Residual Strength of Damaged Steel Ships and Offshore Structures

Dr C. S. Smith* and Mr R. S. Dow*

*ADMIRALTY MARINE TECHNOLOGY ESTABLISHMENT, DUNFERMLINE, SCOTLAND

SYNOPSIS A review is made of various forms of structural damage which may occur in ships and offshore steel structures, with particular reference to the influence of such damage on stiffness attd ductile strength. Consideration is given to damage in a ship's bottom or side shell as may be caused by collisions, grounding, hydrodynamic impact or explosions and to the influence of such damage on hull-girder bending strength. Reference is made to the eJfects of bending and denting of tubular members in offshore platforms and of collision damage in externally pressurized ring-stiffened cylinders as may be employed in submersibles attd large-diameter tubulars. Some methods are suggested for evaluation of residual stillness attd strength with emphasis on approximate analysis techniques which can be applied quickly atul economieally to obtain an ear O, assessment of damage eJfects. INTRODUCTION
Considerable effort has been devoted to estimating the extent of damage caused in steel structures by collisions and other forms of accidental or abnormal load. Evaluation of collision damage in ships ~.-'~ is, for example, commonly carried out in order to check the watertightness of hull compartments, the containment of dangerous or pollutant cargoes such as liquid gas or bulk oil or, in the case of nuclear-powered ships, the integrity of reactor compartments. Relatively little attention seems, however, to have been focussed on evaluation of the residual strength of damaged structures. Critical issues of safety, economy and, in the case of warships, military effectiveness may depend on correct assessment of the ability of a damaged ship to continue normal operations either until completion of its immediate mission or in the longer term until a scheduled drydocking or refit. Similarly, in the case of offshore platforms, it is obviously important to be able to assess quickly and accurately, as a basis for repair decisions, any loss of strength and stiffness in damaged members together with the cumulative effects of element damage on strength of the platform as a whole. In addition to collisions, possible causes of damage to a ship's hull include hydrodynamic impact (slam-

ming), grounding and careless berthing or drydocking. The effects of internal gas explosions in oil tanks or machinery spaces may require evaluation, and in the case of warships consideration must be given to damage caused by underwater or atmospheric explosions~JL Damage to the structural framework of offshore steel platforms may occur during launching or installation and is caused fairly frequently by minor supply-boat collisions and by accidental dropping of massive objects from platform decks. Damage can also result from foundation movements, including in particular earthquake action. ~4~ A further type of damage which may affect both ships and offshore structures is that caused by fire, occurring either in service or during construction. The aim of this paper is to examine the influence of some of these forms of damage in ships, submersibles and offshore platforms and to indicate where possible how the residual strength and stiffness of damaged structure may be estimated. Consideration is limited to ductile damage and failure processes: the residual strength of ships and offshore structures containing damage in the form of cracks, affecting susceptibility to failure by fatigue and fracture, is an important topic requiring separate discussion.

D A M A G E EFFECTS IN S H I P S Damage caused by collisions, hydrodynamic impact, explosions, etc. usually takes the form of lateral elastoplastic deformation of stiffened panels forming the bottom, sides or decks of a ship's hull. Possible consequences of such damage include:
(a) reduction in stiffness and strength of shell or deck panels under subsequent lateral loads; (b) loss of stiffness and strength under in-plane loads (particularly longitudinal compression associated with hull-girder bending) and consequent reduction in ultimate hull-girder bending strength. Stiffness and strength of a damaged structure will be influenced not only by geometric distortion but also by residual stresses resulting from plastic deformation followed by predominantly elastic unloading.

Residual Strength of Damaged Steel Ships and Offshore Structures

Strength of damaged structure under lateral load

In the case of lightly-plated, strongly-stiffened shells (typical of warships) damage caused by impulsive hydrodynamic pressure may be confined primarily to the plating, as illustrated in Figure 1: individual plate ./
'/ ./"

~L,=~
_ ...... ~ , 6~, ~ A ~ ~_,~

E/Ey

Figure 2 Load-shortening curves for long, tranversety-compressed plates with symmetric and antisymmetric deformationf "~

Figure I

Plating damage caused by hydrodynamic load

panels contained between longitudinal and transverse stiffeners deform into single lobes with relatively little distortion of the stiffeners. Reference to loaddeformation curves for plates under lateral pressure '~ suggest that this form of damage will not cause significant loss of plating stiffness or strength under subsequent applications of lateral load: 'shape-hardening" effects may in fact cause some increase of plate stiffness. Data for rectangular plates under combined lateral pressure and longitudinal compression ~"1suggest that in plates of aspect ratio a/b > 2 having low or intermediate slenderness (b/t < 60), single-lobe damage deformations, which inhibit the preferred form of buckling into approximately square half-waves, will only slightly reduce longitudinal compressive strength; the effect of lateral pressure and therefore probably of damage deformation is more marked in slender plates (b/t > 80). Further investigation of this case is needed. Damage of the type shown in Figure 1 is likely to induce more significant loss of stiffness and strength under in-plane load applied in the shorter direction, hence causing: (a) a reduction of hull-girder bending strength in way of transversely framed bottom shell and deck structure, as commonly employed in the fore and aft regions of a ship's hull; (b) loss of effective flcxural stiffness in transverse frames where the shell plating acts as a flange to the frames, notably in double-bottom structures. As illustrated in Figure 2,~:b the bchaviour of a long rectangular plate under transverse compression depends critically on the relative form of initial d c f o f mation in adjacent plate panels: much greater loss of stiffness and strength occurs where deformation is antisymmetric than where distortions have an

