o n s o f l a n d #use a n d

t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s a s s i g n e d them a f P e c c e a b e h a v i o r

o f members o f
of

the nations accordingly.

Where s e g m e n t s
the

t h e p o o u l a t i o n s z h o s e t o a c t c ~ nt ? e s e v a l u e s ,

groups Fought. The A r m y g o l i c e a c t i o n s t h u s c a r r i e a o u t t h e n a t i o n ' s v a l u e p l a c e d on p r i v a t e g r o p e r t y . t h a n nomadic community. Apacne's t h e U.S. on a s e t t l e d r a t h e r The

a n a on m a n i f e s t d e s t i n y .

i n s t r u m e n t a l ,ualues a i Land w e r e cgndemnea try soldiers. although conceitual values r e l a t e d t o incomoatible.

L a n d a n d n i s s i o n w e r s n o t toca1;y

G-ouo V a l u e s

i n t e i r i t v oi t-e

a:

Illhen s c i d i e r s p r o t e c t e z c.?e t s r r i t o r y o i Y e x i c a n s and p e r s o n a l homesteads o f s e t t l s r s t 3 r o u g h n i l i t a r y ope r a t i o n s ( f i r e p o w e r ) , w a r f a r e 3ecueen t h e Ar?y and Apache

1a2

erupted.

Apaches r e a c t e d p r e d i c t a b l y t o d e f e n d t h e i r

f r e e d o m o f movement a n d t o reclaim a u t h o r i t y o v e r a c t -

i v i t i e s i n t h e area.

T h e Army d i d t h e same

--

to

c l a i m a s U.S.
ant

t e r r i t o r y t h a t same a r e a .

I t was i m p o r t -

--

a p r i m a r y v a l u e For both F o r c e s t o act i n d e f e n s e

o f territory.

T i e d i n w i t h t h i s d e f e n s i v e p o s t u r e were

v a l u e s of t h e group and its organization t o defend t h e values held.

R r m y a n d Apache O p p o s e d eacn o t h e r a s g r o u p s
That is.

--

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of their respective n a t i o n s .

t h e y became w a r f a r e t a r g e t s i n b l u e o r i n w a r p a i n t .

G e n e r a l m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i v e s f o r t h e g r o u p , s u c h a s t h e est a b l i s h m e n t o f armed s u D e r i o r i t v o v e r t h e t h r e a t , g u i c e d Aoache a n d s o l d i e r i n t o blooay engagements.

D e s i r e s t.3 g r e s e r ~ eu n i t i n t e g r i t y t o d e f e a t t h e

enemy d r o v e b o t n g r o u p s , b u t t h e u n i t s o r b a n d s d i d n o t

a i l u s e t h e same L a c t i c s t o d o t h i s .
for nilitary actions differed.

Instrumental values

For example, a g r o u p o f

C a l i f o r n i a o r New M s x i c o v o l u n t e e r s e n g a g e d t h e A p a c h e more a g g r e s s i v e l y t h a n a i d t h e S i x t h C a v a l r y .
A p a c h e s e n g a g e d i n r a i d i n g a n d wa:fare

White i'lountain

when I i c a r i l L a Apache

negotiated 3eace.

t r o u p s a i s o l d i e r s o r o i Apache d i a n o t

s h a r e e x a c t l y t h e same v a l u e s
t h e Apacne i n g e n e r a l ,

--

b u t f o r t h e Army a n d far

one s i g n i f i c a n t i a c t a r i s t h a t a
3 i

sense

01'

u n i t y :uas a c 3 i e v e d f o r o n e t h r o u g h z h e C r I a i n
30th

csmmand a n d F o r t h e o c h e r t n r z u q n k i n s h i p b o n d s .

v a l u e a (group i n t e q r i c y , bur. t b e i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s a r o u n d
1a7

how t o o b t a i n i t o r p r e s e r v e i t were n o t s i m i l a r . Indeed, u n i t o r band, sense o f oneness.

t h e g r o u p s b o t h h a d some

F o r t h e s o l d i e r s , t h e c h a i n o f command

p r o v i d e d t h e l i n k b e t w e e n each s e g m e n t o f t h e A r m y .
t h e warrior,

For

both k i n s h i p and s t a t u s gave an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

To b e s u r e , t h e Apache

s t r u c t u r e of s o r t s t o the band.

war P a r t y h a d n o s i m i l a r i t y i n o r g a n i z a t i o n t o a c o m p a n y or regiment of soldiers.

Frequently.
i t was c h a r i s m a .

r a t h e r t h a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l command a u t h o r i t y , t h a t L e g i -

t i m a t i z e d t h e l e a o e r - f o l l o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r t h e Apache. m i l i t a r y law e n f o r c e d t h e Cammand s t r u c t u r e u i t h i n t h e A r m y .

Rank existed i n b o t h , b u t standards used i n d e f i n i n g t h e

g r o w s i n d i c a t e some c l e a r 3 i f c e r e n c e i n v a l u e s .
The A r m y r e c r u i t e d i t s s n i i s t e d n e n f r o m a l l s e g -

ments o f t h e nineteenth century s o c i e t y ; an0 i n its e i f o r t s t o s e c u r e e n o u q n men c o f i e l d a. F r o n t i e r F o r c e ,

it brought

t o g e t h e r b o t h b r a v e men a n d c o w a r d s ; men who were s k i l l e d a n d s o m e who were i n c o m o e t s n t ; t 3 o s e u h o iuere l o n e s t , t r u e a n d f a i r men a s

well a s f ; l o s e suho i i e d , c n e a t e d a n d b e t z a y e d

their colleagues.

.Ylost men i n t h e R e g u l a r A r m y wers s t r a n g e r s

p r i o r t o t h e i r assignmenr. t o t h e u n i t ; n o s t n i l i t i a men and v o l u n t e e r s were f r i e n d s a n d / o r r e l a t i v e s , a s d i s c u s s e d above.

T h e c o h e s i o n o f c h e u n i t s d i i f e r e d widel.!,
but a
The

common f a c t o r b o u n d t h e men t o g e t h e r

--

tle Irmy.

u n i t u a s t r e a t e d as a s i n g l e - m i n d e d group.

I t had a s i n g l e

Leader a n d t h e men h a d a s i n g l e m i s s i o n u n d e r t h a t l e a d e r .
1a d

The m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e the group.

--

laws a n d r e g u l a t i o n s

--

molded

A p a c h e men were more l o o s e l y u n i t e d i n f o r m a l

S t r u c t u r e , b u t more s t r i c t l y b o u n d b y h o n o r a n d c o n v e n t i o n o f c u l t u r e t h a n were t h e s o l d i e r s .

If a c h i e f o r w a r r i o r

l e a d i n g t h e p a r t y g a v e a c o m m a n d i n b a t t l e , t h e o t h e r warr i o r s f o l l o w e d i t a s t h e y saw a p p r o p r i a t e .
no c o u r t - m a r t i a l

They f e a r e d

f o r f a i l u r e t o o b e y o r d e r s . b u t t h e y were

g u i a e d by e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e p r o u p t h a t a n Apache warrior w o u l d a c t on c a r t a i n v a l u e s . Recklessness, imprudence,

c o w a r d i c e were c e n s u r e d . . T h e w a r r i o r who v i o l a t e d t h e s t a n d a r 3 s was no L o n g e r r e s p e c t e d a s a member o f t h e g r o u p , o r i a s

n o l o n g e r F o l l o w e d i n t o b a t t l e , d e p e n d i n g on h i s s t a t u s a n d

the magnitude

3 i

?is e r r o r o r l e a d e r s h i p f a i l i n g .
3n

17

However, u d r r i o r s d i d n o t a l w a y s agree
h e l p the group survive.

how t o

One o f t h e w e a k n e s s e s E e t z i n e z .
He n o t e s

a t t r i b u t e s t o t h e Apache i s a n i n t e r n a l d i s s e n s i o n .

t h a t o f t e n t i m e s p e r s o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n Leadership s t y l e

3r 3 a t t i e p i a n s

led

t o a b i d f o r p o w e r among i n d i v i d u a - s
li

o f t h e warrior g r o u p , a s i t does i n deweloDment o f a n y g r o u p .

To C h e q p a c h e , c h a l l e n g e s m e a n t g h y s i c a i c o m b a t , r e s u l t i n q i n

a s a l i t t i n g o f b a n d s i n t o e v e n smaller :jegmenr.s, a l t h o u g h
k i n s h i p tronas

( c l a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s ) n e v e r iaosec.

3issension
O n

t h e n , m i g n t b e s e e n a m o n g Apache w a r r i o r s ? r e p a r i n g t o g o a raid.

More u n i t y t h r o u g n c l a n o 0 : i g a t i o n s

.ar0se f o r

the

Apache on t5e ;uac;ath.

105

The Apache's needs f o r survival exercised the greatest unifying influence o n the bands. That is, fr3m

each and every member of the g r o u p arose a desire for the spoils of warfare or raid. If warriors were not successful,

not merely their Pride suffered, but people went hungry, feet went uncovered. and bodies unclothed.
F o r the Army, dissension among troops was n o t allowed,

regardless of the action.

