LSAT Center Reading Comprehension Introduction

This is a breakdown of how to read in an effective manner. You can find out what the author is reall sa ing b reading between the lines while looking for implied statements.

A t pical LSAT test will include three Reading Comprehension passages that are straightforward essa s follo b !uestions and one pair of "dual passages"# also called "comparitive reading".

$ual passages feature two passages on a similar or related sub%ect. The passages ma agree with each other o ma take different sides of an issue. &r# passage pairs ma have comple' relationship where one passage articulates a set of principles while another applies those principles. Introduction to Reading Comprehension Video Courtesy of Kaplan Reading Comprehension Strategies (ideo Courtes of )aplan

The Challenge

View reading comprehension passages as if they were a reality TV show where you are dropped in a rain forest with no clues about where you are or how to proceed. &n the LSAT# a reading passage will be dropped in front of ou and ou will have no background on it whatsoever. 1. You don*t know who the author is. 2. You don*t know what the title is. 3. You don*t have enough time to full read it. 4. You can*t see the paragraphs before or after the essa . 5. You don*t know when or where it was published. . The content is dense# boring# esoteric and %argon+filled. ,.And our master of these -.. words will determine our future law school and career. You*re going to need a compass/

!eading for a "urpose The passages are intentionall %argon+filled and dense. In school ou were taught to read for detail# but on the LSAT ou would run out of time doing that. This means that ou have to re+learn how to read. Financial-market analysis studies ignore deficiencies because of analysts' inherent preferences for perfect rationality. You will have to process through sentences like that while preparing for the !uestions that follow. If ou know what to look for# what to cue in on# and what to ignore in a passage# ou sta in control and not get think clearl . You are not reading the passages for en%o ment or ac!uisition of knowledge0 ou are reading for the purpose of answering the the 11 !uestion t pes 2below3 as efficientl and accuratel as possible. #acro $uestions%general issues 2macro is 4reek for large or "big picture"3 1. 5ain idea 6. 7urpose of the passage -. Tone 8. &rgani9ation of the passage :. Categor of ;riting 2Advanced3 <. Identit of the author 2Advanced3 #icro $uestions=refer to specific elements of the essa >. $etail of the passage ?. $efinition of a term or phrase @. Support for a premise A ;hereBs the proofC 1.. Dunction of part of the passage 2Advanced3 #acro&#icro

11. Inference
A: Reading Comp Introduction B: The Five Steps C: Question Types D: Tips for Finding the Right Answer

EF The Dive Steps 'ere are the 5 steps you should ta(e while reading a passage to prepare for the )uestions. 1. Classif the 7assage Is it science or humanitiesC Is this a persuasive essa or a descriptive oneC 6. *rea( down each paragraph Look for tone# main idea and transitions.

3. +ee the ,rgani-ation 5ake roadmap of essa andGor draw out map structure on our scratch paper.

4. .ind the *ig /dea 7a more attention to first and last paragraphs. Look for unusual language that makes an important point.

5. 0iagnose the author1s purpose Look for intention in the essa .

1. 7assage Classification

#ost passages fall into one of three categories2 +cience3 *usiness&4aw and Cultural +tudies.

5. +cience These passages deal with such topics as chemistr and astronom . Although these passages can often be dull# they are also often straightforward and thus manageable. You are not likel to see an inference !uestions here. Instead# ou will most likel see several factual !uestions that can be answered b direct# accurate reading of the passage. So long as ou don*t allow ourself to be buried b %argon# science passages should be eas reading comprehension !uestions. Example Passage: $iscussion in an engineering maga9ine on a new plan for solar power. Science is often sub%ective ;e tend to think of scientists as clear and logical# like Spock on Star Trek# and scientific fact as static. The realit is that science is full of conflict and contains controversial ideas. Science essa s on the LSAT will often fora into controvers and it*s our %ob as the reader to see the points of view# the bias# and the conflict.

*. *usiness&4aw These essa s ma also be %argon intensive# but ou ma have some background knowledge in this area. This is usuall beneficial# as it makes the passage easier to read0 %ust remember that specific

outside knowledge will never be called upon to answer an essa !uestion. All the answers can be found in the essa itself. Example Passage: Yale Law Review evaluation of modern labor law and its impact on productivit .

C. Cultural +tudies A large number of these essa s will focus on historicall +oppressed identit groups 2their art# culture and histor 3. Drom the standpoint of test+taking strateg # ou can be assured that an essa about a historicall +oppressed group will have a positive and s mpathetic tone. The author*s purpose will alwa s present the group*s cultural contribution in a favorable manner. Example Passage: Commentar on the political achievements of the Iro!uois Confederac .

#ost passages fall into one of three categories of purpose 2 describe3 e6aluate3 and persuade.

Author*s main purpose is to conve information and clearl present a situation or idea. These essa s present themselves as being ob%ective# but often in%ect some opinion and bias as well. Example Author: ewspaper !eporter

Author describes a phenomenon3 situation3 6iewpoint3 or theory and analy-es it. The author is giving ou the pros and cons# strengths and weaknesses of the topic in a methodical# detached manner.