approximately symmetric, 'hungry horse' form. Damage caused by hydrodynamic overload will tend to induce the latter, more favourable form of deformation. This effect has been evaluated approximately, for the case of a long steel plate (large a/b) by examining the bchaviour of a transverse strip of plating subjected to: (a) application and removal of lateral pressure causing elasto-plastic deformation and associated residual stresses; (b) transvcrse compression up to and beyond collapse. Results were obtained using a computer program for large detlection elasto-plastic analysis of frames based on incremental finite element analysis~k each plate strip was divided up over its length into 30 uniform elements and over its depth into 21 fibres to allow for the progressive development of plasticity. Elastic and elasto plastic deformations of the strip were assumed to occur under conditions of plane strain: a material with E/a v = 640 was assumed. As shown in Figure 3 a twospan model was adopted, with a plane of symmetry at the centre of each span b and a condition of simple support at the position of the longitudinal girder. Transverse (axial) displacements of the plate strip were assumed to be unrestrained. Application of lateral pressure caused deformation symmetrical about the support point B with permanent set of amplitude 6p at A and C, as shown in Figure 3(a): under subsequent application of compressive load deformations grew initially in a symmetrical manner but "snapped through" to unsymmetrical form at collapse. The results are summarised in Figure 3(b) in the form of compressive loadshortening curves for various b/t and levels of ~Sp. It is evident that for slender plates in which the elastic buckling stress is substantially lower than the yield stress, damage may cause significant logs of stiffness but has little effect on peak load; in more stocky plates which buckle elasto-plastically, damage will cause loss of both transverse stiffness and strength. More general damage involving clasto-plastic bending of stiffeners may also result from lateral loads.

Journal of Constructional Steel Research." Fbt. l, ,~b. 4." Septe.,nber 1981

b

T
S v ~,,~ A

T
S~ M ~ C

T
,MODEL ~DOPTED FO# ~;4~LYSi S

(although in a structure containing high residual stresses caused bv welding or cold-forming, premature yield may cause deformation as indicated by the dottcd line through point DL Deformation under a static or

~P

* UNDE~ L~,TER~L PRESSURE UNSV"a",4 E T P ~CA L COLLAPSE U,N DE # TRANSVERSE CO~.,'P R E SS!ON

B
,

t
/ /

~,

0 4

d
~y 03

_b =

30

................

~
00a5

Fi,ure 4 panel
019

Lateral h~a#displaeement

relationship jbr stij]'ened

02

dynamic overload is likely to correspond to a curve of the form ABCIII, with a peak at point tl. Post-collapse reduction of load may bc caused by: (a) local shear buckling of stiffener webs as shown in Figure 5(a); (b) tcaring of wckls, also illustrated ira Figure 5(a)" (c) buckling of shell or deck plating (whcre the plating acts as a comprcssion flange to the stiffencrs); (d) stiffcner "tripping', as shown in Figure 5(b), where bending causes outer-libre compression of the stiffeners.

O~

C/Ey

015 rl Jg

o,ii
:60

0.1

0 0%

5 y i ~
0 08!-

rj

u. I b

0 023 0 037

006

(a)
0 0 0"38

6. t ~ y
(b?

I"igure 3 E/feet cj" syrnmetric damage on ~tiJ]hess and strength o f long plates under transverse compression, fa) Model adopted in analysis. (b) Load shortening curves,

A typical lateral load-displacement curve for a stiffcned panel is shown in Figure 4. The design load, indicated by point B, corresponds commonly to 2/3 of the load required to cause first yield, indicated by point C

(b)

I.igure 5 (a) Local stiJfener web buckling attd weld tearing ~'~'. (h) St(/fener tripping under lateral load applied from xtiJyener ;ide ~u~,.

Residual Strength of Damaged Steel Ships and Offshore Structures

Where damage has not progressed beyond point H and where no marked evidence exists of the local failure mechanisms listed above, residual strength under subsequent lateral loads is likely to remain adequate. Residual stiffness, as indicated by the slope of the unloading curve FG, is unlikely to differ significantly from the original stiffness. Provided that the damaged structure is not required to withstand large in-plane (particularly compressive) loads and that overriding hydrodynamic or "aesthetic" reasons do not exist for restoring the original geometry, repair may be unnecessary. If clear evidence exists of local failures and damage is judged to have progressed beyond point H in Figure 4, residual strength and stiffness are likely to be substantially reduced and difficult to estimate accurately: early repair is then indicated.

Imperfection sensitivity studies ~8.*:~ have shown that compressive strength of stiffened panels may be substantially reduced by initial deformations of this form and may also be strongly affected by residual stresses resulting from elasto-plastic bending of stiffeners. In order to illustrate the effects of such damage, a typical light warship hull structure, as shown in Figure 7, has been examined. Elasto-plastic deformation was assumed to be caused by application of a vertical line load running transversely across the bottom structure mid-way between a pair of transverse frames: damage of this type might arise from a badly executed drydocking. from grounding, or as the local interframe component of more general deformation. The analysis was carried out in three stages: (a) simulation of damage occurrence by application and removal of lateral load to part of the bottom structure (elements numbered 4A, 4B in Figure 7) to produce prescribed levels of clasto-plastic d c f o f mation with correct representation of the associated residual stresses: the severity of damage was assumed to vary across tile bottom structure, the amplitude of dct\~rmation in elements 4B being twice that of elements 4A (St and 2.5t respectively): (b) application of longitudinal (tensile and comprcsZ;
hO ~ DEC.

