SIMCOE COUNTY DISTRICT SCHOOL BOARD - GRADE 11 BIOLOGY

Biology in Fiji

JULY 2013

Biology in Fiji

In July of 2013 a group of 40 students and three teachers travelled from their home in Ontario to Fiji. In Fiji we spent a month of adventure and learning. This book is the collection of final tasks from 25 Grade 11 Biology students. During our trip, we blogged at: http://biologyinfiji.edublogs.org/

Thank you for sharing our journey. Jaclyn Calder jaccalder@mac.com

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C HAPTER 1

The Evolutions of Cetaceans and Oceanic Dolphins in Fiji

By: Julian Martinez de Hoz
Dolphins, whales, and porpoises are very interesting mammals. They share many homologous structures (they are similar but have a different function) with other mammals and even humans, but share a very close resemblance to fish, being adapted to the same environment and having many analogous structures (They have the same function but a different origin and evolution). Dolphins in particular have a very interesting anatomy and set of adaptations that make it better suited for aquatic life.

TAXONOMY
Dolphins are a paraphyletic grouping, not a monophyletic grouping, within the suborder odontoceti. Monophyletic groupings, which are generally preferred by biologists, consist of all of the descendants of a common ancestor, while a paraphyletic group does not. Paraphyletic groupings are not as useful to biologists because they exclude species that may still have a common ancestor.

Dolphins consist of oceanic dolphins (delphinidae) and four species of river dolphins. Also included in the suborder odontoceti (toothed whales, one of the two types of whale) but not considered dolphins are porpoises, sperm whales, narwhals, and other toothed whales. Spinner Dolphins

*more recent studies in genetics have found that the genus stenella my not be monophyletic, so revisions may occur.

Blue: Dolphins Species; Green: All Toothed Whales; Mysticeti: Baleen Whales http://www.discover-whales.com/baleen-whale.html

PROOFS OF MAMMALIAN ORIGIN

Dolphins have many plesiomorphic traits with other mammals that gave biologists clues to their origin. Plesiomorphic traits are traits that are ancestral, and many of these may not be of use to present day dolphins. These homologous structures give signs of a common ancestor in dolphins and other mammals. The skeletal system of a dolphin is quite unlike that of a fish and is more similar to other mammals, even to humans.

Fish Skeletal System

http://thegraphicsfairy.com/instant-art-printable-download-fish-skeleton/

Dolphin Skeletal System Human Skeletal System

http://visual.merriam-webster.com/animal-kingdom/marine-mammals/dolphin/skeleto n-dolphin.php

http://www.teachpe.com/anatomy/skeleton.php

The type of bone and its placement is very similar in both humans and dolphins. Both have vertebra for support and a rib cage to protect vital organs. Both have a pelvis and the structure of the fore limbs is remarkable similar considering the differences in the function and appearance. The dolphin even has a residual pelvis, traces from it mammalian origin. Several dolphin species found off the coast of Japan were even found to have the remains of femurs, but no more than that has been found in any cetacean. The skeletal structure of the fish is very different from the dolphin. The skull structures of a dolphin are mammal like, as is the rib cage. Though the fish does have a rib cage, it serves a different function as the fish has no lungs. Also, dolphins do not have bones within their tail or dorsal , as they have evolved them much more recently than fish and therefore have not had enough time for their skeletal structure to completely adapt. The fins of the dolphin are another major clue to its ancestry. The tail fins of fish are vertical and its spine moves on the horizontal axis, but with dolphins, their tail is vertical, and their spine moves on the vertical axis like other mammals. The movement of the spine in a dolphin swimming is more comparable to the movement of a running dog than of a fish. Dolphins also seem to have a homologous genome with humans, and because they have been exposed to similar pollutants as humans have over generations, their genes can be used better understand human genomes, especially when it involves toxicant resistance. While humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, dolphins only have

22. Dolphins also have very large brain sizes, similar to humans, though this adaptation is analogous as humans developed their exceptionally large brain case after their split with other mammals, as did cetaceans.