Example Author: !esearcher " Academic

The author ad6ocates a particular position3 often against another point of view. Think of this author as an idea salesman who wants ou to become a True Eeliever and re%ect opposing opinions. Example Author: #ebater$ Politician $on*t argue with the essa 5a be ou don*t think 7eruvian weaving is as nice as the author thinks it is. If our personal understanding or view of the issue happens to contradict that of the author in a 7ersuade essa # this could inhibit our abilit to comprehend the author*s point of view. Leave our opinions out and tr to enter the same point of view as the author.

6. Ereaking $own Hach 7assage 7ach paragraph is the basic unit of the essay. E breaking down an unwield and cumbersome essa into smaller pieces# it is easier to comprehend ideas# intentions# and follow the organi9ational structure. ;hen reading a paragraph and after finishing it# make a mental note or write down three things to help ou answer the !uestionsF 5. #ain /dea of each paragraph The first sentence in a paragraph will often be a topic sentence or transition sentence. It should tell ou the main idea of the paragraph or the paragraph*s relation to the preceding one. *. Tone of each paragraph Recogni9ing an author*s tone is ver important to understanding the structure and purpose of an essa . Iaving a strong grasp on the author*s tone will go a long wa in answering main idea and author purpose !uestions.

'ere1s the last paragraph from a passage about artistic concepts8 see if you can cue in to the author1s tone to more easily discern his point2 The "mimetic" theor holds that art reproduces realit # but although amateurs* photographs reproduce realit # most artists and art critics do not consider them art. 5uch of what is recogni9ed as art conforms to the definition of art as the creation of forms# but an engineer and the illustrator of a geometr te'tbook also construct forms. The inade!uac of these definitions suggests a strong element of irrationalit # for it suggests that the wa in which artists and art critics talk and think about works of art does not correspond with the wa in which the actuall distinguish those things that the recogni9e as works of art from the things that the do not so recogni9e. The words "inade!uac " and "irrationalit " establish an attitude of frustration over the current method of defining art. ;e can sense that the author is e'asperated b the current practice of critics. C. !elation to preceding paragraph A good writer will make a smooth transition to a new paragraph with a new idea. After each paragraph# mentall note its relation to the preceding paragraph. The paragraph is the main structural unit of an passage. To find a paragraph*s purpose# ask ourselfF 1. ;h did the author include this paragraphC 2. ;hat shift did the author have in mind when transitioning to this paragraphC 3. ;hat bearing does this paragraph have on the main idea of the passage so farC Tone can shift suddenl in a new paragraphF There are increasing indications that academic research has separated itself from practical concerns to such an e'tent that# in man academic arenas# the transition from theor to practice has vanished entirel . Indeed# public and private institutions alike are awakening to the need to infuse scholarship

with an "ear" for the practicall useful. Yet# the problem appears intractable# with a chasm between academics and practitioners that grows onl wider. &nl radical change will steer academia back toward collaboration with practical concern. *ut who could de6ise such a radical3 yet effecti6e3 strategy9 / can. / ha6e the answer. All academic research must seek private funding. Scholarship without funding has no %ustification for e'istence. :ou3 naturally3 thin( my idea is preposterous. Surel I understand that commercial value is separate from scholarl significanceC :et it is you who are mista(en. You do not understand that the market is the most efficient measure of worth# be it commercial or scholarl . You again ob%ect# this time almost in a panic# that I speak nonsense. Eut ou are merel afraid of what ou know to be the one viable path for modern academia. Dollow or be left behind in our blind fear of the most fundamental economic truths. This is the only way. The first paragraph sets up the problemF academics have lost touch with real life. The second paragraph signals a tone shift from e;planatory to aggressi6e persuasion# reflecting a shift in purpose from e'plaining a problem to forcefull advocating a solution.

-. See the &rgani9ation Iere we will uncover the author*s organi9ation and develop a roadmap of the te't. 5 roadmap essentially paraphrases the main point of each paragraph. <hy do you need to ma(e a mental roadmap of an essay9 1. In order to uncover the author*s main point# ou will often need to combine the author*s statements and the organi9ational structure. 6. $etail !uestions ask ou to answer !uestions related to specific information in the essa . If ou know the organi9ation of the essa # ou will more efficientl pull details because ou have a good idea where the needed information is located. -. <riting down content doubles its e;posure to your brain3 increasing the retention rate of the content. This makes re+reading less necessar and ultimatel saves ou time. +(im The most efficient wa to read essa s is to read closel for the main idea but skim through the details. The amount ou skim will depend on ou# but ou will hurt ourself b treating each word as vitall important. "rioriti-e Read the paragraphs strategicall . 1. Read the first paragraph the most closel 2usuall ever word3# unless it is a backgrounder 2an