Effect of damage on longitudinal hull strength

Damage to a ship's bottom shell or deck structure, particularly in the midships region, may have a serious effect on longitudinal strength, i.e. on the ability of the ship's hull to withstand vertical wave-induced bending. Where damage is severe, involving holing or gross deformation as illustrated in Figure 6, the only scnsiblc course may bc to assume that the damaged strt.cturc is totally ineffective under in-phine loads and that hullsection properties arc reduced accordingly. Where damage is less severe this assumption may bc too con. scrvativc in which case a realistic assessment of residual stit]'ncss and strength is necessary.

q~rd~,r~,

771

~ 25t

~JO 2 DEC,',
iqos

2 ~.3deck~, e r l q l l n ? C(I"~i~L]

51de ~hel! I~ p!OI FiqO 71 I~

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z

.i. !!t

] ].

1
~Ot

.L

~-;

NO ] D E C ~

x 5! " ~ g c l c o d

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I"ik'ure 6 Gro~" dumage to ship's bottom structure
~I~ x 5t

OIF~OEm

OE'.4E,~SlOrv ~,

'~pc~ced

451

~T

It has been shown ~"' that the most likely form of failure in flat panels of orthogonally stifl'cned plating forming bottom shell and deck structures in ships is column-like intcrframc flcxural buckling of longitudinal girders with attached plating under longitudinal compression induced by hull bending. This form of failure, which may be strongly influenced by compressive stiffness of the plating, will in most practical cases precede other collapse modes including lateral-torsional buckling of girders and overall buckling involving bending of transverse frames. The most significant form of damage is therefore likely to bc local bending of longitudinal girders between transverse frames.

! i

Fik';,~r(" 7

71vpic~d hull ~,'('c'li(Jtr

J o u r n a l oj'Constructional Steel Research. {;~l_ 1, No. 4: S e p t e m b e r 1981

sive) displacements to d a m a g e d and undamaged stiffened panels forming the cross-section in order to establish an effective stress-strain curve for each element: (c} integration o f element stress-strain curves over the c r o s s - s e c t i o n to e v a l u a t e m o m e n t - c u r v a t u r e relationships for the ship's hull and hence the ultimate hull bending strength under hogging and ~,a utL, s ~ m El: conditions The first two stages of analysis were carried out for

_.

- -

,:

'

: "

":

f :'~= E :~:n,

each element of the hull cross-section using an incre

mental finite element method '< in which
:7: 7

-L -c :
~ : : 7 : : .: r

::: 2: _:. ":,"

(a) the destabitising influence of compressive loads in elements ~sas represented: (b) progressive development of plasticity along the length and over tile cross-section of each element was traced, including recovery of elastic stiffness in yielded material experiencing strain reversal: (c) the clTccts of initial deformation and residual stress were included: (d) stiffness of the plating was defined bv the slopcs of load shortening curves liar rectangular plates with moderate initial imperfections as shown in Figure 8. based as described in reference 2 on recent thcorctical and experimental studies of plate stiffness and strength.
*f

f)k'u,'c q Idc~n'i~at',,n oj Yt(/J{'ncd panel~

A>-Z-

- - - - - - _ :....

27:............
: //'~//

-::::::::-,"
}C

t"is{.rc a

t'[ate [o~ld Yhor&'nitll4 c,~r;'e*

E:.ach stiffened panel was treated as a beam colunm t\~rmcd by a representative stiffener with an attached strip of plating. Three adjacent intcrframe spans were modelled, ,aith a plane of s y m m e t r y :it the centre and a condition of simple support assumed at each transverse frame. The idealiscd structure was subdivided along its length into elcmcnts as shown in Figure 9, the elements being subdivided into "fibre.,," over their depth. Large deflection effects were included in the computation and an iterative equilibrium correction was applied after each incremental application of load or displacement. Prcvious parametric studies oF imperfection effects '~. ". ;:' have clearly demonstrated the important inllucnce of both residual stresses and initial del\~rmations on compressive stiffness and strength of stiffened panels. In assessing the capacity' of a d a m a g e d structure it is thcret\wc necessary to consider the cffect of both these qi,antititcs: only by including in thc

analysis, as described above, a simulation of the damage process, can residual stress distributions be established and accotmted for accurately. The resttlts are summarised in Figure 10. which shows effective stress-strain curves tk~r d a m a g e d and undamaged elements of the hull cross scction (labelled m accordance with Figure 7). It is evident from curvcs 4, 4A and 4B in Figt, rc IO that damage of amplitudc 2.5t and 5t causes reductions of 13 per cent and 37 per ccnt respectively in the compressive strcngth of the bottom structure: s o n i c loss t)l" tensile stiffness ~.lnd strcngth is also evident. The form of tile average stress strain curves :,hown m Figurc 10 requires some comment. Thc "doublc hump" shape of most of these curves in the compressive range, in which an initial peak or shoulder is l'oltowcd by a secondary drop in load, is a feature of multi.span stiffened panels in which plasticity spreads through first one and then an adjacent span of thc idcaliscd structure: d e v d o p m e n t of a collapse mechanism requires formation of a virtual plastic hinge at the centre of each adjacent span and because of the unsym metrical shape of the cross-section and form of initial deR~rmation these 'hinges' do not occur simultaneously. In two eases (curves 2 and 4 in Figure 10) unstable post-collapse behaviour was encountered and it was rlcecssary to follow the numerical procedure described in reference 13, requiring incrementation of lateral disphiccment in the post collapse range, in order to ctunputc notional static unloading behaviour involving a temporary reversal of end-shortening displacements (shown by the solid lines m Figure 10): post collapse bchaviour of most practical structural components. including stiffened panels in a ship's bottom shell and decks, will however be intlt,cnced by thc axial elastic stiffness of the surrounding structure leading in the casc of unstable systems to unloading ct, rves as illustrated by the dotted line in Figure 10 where unloading from point P to point Q occurs dynamically. As demons tratcd in reference 13 unstable post collapse behaviour of colurnn like structures is confined to cases in ,ahich