ADAPTATIONS
Spinner dolphins are one of the 32 extant species of oceanic dolphin. These dolphins have a wide range, generally avoiding the far north and south but spanning across the globe. Spinner dolphin range circles the globe but they generally are not found further north than Japan of further south than Australia. Their adaptations, like many delphinids that can be found in Fiji, are not specific to one particular region. Spinner Dolphin Range

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinner_dolphin

Dolphins have many adaptations to help with marine life that they evolved, including improvements in the respiratory, circulatory and skeletal systems. Dolphins, being mammals, breath through the air, but because they live in water they need a more efficient circulatory system to be able to sustain long dives. The lungs of dolphins are more efficient than in most mammals. While they are not larger in proportion to their bodies, they do have many differences to make them better suited for aquatic life. Dolphins have more alveoli than is normal and a double layer of capillaries. Alveoli are small sacks at the end of the lungs, and are laces with capillaries where they exchange oxygen into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide out of it. Having more of these, laced with more capillaries, make the gas exchange much more efficient and helps dolphin gain more oxygen with every breath then most mammals do.

The circulatory system of the dolphin is also well adapted to aquatic life. Dolphin blood contains many red blood cells, and each cell also contains a lot of hemoglobin, the substance that fallows the transportation of oxygen in red blood cells. This also makes the dolphins breathing more efficient and allows it to carry more oxygen to its muscles. A substance like hemoglobin is also found within the muscles called myoglobin. This attracts oxygen more readily than hemoglobin to facilitate the transportation of oxygen from the blood to the muscles and also gives the muscles the capacity to store oxygen. Though the circulatory system of the dolphin is very similar to humans, it has also evolved many adaptations to aquatic life. The dolphin also has the adaptation that allows it to reduce or fully stop the flow of blood to on-vital organs to conserve oxygen for vital organs like to heart and the brain.

The respiratory system also has smaller differences that allow the dolphin to breathe more efficiently and keep water out of its system. The tissues making up the lungs are thick and flexible, making for tougher lungs. The end of the bronchioles that lead to the alveoli, where the gas exchange takes place, have muscles that can close off the area from the rest of the lung, making the gas exchange even more efficient. The dolphin also has muscles in the blowhole that prevent water from entering when the dolphin is under water.

The skeletal system has also been adapted, though it seems to have adapted at a slower pace, still resembling mammals skeletons and having unnecessary or imperfect bone structures. It still has many adaptation for aquatic life though. The backbones of dolphins are very flexible to allow for the swimming motion they use to get around. This is due to less interlocking between the individual vertebras. The neck vertebras have evolved to become very short and have mostly fused together, making the neck shorter and more rigid than a humans. The ribs are also more flexible, and not strongly attached to the spine, allowing them to compress for deeper dives. The hind limbs of dolphins have mostly disappeared,
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and the bones of the forelimbs are shorter, have shorter and thicker phalanges (the individual bones of each finger), and the number of fingers has been reduced to four instead of five.

The skull of the dolphin has been elongated through evolution. The upper and lower jaws are both unusually long for a mammal, and the skull has also been tilted upward to match the dolphins horizontal position when swimming. This type of skull and jaw structure also helps the dolphins use sonar. The jaw is shaped to help receive vibrations and the auditory bullae is thicker and has a crest on the top to help with underwater hearing. Sonar was thought to have developed in early odontocetis (not baleen whales, only toothed whales) sometime after they diverged from basilosauridae.

http://evolutionbioc334.blogspot.com/2012/03/evolution-of-pectoral-flippers.html

The teeth of the dolphin are another adaptation. While most carnivorous mammals have ridges on their molars, dolphin teeth are mostly conical.

Dolphins do not have fur to keep them warm. Historically, basilosauridae lived in a time with warmer waters and did not need the thick blubber that modern cetaceans have developed to insulate themselves and regulate their temperature (they have to because they are warm-blooded).

EVOLUTION
The order cetacea includes living marine mammals and extinct ones, known as archaeocetes, some of which were so early in the evolution of cetaceans that they were only partially aquatic, having perfectly usable legs for terrestrial travel. Cetaceans were then not defined by their marine fully marine lifestyle but mainly, in fossils at least, by their auditory bullae, where the inner and middle ear are found in mammals. These
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http://library.thinkquest.org/17963/ev-tax-spp.html

are often fragile in mammals but were made of dense bone tissue in cetaceans. They are also better adapted to perceiving sound and its direction underwater.