introductor paragraph that introduces background information# with little description of the author*s point of view3. If it is a backgrounder# then the second paragraph takes primar importance. Eackgrounders are one wa the LSAT writers make the essa s longer. 6. Read the last paragraph with second to highest priorit . -. Skim most of the content of secondar paragraphs 2all others3. #apping "rimary Spend more time understanding the function of the first paragraph 2or second# if the first is a backgrounder3 and last paragraph. +econdary In skimming secondar paragraphs# ou should focus entirel on understanding tone# main idea# and relation to preceding paragraph. This s stem keeps ou focused on getting the important secondar content without wasting time on details. Remember to look for slam+on+the+brakes or an other conspicuous language. .or e;ample3 a science essay might ha6e the format2 "12 Eackground "22 5ain ideaF stem cell therap faces man problems "32 7roblems in stem cell research "42 5ore problems in stem cell research "52 Conclusion about future 'ere is a sample long passage3 bro(en down paragraph by paragraph2 "aragraph ,ne What is going on? Jearl twent ears ago# biochemists found that a separable constituent of the The first paragraph here is cell deo' ribonucleic acid 2or $JA3 actually mostly fluff. This is a appeared to guide the cell*s protein+ scientific background that s nthesi9ing machiner . The internal prepares the reader for the structure of $JA seemed to represent a set material ahead. Don't get of coded instructions which dictated the intimidatedskim over it and pattern of protein+s nthesis. H'periments don't panic if you are unable indicated that in the presence of to understand all the jargon appropriate en9 mes each $JA molecule the first time through. could form a replica# a new $JA molecule# containing the specific guiding message present in the original. This idea# when added to what was alread known about the cellular mechanisms of heredit 2especiall the knowledge that $JA is locali9ed in chromosomes3 appeared to

establish a molecular basis for inherence. "aragraph Two <hat is going on9 7roponents of the theor that $JA was a "self+duplicating" molecule# containing a code that b itself determined biological inheritance# introduced the term "central dogma" into scientific literature in order to describe the principles that were supposed to e'plain $JA*s governing role. The dogma originall involved an admittedl unproven assumption that whereas nucleic acids can guide the s nthesis in other nucleic acids and of proteins# the reverse effect is impossible# that is# proteins cannot guide the s nthesis of nucleic acids. Eut actual e;perimental obser6ations den the second and crucial part of this assumption. &ther test+tube e'periments show that agents besides $JA have a guiding influence. The kind of protein made ma depend on the specific organism from which the necessar en9 me is obtained. It also depends on the test tube*s temperature# the degree of acidit # and the amount of metallic salts present. "aragraph Three The central dogma banishes from consideration the interactions among the numerous molecular processes that have been discovered in cells or in their e'tracted fluids. In the living cell# molecular processes=the s nthesis of nucleic acids and proteins or the o'idation of food substance=are not separate but interact in e'ceedingl comple' wa s. Jo matter how man ingredients the biochemists* test tubes ma contain# the mi'tures are nonliving0 but these same ingredients# organi9ed b the subtle structure of the cell# constitute a s stem# which is alive. ;hen ou see "dogma" or some other somewhat derogator term# bells should go off. Read S L & ; L Y because ou are getting to the important part. You have %ust found the raison d*etre of the essa F our author is challenging a "dogma"/ ;hat is the author usingC Take note of the phrase "actual e;perimental obser6ations". Like 4alileo using the movements of the planets to disprove the established orthodo' of his time# our author seeks to use his e'perimental observation to challenge the "dogma". That*s part of the controvers of this essa F a conflict between dogma and actual e'perimental evidence.

<hat is going on9 =The central dogma banishes from consideration....". That is strong language. The author must follow up that line with the main pointF "...the interactions among the numerous molecular processes that have been discovered in cells or in their e'tracted fluids." So# we know this a "simple vs. comple'" conflict. In the prior paragraph# it was "dogma vs. e'perimental evidence". In this paragraph# it is "simple" dogma versus more "comple'" understanding

of the interactions of molecular processes that go on in a cell.

"aragraph .our <hat is going on9 Consider an e'ample from another field. At ordinar temperatures# electricit flows onl so long as a driving force from a batter or generator is imposed on the circuit. At temperatures near absolute 9ero# metals e'hibit superconductivit 0 a uni!ue propert that causes an electric current to flow for months after the voltage is cut off. Although independent electrons e'ist in a metal at ordinar temperatures# at ver low temperatures the interact with the metal*s atomic structure in such a wa as to lose their individual identities and form a coordinated# collective s stem which gives rise to superconductivit . ; hat does electricit have to do with $JAC The last sentence sa s "... lose their individual identities and form a coordinated# collective s stem". The author is drawing an analog to comple' and coordinated cell function. The purpose of this e'tended analog is to make sure that ou understand that we are dealing with C&57LHK s stems.