Even though the Army's tactical

Units were composed of diverse individuals, the Army's structure and discipline allowed the commander to count o n a commit.ted force uhen he issued orders. Apache chiefs and

warriors leading raids could n o t necessarily exoect the same degree of resoonse. Those who built their war Jarties F r o m

the clan relationsniis serhaos could expect less dissension, but still did n o c ?awe t2e formal control held b y Army commanoers. To be sure. apaches did not have total anarchy They fought a s a unit

in their warfare. gr3up

--

to aid the w n o l e

yet individual initiative and skill accgunted F o r ?3 the maneuver and farvor 3 7 tne battle. The difFerence in source o f concrol over tne integrity of the unit figures to be even more signifizant in the last campaigns against the Apache.
Even though nany

--

chiefs chose to live in peace, they did :lot have a system which could culturally o r nilit3rily a i n o aLL silocnieis and warriors together with an absolute authority. Clan a f -

filiation efFected obligations ? o r ~uarfare;,local jands

106

supplied the warriors f or

raiding parties.

1b

Individuals

w a r r i o r s a t times chose t o c o n t i n u e r a i d i n g t o t h e warpath a g a i n s t Mexicans

or t o take

or Americans even though

peace agreements had been r e a c h e d between a c h i e f and an official of t h e U.5. Government

--

u s u a l l y an A r m y o f f i c e r .

Not o n l y i n t r e a t y n e g o t i a t i o n s and i n r e s e r v a t i o n residence d i d the differences s h i p s i m p a c t on t h e campaigns. w e r e h i r e d t o j o i n Army f o r c e s , i n individual-group r e l a t :on'

A l s o when t h e Apache s c o u t s the instrumental vaiues reI n empLoyment o f Apache

l a t e d t o group i n t e g r i t y clashed.

w a r r i o r s as advance p a r t y s c o u t s f o r units. commanders f a c e d

Army as

i n f a n t r y and c a v a l r y attempting t o integrate

t h e dilemma o f

t h e m i n t o ?.he

soldiers" or a l l o w i n g them t o o p e r a t e
If t h e l a t t e r o p t i o n w e r e F o l l o w e d ,
thF! A r m y

a s fluache f i g h t e r s .

i t f o s t e r e d a d i s r u p t i o n t o d i s c i p l i n e and o r d e r o f

u n i t t o whom t h e y w e r e a t t a c h e d .
The u n i t was i m p o r t a n t a s t h e f i g h t i n g e l e m e n t t o b o t h Apacne a n d s o l d i e r , b u t i t was o r g a n i z e d f o r d i f f e r e n t instrumental values.

p u r p o s e s and t h u s r e f l e c t e d d i f f e r e n t A f t e r the b a t t l e , ',he

Apache g r o u o r e t u r n e d t o t h e l a r q e r After a victorious

s o c i e t y and s n a r e d what t h e y g a i n e d . 3attle, the Army returned t o a f o r t

or otner m i l i t a r y in-

stallatign,

t o f i l e r e p o r t s a n d i s s u e some a w a r a s 3 r c3mb u t the "rewaros"

of

n e n d a t i o n s t o t 3 0 s e who f o u g h t w e l l ,

t h e b a t t l e were n o t s h a r e d w i t h s o c i e t y a t l a r g e ,

e v e n if

society a t large d i d consider the e f f o r t s o f the Army t a

107

b e o f v a l u e t o them i n e s t a b l i s h i n g b e t t e r s e c u r i t y .

Grouo Ualues

M o r e s (Law a n d O r d e r ) : t h e c h i e f a n d t h e commander r e f l e c t

The r o l e s o f

some d e f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s p o s i t i o n of

i n values o f t h e groups.

The

a u t h o r i t y among t h e A p a c h e was r e t a i n e d e s s e n t The p o s i t i o n o f the

i a l l y by p r o v e n a c t i o n and group r e s p e c t . commander o f orders

t h e Army u n i t s Idas f i l l e d r a t h e r b y o f f i c i a l

--

a l t h o u g h p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t s and i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e 3n

l a t i o n s n i p s d i d h a v e some b e a r i n g Each s e r v e d as t h e o f f i c i a l

son8 o f

t h e assignmencs.

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a system of

law and o r d e r w i t h i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s n o t c l e a r l y u n d e r stood

--

sometimes t o t a l l y r e j e c t e d

--

by t n e opponents. e l o q u e n t and
3f

P a r t i c u l a r l y among t h e v a r z i o r g r o u p s ,

charismatic 1eadel.s c g u l c i n l u e n c s

the determinacians That i s ,

a g a i n s t ,whom a n d how t S e g r o u o F o u g h t . l i k e c h i e f s Mangas o r Cocnise

Leaders

c o u l d e x e r c i s e an i n y l u e n c e

t o restric-. tne warriors attacks

or

raids,

or they c3uid

a s s e m b l e l a r g e numbers 3 F w a r r i o r s a n d c o m m i t t h e m t o ldar a g a i n s t a n snemy. Cochise, P e r s o n a l r e v e n g e o f b o t h Mangas a n d

L e d men t o war a f t a r

as a matter o f fact,

tSey

had e x e r t e d a l l t h e i r oersonal i n f l u e n c e s i , t i a l long Deriods of order oeace.

t o g u a r a n t a e inlaw and

?be s o u r c e o f

for t h e Aoacne u a s , h o w e v e r , u l t i m a t s i y b a s e d o n
:he tribe. U a r l i k e as they were,
:oo.

the tra d i ti o n s of

the

Apache v a l u e c Deace d i t n h o n o r .

W i t h i n army u n i t s ,

the leadership also affected Some c o m m a n d e r s s u c h a s C a r l t o n

what t h e u n i t accomplished.

o r West d e v i s e d l a r g e s c a l e o r s w e e p i n g p l a n s t o s e n d men
o u t t o l o c a t e and a t t a c k any I n d i a n encampment t h e y f o u n d .
Others.

s u c h as Crook, carried o u t t h e i r m i s s i o n more r e -

a c t i v e l y , r e s p o n d i n g t o Apache d e p r e d a t i o n s o r i n t e r ventions, ments.

rather t h a n a t t e m p t i n g t o i n i t i a t e t h e e n g a g e -

They pursued h o s t i l e s , but gave p r o t e c t i v e treat-

ment t o noncombatants.

These l a t t e r l e a d e r s s o u g h t t o a s -

t a b l i s h law a n d o r d e r t h r o u g h d i s c i p l i n i n g t h e e r r a n t
flpache,

r a t h e r t h a n e r a d i c a t i n g a l l o f them.

as the former

a t t e m p t e d t o do.

i n trying to stop i l l e g a l behavior wnile

l e t t i n g t h e o t h e r l i f s w a y s o f t h e Apache c o n t i n u e , C r o o k
got better

c o o p e r a t i o n ? T o m t h e Apache t h a n e a r l i e r

C3m-

manaers r e c e i v e d .
T h e m i l i t a r y d i s c i o l i n e needed t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e

m i s s i o n s s e t f o r t h by commancers o r h i g h e r h e a d q u a r t e r s

was, o f c o u r s e , b a s e d i n t h e c ! l a i n o f command i t s e l f a r . d
r e g u l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e m i l i t a r y j u s t i c e system. When

A p a c h e s c o u t s were e m p l o y e d t o work w i t h Army u n i t s .

a o d i t i o n a i p r o b l e m s a r o s e w h e n s o l d i e r s e x p e c t e d .4caches

t o a b i d e b y A r m y r e g u l a t i g n s a n d Apache w a r r i o r s exoec::ea
t h e Army

t 3 h a v e more c o n s i s t e n c f i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
15

O r

,justice.

P e r s o n a l Values

Lovaltv:

Both Apache and s o l d i e r h a d d i f f i c u l t d u t i e s t o

perform.
Both had h a r d s h i p s and scarcity t o f a c e i n f u l -

filling responsibilities.

And. m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t l y .

both

w a r r i o r a n d s o l d i e r were r e a d y a n d w i l l i n g t o d i e i n l i n e
of t h i s duty.

I t i s n o t s o much t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e

o f a v a l u e placed on d u t y , t h e n , b u t t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l n a t u r e O F t h a t v a l u e which s e p a r a t e s t h e Apac5e a n d

soldier.
A s t r o n g s e n s e o f d u t y c a r r i e d some s o l d i e r s t h r o u g h

h e r o i c a c t i o n s s u c h a s t h e b a t t l e d u r i n g which Wangas C o l o r a d a s was s h o t o r w h e n C h i e F L o c o was k i l l e a . l 6 Some

other s o l d i e r s ,
no D a y

SUC?

a s C a p t a i n J e f F o r d s , o v e n worked f o r
17

f o r a ldnq Deriod of their s e r v i c e .

Desoize t h e

h i g n d e s e r t i o n z a t s s , t n e men who C a u g h t t h e Aoache a r served as escarts,

S C ~ U C S ,

o r 3 u a r d s were a d e a i c a t e d g r o u p ,

even if n o t highly s x i l l e d ir f r g n t i e r f i g h t i n g techniques. VaLues r e l a t e d t o l o y a l t y

3f

t h e s o l a i e r s were n o t

a l l n i l i t a r y ones.
s i d e o f t h e Arny,

T h a t is, e a c h s o l d i e r h a d some l i f e o u t Yhether

i z involved

family

(nearby o r

back i n t h e E a s t ) , a 7oboy o i h u n t i n g ,

diinking, or &hatothers

e v e r , t h e s o l d i e r 'lab s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s n i o s uuL'.h b e s i d e s h i s n i l i t a r y comrades.