Residual Strength of Damaged Steel Ships and Offshore Structures

O
Ov

10"

/.A 4B

08~

06-

/ ~ /
Ot,-

III//
1'.o

T E N S I O N

OZ-

21 0

-1 ' 0

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2 4B

02

\
-04
COMPRESSION
I I I

p ~ ( ~
I
I

-08

I
I

Figure I0

i "1-0 l:'Jfective stress strain curves fiJr elements a f hull section

the elastic buckling and squash loads are approximately equal and in which initial imperfections are small: comparison of curves 4, 4A and 4B in Figure 10 shows that one of the consequences of damage is to convert postcollapse behaviour from an unstable to a stable form. An effective longitudinal stress-strain curve having been established for each element of the hull crosssection, the final stage of the analysis was carried out following a simple procedure (14) in which: (a) vertical curvature of the hull was assumed to occur incrementally: corresponding incremental element strains were calculated on the assumption that plane sections remained plane and that bending occurred about the instantaneous elastic neutral axis of the cross-section; (b) element incremental stresses were derived from incremental strains using the slopes of stress-strain curves (effective tangent moduli) as shown in Figure 10: in the case of unstable post-buckling behaviour (curves 2 and 4) unloading paths corresponding to the dotted lines were adopted; certain areas of the cross-section, occurring at intersections of decks with the side shell or longitudinal bulkheads and labelled (I) in Figure 7, were assumed to resist buckling and to follow the material stress-strain curve up to and beyond collapse:

(c) element stress increments were integrated over the cross-section to obtain bending moment increments, these together with incremental curvatures being summed to provide cumulative values of bending moment M and curvature 4. Shear forces and shear lag effects in the midships region of a ship's hull are usually small and have been ignored. Computed moment-curvature relationships are shown in Figure 11 for each of the following cases Undamaged hull, buckling effects ignored (all elements follow material stress-strain curve); Case B: Undamaged structure; element compressive stress-strain curves follow those shown in Figure I0 up to peak loads and thereafter remain horizontal, i.e. post-buckling load reduction is ignored; Case C: Undamaged structure; clement stress-strain curves follow those shown in Figure I0 including post-buckling load reductions; Case D: Damaged hull, otherwise same as case C. Comparison of cases C and D in Figure I 1 indicates a loss of 15 per cent and 3 per cent in hull strength under hogging and sagging load conditions respectively as a result of damage to the bottom structure. The curves shown in Figure II also confirm previous findings(14~:

Case A:

Journal of Constructional Steel Research." Vol. 1, No. 4." September 1981

M
10 7
s s

. . . . . .

08
/

/ !
_ _ _ _ . . . . . . B

06

HOGGING 04~
I

I
o.24
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- 0 6r--

- 0 4, - - -

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qbt x1(5s

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B . . . . . . . .
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.'

-0 8

A. . . . . . . .

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t"igurt" II

,lh)menl curvature rclutionships for damaged and ,#tdamaged hulls

(a) that the ultimate strength M u of a ship's hull, particularly under a sagging load condition, is likely to be substantially less than the fully plastic strength Mp as a result of local compressive failure of stiffened bottom shell or deck panels; (b) that ultimate hull strength is strongly influenced not only by the buckling strength but also by the post-collapse behaviour of stiffened panels forming the hull cross-section.

Damage caused by straightening

A subtle form of damage which may affect the compressive strength of stiffened panels and hence influence hull-girder strength is that caused by cold-straightening of deformed structure. Where excessive misalignment or weld-induced distortion occurs during fabrication in a shipyard, it is not uncommon for the deformed structure to be forced into a geometry which will pass inspection by use of mechanical 'strongbacks' or hydraulic jacks. This procedure is illustrated in Figure 12 for the case of a stiffened panel corresponding to element 4 of the hull section shown in Figure 7. A twospan model was examined as shown in Figure 12(a), stiffener deformations being assumed to have the form of uniform curvature with amplitudes ~t and & at the centres of adjacent spans. Three cases were considered: (I) 6, = -5~ = O.001a (within the tolerances

specified by API ~ls) and DNV tl"~ for offshore structures and by BS 5400 tIT) for box-girder bridges); (2) gt = - 0 . 0 0 1 a , ~ = 0.005a (well outside normal tolerances); (3) initial deformation corresponding to case 2 was 'corrected' by application and removal of a concentrated lateral force P at the centre of the righthand span as shown in Figure 12(a): the resulting deformation, shown by a dotted line, involved virtually zero displacement at the centre of the right-hand span and was well within tolerance limits; a pattern of residual stress was set up, varying along the length of the structure and having the form shown in Figure 12(b) at the point of application of P. In each case compressive strength was examined by application of end-shortening displacements, leading to load-shortening curves as shown in Figure 12(c). It is evident that because of the residual stresses induced by cold-bending the effect of straightening is to weaken rather than strengthen the structure.