Paragraph Five Such discoveries of modern physics show that the uni ue properties of a comp!e" system are not necessari!y e"p!ica#!e so!e!y #y the properties that can #e o#served in its iso!ated parts$ %e can e"pect to find a simi!ar situation in the comp!e" chemica! system of the !iving ce!!s$

What is going on? The author discusses his point for the third paragraph in a row. Simple concept of cells = bad. Comple coordinated systems in cells = good.

>ow here is a simple roadmap of the passage2 "12 $JA is the molecular basis of inheritance "22 $JA is not the onl game in town. The realit is more complicated.

"32 A cell is e'tremel complicated and all the parts work together "42 In case ou don*t get the idea of complication# here is another e'ampleF metals are complicated and the parts work together. "52 &ka # one more timeF cells are complicated# highl coordinated s stems. 8. Dind the Eig Idea <ouldn1t it be easier if 4+5T essays had a title9 If the did# ou would have a good idea from the start what the main point of the essa would be. The writers of the LSAT purposefull e'clude the title so that it is up to ou to decipher the essa and its main idea. The main idea is the Rosetta stone of a passage. It helps us to decipher the passage and discern its structure. The tone3 scope3 and implications of the main idea usually hold the (ey to answering more than half of the reading comprehension )uestions. Accordingl # we must focus our strateg on easil finding the author*s point of view and the main idea. In nearl all LSAT passages# the author will make an argument of some form. $on*t e'pect the main point of a passage to be a detail issue like %&orld &ar ' was fought from ()(* to ()(+." Instead# it*s more likel to be %&orld &ar ' was extended by ,ritain's needless and poorly executed inter-ention%. An author can*t make such an argument without substantial support. This means that the argument must contain the elements of persuasionF 1. Hvidence 2. Refutation of possible rebuttals 3. Subsidiar points 5ost essa s will put up clear signposts and make the *ig /dea prett obvious++so long as ou know what to look for.

5. The first and last sentences of the first paragraph and the first and last sentences of the final paragraph are important# since the often introduce or summari9e the main points.

Iere is a first paragraph of an essa F &ne of the most persistentl troubling parts of national domestic polic is the development and use of water resources. Eecause the technolog of water management involves similar construction skills# whether the task is the building of an ocean %ett for protection of shipping or the construction of a river dam for flood control and irrigation# the issues of water polic have mingled problems of navigation and agriculture. A further inherent comple'it of water polic is the fre!uent conflicts between flood control and irrigation and between re!uirements for abundance and those for scarcit of water. *oth problems e;ist in 5merica3 often in the same ri6er basins8 one is most typically the problem of the lower part of the basin and the other the problem of the upper part. This is a clear topic sentence. "Troubling"# in the conte't of water management# is rather strong language. ;e know# from the start# that there is a serious problem with water management and that the author is going to e'plain what it is. Iere is the final paragraph of the essa F >e6ertheless3 the most startling fact about the history of water pro?ects in the @nited +tates is the degree to which their shortcomings ha6e been associated with administrati6e failures. Again and again these shortcomings have proved to be the conse!uences of inade!uate stud of water flow# of soil# of factors other than construction technolog # and of fault organi9ation. In 1@:@# the Senate Select Committee on Jational ;ater resources found that twent different national commissions or committees charged with e'amining these problems and seeking solutions had emphasi-ed with remar(able consistency the need for coordination among agencies dealing with water. This closes in ver specificall on the author*s opinion=the failure of government agencies to effectivel deal with water management. The first paragraph introduces the general idea and this paragraph focuses in on the area for correction =the government*s lack of administrative coordination.

4oo( at the $uestions for the *ig /dea If# as we have said# man 5acro !uestions revolve around the Eig Idea# then isn*t it possible to get clues about the main idea from sample 5acro !uestions from the essa C If all fails# look at the first !uestion and ma be it will give ou a clue about what the LSAT considers important about the essa . In addition# as ou get to the second and third !uestion on the essa # this will help tighten our understanding of the essa .

*. +lam on the *rea(s 4anguage is another signpost. These are tone signals that should compel

you to slow down your reading pace and start reading 6ery closely. There is a good chance the author is about to reveal a central point and his opinion. It is like a lie detector test when the pen starts %ittering.

'ere are some common +lam on the *ra(es words2 ama9ing successful impressive remarkable greatness inade!uate invalid unfortunatel inefficient leadership competition startling surprising /n that final paragraph3 loo( at how the +lam on the *rea( words emphatically signal the author1s point2 Jevertheless# the most startling fact about the histor of water pro%ects in the Lnited States is the degree to which their shortcomings have been associated with administrative failures. Again and again these shortcomings have proved to be the conse!uences of inade)uate stud of water flow# of soil# of factors other than construction technolog # and of fault organi9ation. In 1@:@# the Senate Select Committee on Jational ;ater resources found that twent different national commissions or committees charged with e'amining these problems and seeking solutions had emphasi9ed with remar(able consistenc the need for coordination among agencies dealing with water. E focusing on these triggers# we can see how the author consigns the problem of water management to the government*s failings. This gives us access to the Eig Idea.