F o r :Ce

s o l d i e r , t3e u n i t
F o r t.?e A p a c n e , h a w -

was o n l y o n e 3 r o u o i n t s w h i c h h e f i t .

e v e r , t h e fignciric ;raup munity,

the school,

was a l s c t h e F a m i l y an0 z n e c o m things.

The

r n e s o c i a l l i f e , a n d 31;

One m a j o r j i f f e r e n c e b e t u e e n t h e s t a t u s o f
::0

in-

d i v i d u a l w i t h i n t h e g r o u p s had t o do w i t h k i n s h i p .

The

s o l d i e r s were, r e g a r d l e s s o f p e r s o n a l v a l u e s o f c o m m i t m e n t ,
p a i d members o f a g r o u p f o r m e d t o c a r r y o u t a n a t i o n a l policy.
The i n d i v i d u a l w a r r i o r ,
on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

was

selected t o join t h e raid because of h i s f i g h t i n g prowess

and a l s o h i s personal r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e person leadinq
the party

(or the persons following

him).

Although both

s o l d i e r a n d Apache h a d g r o u p i n t e g r i t y a n d i n d i v i d u a l l o y a l t y . i t is c l e a r t h a t t h e e x t e n t o f t h e commitment o f t h e Apache exceeded t h a t o f t h e p a i d s o l d i e r s . P e r s o n a l Values

touraoe:

Apache s o c i a ? v a l u e s i n c u l c a t e d i n t o t h e i n d i v i n u a l

directed

h i m

t3 honor h i s k i n .

His f a t a l i s t i c s o i r i t u a i

ualues d i r e c t e d him t o f i g h t c a u t i o u s l y b u t b r a v e l y , s o a s

t o b e r e a d y t o d i e i f i t h a o p e n e d t o b e h i s time.

The c a r e -

l e s s o r i m p e t u o u s w a r r i o r was n o t r e s p e c t e d n o r s o u g h t a u t f o r a s s i s t a n c e a n r a i d s b e c a u s e t h e a i d o f t h e r a i d was t 3 a v o i d c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p e r s o n s f r o m whom t h e p r o v i s i o n s ,uere t3 be taken.

When a t t a c k i n g w i t h a war ? a r t y , h o w e v e r ,

the

c h i e f d e s i r e d t o 3e s u p p o r t e d w i t h w a r r i o r s who l o o k e d o r ward # w i t h exciteme?:

t o t h e b a t t l e ahead.

T 3 b e a g r e a - . w a r r i o r meant t o 3 e a d e s c a t g e t -

.in9

50

t h e enemy ui:hout

s u i f e r i n g harm o r

105s

--

d i s c i s l i n e o f movement b e f o r o , d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e F i i ) n t . ing. Although the :soutation

O F t h e Apache

a s t 5 e mos:

111

f e r o c i o u s of I n d i a n s o f t e n c a r r i e s w i t 2 i t t h e thought of r e c k l e s s abandon i n a t t a c k i n g t h e i r enemies, such

was n o t t h e c a s e i n a l l b a t t l e s .

Indeed. t h e i n d i v i d u a l

w a r r i o r s k n e w how t o f i g h t : t h e y were d e a d l y i n c o m b a t : a n d t h e y a p p e a r e d t o h a v e no f e a r o f d e a t h . Some o f t h e m

were known t o t o r t u r e male c a p t i v e s : some t o o k s c a l p s .

H o w e v e r , t o r t u r e was n o t a u s u a l p r a c t i c e , a s n o t e d b y
t h e w a r r i o r s Coodwin i n t e r v i e w e d ,

n o r was s c a l p i n g .

18

I f e i t h e r p r a c t i c e was p u r s u e d , a m e a n i n g was s i g n i f i c a n t .
T h e w a r r i o r s i n v o l v e d were t r y i n g t o avenge a s i m i l i a r

a c t : t h e w a r r i o r s were r e s o o n d i n g t o some a c t i o n i n e x c e s s i v e a n g e r : o r t h e y w e r e a n g a g e a i n a b a t t l e w h i c n was apparently a last ditch e f f o r t .

To t h e U . S .

s o l d i e r , r r , u r a g e ~ e a n ctr, F i g h t ! u h e n e v e r

t n e enemy was f g u n a , t i e n g a g e tfie E n e m y regardless o f

numerical d i f f e r e n c e s .

time o f o a y , o r t e r r a i n .

Uhen fignt

s c g u t s e m p l o y e d b y t h e A r m y b a l k e d a t a n o r d e r !a
i n t a r r a i n they considezed disadvantageous.

against odas

which f a v o r e d t h e enemy, t h e y were l a b e l e d c3wards and laggards. Instrumental value diferences relating to men w h i c h

c o u r a g e z r a m o t e d e a r l y i n c o m p a c i b i l i t i e s o f :he l a t e r h a d t a b e r e s o l v e d :or m i l i t a r y team. P e r s o n a l !Values

U.

t n e m t o uorK t o g e t h e r a s a

Morality:

S.

s o l d i e r s r e g a r d e a Apacne a c t i o n s o f b a r iditnouc r e f l e c t i n g on c a u s e s o f
112

f a r e immoral a n a s a v a g e .

A p a c h e war p a r t y a t t a c k s , a n d w i t h o u t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e -

t w e e n a r a i d a n d a war e f f o r t from t h e A p a c h e , t h e s o l e i e r s were o f t e n t i m e s c a u g h t u p i n p o l i c e a c t i o n s a n d r e s c u e miss i o n s o r punishment raids which might have been avoided.
T h a t i s . t h e s o l d i e r s a t times r e a c t e d t o t h e m o v e m e n t o r

a c t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r Apache band by p u n i s h i n g a whole tribe.

Or* sometimes, t h e s o l d i e r s were c a l l e d on t o s e e k

o u t t r i b a l camps a n d d e s t r o y g r a i n , p r o v i s i o n s , a n d s h e l t e r s , t o impound c a t t l e , sheep o r horses which might be i n t h e

a r e a , e v e n t h o u g h t h e b a n d o f Apaches s u b s e q u e n t l y a t t a c k e d
were n o t t h e o n e s who h a d b e e n a c t i v e l y d e p r e d a t i n g t h e area. S o l d i e r s d i d n o t always d i s t i n g u i s h b e t u e e n "good"
A l l

a n d " b a d " Apache w n e n t h e y f o u n d l a r g e h e r d s o f a n i m a l s .

A p a c h e s were c o n s i d e r e d t h i e v e s a n d m u r d e r e r s .

And t h e m o r a l

z 3 d e o f American s o c i e t y l e v i e d h a r s h j u d g m e n t s a g a i n s t
the guilty.

F o r many o f

t h e Army p e r s o n n e l f i g h t i n g t o p r o -

t e c t t h e f r o n t i e r , t h e r e was n o s u c h p e r s o n a s a " g o o d "

I n d i a n u n l p s s h e o r s h e was d e a d .
This disregard for the

Apacne a s a p e r s o n v i o l a t e d t h e Army e t h i c , b u t I t ? r e v a i ? e d a s a s t r o n g o p i n i o n a m o n g many o f

the civilians

( a n d many o f t h e m were v o l u n t e e r army p e r s o n n e l ) .

The i n -

s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s d e f i n i n g m o r a l i t y and s o l d i e r ethics cont r a s t e d s h a r 3 l y berween t h e 4 r m y s o l d i e r a n 0 t h e Apache. Psrsonal Values

Faith:

D i f f e r e n c e s i n A r m y a n d Aoache i n s t r u m e n t a l s p i c i t u a i v a L u e s widened t h e g u l f between t h e p e o p l e s .

For t h e soldier,

113

Judeo-Christian

p r i n c i p l e s o f f a i t h , hope and c h a r i t y Not a l l s o l a i e r s were

were t o g u i d e c h a r a c t e r d e v e l o p m e n t .

C h r i s t i a n , n o r were t h e y a l l r e l i g i o u s , b u t m o s t were

familiar with Judeo-Christian preceots forbidding stealing.

lying, k i l l i n g , e t c . t h a t were a l s o laws o f t h e l a n d .

T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t h a t R i s h o D H.

8. Whiople w r o t s

f o r Helen Hunt J a c k s o n ' s A C e n t u r v o f D i s h o n o r addresses

the r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e s of the country during t h e past

century:
The A m e r i c a n p e o p l e h a v e a c c e p t e d a s t r u r h t h e t e a c h i n g t h a t t h e I n d i a n s wers a d e g r a d e d , b r u t a l : a c e . o f s a v a g e s . who i t was t h e w i l l o f God s h o u l d p e r i s h a t t h e a p c r c r a c h o f civilization. I F :>ey d o n o t say w i t h o u r P u r i t a n Fathers t h a t these are the riittites who a r e t o b e d r i v e n o u t b e f o r e t h e s a i n t s o f t h e L 3 r . d s r t h e y d o accep'. t h e : e a c ? i n ~ t h a t

n a n i ' e s t d e s t i n y w i l l d r i v e tne I n d i a n s from the earth. T h e i n e x o r a c l e h a s no t e a r s 3 r p i t , ! a c t h e c r i e s 3 f a n g u i s h o f t h e ooomea race: ' 3 Identical concepts regarding nan's relationsnip t o a
S u p r e m e B e i n g w e r e l o t h e l d b y a l l s a l d i e r s , Duz many
h a v e d o n e a s Cremony d i d i n t h e Y h r e a t O F d o a t ?
s3me p r a y e :

--

utter

t o God.