Video: Cetacean Evolution

Cetaceans were originally thought to be very closely related to mesonychids and were proposed to be sister lineages. Mesonychids were predatory hoofed mammals from 60-37 million years ago, and had similar skulls to modern and ancient cetaceans.

Hypothesized Taxonomic Grouping

Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aPISwkdMSYg&list=P L85B037682CF64167

Another hypothesis was that cetaceans were within the grouping of artiodactyls, which are hoofed animals (cows, goat, etc.) that are defined by the shape of their talus bone (an ankle bone). In artiodactyls it has two grooves, and in other hoofed animals like mesonychids it has only one (this becomes important). This hypothesis was backed by the fact that cetaceans had complex digestive systems similar to cows, and were found to be most genetically similar to hippopotamids than
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any other animal, putting them in the group artiodactyla. This was disputed mainly because their was no conclusive evidence, until Pakicetus inachus was found. This was an animal with cetacean characteristics from 55-50 million years ago, making it the oldest cetacean found at the time. A fully formed skeleton of this was found in 2001, and it had two grooves on its talus bone, making it an artiodactyl. This was strong evidence for the second hypothesis, and thus the group artiodactyls was renamed cetartiodactyls and included cetaceans.

Video: Archaeocetes

Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DBP6T2i1ZOY&list=P L85B037682CF64167

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The evolution of cetaceans is studied by examining fossils of archaeocetes. While these are not proven to be direct ancestors of cetaceans they are either that or are sister lineages (they share a closer common ancestor than with any other group), they can give insight into what cetaceans were like at the time. One of the main factors that affected the evolution of cetaceans was the warming of the planet that coincided with their evolution. This warmer climate created an increase in fish species and pushed cetaceans to a more aquatic diet.

Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DBP6T2i1ZOY&list=PL85B037682CF64167

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans

Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DBP6T2i1ZOY&list=PL85B037682CF64167

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Indohyus (Raoellidae Family) (54-49 mya)

Pakicetidae were the earliest cetaceans found. These had the aforementioned auditory bullae adaptations that allowed for better hearing underwater.

Ambulocetidae (50-41 mya)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans

Indohyus was an ancient artiodactyl, and while not a cetacean, it was a sister lineage and can give insight into what the ancestors of cetaceans were like. This was a small animal, comparable in size to a house cat, and had adaptations that made it semi-aquatic. It had dense bones that let it sink to the bottom of rivers to avoid predators, an adaptation that may have led to the forming of early cetaceans.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans

Pakicetidae (55-50 mya)

These mammals were even better adapted to the water as they had shorter legs and a longer, more powerful tail. They also swam in a wider range of salt water habitats.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans

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Remingtonocetidae (47-40 mya)

Their eyes were moved to the side of their heads and their nasal opening was shifter back and higher upon their head for easier breathing. They also had more flipper-like limbs that were not as well adapted to walking on land.

Basilosauridae (~42~27 mya) Basilosaurus (~18m long)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans

This family of cetacean had a larger tail and likely had a more aquatic diet. It was also better adapted to saltwater swimming.

Protocetidae (~43~38 mya)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans

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Dorudon (~5m long)

CONSERVATION
Many dolphins, including spinner dolphins, do not have sufficient data on record to classify them as endangered or in any other category. The main focus of most conservation programs is to research the dolphin to find out more on their dietary habits, their populations, and their habitats. This knowledge will help conservationists to assess wether certain dolphin species are at risk or not. They likely are, as there are many factors that threaten their population, such as... Hunting Captivity Chemical and noise pollution Ship collisions (ship strikes) Entanglement in fishing nets Climate change Overfishing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans

These were the first fully aquatic cetaceans, as their forelimbs had evolved into flippers and their hind limbs has begun to disappear, making terrestrial travel impossible. Their nasal opening was shifted even further back on their heads. They also had tail flukes (the widened double ended tail) that maid swimming easier. Their were four subfamilies, but only two of which are relatively well researched, the dorudons and the basilosaurs. Both were carnivorous. It is thought that this family were ancestors of ancient odontoceti (toothed whales) and mysticeti (baleen whales) that led to modern cetaceans.

Dolphins generally are apex predators, only sometimes being hunted by larger shark species and other dolphins. Many of the threats to them involve direct threats from humans and indirect ones that change their habitat, such as overfishing or climate change, that could harm their population. Dolphins are extremely unique creatures and need to be preserved, starting with more research on them.