C. "olish @p the *ig /dea &k# ou*ve finished reading the essa # ou think ou know the Eig Idea# and ou have an idea about structure. Take a moment to review ever thing and double check that ou have the Eig Idea narrowed down. ;rite a sentence+long summar of the big idea on our white board. :. $iagnose Author*s 7urpose Ask ourselfF ;h is the author telling me thisC ;h does the author select certain facts and draw certain conclusionsC ;hat is the author*s agendaC There is always some reason why the author wrote the passage. &ften essa s will have a polic idea or suggestion to fi' a problem described. Sometimes# the author might simpl want to educate people about a sub%ect or correct a misconception. And sometimes# there will be a more politicalGideological motive for the claims made. ;riters tr to sound ob%ective# but there is alwa s something the author wants to convince ou of# or at least# get ou to learn from the passage. *e careful to distinguish fact from opinion. Though the ma look like facts# some statements in the essa ma be false claims or unsupported opinions loaded with bias. 7a close attention to the language in order to distinguish fact from opinion. The author*s purpose for writing the essa and his or her convictions are found in these subtle statements of opinion. Take these e'cerpts from a passage on water management# for e'ample. Some of the author*s statements are fact# but man are opinion.

=/n the arid parts of the land3 it has recently become clear that climate 6aries o6er time3 with irregular periods of serious drought followed by wet periods mar(ed by occasional floods.= =,ne of the most persistently troubling parts of national domestic policy is the de6elopment and use of water resources.=

.5CT2 This statement is a review of recent scientific findings about climate. Jo opinion here. Iowever# the author is using data regarding drought periods to back up later claims about water being mismanaged. ,"/>/,>2 "The most troubling" indicates feeling# not fact. The author*s opinion is that the development of water resources is one of the most troubling parts of national domestic polic . This is not necessaril the ultimate truth. Some people ma not think that

development of water resources is problematic. =/n 1A5A3 the +enate +elect Committee on >ational <ater resources found that twenty different national commissions or committees charged with e;amining these problems and see(ing solutions had emphasi-ed with remar(able consistency the need for coordination among agencies dealing with water.= .5CT2 The author is citing specific research conducted b a Senate committee. Ie or she is using these findings to back up the claim that water is mismanaged due to administrative failure. Iowever# this statement alone contains no opinion.

/n summary3 ever author has a purpose for writing his or her passage. The author*s purpose can be found in subtle statements of opinion. 7a close attention to language that indicates conviction. Section CF Muestion T pes +"7C/./C $@7+T/,> T:"7+ Jearl all !uestions fall into 11 distinct t pesF #acro $uestions=cover general issues 1. 5ain idea 6. 7urpose of the passage -. Tone 8. &rgani9ation of the passage :. Categor of ;riting 2Advanced3 <. Identit of the author 2Advanced3 #icro $uestions++refer to specific elements of the essa >. $etail of the passage ?. $efinition of a term or phrase @. Support for a premise A 7roof and evidence 1.. Dunction of part of the passage 2Advanced3 #acro&#icro 11. Inference ',< T, '5>047 T'7 #5C!, $@7+T/,>+

The Dive Muestions are an effective means for answering macro !uestions because the enable ou to focus on the essa *s "big issues." Muestion 1. ;hat is the passage t peC Muestion 6. ;hat is each paragraph aboutC Muestion -. ;hat is the organi9ationC 2Create a mental roadmap.3 Muestion 8. ;hat is the big ideaC Muestion :. ;hat is the authorBs purposeC As ou read the passage# look for answers to the Dive Muestions. &nce ou*ve done this# ou should be able to answer the macro !uestions without referring back to the passage. You will then have plent of time for answering the micro !uestions.

Section 8F Muestion T pe 1=5ain Idea Some t pical phrasings for 5ain Idea !uestions areF &hat is the main point of the passage. &hat argument is the author making. /he author is primarily concerned with ad-ancing which of the following points. &hat is the main idea. &hich of the following best summari0es the author1s argument. )eep an e e out for words like main# general# summari0e# and argument. 'ow to tac(le them2 If ou follow the Dive Steps strateg # ou should easil be able to locate the main idea. Then# translate our conception of the main idea into something that matches one of the answer choices. 7assages on the LSAT are relativel short. Therefore# the answer to a main idea !uestion cannot be too general or too specific. 5ain ideas tend toward medium focus. If stuck# eliminate the options that are at the e'tremes of specificit F either ver general or ver detailed. This ma leave ou with one A probabl # the right A answer0 if it leaves ou with more than one# ou have still improved our chances of guessing correctl . <hat is the main idea of the passage9 A3 The Jative Americans of ;ichita have a long and rich cultural histor . E3 Jative Americans have traditions. C3 Chief Running Iorse of the ;ichita Jative Americans en%o s the traditional Jew YearBs dance because he likes to watch his neighbor# Lone Tree# dance. $3 7eople have traditions. H3 The Jative Americans of ;ichita use dance in man of their traditions. Jow anal 9e the answer choices# looking for super+specific or super+general wording. ;hich choice is the most generalC ...most specificC 2$3 People ha-e traditions is e'tremel general. A book might be able to cover such a broad topic# but a short passage can*t address a wide enough variet of topics for this answer to make sense. 2E3 ati-e Americans ha-e traditions is still too broad. Jative Americans have traditions# but what traditionsC If the answer choice sa s something so general and so obvious that there*s no need to write an essa about it# it*s probabl wrong. 2C3 Chief !unning 2orse of the &ichita ati-e Americans en3oys the traditional ew 4ear1s dance because he likes to watch his neighbor$ 5one /ree$ dance is far too specific. This idea can probabl