R e l i g i o n was ~ o 3t r r r i n a r y D a r t 1 7

t h e s o l d i e r ' s l i f e , b u t was a f a m i l i a r a s a e c : .
3y = 3 n t : a s i .

r e l i q i g n das a r i n t e 3 r a l a a r t
l3r;e

3f

the

4oache's Li??.

Nearly a l l a c t i w i : i e s .

a n d smal:,

i n v o l v e d some s p i r i - u a l f z c u s .
3rayers and s p i r i t u a l concerns.

~ i . k e w i s e ,Z a t t l ? e v o k e s

=3r ?ach w a r r i o r ,

follow-

i n g t h e a c c e o t e a C z o e s o f i o n o r , s ? c o u r a g e , s f d u t y 50 t h e

Ilk

g r o u p was p l e a s i n g t o t h e G r e a t S p i r i t , who g r a n t e d l i f e
and powers t o h i m . Dying i n dishonor or cowardice l e f t The s p i r i t o f even t h e b r a v e s t o f body
but

t h e w a r r i o r homeless. warriors, however.

would not r e s t u n t i l t h a t w a r r i o r ' s The w a r r i o r d i d n o t f e a r d e a t h

was p r o p e r l y b u r n e d .

--

h e d i d w a n t t a h a v e t h e p r o p e r t r e a t m e n t a f t e r d e a t h so t h a t h i s s p i r i t could f i n d i t s place. The Apache g e n e r a l l y a day. Death

accepted death as simp?y another e x p e c t a t i o n of from h a r d s h i p Apache b a n d s .

o r b a t t l e was a common o c c u r r e n c e among a i l

A

s t o i c acceptance of death appears i n sucn " I t i s a good day they d i d n o t

w o r d s a s t h e Apache s a n g p r i o r t o b a t t l e : t o die.'I However. they d i d not dare fate:

charge i n t o b a t r l e ( u n t i l they had r e c o n n o i t e r e d t h e s i t u a t i i n as t h o r o u g h l y as p o s s i b l e . a n d d i e hcnorac:y. Also, Then, t?ey could f i g q t

KO
'

t h e y a i d what t h e y c o u l d
of

protect

t h e whole grouo from t h e devastating e f f e c t s They w e r e d e s i r o u s o f l i v i n g r a t h e r t h a n o f

t h e environment.

i n v i t i n g death

--

b u t s t i l l t h e y a c c e p t e d w h a t e v e r h a p p e n e d a s i t came.

E X C E ? ZONAL 9EP P V I O R 5
T h e r e w e r e i n d i v i d u a l s who d i d n o t f o l l o w t r a d i t i o n a l Apache v a l u e s o f p e r s o n a l , social, tne

or soirir-

u a l c a u t i o n i n r e l a c i n g t o o t k e r s , h o w e v e r , ancl t h e s e men,
tao. n u s t ?e d i s c u s s e d .
As g o i n t e d o u t b y s u c h l e a d e r s

as Cachise and Zhihuahua,

t o leave t2e reservation,

some " w i l d " ca r a i d 115

men m i g h t c h o o s e
3f

ranch

a person

F r i e n d l y t o t h e Apache, o r t o f i g h t a g a i n s t a n o t h e r w a r r i o r or trader, even though those a c t i o n s would be c e n s o r e d b y o t h e r g r o u p members. Sometimes t h e lack

o f m o r a l i t y was a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n t o x i c a n t t i s w i n .
w h i c h t h e Apaches b r e w e d :

sometimes t o w h i s k e y w h i c h

white traders provided abundantly (though i l l e g a l l y ) , a n d sometimes t o t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f t h e A p a c h e t r i b e

i n general.
T h a t is. For many,
t h e r e a s o n f o r Apache

r a i d i n g a n d w a r f a r e d i d n o t seem t o m a t t e r .

Among t h o s e

a t y p i c a l Apache w a r r i o r s , G e r o n i m o a n d O l d Nana s t a n d

as t h e most.wel1-known.

Old Nana f o u g h t F e r o c i o u s l y

e v e n p a s t s e v e n t y years o f a g e .

Geronimo led v a r i o u s

s i z e s o f r a i d i n g a n d iwar S a r t i e s b u t was n e v e r a c h i e i .
He was {known a s a l i a r a n d r e b e l
Army leaders.
LU

~y

b o t h Apache a n d

Other factors o u t s i d e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s of
t h e Apache a n d A r m y p e r s o n n e l w h i c h a f f e c t e d t h e z e -

Lationships include t h e operations of various Indian agents. A l t h o u g h t h e 4rmy was t a s k e d w i t h n e g o t i a t i n g

peace agreements a n d w i t h S r i n G i n g t h e Apaches o n t o

reservations,

t h e a g e n c i e s were a p e r n t e d b y c i v i l i a n s .

Many o i t h e s e men O i d n o t c o n s i d e r e i t h e r A r n y o r Aoache

v a l u e s as they went a b n u t t h e i r S ~ i s i n e s s . e e c z i n e z

i d e n t i f i e d several concerqs t h e doache raised, i n c l u d i n g d i s h o n e s t d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f3oa r a t i o n s .

21

Croghan a i s o r e c o r d s c o n t i n u i n g problems.
116

L l e

m e n t i o n s a s u c c e s s i o n o f a g e n t s b e i n g r e m o v e d from p o s i t i o n
a n d A r m y o f f i c e r s b e i n g r e l e i v e d o f p o s t command 3 v e r

v a r i a n c e s they had growing o u t o f o p e r a t i o n of t h e l l l r 6 t h N u m b e r . 72 A r t i c l e o f t h e R u l e s a n d R e g u l a t i o n s o f t h e A r m y .

T h i s a r t i c l e required t h e

commander a n d agent t o a c t t o Their d i f f e r i n g

gether i n issuing the Indian provisions.

values o f t e n caused i n e f f i c i e n t and u n r e l i a b l e i s s u e .

22

O f t e n t h e y were s o e m b r o i l e d i n t h e i r a w n d i s p u t e s a v e r
who r a n t h e I n d i a n o o e r a t i o n s , t h e y i g n o r e d t h e I n d i a n s

tnemselues. P e r h a o s t h e most d a m a g i n g o f t h e e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s

!was t h e " T u c s o n R i n g , " o r " I n d i a n 9 i n g . "

called.
;his

as it is a l s o

g r 3 u o i n c l u d e d ADacnes, Army men, and I n d i a n

Bureau Dersanne? o o e r a t i n g zagether i?legai?y oeddling g u n s , w h i s k e y , a n d ~ t h e rp r 0 u ; s i o n s . iiesuits of t h i s

CQC-

r u o t i o n were d i s a s t r o u s t o p e a c e e f f o r t s .

The A p a c n e who

were u i c t i a i z e a b e g a n t o b r F a k away f r o m r e s e r v a t i o n s ,

t o plunder, tarrdre and r e t u r n t o earlier l i f a s t y l e s . G e n e r a l Crgok conoemned t h e s v s t e n , u h i c h g a v e

i u l l nanagement aur.nority
t3

23

n e i t h e r t h e Army n o r t h e

Indian 3ureau.

Ye b e l i e v e d t n a t " n i n e t y - n i n e - h u n a r e a t h s "
wers c a u s e 5 y I n d i a r . a g e n t s a n c

o f t h e I n c i a n rrcu'c:es

traders, Dv t?ei;

mismanageqenc.

I f you w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e a l l t h e I n d i a n t r o u b l e s , y o u d i l l f i n d t h a t t h e r e i s somet h i n g :urang o f t h i s n a t u r e ( m i s - h a n d l i n g O F i s s u e ) at. t h e b o t t o m o f a l l o f t h e m , something z e l a t i n q t o the s u o p i i e s , or else

:'I 7

a tardy and broken faith o n t h e part o f t h e g e n e r a l government.2& Some agents, o f course, recognized Apache values a s significant. These men tried to c o n s i d e r the Apache John Clum and

a s they implemented federal policies.

T o m J e f f o r d s w e r e a m o n g t h e s e m e n ; y e t t h e y , too. w e r e often caught i n situations wherein policies blatantly d i s r e g a r d e d A p a c h e needs. They both resigned finally

in dispute over resecvation movements a n d inadequate 25 issues. C O N C E O T U AL

I/ALUE

Although conilicts Continued to arise from diCP e r e n c e s in i n s t r u m e n t a l values. m e n s u c h a s C l u m , J e f f o r d s a n d C r o c k o n z3e o n e s i d e . a n d C o c n i s a , P e a c h e s . and Chihuanua o n the ot3er. helped direct more attention t o w a r d c o m m o n v a l u e s the n a t i o n s s h a r e d o n t h e cclnceptual level. 30th valuea nonor, justice and truth. f a m i l y a n o communit,y in h i 3 n e s t e e m . tneir fighting ability
t3

Botn held

goth conslderid

be a basis o f self-wortn and

P,

acciotance within c>e general community. m e a n i n g s 3 i v e n to t3e i?s:rumental

n e u look a t

ualues invoivinq such

areas o f life a s these finaily brought about some zhanges. T h r o u g h a i a l o g u e b e c u e e n s u c n m e n a s .Te?fords a n d Z o c ? i s e , t h e A o a c h e b e g a n to g n d e r s t a n d m o r e F u l l y the j u s z i c e

system of t h e s o l d i e r s .