Effect of overall grillage deformation

Where damage of a ship's bottom shell or deck structure takes the form of moderate overall deformation involving bending of transverse as well as

Residual Strength of Damaged Steel Ships and Offshore Structures

--T R A N S V E t ~SE c ~ A M E
/ ~ST~INgE~

OaF

J ~

+ 2J.y ~x" ?yZ + Jr Oy~

OaF

OaF

T
Q

"
p

qi

\ Ox Oy }
+ 2

8x:
~2W

Oy:

Ox Oy
~ 2 W 0

2W 0

?x ?y O:w ?y: O:wo ?y: ?:w ?x z

T ~=O001a

~z

=O0osa

SV~

' Svu r. . . = = _ _ . . _ (~ ,

Ox 2 where

(a)

D~, Dy, Dxy are

flexural rigidities per unit width,

J , Jy, J~y are membrane rigidities per unit width, w0 = initial deflection, w = deflection due to applied loads, F is the Airy stress function.
t0 0 Cl,tdy J ~0

(0)

I t',IUAIUHtt NI D )

o*.

An effective method of solving the coupled differential equations is that suggested by Levy 'm in which w0 and w are expressed in the form of a double infinite series satisfying the support boundary conditions, in conjunction with the Airy stress function F which satisfies the differential equations and boundary forces; the resulting non-linear simultaneous algebraic equations can then be solved iteratively with a computer. This analysis technique allows an estimate to be made for any moderately large initial deformation and any combination of in-plane and lateral load, of: (a) the effective width or in-plane stiffness of the damaged panel and hence its contribution to the hull girder section modulus; (b) lateral deflections and associated elastic stresses. If on this basis stress levels are found to be below yield point (possibly with some allowance for residual stresses) the adequacy of the damaged structure is reasonably assured. Some numerical results, obtained using a computer program developed at AMTE, 'z" are shown in Figure 13, illustrating the effect of an overall initial deformation on the effective breadth and central deflection of the orthotropic panel under the action of in-plane loading.

4~" b, o

0Oral

ltb,. ooo~,,,

61, n c ~ = l

Figure 12 D a m a g e caused by straightening. (a) Idealisation showing d t ~ ) r m a t i o n u n d e r lateral load. (b) R e s i d u a l stress caused

by straightening (c) Load-shortening curvesfor stiffened panels.

longitudinal stiffeners, a conservative means of assessing the adequacy of the damaged structure is by use of elastic large-deflection orthotropic plate theory. This involves the solution of the coupled membrane and bending (von Karman) plate equations (*s) in which the membrane and flexural rigidities represent the combined effect of plating and stiffeners: ~aw tz4w c~aw D, Oxa + 2D,y ~x: Ov: + Dy . O) "~

O'-F O:(w + Wo)

?y'-- 2 -

Ox"~"(w + wo) Ox ?y O:(w + Wo) ?y:

O'F Ox ?y

+ - -

?:F ?x 2

D A M A G E EFFECTS IN O F F S H O R E PLATFORMS The structural framework of most offshore platforms is formed by long unstiffened tubular members whose diameter/thickness ratio (D/t) is usually chosen to be less than 50 in order to avoid local buckling of the tube walls. Such members are susceptible to damage in the form of lateral elasto-plastic bending, possibly accompanied by local indentation, caused for example by supply-boat collisions or by impacts during launching and installation. Damage of this type, particularly in bracing members which carry compressive load, may cause substantial loss of element

10

Journal of Constructional Steel Research: Vol. 1, No. 4: September 1981

I
T!
S~
I

FIXED
Sy = O. 16a

Sx = O" 167o -7 Dx/Ea 3= 1"304x10 Dy/Ea } = 1"08/, x 107 Dxy/E~ = 0 59/, x 1(3 ~
Jx
o
(:L l./3 IaJ ..J O,.

Ea = 3 8 / , / , 8

Jy Ea = 3200/, Jxy Ea = 1/-,03"13 -----X

2

:E

N: = N_..~x2. TT2Dx N, = a v e r a g e i n - p l a n e load/unit length in x - d i r e c t i o n

I_
I

FIXED
O

(o)

STIFFENED PLATE EXAMPLE

02 WT
(3

Wo (3

1-0
be b 0.8
O01, O'02~

0"I

0.15 0.05 0.1

0 O5

0-10 0.6

005

04

02

0.0 (b)

8.0

16-0 N~

0'0

8.O

16-0 Nx* LOAD/ EFFECTIVE

NON-DIMENSIONAL LOAD/CENTRAL D E F L E C T I O N CURVES

(C) N O N - D I M E N S I O N A L BREADTH CURVES

Figure 13 Effects of overall grillage deformation stiffness and strength possibly affecting the integrity of a platform as a whole. An instance of severe collision damage, in which several members were carried away while others experienced bending and denting, is shown in Figure 14. An extensive theoretical and experimental investigation of damage effects in tubular bracing members, including a series of tests on full-scale and small-scale braces containing simulated collision damage, is described in references 13, 20. As a result of this study the following observations may be made.