Section 8F Muestion T pe 6= 7urpose of the passage 'ow to identify "urpose of the passage )uestions2 Look for s non ms for purposeF ob%ective# goal# main strateg . &hat is the purpose of the passage. &hy did the author write the passage. For which of the following reasons did the author write the passage. &hat was the author1s primary ob3ecti-e. /he o-erall ob3ecti-e of the passage is which of the following. 'ow to tac(le them2 &ften the answer choices will also start with verbs. Look for the one that fits. Dor e'ample# if the passage is a description of a new species of bird# look for words that mean "describe"F e'plain# discuss# etc. ;hich of the following is the authorBs main purposeC A3 7resent . . . E3 Argue . . . C3 7ersuade . . . $3 Lament . . . H3 7raise. . . The answer must be 2A3 because it is the closest s non m to "describe." Jotice how "present" 2choice A3 is similar to "a description of a new species". The other choices don*t match up with the "description of a new species" essa topic.

Section 8F Muestion T pe -= Tone 'ow to identify Tone )uestions2 Tone is feeling# not thinking. Look for emotion and attitude. &hat is the author1s attitude toward . . . . &hich of the following best describes the author1s feelings toward . . . . 'ow to tac(le them2 Look for ad%ectives in the passage that describe attitudes# such as "%ubilant"# "depressed"# "e'traordinar "# etc. Also# remember that the tone must be consistent with the main idea. ;hich of the following best describes the authorBs feelings towards gentrificationC A3 &utrage E3 Suspicion C3 Indifference $3 Acceptance H3 H'hilaration The author is probabl not outraged or e'hilarated about the sub%ect. Eoth of these ad%ectives are e'treme and would warrant much stronger language than that which commonl appears on LSAT essa s.

Section 8F Muestion T pe 8= 7assage &rgani9ation 'ow to identify "assage ,rgani-ation )uestions2 Look for !uestions asking about organi9ation. &hich of the following correctly describes the organi0ation of the passage. 'n which of the following ways is the passage organi0ed. 'n the third paragraph$ the author does which of the following. 'ow to tac(le them2 )nowing the function of each paragraph is ke to being able to answer organi9ation !uestions. Remember the Dive Steps. 6tep 78: &hat is the organi0ation. said to look out for each paragraphBs main points and function in the essa as a whole. If ou make a mental roadmap of the essa as ou read# ou will alread know how the passage is organi9ed when ou reach the !uestions. Then# answering an organi9ation !uestion is simpl a matter of referring back to our roadmap.

Section 8F Muestion T pe := Categor of ;riting 2Advanced3

LSAT passages represent some form of writing in the real world. Is it a letter to a newspaperC An e'cerpt from a bookC A lobb ist*s position paperC 'ow to identify Category )uestions2 Look for !uestions asking about the origin of the passage*s writing. 'n what type of publication would this passage most likely appear. &hich of the following best describes the passage. From which of the following sources was the passage most likely excerpted. 'ow to tac(le them2 As alwa s with macro !uestions# it comes back to main idea and purpose. ;ho is the author and wh did he or she write the passageC If ou know that# ouBll know where the passage should appear. Dor e'ample# ou decide that the purpose of the passage is to discredit a politician and its official language lets ou know it was meant for the public to read. You can assume the writer is a reporter or %ournalist. Drom which of the following sources is the passage e'cerptedC A3 A nationall distributed newspaper E3 A press release from a big compan C3 The diar of a senator $3 A governmental budgetar report H3 An enc clopedia if the writer is a %ournalist# then ou know the answer must be A.