Through d i a l o g u e between such

c h i e f s a s C h i h u a h u a a n d C r o o k , t h e Army b e g a n t o r e c o g n i z e

b a s i c v a l u e s o f t h e Apache, s u c h a s f a m i l y l o v e a n d uni:y.
A l t h o u g h n o n e o f t h e s e men r e p r e s e n t t h e whole o f t h e
Apache n a t i o n o r t h e A r m y , w h a t r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e i r n e -

g o t i a t i o n s w i t h each o t h e r i s t h a t t h e r e was a c h a n g e i ?
the

frame o f r e f e r e n c e i n w h i c h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u l d
A new f o c u s emerged

c o n t i n u e t o be d e v e l o p e d .

--

on c o n -

ceptual values. not j u s t instrumental anes.

T h e w o r d s C h i h u a h u a s o o k e t o C r o a k when h e s u r -

r e n d e r e d i n 1886 e x e m p l i f y t h i s r e c o g n i t i o n o f some shared values:

I'm not I ' v e t h r o w n away m y arms. I f you a f r a i d ; g o t t o d i e sometime. punish m e very hard, it's a l l right. You b u t I t 3 i n k nuch a f n y f a m i l y . and a l m o s t a l l your o f f i c e r s h a v e f a m i l i e s . a n d t h i n k o f t h e m , so 1 h o p e y o u w i l l p i t me a n d w i l l n o t p u n i s h t o o h a r d . 36
W i t h a l o o k b e y o n d '.he

c o n c r e t e d i F f e r e n c e s , t h e two S i d e s

began t o take c a u t i o u s steps toward geacs.

119

NOTES

I.

D u n l e y , pp.

208-209.

2. Adams d i s c u s s e s t h e b a c k g r o u n d s o f t h e Apache, PP. h-5. See a l s o E o u r k e and Opler f o r d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e i r geneology.

3.
Parker, Sugplement, p.
19.

b. U t l e y , Croghan, and 3 t h e r h i s t o r i a n s d i s c u s s t h i s a t length.

5 . F e y , For i n s t a n c e , is o n e u h o n o t e s s p e c i f i c changes i n o f F i c i a l p o l i c y : i n 1853. "The p o l i c y i s t o g a t h e r t h e I n d i a n s upon small t r i b a l r e s e r v a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e well dePineo e x t a r i o r bounoaries o f w h i c n smal? t r a c t s of land a r e assigned, i n severalty. t3 the i n d i v i d u a l members 3 f t h e t r i b e I n 1871, Congress discontinued t z e a t y m a k i n g a n d a s y s t e m ~f a g r e e m e n t s was s u b s t i t u t e d . I n 1 8 9 0 , C o m m i s s i o n e r Morgan s t a t e d : "The s e t t l e d p o l i c y o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t i s t o b r e a k uo r e s e r v a t i o n s , d e s t r s y t r i b a l r e l a t i o n s , s e t t l e I n d i a n s u ~ o nt h e i r own h o m e s t e a d s , i n c o r p o r a t e them i n t o t h e n a c i o n a l L i f e . arid d e a l w i t h them n o t a s q a t i o n s o r t r i b e s , s r ? a n d s , b u t a s i n a i v i d u a ? !pc. 36-67). zi:izens."

..."

6.
7.

F a r i s h , I, g p . 3 7 , ' L 2 . F a r i s h , 1, 1. 5 7 . F e y , 2. 2 8 .

a.

S. The San C a r l o s r e s e r ' J a c i o n a s l o c a t e d i n a d e s e r t l i k e a r s a u h e r e su'llmer t e m o e r a t u r e s " s f t e n r s a c i e d !:O d e g r e e s o r h i g h e r . O u s t s t o r i s w e r e c3mman t h e y e a r r a u n d , a n a i n a l l s e a s o n s e x c e o t t > e summer, t h e l c c a l i t y swarmed u i t ? f l i e s , m o s q u i t o e s , g n a t s , a n d s t h e r p e s k y i n sects." (Ee'czinez. p . Sir!

10.
'1.

Qet:ine:,
Ooler,

p.

67.

z. i2S.
3.

12.

Serrinez.

3.

? 5 . T h i s i n d i v i d u a l f e r v o r was s o m e t h i n g u h i c h was e s o e c i a l i y f r i g n c e n i n g t 3 t h e s o l d i e r s f a c i n g t h e Aoac?e i n battle. I n d i w i d u a l i y , t n e Apacne was s t r o n g e r t h a n m o s t Arlry men. N o t e a g a i n t h e zammencs =:om Cremony i n Z h a p t e r 1 .
120

14.

The c h a r a c t e r o f a c h i e f s t i l l h a d t h e g r e a t -

Most s o u r c e s n o t e t h e g r e a t i n f l u e n c e o f I a n g a s , C o c h i s e , a n d O l d Nana, for instance.

1 5 . D u r i n g t h e C g u r t - M a r t i a l o f t h e s c o u t s who h a d s e r v e d C o l o n e l C a r r a t C i b i c u e , i t was p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e terms o f e n l i s t m e n t were n o t c l e a r , t h a t d i s c i p l i n e o f t h e s c o u t s had been d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h a t g i v e n t h e o t h e r See B r i n c k e r h o f f , "Aftermath of C i b i c u e . " u n i t members.

e s t i n f l u e n c e on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e b a t t l e .

16.
17.

"Cooke,"

p . 119.

F a r i s h , 11, p . 283.

18. G o o d w i n ' s i n f o r m a t i o n on s c a l p i n g i s a q o o a r e f e r e n c e o n t h e l a c k o f i m p o r t a n c e s u c h a c t i o n was t o t h e Apache. S e e pp. 2 8 0 - 2 8 5 .

19.

Jackson, XIV Lockwood,

P.

20. 21.

223

B e t r i n e z , p. Croghan,
P.

22.

:57.

23. Teioe:, 00. 296-2'37. S o u r k e 3 L s o 3 i s c u s s e s t h e c a r r u o t i o n r a m o a n t a m o n g Zne a c t i v i t i a s m a n a g e d b y members o f t h i s r i n g . ( " G e n e r a l C r o o k i n I n d i a n C o u n t r ? . " ) C z o o k , A u t o b i o q r a o h y , p . 2Z7. Indian traders by several writers. Czoqhan, p . 165, d i i casses t h e i r u ~ s c z ~ ~ o u l o ou oe sration. 2(1.

a r e a l s o condemned
25,

Lockuood, Pp. 222-223.

L u r n m i s , 3. 3 3 .

25.

121

CHAPTER F I V E
SOLUTIONS

With all his faults, and h e h a s many, the American Indian is not half s o black a s he has been painted. He is cruel in war, treacherous at times.and not over cleanly. But s o were our forefathers. His nature, however, i s responsive to a treatment which assures him that it it based upon justice, truth, honesty, and common sense; it is not impossible that with a fair and square system o f dealing with him the American Indian would make a better citizen than many who neglect the duties and abuse the privileges of that aroua title.' Looking at tribal (cultural) background and leadership behaviars provides a fairly clean understanding of the Acache's actions which occurred during tne iwhice American settlement of the Southwest. crqanizatiana: weaknesses. :he Likewise, a review of the confusion regarding ?olicy

toward the Apache, and tne shift o f responsibility for control o f the Indians between various agents, departments and oureaus o f the U . S. Government provides an understanding of the Army's actions. Such reviews often lead to Rarely

ooinions which see iau1l.s o f one side or the other. are both oerspectives taken into ccnsideration.

This thesis las maincaineo khac the interaccicn between Apacne ana soldiers uas pushed into "war" b y the values a n d attitddes o f peop?e =rcm 50th sides. Examination

o f the values exhibiced b y 30th Army personnei and Apacne

warriors reveals a -evaluation of the opconent b y both sides.

122

This perspective opened the relationship to cruel and longlasting warfare. Without respect or regard for the human-

ness o f the opponent, no positive steps could be taken to resolve differences peacefully and permanently. The mis-

understandings and prejudices pushed the relationship further and Further into continual warfare. Each side chose combat The

to respond t o unacceptable actions o f the other side.

Fighting continued--partly due to limited knowledge regarding some o f the values o f the opponent, partly due to misperceotions regarding other values; and Partly because of direct incompatibility o f still other values held b y the different socities. L The general image o f the Apacne held within The american psyche was t3at they ulere suostanoard ano subhuman Seings. WiUe pun?ication from Southwestern newsoaoers ario

from petitions For help sent from citizens in New Mexico and Arizona to the Secretary of War contributed to tne image. 2 Although some eastern humanitarians dio influence for
a

the government's genera? Indian :olicy

time, t3e
3f

2.1-

vailing attitude expressed through the Chai? that di:ected

Command

Arny leaaers into action was lot one o f The image refleczea -unite

acceotance o f Acache values.

zivillzation's Teasures o f worth and iusec value-laoen nomenclazdre t 3 describe the Apanci.
6

From the Apache perspective, the white civilization rad little to offer that made life more bearable. They, too,

regarded the opponent to be untrustworthy and unscrupulous. Repeatedly, the Apache pointed to dishonesty, corruption and greed a s the major characteristics of a society which 5 they condemned. Conceptual values held b y the opponents were not s o incompatible a s were the instrumental ones. also great sources o f dispute and conflict. 8ut these were Oifferences

in values related to religious expression and belief. in wearing apparel, i n family relationships (nuclear families
us. extenoed families, i.e.1, i n zhe methods and rules of

carrying out justice, and in prooerty ownership became separation ooints and instigators af cambat.
To nany of those

invalvea in the conPlict and to nany of those dho uera living in the Southwest, it aopeared that no resolution to the differences iuould be found. At least, it seemed that no sernanenc

solution for peaceful co-existance o f the peopla wouii be zealized. The wars drug o n
fgr

decade aiter decade, throuFh

change of government and change of Army commanders. Peace between the aooonents Bxacted a high cost-but i t did finally haopen. ne:;ing
o f values occurred.