(a) Slight lateral bending deformations in tubular

braces can cause serious loss of strength. Accurate evaluation of such damage may be carried out using large-deflection, inelastic beam-column analysis, involving simulation of the damage process by application and removal of lateral load, followed by application of axial load or endshortening displacement up to and beyond collapse. An approximate estimate of the effects of bending damage can be obtained directly, for tubes of any slenderness ratio (L/r) having any specified

Residual Strength of Damaged Steel Ships and Offshore Structures

I1

framework of beam-column analysis, the stressstrain curve for fibres in the dent zone may be assumed (for a thick-walled tube, say D/t < 60) to have a bi-linear form defined by two parameters, corresponding to reduced effective values of Young's modulus and yield stress, determined empirically from test data. Reference to compression tests on several dented tubes, with D/t in the
1.0 ~ E D
TUBES

Cry
08

0.6
Figure 14 Severe collision damage in an offshore platform

\
support conditions, by interpolation between the curves shown in Figure 15. The accuracy of this approach has been examined, as indicated in Table 1, by comparison with results of full-scale and small-scale tests on damaged tubes. (u.2) These curves, based on parametric analysis, (~-~)refer to damage caused by a central lateral (collision) load. It has been found, however, as illustrated in Table 2, that the effect of damage, while depending strongly on the amplitude ~p of lateral bending, is insensitive to the position x along the tube at which lateral load is applied (in the range 0.2 < x / L < 0.8); the curves shown in Figure 15 may therefore be used with reasonable accuracy where a collision occurs at any point in this range. Where the location of a collision is close to either end of a brace (x/L < 0.2, > 0.8), the load required to cause plastic bending increases substantially and local indentation of the tube wall is likely to be the dominant component of damage. (b) Damage in the form of a severe dent of sufficient depth ( > 0.05D, say) to cause a significant local reduction and eccentricity in the sectional properties of a tube, may also cause substantial loss of strength. It has been found experimentally (:) that, because of longitudinal 'pull-in' of fibres associated with dent formation, severe dents are always likely to be associated with some overall bending deformation. In order to account approximately for dent effects within the O.t.

~:30

7O 0-2

l 0"01

0)02

t 0'03 6pI L

t 004

10

Cry
0"8 L :30
r

0.6

0~

0'2

001

0 02

~pIL

003

0-0t.

Figure IJ Effects of bending damage on compressive strength of tubular braces

Table 1 Simply-supported tubes containing bending damage: comparison of approximate strength estimates from Figure 15 with experimental data Tube identification A4 (ref. 13) 84 (ref. 13) E2 (ref. 20) E25 (ref. 20) D 729.0 45.8 31.5 30. I L 798.9 78.2 69.7 69.6 L 2 = ~/ 1.09 0.80 0.83 0.82 / ( av~ ~-E] Amplitude of bending damage 6tJL 0.005 0.005 0.0032 0.0034 Collapse strength of damaged tube (au/oy) Experimental 0.50 0.61 0.73 0.63 From Fig. 15 0.42 0.55 0.68 0.66

12

J o u r n a l o f Constructional S t e e l Research: Vol. 1, No. 4: S e p t e m b e r 198l

effective in the analysis of elasto-plastic cyclic response

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of platforms to earthquake loads. '~' Considerable e c o n o m y m a y be achieved by employing a substructuring t e c h n i q u e in which regions o f a p l a t f o r m particularly exposed to damage, e.g. in the splash zone. are represented as distinct substructures: re-analysis accounting for damage effects m a y then be confined essentially to substructures containing damaged elements.

Figure 16 l'heoretical attd exper'mcnt(tl hind shortening curves for a dented br~we

Effects of damage in submersibles and other ring-stiffened cylindrical shells

Ring-stiffened cylindrical shells are widely employed in
submersibles, military submarines and components of underwater or offshore engineering systems such as storage or tlotation tanks which have to withstand high external pressure. Failure of a ring-stiffened cylinder under external pressure may occur (a) by interframe buckling of the shell, which may be either axisymmetric or "lobular' in form, i.e. may involve either ,t single lobe or several buckling waves round the circumference of the shell plating between ring frames, or (b) by general instability involving bending of ring flames. The lbrm o f damage most relevant to "Iobular' interframe faihir is indentation of length and width similar to that of a buckling half-wave. In view of the relatively low imperfection sensitivity of externally pressurised cylinders (compared with axially compressed cylinders), further reduced by the presence of frames, and because short-wavelength indentation is unlikely to extend far round the circumference, this fbrm of damage is unlikely to cause serious loss of strength. Possibly of greater significance would be damage in the R)rm of axisytnmetric interframc deformation, as might bc caused in thicker shells by accidental overload or by underwater explosions. Scope exists f o r parametric evaluation of these types of damage by means of linite element/finite difference analysis methods ~hich have proved effective for investigation of plate and shell strength (e.g. reference 22).

range 25 to 60 and dents of depth 0.02D to O. t3D caused by a knife-edge acting at right-angles to the tube axis, has shown that reasonably accurate results are obtained by taking E and es, of fibres in the dent zone equal to between 50 per cent and 75 per cent of the full material values: an example is shown in Figure 16. Further systematic correlation with test data is however required before this method can be applied with confidence to any damage situation. An alternative approximate representation of dent effects, involving charactcrisation of a dent as a plastic mechanism,' :~' has also been t\mnd to correlate well with test data in some cases. When the eft'eels of dam:tge on individual tubular ele mcnts have been established, the problem remains of assessing the influence of element damage on stiffness ;tnd strength of the platform as a whole. As a first step, the original linear space-flame analysis of the pkttform may be repeated assuming that d a m a g e d elements are non existent: if the results are acceptable the investigation need be taken no further. If the contribution of damaged elements proves essential the reduced stiffness of each such element may be represented by a bi-linear (or if necessary multi-linear) ideatisation of the corn puled load-shortening or load-extension curve: analysis o1 the complete platform may then be repeated on a piecewise linear basis with a discontinuity in the con> putation corresponding to each knuckle in an clement stress-strain curve. A similar approach has proved