Section 8F Muestion T pe <= Identif the Author 2Advanced3

This !uestion t pe asks ou to identif the t pe of person who wrote the passage. $onBt forget to use some elementar logic. A passage written to describe the mating habits of the whale will probabl not have been written b a senator. 'ow to identify /dentity of 5uthor )uestions2 Look for the !uestion to ask about the author. &ho is the most likely author of the passage. &ho might ha-e written the passage. 'ow to tac(le them2 Lse main idea and purpose. You know what the passage is sa ing. You know the authorBs purpose. ;ho would write such a passageC Think back to the passage on water management. 4overnment had screwed up water management b having agencies that didnBt coordinate. The authorBs purpose was to tell us about these problems. Iis goal was for us to understand the problems as well as he did. So who could he beC 7erhaps he is an academic who studies land management. 7erhaps he is a lobb ist for an organi9ation that supports irrigation. Ie could be a %ournalist who speciali9es in these issues. Lse the main idea and purpose in con%unction with common sense. ;ho would be the likel author of a passage describing governmental problems in the management of water resourcesC

Section 8F 5icro Muestions ',< T, '5>047 #/C!, $@7+T/,>+ 1B .ind the section of the passage that is rele6ant to the )uestion Coften this is highlighted for youB. 2B @se information in the rele6ant section to select the correct answer choice. 'ow to find the rele6ant section of the passage2 Lsuall the LSAT writers help ou out and highlight the relevant te't of the essa . ;hen there is no highlighted te't# micro !uestions will contain words that help ou find the relevant section of the passage. <atch for +ynonyms Lsuall in micro !uestions# the correct answer choice will contain a paraphrase that will be a rephrasing of the supporting te't. Rarel will ou seeF . . . 9y parakeets$ 2erman$ 2erman ''$ and 2erman '''$ were an important part of my childhood. /heir deaths taught me that life was fragile:and precious. . . $uestion2 ;hat did the authorBs parakeets teach him about lifeC

Section 8F Muestion T pe >=$etail of the 7assage 'ow to identify it2 The !uestion will use comple' language to askF ";hat does the author sa C" &hich of the following is mentioned in the passage. &hich of the following is stated by the author. &hat does the author say about . . .. 'ow to tac(le it2 Learn the skill of paraphrasing. YouBll have to refer to the passage and find the answer that sa s the same thing in different words. These !uestions onl ask for ou to find information that is contained within the passage. All ou need to do is match what ou read with an answer choice that has a similar meaning. /he a-ian wildlife of the eru ;alley has attracted little scientific attention. "In other words" could possibl beF o one has studied the birds of the ehru ;alley. 'nterest in studying birds of the ehru ;alley is low. Cut through the wordiness of the passage and translate the details into simple language. This will help ou match the passage to an answer choice.

Section 8F Muestion T pe ?= $efinition of a Term You will be asked to define a word or phrase used in the passage. Rel on the conte't because the authorBs use of a word or phrase ma or ma not coincide with the wa it is normall used in ever da speech. Iowever# it is %ust as likel that a !uestion will ask ou for a definition of a commonl used word or phrase# used in an unusual wa . Conte't clues will help ou decipher the meanings of words. 'ow to identify it2 Look for !uestions asking about specific terms or phrases in the passage. &hat does the author mean by negati-e pressure <highlighted text=. &hat is the meaning of an %in-isible icon% as used in the passage. &hich of the following is an example of %creati-e destruction% as the author describes it in

paragraph >. 'ow to tac(le it2 5ost of the time# an unusual phrase will be defined somewhere near its use. Read the sentences before and after the word or phrase in !uestion to get conte't and use that information to come up with an appro'imate definition of the word.

Section 8F Muestion T pe @= Support for a 7remise Sa the author makes an assertion such as# "Small dogs make great pets." $oes the author support it with an evidenceC A !uestion ma ask ou to figure out how a premise is defended. Common forms of evidence includeF 7;amples++The author recounts the devoted poodle he had as a child. +tatistics++The author surve s dog owners and finds that owners of small dogs are more satisfied with their pets. 4ogical 5rgument=The author presents logical reasons that small dogs must be great pets. The Bre cute# the donBt eat a lot# their bark isnBt too loud# etc. 'ow to identify it2 Look for !uestions that ask about evidence. 2ow does the author support his point that . . . . &hich of the following does the author offer in support of his premise that . . . . /he passage pro-ides support for all the following statements E?@EP/: 'ow to tac(le it2 Look for real evidence# e'amples or logical arguments that reinforce the authorBs point.

Section 8F Muestion T pe 1.= Dunction of 7assage 7art Nust wh does the author sa the things he or she doesC Hver part of the passage has a purpose# which is t picall connected to the main idea. 'ow to identify it2 The !uestion will ask wh the author sa s something. For what reason does the author assert that the sla-e rebellion was highlighted. &hy does the author cite the studies on global warming in paragraph 8. &hat function does the analogy to a military coup in paragraph > ser-e. 'ow to tac(le it2 4enerall # the selection of most passage parts in a !uestion functions toF 1. Support a point made elsewhere in the passage 2ma be the main idea3. 2. Show wh two things are similar or different. 3. Clarif a point.

Section 8F Muestion T pe 11= Inference 2advanced3 These !uestions ask ou to go be ond the passage. The answer wonBt be stated directl in the te't# %ust implied. To answer this !uestion t pe ou must be able to get inside the authorBs mind and understand how he or she would react to a given situation. Inference !uestions are especiall difficult because the combine both macro and micro elements of the passage. 'ow to identify it2 Iint# impl # suggest . . . these are words that signal inference. &ith which of the following would the author most likely agree. ,ased on the details in the passage$ which position would the author find most ob3ectionable. &hat does the author imply about military history. 'ow to tac(le it2 Think about which answer is best supported b the facts of the passage alone. &n inference !uestions# outside knowledge can confuse our understanding of the intention or implication of the passage.