With this peace, a definite

Al.housr

u:l

assinilacion of the

Apacne inta the U . 5 . mainstream 3iz ;lot occur, the z s n f l i c ~ s were halted when it became less valuable to either tne 4pache
o r the Army to continue comoatant aceivities.

rhac military

power of the Army proved too deadly for the Apache i s no aoubt a factor in value changes. But that power alone did not seal

the peace, for eariier military engagements had repeatedly led to negotiations, treaties, arrests, and transfers that were only temporary lapses in the conflicts throughout the forty years.6 The new aDproach included both military superiority Adjustments in instrumental

and concern for human factors.

values o f both soldiers and Apache warriors occurred.

AERGING

O F VALUES

General George C r o o k s campaigns against the Apache in 1873 and 1883 serve to illustrate changes in the instrumentai values o f the Army and the Apache to a degree wnich gromotad more peaceful reiations.
B y 1073, the mission of the Army had been redefined

somewhat. from its earlier one o f protect the Frontier.

Uizh

the implementation o f President G r a n t s Peacs Policy, the Army also took o n a responsibility for protecting the reservations and the Apaches on them. General
CiOOkS

first campaign effsctzd a sur:e?aer

of

virtually all Apacne tribes across the territory wno were not already assigned :o a reservation. His efForzs to ss:a3iish

peace embody certain ioints at which some Ter3.ing o f Apac-e

a n c Army v a i ~ e scoula occur--and other points at whicn a

significant imoetus to change values could be sxertsd.

T9e

trademark O F Genera? C r o o k was his famous riding mule apache-and his soiaiers with their mule tiains Decame famiLiar signts
125

a s they tracked the Indians across the territory.

His approach

to combat the Apache with training, equipment and animals suited

to the environment Srought nim success.

His consistently nonest

and direct dealings with the Apaches also brought him their trust. He began his command b y learning everything he could

about the situation through rioing from reservation to reservation and listening to the grievances of the Indians--something nobody else had done. Protected only b y a small escort,

he ewen rode into the mountains to talk to known hostile chiefs in their villages. Only his reputation for fair dealing saved

him from expected attacks. When he heard everyone's story, Crook took actions that worked to establish more acceptabie conditions for prolonged peace.
He

used his troops t o remove all the miners,

squatters and ranchers who were trespassing o n the reservations. Using his governmental powers, he extinguished a s much corruption a s h e could in the Indian agencies that were operating in
his territory.

And he also held the Apache responsible for

becoming civilized and self-sustaining: a n d , as an essential to this, told the Aoache they could select suitable homes anywhere inside the reservation, instead o f roving nomadically over the whole of it. The head men of the respective bands

were to be held responsible for the behavior of their people. Some o f the brightest, best and most influential o f them would be enlisted a s soldiers, but would reside among the people, and would assist in Leading them toward self-government,
126

W h e n e v e r a t r i b e showed a n i n c a p a c i t y o f s e l f - c o n t r o l .

i': w o u l d If

b e b r g u g h t i n t o t h e a g e n c y w h e r e i t c o u l d be c o n t r o l l e d . a n y b a n d became b a d , t h e o t h e r and c o n t r o l i t .

bands were t o j o i n t o g e t h e r

Crook promised t o b r i n g i n w h i t e s o l d i e r s themselves incapable of selF-

O n l y when t h e Apaches p r o v e d

control.

One c o n d i t i o n o f t h e i r b e i n g a l l o w e d t o p i c k o u t

i n d i v i d u a l homes a n t h e r e s e r v a t i o n . was t h a t t h e y m u s t s u p p o r t t h e m s e l v e s a f t e r t h e i r c r o p s came i n i n t h e f a l l . c h i e f iuould b e h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e i f a n y t i - i u i n were

Lo

The :hey Tieir

with

was made.

p u t . t h e i r s p a r e money i n t o h o r s e s a n d c a t t l e .

f u t u r e was t o d e p e n d upon t h e m s e l v e s , a s Ccaok ' u o r k e o 7 them.

Amang a t h e r n a i n t s wnece v a l u e s m e r g e a :uas d i r e c t c z m o a t .

G e n e r a l Crnak e c 3 o e a t h e z e q u e s t a f nany p r s v i o u s cammanders when h e dernanaed e n o u g h t r a o p s t 3 s e n a t o t n e n o u n t a i n s i n p u r s u i t of h o s t i l e s . He r e c o g n i z e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t i t was i m areas to

p e r a c i v e t a b r i n g s u f f i c i e n t m i l i t a r y paiuer i n t a :he

p o r t r a y t o t h e Apacne t h e s i z e a n d m i g h t a f t h e i r a n p a n e n r : H e k n e w Apacne at'.aCked defer-ed wnen t h e y e x p e c t e g c o

din,

t h a t they

t 3 s u o e r i a r f a r c e s and s o u g h t Jeacet'ui c a - a x i s t e n c e Craak maiq-

i n such c a s e s r a t h e r than p u r s u e c o n t i n u a l u a r .

tained that

h i s

f o r c e m u s t 3e Large, h e a v i l y a r a e d . maoile. jpeci'ically, h e uses n a c c n i y c n e Ar-ny's

k i s
t3

ana w e l l - t r a i n e d .

v a l u e s o f c i s c i p l i n e a n d g e n e r a i t r a i n i n g La i e : s c t
but appliec the nighly

fzrce, 'iurvival

ranked i\cache v a i u e s r e i a t e d

s k i l l s a s well.

a
12?

R e g a r d i n g t h e t e r r i t o r i a l b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n Mexico and tne U. S . and t h o s e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e v a r i o u s r e s e r v a t i o n s , C r o o k a g a i n e f f e c t s d a merger ( o r r e d e f i n i t i o n ) o f v a l u e s .

T h a t i s , h e s o u g h t s p p r o v a l t o a c t where a n d when h e c o u l d i n

p u r s u i n g any h o s t i l e s .

B u t h e a l s o made i t c l e a r t h a t r e s e r -

v a t i o n l o c a t i o n s o f p e a c e f u l Apaches would be s a f e from a n y

Army a t t a c k s .

H i s proposal recognized t h e value of land use

He a e c l a r s d

f o r s a f e t y and b a s i c s u b s i s t e n c e f o r t h e Apache.

t h e i r c r o p s and r a n c h e r i a s t o be s a f a I n t h e r e s e r v a t i o n .

Y e t , h e a l s o i n a i c a t e a t h a t t h e Army's o p e r a t i o n s t o p u r s u e h o s t i l e ( o r r e n e g a d e ) A p a c h e s would d e f i n e a l l :and a s open

t o a r m y maneuver.
O t h e r v a l u e s wnic? C r o o k ' s a c z i o n s seened t o o r i n g t a g e t h e r i n v o l v e d t h e u s e o f t n e Aoac'le s c o u t s .
u s e o f s c o u t s , C-sok
In his initial

h a d emoloyel v o l u n t e e r s from any o f

the

trises.

H o w e v e r , he z a r t i c u l a r l y s e l e c t e d t h o s e f r o m t h e v e r y

- , r i s e )which h e u a s c h a r g e a w i c h t r a c k i n g down an h i s l a s t camgaign. a l t h o u g n h i s o p i n i o n was n o t s h a r e d b y a l l , h e d i o

grove s u c c e s s f u l i n h i s e f f o r t s t o r e s t o r e ?eace an0 s e c u r e

a commitment f o r i t s permanence.

RESOLYTIONS '0
Thus,

T H E C2NFLICT:

a s instrumental v a l u e d i ' f e r e n c e s

were r e d u c e d ,

J p e n z o n f l i c t b e c w e e n Apacne a n a Army became less f r e q c e 3 : .

Focus on

d e u e i o p m e n t o i p e a c e f u i r e i a t :-,ns ,-

c i i t e r e a on e s t a b as desire for

L i s h i n q some i e w v a l u e s w i t h i n t h e A p a c ? e - - s u c i

123

private homesteads, desire for reading and writing skills (education, as defined b y the white culture), and acceotance of new laws and customs. John Bourke describes the reserva-

tions under Crook's supervision: "The transformation effected was marvellous. Here were six thousand of the worst Indians in America sloughing o f f the old skin and taking o n a new life. Detachments of the scouts were retained in service to maintain order; and also because money would in that way be distributed among the tribes. Some few at first spent their pay foolisnly, but tne majority ciubbed toqecher and sent to

Earlier. some aqents lad not viewed che aoacnes a s adaotlve. Fey quotes zne assessment in these uoras: Americans who were setting o u t to make a new society could Find a p l a c ~in ir. f o r the Indian only if ne would become wnat tnev are--settled, steady, civilized. Yet somenow, he would n o c be anything out what he was--roaming, unreliaole ( b y wnice standaros), savage. So they concluded that they Were destined 5 0 t r y to civilize the Indian and, in trying, to destroy h i m . be ause he c o u l d not and woulc n o r , be siui?izea. 1 8 . Despite
SJC?

r;loomy predictions. the Apacne proved to The

adaot in ways that wer2 not earlier tnought possible. success o f C - O O K ' S

aoaroach suggests that Setzinez' view!; dhen the Apache had .notiva-.ion they :were abls to a C c O m p ~ ~ S ~

were shared Syotrrer Apaches.

to do something (a value E ~ r it),

the task o r meer. t n e chailenge a s necessary.