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Video: BBC Walking with Beasts

Video: Whale Evolution

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lovzp01gma8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8cn0kf8mhS4

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Sources
http://www.southpacificprojects.org/dolphin-conservation-in-fiji/ http://library.thinkquest.org/17963/genus-Stenella.html http://looneyfringe.com/lastcentury/pinkdolphin/dolphinevo.html http://www.livescience.com/21196-dolphin-brain-evolution-intelligence.html http://rlknuth.iweb.bsu.edu/Microsoft%20PowerPoint%20-%20Dolphin%20Pow er%20Point%20.pdf http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UxVcimbMHXA&list=PL85B037682CF64167 http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Delphinidae/

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C HAPTER 2

Appendicitis
By: Claudia Enderlein

During my time in Fiji, I got appendicitis and got my appendix removed. To further my understanding of what appendicitis is and the organ involved, I decided to do my eBook chapter on appendicitis and my experience!

Video: The Digestive System

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XxvRbxhqoZk&list= WL8A1yWZhW6Tnr3lH7VNYTcYqgYMIvmWjd

The appendix sits at the intersection of the small intestine and large intestine. Normally, the appendix is located in the lower right abdomen. Its a thin tube connected to the cecum, which develops embryologically. The human appendix is a narrow pouch of tissue whose resemblance to a worm inspired its alternate name, vermiform (worm-like) appendix. It is typically measures about four inches long and roughly a quarter of an inch in diameter.

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Appendicitis
An appendix is most often removed when a person suffers from appendicitis. Appendicitis develops when a blockage forms within the organ. The appendix becomes swollen, inflamed, and filled with pus. A blockage can result from impacted fecal matter or a condition called lymphoid hyperplasia (lymphoid hyperplasia is when the appendix produces too many normal cells). This creates the blockage, which then compromises blood flow to the area. Appendicitis is most common in people between the ages 10 and 30.

Symptoms
One of the fist signs of appendicitis is pain near the navel. As the inflammation develops, the pain moves often growing sharper and spreading downward into the lower right abdomen. This area is known as McBurney point. The pain can grow so severe over the course of several hours, that it may be nearly impossible to move without excruciating pain. Applying pressure to the area will commonly cause pain that can sharpen after releasing the pressure (called rebound tenderness). Other common symptoms are vomiting, diarrhea, fever and loss of appetite.

ther easy nor fast. Diagnosing appendicitis can be challenging. Almost half of all patients who have appendicitis do not have all the typical symptoms and often have different symptoms all together- such as pain in a different location. Also, other conditions have very similar symptoms, such as gastroenteritis, urinary tract infection, Crohns disease and kidney stones. If the doctor suspects you have appendicitis, further tests will be ordered. A sample of blood, usually taken from the arm, will occur to perform a blood test and determine whether there is an infection. A urine test will also occur to see if it is kidney or bladder infection. Then a MRI or ultrasound scan will be done to get a 3-D image of the appendix and see whether it is inflamed/swollen. Sometimes a decision will be made from the doctor to remove the appendix before test results are in to confirm the diagnosis because it is too risky to wait.

Treatment
An emergency surgery is needed if someone suffers form appendicitis to prevent peritonitis (this is when the appendix ruptures because the appendicitis is left untreated for over roughly 72 hours and is often fatal). There are two ways the appendix can be surgically removed- through a laparoscopic or appendectomy. A laparoscopic surgery, also known as a keyhole surgery, is much less invasive than the appendectomy. The surgeon inserts a very thin tube (laparoscope), which has a tiny video camera on the end, into the abdomen through a cannula (hollow instrument). The surgeon can view the inside
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Diagnosing Appendicitis
Appendicitis affects roughly one in 10 people during their lifetime and accounts for more emergency abdominal surgeries than any other ailment. Yet, diagnosing the condition is nei-

of the abdomen with a monitor (receives video from the tiny camera) and the appendix is removed through the other 2 small abdominal incisions using 2 atraumatic graspers (also know as Dolphin Nose Grasper) that look like chop sticks to clasp the appendix. There are many advantages of a laparoscopy surgery v.s an open appendectomy including less postoperative pain, shortened hospital stay, quicker recovery and better cosmetic results.