Table 2
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Effect of collision location: computed strength of simply-supported tubes containing bending damage 3 5 , E / a y = 638)
I. -rCollision location Mid span ~- span Mid span 1- span .",lid span ~ span ,'<,lidspan } span Amplitude of bending damage ,~-~L 0.037 0.037 (1.0073 0.0073 0.023 0.023 0.017 0.017 Collapse strength er, ,'n. ..... 0.50 0.50 0.54 0.53 0.32 0.33 0.2 I 0.20

30 30 70 70 70 70 120 120

Residual Strength of Damaged Steel Ships and Offshore Structures

The form of damage likely to cause most serious loss of strength is that involving bending deformation of ring frames. Parametric studies and experiments ~8.za~ have clearly established the sensitivity of general instability of ring-stiffened cylinders to small initial deformations and to residual stresses caused either by welding or by cold-forming of the frames: small levels of frame damage might therefore be expected to cause significant loss of buckling strength. In order to illustrate the effects of such damage, analysis has been carried out for a typical ring-stiffened cylindrical shell as shown in Figure 17. Damage, as might result from a collision or grounding, was assumed to be caused by an external concentrated radial force reacted by an opposing (inertial or gravitational) force q distributed uniformly round the circumference. As discussed in reference 8, analysis of a long ring-stiffened cylinder may be confined to a single frame with associated strip of shell plating: this two-dimensional treatment of the problem, which implies that all frames are identically damaged, will provide a conservative, lower bound estimate of strength for short cylinders or for structures in which some of the frames are undamaged or less severely deformed. Taking advantage of symmetry the structure was subdivided over a 180 arc into 36 straight frame elements, cross-sections being divided up into 25 'fibres'. The analysis was carried out using the method and computer program described in reference 8. A concentrated radial load P was first applied and removed in order to simulate various levels of damage as shown in Figure 18(a). Consideration has also been given to the ideal rigid-plastic collapse of a ring frame under this form of load, which occurs by formation of four plastic hinges at points A, B, C and D on the circumference as shown in Figure 18(b). The position of hinges B and D is not obvious, but has been found from virtual work considerations to occur at 0~ = 64 with a corresponding collapse load of P = 13.8 Mp/D (found to be insensitive to the assumed position of B and D, varying by less than 6 per cent over the range 60 < 0, < 80). These results are consistent with the computed deformations and load-displacement curves s h o w n in Figures 18(a) and (c). A typical distribution of residual stress induced in the damaged structure is shown in Figure 18(d). Using a restart facility in the computer program, the collapse behaviour was examined of each damaged configuration under uniform external pressure. The non-conservative nature of hydrostatic load (in which
t t

13

pressure remains normal to the deformed surface) w a s represented in the analysis. The results are summarised in Figure 19, in terms of the collapse pressurep~ and the 'squash' pressure p~, showing reduction in collapse strength caused by various levels of damage. A comparison is made with the collapse pressure of an undamaged cylinder, assumed to be free of residual stress, containing a 'characteristic' imperfection in the form of ovalisation with (D~,, - m~,~)/O .... = 0.01.

FIRE D A M A G E
Fire damage is like'y to include severe distortions and residual stresses in plating and stiffeners, together with changes in material properties which may be complicated by fire-countermeasures such as water quenching. The following techniques may prove useful in assessing damage effects. (a) Approximate non-destructive evaluation of residual stress levels can be carried out using the hole-drilling technique. ~-'4~ (b) The extent of heat-~.ffected structure and an estimate of temperatures reached can sometimes be deduced by reference to charring, blistering or melting of paintwork, plastic fittings, etc.; systematic high-temperature tests on painted plates and representative items of equipment may be worthwhile as a means of calibrating such data. (c) Approximate non-destructive identification of changes in material strength can be made by hardness measurement using a Vickers hardness tester or similar device. High-strength steel subjetted to high temperature followed by slow cooling is likely to suffer loss of yield strength and UTS, evidenced by a reduction in hardness; conversely steelwork subjected to high temperature followed by rapid cooling (e.g. quenching) may gain in UTS and hardness at the expense of serious embrittlement. Careful calibration of hardness measurements is necessary on representative material subjected to a range of heat-treatments. 2-~ Substantial changes of hardness indicate a need for removal of material specimens for accurate evaluation of mechanical properties. When material properties, distortions and residual stress levels have been established, the ductile strength and stiffness of fire-affected structure can be examined using methods described in preceding sections.

CONCLUSIONS
Areview has been made of various forms of structural damage which occur in ships and offshore structures and of the influence of such damage on stiffness and strength. Some methods have been suggested for evaluation of damage effects, with emphasis on approximate analysis techniques which can be applied quickly and economically to obtain an early assessment of damage consequences. In many cases of practical

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14

J o u r n a l o f Constructional S t e e l R e s e a r c h : f bl. I, No. 4." S e p t e m b e r 1981

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importance useful lower-bound strength estimates for damaged plate or shell structures can be made by simple two-dimensional analysis. In other cases threedimensional non-linear finite element shell analysis may be the only effective means of assessment: such analysis, which is now possible using commercially available computer programs, involves difficulties, dangers and high costs which should not be underestimated, but may well be justified if the economic and safety-related stakes are high enough. It should be recognised that in order to account fully for damage effects, including particularly residual stresses associated with damage deformation, it may be necessary to include a simulation of the damage process in any analysis of residual stiffness and strength. Much scope remains for parametric analysis of damaged steel structures and for supporting experiments aimed at providing data which will allow instant

assessment of residual stiffness and strength for characteristic damage situations. Areas in which a particular need exists for further analysis and test data include evaluation of dent damage in:

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Effect of dama.~e nn collap.~e pressure

Residual Strength of Damaged Steel Ships and Offshore Structures

15

(a) (b) (c) (d)

tubular braces and pipelines: thin-walled cylinders under axial compression; ring-stiffened cylinders; spherical shells.