129

Although both sides wanted peace, elements within each had earlier militated against it. Yet, these decades

of conflict slowly laid a basis for a final peace tnat was understood and accepted by both Army and Apache. peace overtures on both sides had not lasted long. The early

In f a c t ,

their short duration, problems in semantics of the agreements and conditions o f the restraints on personal actions of either parties (such a s territorial boundaries for the Apaches, and restrictions o n trading of the wni:e to increased hostilities. businessmen) contriouted

But what had followed from the

initial peace agreements with such tribes a s the Jicariilas and Pinals, and even the Yescaleros and Chiricanuas, were a series of indirect steps t a 1asti;lg oeace a s the q r o c p s learned more about their opoonencs' exeectacions and aoout tneir opoonents' own ' ~ a i u e s" .
c F :

tneq

Those steps uiti-

mately provided experience which effected adjustments in values supporting co-ax.istence without dart'are. During the

forty years o f conPlict, Aoache loss o f life, starva-ion, and exposure first promoted warfare, as :hey resconaed to tne
T h i s (uas

problems by using reaction/prablem resoiution. initially a highly valued reszonse. ?roc:ems

Later, nowever, sinilar

ArmV

were resconded to with di?=erenr actions.

difficulties in adaressing treaty vioiations, and inoeed, ParCiCipation in atracks uoon indididual tribes, rrr Sands who may not have been "guilty" o f any illegality in rne eyes of the Apache also feo the fires F o r war during the
130

e a r l y years.

However,

the Army,

too.

l a t e r used d i f f e r e n t co-existencs.

t a c t i c s and p o l i c i e s t o a d d r e s s t h e p r o b l e m s o f

A c h a n g e i n i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s was e v i d e n t i n b o t ?
t h e A p a c h e a n d t h e Army. The c o n c e p t u a l v a l u e s o f l i f e sim-

p l y overrode the instrumental values t o r a i d i n g a s t h e b e s t means o f Also,

r e l a t e d t o r e v e n g e or

food supply

for

t h e Apache.

t n e A p a c h e a c c e p t e d r e s e r v a t i o n l i f e when i t a p o e a r e d enough l i b e r t y t h a t w a r r i o r s were a i l o w e d

to provide l i f e , t o hunt, tunity farm,

or w a n d e r w i t h i n t h e a r e a , a n d some o p p o r -

for

Qappiness

in

tnat warriors,

women.

and c h i l d r o n

a l i k e c o u l d c o n t i n u e t o p r a c t i c e many o f ways. l 2

t h e Aoache

folk-

The f o l l o w i n g w o r d s 0 7 C h i h u a h u a a t h i s s u r r e n d e r but a

to C ~ ~ O i nK d i c a t e s changed i n s z r u m e n t a l v a l u e s , c o n t i i u e d .adherence :o c3ncentuaL ones:

1 h o p e f r o m t h i s o n e lrle may l i v e b e t t e r w i t h o u r f a m i l i e s , and n o t do any harm t a I am a n x i o u s t o b e n a v e . I t h i n k anybody. t h e s u n is l o o k i n g down u o o n me, a n d t h e I am t h i n k i n g b e t t e r . ;t earth listening. seems t 3 me t h a t 1 h a v e 3 e e n t h e o n e who makes t h e r a i n and sends t h e w i n d s - - o r he must I surrender have s e n t you 7 0 t n i s p l a c e . m y s e i i t o y o u because I b r L L e v e i n you, and you have n e v e r l i e d t o u s . ,

..

The A r m y was a i s o i n f l u e n c e c 5 y l i f e and l i b e r c v . for a segment o f

the conceptual values of

i l a l u e s t h a t i t was c 3 a r G e d u i t h d e i e n d i n g the ~ o ~ u ? a t i o Yn ere a l s o r e a l i z e c as g e r t i those o f t h e p e o p l e t h e y were f i g h t i q g . t h a t acuressed

n e n t a n d l e g i t i m a t e :o

G r a n t ' s Peace P01ic.f ? a s =Lrst g e n e r a t e d grograms

13?

c o n c e p t u a l v a ? u e s ; b u t i t was n o t u n t i l A r m y c o m m a n d e r s i n
t h e f i e l d u e r e a o l e t o m e s h t h o s e c o n c e p t s w i t h some c l e a r l y

c o m p a t i b l e i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s t h a t some p r o g r e s s was made

for l a s t i n g peace.

G e n e r a l c r o o k ' s p o s i t i o n s f f e c t i v e l y ccm-

b i n e d v a l u e s s o t h a e g r e a e s t r i d e s c o u l d b e made i n n e g o t i a t i o n s and, once t h e c y c l e of a c t i o n / r e a c t i o n o f b a t t l e d e a t h s c o u l d be slowed. o t h e r e l e m e n t s o f j u s t i c e , cooperIJ

a t i o n a n d d a i l y l i v i n g c o u l d b e a d d r e s s e d more s u c c e s s f u l l y . G e n e r a l C r o o N ' s p h i l o s o p h y f o r \ d o r k i n g ' v i e n c n e Apache s u m s

u p t h i s new f o c u s :

I t is not advisable t o l e c an Indian

you. ihei:

t3ink

y o u a r e a f r a i d a f h i m ewen w n e n F u l l y a r n e a . Show n i n C h a t a t h i s O e s t he i s n o m a t c h f o r

I t i s ? a t ~ r a c t i c a b l e- 0 d i i a r n I n d i a n s . a r m s c a n newer a e t a K e n f r o m them d n l e s s t h e y a r e capeureo 'uhile Flgnting , v i t 3 t n e i z a r T s i n Z3eir i a r o s , 3 v sudden s u r p r i s e o r 3 i s a o i i n q . u a u n o s . 'dnen I n o i a n s f i r s : s i l r r e n d e r o r come upon a r e s e r v a t i o n . t h e y a n t i c i p a t e b e i n g d i s a r m e d , a n d mak,e t h e i r a r e p a r s t i o n i n advance. They c a c n e n o s i o i t h e i r O e s t v e a p o n s , a n d 3 e l i v e r u3 o n l y t n e s u r g ? u s and u n s e r v i c e a o l e . The o i s a r n i n g o f I n a i a n s h a s i n a:most every i n s t a n c e on record proved a F a r c i c a l f a i l u r e

...

I n d e a l i n g w i t ? :his cuescion. I could not. Lose s i g h t o f t > e f a c t c h a t t n e hoache r e g r e s e n t s g e n e r a t i o n s o f w a r f a r e and 3 l o o d s h e d . Frcrm h i s e a r l i e r i n f a n c v a e h a s n a o t a j e f e n d h i m s e l f a g a i n s - . e n e m i e s a s c r u e l a s c h e beas'. o f t h e mountain and cores:. In h i s zrief moments o f p e a c e , 7 e c s n s t a n t l y L o o k s fs: a t t a c k o r ambuscade, and i n > i s a l m o s t c a n s t a n t u a z f a r e n o a c t o i a l o o o s n e c is ' 0 0 cruel ~ l r unnatyral. I t is, t t l e r a f o r e , u n j u s t to puniih nin far vioLaticns of a c o d e o ? war w h i c ? 3 e h a s n e v e r L e a r n e a , a n d understand. uhictl h e c a n u l i t h dif-::cul:y

172

He h a s , i n a l m o s t a l l h i s c o m b a t s w i t h w h i t e m e n , f o u n d t h a t h i s women a n d c n i l d r e n a r e t h e f i r s t t o s u r f e r , t h a t n e i t h e r age nor sex is S p a r e d . I n t h e s u r p r i s e a n d a t t a c k s on camps muomen a n d c h i l d r e n a r e k i l l e d i n s p i t e o f every p r e c a u t i o n ; n o r c a n t h i s b e p r e v e n t e d b y any g r d e r s o r f o r e s i g h t o f t h e commander, a n y more t h a n t h e s h e l l s f i r e d i n t o a b e l e a guered c i t y can be p r e v e n t e d from k i l l i n g innocent c i t i z e n s o r destroying private p r o p e r t y . Nor d o e s t h i s s u r p r i s e t h e A p a c h e , s i n c e i t i s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h h i s own c u s t c m o f f i g h t i n g ; b u t w i t h t h i s ' a c t b e f o r e u s we c a n u n a e r s t a n d why he s h o u l d b e i g n o r a n t o f t h e r u l e s o f c i v i l i z e d w a r f a r e . A i l t h a t we c a n r s a s o n a o l y do is t o k e e o n i m u n d e r s u c n s u o e r , d i s i o n t h a t he c a n n o t g l a n new o u t b r e a k s uiChout running t h e r i s k o f immediate d e z e c l i o n ; f o r t n e s e new a c t s o f r a s c a l i t y , p u n i s h h i m s o Severely t h a t he w i l l know we mean no n o n s e n s e . A s r a o i o l y a s p o s s i b l e , make a d i s t i n c t i o n 3 e t w e e n t n o s e iuho mean t o d o wei:, a n d t h o s e 'uho Enc1c;rs e c r e r l y A e s i r e +a remain a s t n e y a r e . a g e t h e ' o r m e r and p u n i s n t h e L a t t e r . L e t :he Apache j e e t h a t Te h a s s o m e t n i n g c.3 g a i n S y g r o p e r z ~ e h a v l o r , a n a s o m e t h i n g t o Lose b y n o t Ln ' w i t n t h e n e w z r z e n a f t h i n g s . :,a:li;l:; 5 w e e i L ' > < v e n g e a n c e i s a s nnucn t o oe d e p r e c a t s r : as s i l l ! s e n t i m e n t a l i s m . 1'
CONCLUSI3NS