If the appendix has ruptured and infection has spread, a traditional appendectomy also known as an open surgery, must be performed so the area inside the abdominal cavity can be cleaned. The surgeon makes an incision in the lower right abdomen, about 2 to 4 inches long. The appendix is pulled through the incision, tied off at its base, and removed. The surgeon cleans the pus out of the abdomen with a warm saline solution to reduce risk of infection. A drain may also be inserted through the incision to allow pus to drain out from the abdomen in the infection has spread severely.

The 3 lines show where the incisions are made for a laparoscopic surgery. The above diagram shows the steps of an open appendectomy.
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Aftercare/Recovery
The usual stay in the hospital after an appendectomy or laparoscopic surgery (if uncomplicated) is 1-3 days. If the appendix has ruptured, the hospital stay may be 7 days or longer. The first 2 days after the surgery, patients are expected to only eat fluids to allow the digestive tract to rest. Soft food, such as bread and rice, are suggested for several days after the liquid diet, or until the patient feels ready for a regular diet. Light activity at home is encouraged after surgery, such as showering, driving, walking and light lifting (under 10 pounds). Typically, patients can return to regular exercise 2 to 4 weeks after if they received a laparoscopy surgery, and 4 to 6 weeks if it was an open appendectomy. Patients are usually given antibiotics to take at home, such as Ceftriaxon and Gentamicin, for several days after to prevent infection. Also, pain medication is given out.

Evolution of the appendix

Though it was not always this way, the appendix is now known as a "vestigial organ", a basic structure in humans corresponding to a functional structure or organ in ancestral animals and now has no function. Charles Darwin was one of the first scientists to theorize on the function of the appendix, which in his day had been identified only in humans and apes. He hypothesized that the distant ancestors of these animals survived on a diet of leaves, and so they required a large cecum, a portion of the gut that houses bacteria that can break down plant tissue. Later, he thought, these ancestors shifted to a largely fruit-based diet that was easier to digest. The very long cecum of some herbivorous animals, such as found in the horse or the kola, appears to support this theory. In conclusion, it is believed that the appendix is a leftover trace from when our ancestors depended heavily on vegetation for food. We have evolved out of such dietary needs, and as a result, we dont need an appendix anymore. So the appendix we have today is just a shriveled remnant of what used to be a large, complex cecum in our ancestors. But some scientists are challenging the idea that the appendix serves no purpose. One scientist suggests that the appendix acts as a storage area for beneficial bacteria during times of illness. The lining of the appendix is filled with lymphatic tissue, which produces antibodies leading some to believe it helps the immune system. Some scientists are still unwilling to declare

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the appendix useless, but the human body functions perfectly when the appendix is removed.!

My Fiji Experience
In the beginning, I had a mild pain in the stomach, but after about 20 minutes it changed to a sharp pain right beside the hip. This pain very quickly became severe causing me difficulty while walking. After informing our caregivers and they noticed I was in severe pain, I was taken

to a local clinic. This was a

one-roomed wooden hut with a blanket hanging in the middle to separate it from the examination room. Here I was asked several questions and
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lied down for an examination (the nurse felt my stomach and that was it). She suspected I had appendicitis, and I was taken to what I would assume is a walk in clinic for an ultrasound because they did not have the technology to do it at the previous place. This again was not to the standard of a Canadian health faculty, and you could defiantly noticed that Fijis health care was not nearly as advanced as Canadas. This location had probably 4 rooms and a bathroom, but was not white tiled and pristine clean liked our faculties here. When the doctor came in to perform the ultrasound, he was wearing a Brazil hoodie with jeans and running shoes. After the ultrasound, they were unable to diagnose me with appendicitis because they could not read the ultrasound. I was transferred again to the next place, but this time in an ambulance. The ambulance was basically a white van, with bed frame (a mattress in it) nailed to the floor and a bench beside it. Afnan then drove the ambulance HIMSELF to Suva, which would never be allowed in Canada!! This place is called Suva Private hospital, which after doing some research I found out it is the only western styled hospital in Fiji. Suva Private Hospital actually looked like a hospital you would find in Canada, just much smaller. After giving my information, since they do not have health cards like in Canada, I saw the doctor (which was like a typical doctor in Canada). I got a blood test, urine test