(ulcan 5ind 5eld and Reading Comprehension In the science+fiction series 6tar /rek# the (ulcan mind meld

occurred when a (ulcan said " our mind to m mind" and pressed his hand to the sub%ect*s head. The sub%ect*s thoughts were then transferred. Inference !uestions are often the most challenging reading comprehension !uestions because the ask ou to make logical conclusions based on the author*s wa of thinking. Eecause of this# be open the author*s point of view and learn how to "meld" with it. $F Tips for Dinding the Right Answer

The correct answers to most 4+5T )uestions will ha6e a middle focus. 0on1t choose o6erly broad answers that the passage can1t support and don1t choose o6erly narrow choices because passages usually aren1t that focused. Ta(e a loo( at this e;ample. /he author is primarily concerned with: 5. 7enguin mating patterns *. Antarctic 7enguins C. Eirds of the world 0. 7enguin behavior and life c cle 7. Animals of the southern hemisphere E is likel to be correct as it is closest to middle scope. It deals with an animal and its habitat# but is not too narrow and also not too broad. It fits nicel in betweenF *road2 Animals of the southern hemisphere Eirds of the world >arrow2 7enguin behavior and life c cle 7enguin mating patterns

<atch out for words li(e =all3 ne6er3 always3 only=. These !ualifiers are strong# usuall outside a passage*s scope. Nust think how hard it would be to write a short passage that arguedF Hver new medical treatment improves the !ualit of medical care. 2Jo failures at allC3 &nl the federal government can improve public school education. 2;hat about statesC

IndividualsC3 Look for answers that use "some# most# or many%. These !ualifiers indicate a limited scope.

0oes e6ery reading comprehension )uestion ha6e one correct answer and four incorrect answers9 Yes# ou sa C ;ell . . . . not e'actl . Rather# there is one best answer and four not+so+good answers. Dor e'ample# main idea !uestions generall have one of two answers that are partl correct# but flawed in some wa . A wrong answer to the !uestion &hat is the main idea. might summari9e the main idea of onl part of the passage. :our goal is to pic( the best answer to the )uestion3 not hunt for the ,ne True 5nswer. Lnless ou are highl pressed for time# alwa s read all answer choices before making a decision. An answer that seems basicall right could be rendered incomplete b a better choice. $o not ask ourself if an answer is correct. Ask ourself if it is better than the other choices.

&hich of the following assertions in the passage is supported by an example. Jow# turn it on its headF &hich of the following assertions in the passage is A/ supported by an example. ;hat can ou doC "racticeD You have to learn to reverse our thinking. 7ractice assists in ac!uiring that skill. &ne pitfall is to overlook the critical reversal word and then wonder wh all the choices seem correct. J&T# LHAST# AJ$ HKCH7T will be used in caps to indicate ou*re looking for the reverse answer. Rephrasing the !uestion before ou answer it is helpful.

Jot at first. You might accidentall skim over the Eig Idea. As a beginner# ou should concentrate on finding the Eig Idea and using the : steps for working through a passage. Skimming is an advanced skill# as it demands ou !uickl distinguish between the significant and the e'traneous. If ou skim over the important stuff# ou*ll have to go back# or even worse# ou*ll get the !uestions wrong# due to misreading. As ou get the hang of spotting the Eig Idea and mapping the passage# ou*ll approach a point where ou can begin skimming. Hventuall # the Eig Idea will become so obvious# it will %ump off the page# signaled by tone shifts3 passage structure3 =slam on the bra(es language=3 and your understanding of the author1s purpose and bias. At that point ou will be able to spot important content !uickl enough to skim over ever thing else. You will save precious time b skimming ever thing that isn*t centrall related to the Eig Idea or the structure. Time is a precious commodit on the LSAT. $o ou want to waste it reading the e'traneous detail of the passagesC The LSAT writers want ou to trip up doing e'actl that. &ften# the unimportant information contains the most challenging language=complicated technical e'planations or strange business %argon. !emember2 The longer you spend reading the passage3 the less time you ha6e to answer the )uestions3 so getting to the )uestions in the most efficient way is 6ery useful.

4+5TCenter Tip2 'ow do you tell if you are reading too )uic(ly9 1. If# when ou finish an essa # our first reaction is confusion# then ou probabl read it too !uickl # weren*t reading for the writer*s idea# got buried in details# or lost in a blur of %argon. ;hen ou are done with reading an essa # ou should have a general idea of the content. 6. If ou have to return to the passage e'tensivel for 5acro !uestions# then ou probabl read it too !uickl . You shouldn*t have too much trouble answering general idea !uestions without going back.