From t 3 e e x a m i n a t i o n or' t h e s e c a m p a i g n s . it. a c p e a r s

t h a t 3 e a c e z e t w e s n t ? e Army a n d t h e l o a c h e c o u l d

have i e e n
:f

a c h i e v e d w i t n l e s s 3 i o o a s h e d and mucn e a r l i e r .

t n e c3n-

c e p t u a l v a l u e s o i t h e Aoacne ? a e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d a n d t a k e n i n t o Zonsiderazicn
3v

t h e e a r l , ! ni!.ita:v

a u t h o r i t i e s wPen

g o v e r n m e n t 3 f F i c i 2 l i s e n t t h e Armv t 3 negotiate t h e c z n c i t i o n s
gf

c o - e x i s t a n c e 3e:been

t h e ear:'!

U n i t ?

s 2 t t ; e r s a n o t:ie
: . n

Apache ano d h e n a g i - . c s w e r e a s s i g n e o , c e r y a i n 3 a t t l z s t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s t h r z u q r . :ne

:E?O's

ccu?a nave been a v o i b e d .

133

If the Apache had realized during those early encounters .that

they were opposing an Army with "endless" supply and personnel, their position o f warfare might have been different. Both the

Army and the Apache a r e seen a s underestimating the capabilities and the true nature of their opponent. Their differences more

in instrumental values had defined their positions as incompatible than they actually were. l 5

motivations for

attacks o f the most devastating magnitude would have been reduced if the army's policy o f extermination had not directed early indiscriminate killing. Sinilarly, even the number o f

raids could have been reduced if the Apaches had accepted aiternate solutions to securing f o o d and establisning uarrior prestige a s uere ~ f f e r e d3y the army. An understanoing of

not just t>e cuiture, but of the personal ano graup values was needed.

R E C 0 flmE N 0A T 10 N S
What then are tne imolications t a be drawn concLusions?
From

these

Are there i?ssons to be learned from tne engage30 faczors such a s the values c f the

ments with the Apache?

oooosing warriors, or ttle ooposinp nations haue a n applicability t,o today's conflicts? The ituay o f values nas assumed much more than acaoemic interest far tne mooern world. With the raoid imorovement in means o f communication whiC3 has taken p?aco during the last century and tne resulting increase in cross-cultural contacts, the potentialities for conflict have

become g r e a t e r t h a n e v e r b e f o r e . It is obvious t h a t u n l e s s t h e v a r i o u s n a t i o n s which compose t h e m o d e r n w o r l d c a n come t o s o m e s o r t o f a g r e e ment as t o what t h i n g s are i m p o r t a n t a n d desirable, w e a r e h e a d e d For c a t a s t r o p h e . l G
L i n t o n ' s q u o t a t i o n i s a d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t v a l u e s do

matter.

W i t h m o d e r n w a r f a r e h a v e come many new c h a l l e n g e s

t o t h e p l a n n i n g and c o n d u c t i n g o f b a t t l e .

S t r a t e g i e s FormuThe human

lated t o d a y n e e d t h o r o u g h a s s e s s m e n t OF t h e enemy.

e l e m e n t has been one o f t h e c o n s t a n t s of b a t t l e t h r o u g h o u t :?e ages. W a r r i o r s o f any a g e , o f a n y p l a c e , a n d FacPd w i t h

a n y threat h a v e c e r t a i n v a l u e s which d i r e c t l y bear on t h e i r conduct. A l t h o u g h these v a l u e s may v a r y From o n e w a r r i o r t o

a n o t h e r , w i t h i n eac? u n i t , a n d i n d e e d , w i t h i n each s t a t : ? o r
alliance

t h e r e a r o v a l u e s w h i c h a f f e c t how t h a t w a r r i o r c o m -

o i n e s u i t n ~ t h e r st o f i g h t o r t o r e s t r a i n from f i g h t i n g .
Whetner t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s l e a d e r o r t h e s t a t e a s p o l i c y
mduer

s e t t h e limits f o r o n e r a t i o n , p e r s o n a l v a l u e s d o p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n ,dhat h a p p e n s . 2e:ationshFos

17

between values and c 3 n f l i c t are o e p l c t e a

T h e Apache I b e n a w i o r s b a s e o an

, ~ i \ i i C f l y i n t h e a p a c n e Wars.

t r i b a l i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s g e n e r a t e 0 c o n t e m p t , f e a r . and con'usion
3f
3 i

among t 3 e s e t t l e r s a n d s o l d i e r s .

Similarly, tne actions

t h e Army a r c u s e s contempt and d e f e n s i v e f e e l i n g s on t h e p a r t t h e Apac7e.

ivlistrust and d i s g u s t F e l t by b o t h t h e apache

ano t h e 5 o L d i e r t o w a r d t h e i r o p o o n e n t c o n t r i b u t e 0 t o t h e c o n -

t i n u a l warfare.

O n l y when u n d e r s t a n d i n g and s e n s i t i v i t y t o

175

e a c h other's

neeas and concerns occurred. did peace and Throughout the years following the

negotiations follow.

close o f the wars, dialogues nave continued to address matters

of

importance to the parties.

When values receive such approThis lesson is one applicable

priate attention, peace folows. t o any a g e .

136

NOTES

1.

Linton.

0.

157.
Ir

2. data.
3.

Chapters 2 , 3 , and

Qave presented the revelant

Utley. The Indian Frontier, j p . 3 3 - 3 6 .

Ir. Particularly the statements of Cremony. Nazzanouich, and Sheridan might be noted as expressing such an cipinion.

5. Farish's The History O F Arizona. Uol. I 1 cites statements attributed t o Cocnise and Chatto regarding their distrust of the white negotiatgrs. 9ourke's An Aoache Cam-, records statements of scouts echoing simiiar distrust.
6. Even the peace estaolished after General Crouk's first major offensive in 1872-73 was tentative. Also, see Key's study for an examination o f the various groups' o f American citizens impacting 3n :he work 3f t.he Army durinq these years.
7.

Tebbel,

0.

299.

9. He ec7oes the recuests 3iwen b y earlier commanders. but also soecified t?e training o f ?is soldiers. his mules, and his scouts to work together. Nothing w a s left to cnance. See Bourke, "General Crook in the Sierra Madre." The Smoke 2ional.
9. 3ourlte. "General C:oo4 in the Indian Country." Centurv Maoazine, March lag:, p . 2 9 6 .

:O.
:1.

.=ey, g .

3b,

citing gay biar'~ey Pearce.

cassion

D u n l e y , 2. 2 1 3 . Eee also Linton, p . 152 for diso f the relationship betueen vaiues.

12. 12.
14.

Lummis,
Clunley,

p. g. g.

31. 21d.

Lummis, Linton, Lint3n.

l6a.

15.

p.
3.

158.
157.
137

16.

17.
~~ ~

Anatol Aapoport. Strateqy and Conscience, d i s c u s s e s

a t lenoth the imoortance o f values in modern strategy f o r m u l a -

tion and in a l l negotiations.

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S e c r e c a r y o f War i i e o o r - . s 1 8 4 6 - 1 a ? l . 148

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX E

APPENDIX C

A Rewnnaclsclnce. by Fredenc Remingon. Whether emploved i n units such as Cenera1 Crwk organized or individually a3 scouts and p d e s . Indians played an lmportant role in the armv's operations against the western hibe3. From Centtry
.Mafazinc.

I N I T I A L DISTRIBUTION LISY
1.

Combined A r m s Research L i b r a r y U.S. Army Command and General S t a f f College F t . Leavenworth, Kansas 66027

2.

Defense Technical h f o r m a t i o n Center Cameron S t a t i o n Alexandria, V i r g i n f a 22314

Chaplain (MA.1) Erwin Wichner Center for Army Leadership U.S. Army Command and General S t a f f C o l l e g e

3.

4.

I.TC Roy R . Stephenson Combat S t u d i e s l n s t l t u t e U . S . Army Command and General S t a f f C o l l e g e F t . Leavenworth, Kansas 66027

5.

COL Don M a r t i n , J r .
1 6 8 8 South Garland Court Lakewood, Colorado 8 0 2 2 6

6.

Defense Equal Opportunity Management I n s t i t u t e 1 , i b r a r y (3) Building 560 P a t r i c k A i r Porue Ease, F l o r i d a 32925 COI. S h i r l e y Rach P.O. Box N Cocoa Beach, F l o r i d a

7.

32925

8.

LTC Roland E . Stewart 1 4 0 0 South Joyce S t r e e t , 0-1501 Arl Lngton, V i r g i n i a 22202