and ultrasound; which is a normal procedure when suspecting appendicitis. But again they could not read the ultrasound, so they decided to keep me overnight for observations. I was hooked up to two drip bags, one with IV and another with a saltwater solution. I was given chicken broth, apple juice and hot chocolate for dinner because I was on a liquid diet incase I needed surgery. During the night I was woken every 2 hours to check my blood pressure and change my IV bag. In the morning, the surgeon examined me again and decided that yes I did have appendicitis and my appendix was very close to bursting. So within 20 minutes of my diagnoses, I was in the surgery room and put to sleep. The laparoscopic surgery took just under 1 hour and I was told the infection was spreading in my pelvis, but was cleaned out during the surgery. I found the nurses where much more informative and friendly/personal showing that their welcoming cultural shines through even when they are on the job. During the day, I was given painkillers and liquid food. I was informed only to eat soft food for the next several days. The next morning I was released, but given Amoxil and Flagly (antibiotics) and then codeine to take only when needed. They came in a clear plastic bag, unlike the pill bottle we are given here in Canada. Overall, I feel the healthcare was very similar in the Suva Private hospital to our public healthcare in Canada, but public healthcare in Fiji is far behind the standards we hold here in Canada.

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Facts about Fijis healthcare

Fijis public health care is quite behind western societies standards. After organizations such as WHO and UNICEF came in 1977, Fiji decided to take a village-based approach to primary health care. Since this change, primary health care initiatives have reduced sickness and fatal disease in the villages. But this approach has some flaws. In the rural areas, staff training is limited and there are often shortages of supplies and medications. Doctors are in major shortage due to the fact they get much better pay in New Zealand and Australia. Also, education about health is quite lacking. For example, Cervical and breast cancers are the most prevalent forms of cancer in women in Fiji yet, most women do not know about pap smears, nor are they educated about self-breast exams. In Canada, we are very informed and have the resources, such as the Internet, to continue to educate us. In Fiji these resources are not always present. Also, due to lack of education, HIV/Aids is increasing at an alarming rate. Western type healthcare is only available at Suva Private Hospital, which most Fijians can not afford because over 60% of Fijians live at the level of poverty or lower.

Sources
http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/human-biology/appendix.htm http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/appendicitis/ http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/appendicitis/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appendicitis http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/appendicitis/DS00274 http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1906614,00.htm http://www.laparoscopy.net/appy/appy6.htm http://www.medindia.net/patients/patientinfo/Appendicitis_aftercare.htm# http://www.linksfiji.com/healthcare.html http://www.innerbody.com/image/dige03.html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermiform_appendix

Picture Sources
http://www.zadehsurgical.com/services/appendicitis/ http://www.medicinenet.com/appendicitis/page2.htm http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/digestive-diseases-appendicitis http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/digestive-diseases-appendicitis

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C HAPTER 3

Mangroves

By: Nick and Spyros

Part 1 Background:
The word mangrove is used to talk about a habitat made up of halophytic (salt-tolerant) plant species,and of these plant species there are more than 12 families and 50 species worldwide. Mangroves grow in intertidal or estuarine areas. They are found in warmer areas between the latitudes of 32 degrees north and 38 degrees south, along the tropical and subtropical coasts of Africa, Australia, Asia and North and South America. In the U.S., mangroves are most commonly found in Florida.

Marine Life in Mangroves:

Mangroves are an important habitat, providing food, shelter and nursery areas for fish, birds, crustaceans and other marine life. They also provide a source of income for many humans around the world, including wood for fuel, charcoal and timber and areas for fishing. Mangroves also form a barrier that defends coastlines from flooding and erosion.

Many types of marine and terrestrial life use the mangroves to their full potential. Animals inhabit the mangroves leafy canopy and waters underneath the mangroves root system, and live in nearby tidal waters and mudflats. In the U.S., species found in mangroves include: Reptiles: the American crocodile and American alligator Mangroves have a tangle of roots which are often found exposed above water, leading to the nickname walking trees. The roots of mangrove plants have adapted over time to filter salt water, and their leaves can get rid of salt, allowing them to survive where other land plants cannot. Sea turtles: including the hawksbill, Ridley, green and loggerhead Fish: snapper, tarpon, jack, sheepshead, and red drum Crustaceans: shrimp and crabs Coastal and Migratory birds: pelicans, spoonbills and bald eagles
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Mangroves in the Pacific:

Mangroves are found across the Pacific islands with the worlds centre of species biodiversity in Papua New Guinea. The largest mangrove areas are found in the Melanesia region. Papua New Guinea supports over 70% of the regions mangrove area with at least 34 obligate species, found only in mangroves. Pacific Islanders were and still are traditionally coastal resource based, with many early settlements close to mangrove areas. They continue to provide significant social, economic and cultural benefits for the people of the Pacific. Mangrove Ecosystems in Fiji, as elsewhere in the world are generally associated with esturine deltas and sheltered coastline with low energy waves. The total mangrove area in Fiji has been reported as between 19,700ha!and 49,777ha. The report by Watling in 'A Mangrove Management Plan for Fiji Phase 1, 1985' estimated 38,543ha for the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. However, numbers given by the governments Department of Forestry for their 1999 Annual Report, gave an estimate of 42,464ha covering the five major islands of Fiji and including Kadavu, Ovalau and Gau.

Human impacts: dredging, filling, diking, oil spills, and runoff of human waste and herbicides. Some coastal development results in total loss of habitat. Conservation of mangroves is not only important for the survival of mangrove species, but also for humans. Also for the survival of two other habitats: coral reefs and seagrass beds. OISCA-Fiji Mangrove Reforestation Project: Since 1993, OISCA has reforested 149 hectares of mangrove in the coastal areas of Viti Levu, the largest province of Fiji. This project is not like the other mangrove project sites of OISCA in other countries, the planting sites in Fiji are mostly in open seas which make the transplanted seedlings vulnerable to strong waves and current. Additionally, unlike the muddy sites of estuaries, the mangrove sites in Fiji are mostly sandy and sometimes rocky. After two decades since the start of the project, the fishermen have noticed the increase of size and number of fish caught as well as the shortened distance of travel to actually go and catch the fish.1 To learn more about this great project go to: http://www.oisca-international.org/projects/default.aspx?cid =74&pid=14

Threats to Mangroves:
Natural threats: hurricanes, root clogging from increased water turbidity, and damage from boring organisms and parasites.

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Sites used:
http://marinelife.about.com/od/habitatprofiles/p/mangroves .htm http://mangrovesforfiji.com/mangroves/mangroves-in-fiji

Part 2
The adaptations of the mangrove trees are quite exceptional when really examined, no matter the roots or the vein system throughout the plant. When discussing the root adaptations of the mangrove trees, it is quite amazing as their evolutionary ways increase stability in the soft sediments along shorelines. Red mangroves have prop roots descending from the trunk and branches, providing a stable and surprisingly strong support system. Shallow wide-spreading roots surround the trunks of the black mangroves, adding to the structural stability of the tree. Other species of mangrove trees grow at higher elevations, in drier soils and don't require specialized root structures.

Sources for images:

www.ecologic.org www.traveljournals.net www.whataremangroves.com www.scientificamerican.com www.fijisharkdiving.blogspot.com http://www.oisca-international.org/projects/default.aspx?cid =74&pid=14

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Another unique adaptation that the mangroves have is their tolerance towards salt water. Through physiological adaptations, mangroves are able to live in harsh saline environments. Red mangroves occur where soil salinities range from 60-65 parts per thousand (ppt); while black and white mangroves are found in soils with over 90 ppt salinities. Salinities effectively limit competition from other plants, while mangroves have salt exclusion or salt excretion adaptations allowing survival in these environments. This describes a perfect example of Darwin's theory of "The survival of the fittest" and due to these amazing changes to the mangrove trees they have lived on in even the hardest conditions.

The ability to exclude salts occurs through filtration around and inside surface of the root. Root membranes prevent salt from entering while allowing the water to pass through. This is effective at removing the majority of salt from seawater. The red mangrove is an example of a salt-excluding species unlike many plants and trees which makes it unique. On the other hand, salt excreters remove salt through glands located on each leaf. Black and white mangroves are both salt excreters. White mangroves develop thickened succulent leaves, disregarding the salt as the leaves eventually drop. There are some differences between the red,black and white mangroves, but they all must continue these ways of either excluding or excreting salt.