12

MOOLANI, F. M. alld DOWLING. P. J. Ultimate Load Behaviour of Stiffened Plates in Compression. Proceedings of International Conference on Steel Plated Structures. Imperial College, London. 1976. SMITH. C. S.. KIRKWOOD. W. C. and SWAN. J. W. Buckling

13

Strength and Post-Collapse Behaviour of Tubular Bracing Members including Damage Effects. Conference on Behaviour
14 of Offshore Structures (BOSS-79). London. September 1979. SMITH. C~ S Influence of Local Compressive Failure on LTtimate Longitudinal Strength of a Ship's Hull. Proceedings of International Symposium on Practical Design in Shipbuilding (PRADS). Tokyo, October 1977. AMERICANPETROLEUM INSTITUTE. Recommended Practicefor

A C K N O Ill/LED GEMEN T
Acknowledgements are due to M r W. C. Kirkwood f o r assistance in carrying out computation and plotting results.

15

Planning. Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms. APt RP2A. I lth edn.. Texas. 1980.

REFERENCES
1 JONES.N. A Literature Sz~rTeyon the Collision and Grounding Protection of Ships. Ship Structure Committee Report SSC-283. 1979. 2 Reports of ISSC Committee 11.2 on Non-linear Structural Response. Proceedings of International Ship Structures Congress. Boston 1976. Paris 1979. 3 KEIL. A. H. 'The Response of Ships to Underwater Explosions."

16 17

DNV Rules for the Design. Construction and Inspection of Fixed Offshore Structures. Det Norske Veritas. Oslo 1977. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Steel. Concrete and Com-

posite Bridges. Part 6: Specification for Materials and Workmanship. Steel. London. BS 5400. 1980. 18 LEvy. 5. Bending of Rectangular Plates with Large Deflections.
19 N A C A Report No. 737. 1942. bOW. R. s Large-displacement Buckling and Bending ,4nalysis of Initially Deformed Ship Grillages. Unpublished Admiralty Marine Technology Establishment Report. SMII-H. C. S.. SOSlI-RVILLE. W. L. and SWAN. J. W. Residual

Transactions of Society of Naval Architects attd Alarine Engineers. 1961. 69. GATFS. W. E.. MARStlALt,, P. w. and MAIIIN. S. A. Analytical Methods fi~r Determinhtg the Ultimate Earthquake Resistance of Fixed Offvhore Structures. Proceedings of Offshore
Technology Conference, Houston. 1977. CI.ARKSON, J 'A New Approach to the Design of Plates to Withstand Lateral Pressure." Transacthms of Rayal Institution of Naral Architects, 1956. 98. I)()WI,INfLI'. J. and OIleR. A F Strength of Ships" Plating umh'r Combined Lateral t, oading and Biaxial Pressure. CESLIC Report SP6. Imperial College, London. September 1978. SMITII. C. S. qmpcrfcction Fffects and Design Tolerances in Ships and Offshore Structures." Transaction of In.~'titution of Enghwers & Shiphuihh'rs in Scotland, 1981. 124. sstl rll. c. s. and KIRKW{)OD.W. ('. hifiuence oflnithtl Dt~Jrma

20

Strength and Stiffness of Damaged Steel Bracing Members.

21 Proceedings of Offshore Technology Conference. Houston. May 1981. RASHEI). S. %1.|t.. FAHY.J. and MOAN.T. Fheoreticaland Experi-

mental Study of the Bchaviour of Damaged Tubular Atcmher~.

22 Proceedings of First Indian Conference on Ocean Fngincering. 1981, IIARDING, J I-. 'The F,lasto-plastic Analysis of hnperfect Cylinders." Proceedings of lnstituthm of Civil Engim.ers. Part II. December 1978. 65. 875-92. g.INI)RtCK. S B. The Influence ~ Shape lmperfi'etions and

23

Residual Stresses on the Collapse of Stiff'ened C.rlinders.

Proceedings of Conference on Significance of Deviations from Design Shape, Institution of Mechanical Engineers. London, March 1979. HIiANI-Y.l!. St. :rod PROCrOR. t'. 'A Critical Evaluation of the Centre tlole Technique for the Measurement of Residual Stress." Strain, January 1974. ALLAN. R. C.; BIRD. J, Unpublished Marine Tcch* nology Establishment Reports.

tion and Residual Stress on Inehlstie Fie.rural Buckling of StiJfened Plates and Shells. Proceedings of International Conference on Steel Plated Structures, Imperial College, London, 1976. 9 CI.ARKSON,J. and WAI.LACI~.G. "Transverse Strength of a Large Steel Frigate Model.' I'runsaetions of Royal Institution of Naval Architects. 1967. 109. 10 Ct.ARKSOrq, J 'Tests of Flat Plated Grillages under Uniform Pressure." Transactions of Royal Institution t~" Naval Architects. 1963, 105. II s%HIII, c. s. "Compressive Strength of Welded Steel Ship Grillages.' Transactions of Royal Institution ~" Natal Architects, 1975, 117.

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