Another interesting adaptation about the Mangrove trees is that they are adapted for survival in oxygen-poor or anaerobic sediments through their unique root structures. Plants require oxygen for respiration in all living tissues as well as the underground roots. In soils that are not water-logged, air diffusion between sediment grains can supply this requirement. However, in water-logged soils, these spaces fill with water containing lower oxygen levels than air. In contrast to most plants, mangroves have poorly developed, shallow underground root systems while having welldeveloped above ground roots. These 'aerial' or above ground roots allow for the transport of atmospheric gases to the underground roots. Red mangroves have prop roots extending from the trunk and adventitious roots from the branches. Although the black mangrove does not have prop roots, small air roots can be seen extending vertically from the soils surrounding the trunk. These air roots, called 'pneumatophores', extend in the up right position from the underground roots above the soil surface. During low tides as we witnessed in
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Fiji, air is taken up through open passages in the pneumatophores and transported to living root tissues.

of the major and important adaptation that make the mangrove tree what it is today.

The last but most vital (personal opinion) adaptation would be that all mangrove trees share two reproductive adaptations. The viviparity and propagule dispersal version of reproduction. Similar to terrestrial plants, mangroves reproduce by flowering with pollination occurring via wind and insects (bees, wasps, and other Fijian insects) .Once pollination occurs, the seeds remain attached to the parent tree. They germinate and briefly blossom into propagules before dropping into the waters below. This ability is referred to as "viviparity" (as mentioned earlier in paragraph) The propagules either take root in the sediments near the parent tree or are dispersed with the tides and currents to other shorelines. These are all

In a healthy mangrove forest or costal area the white, black and red mangrove trees are made up of specific roots which make up a majority of the plant or tree structure. They include the prop or still roots, knee roots, butress or simple, and the pneumatophores. The prop/ still roots are found in the low intertidal area and thus the roots maybe submerged for long periods of time. Therefore their root systems are almost entirely above ground, forming branched, looping roots that 'prop' up the main trunk of the tree. Knee roots grow in the mid to high intertidal zones. They form shallow, horizontal roots that periodically break the soil surface and submerge again in sinuous curving patterns. This looks much like a knee joint. The simple or butress's roots are In the upper intertidal areas, where the tides barely reach, root structures are much more simple.

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Pneumatophores are specialized respiratory root structures that branch off from the main or primary root under the surface of the soil, breaking through the soil at sections off for easy gas exchange much like straws for breathing.

Sites used:
http://www.conservancy.org.hk/conser/Ramsar/mangrove03 E.htm http://ecology.hku.hk/jupas/Mangrove/adaptations.htm http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/estuaries/media /supp_estuar07d_mangrove.html

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C HAPTER 4

Evolution of Dolphins
By: Linzi Dolphins, believe it or not were not originally marine animals. They have evolved into marine animals from land animals that lived thousands of years ago. We know that they must have descended from land animals due to the fact that their!need to breathe air from the surface; the bones of their fins that!resemble the jointed hands!of land mammals; and the!vertical movement of their spines, a common characteristic of a running mammal.

The evolution of dolphins started around 95 million years ago when a land animal known as the Mesonix appeared on the earth. The Mesonix grew more comfortable in the water so for the next 30 million year it evolved in to the earliest form of dolphins Protocetidae. The protocetidae had large fore and hind limbs that could support its body on land but also allow them to swim meaning they lived amphibiously. However with the world ever changing the proticetidae evolved into the Basilosaurids. The basilosaurids had highly reduced hind limbs. Although the hind limbs could still be moved as if they had a wrist it was the early formation of what the modern dolphin has what we call flippers.! ! Over the next few million years basilosaurids evolved into the last dolphin before the dolphin we know today. It evolved into the Mysticeti, by now all evidence of hind legs are completely gone the tailed fin as completely formed along with the flippers. The only thing yet to form is the dorsal fin and the upward curved vertebra. This dolphin took the next 6 million years to evolve into the Odontoceti the modern dolphin the we know today. Through the evolution from the mysticeti to the Odontoceti the main dorsal fin was formed along with the upward curved back vertebra which gives dolphins the upward curved back. The Odontoceti has been swimming the ocean for 5 million years. !

http://www.dolphin-way.com/dolphins-%E2%80%93-the-facts/evolution/ !

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The Role Dolphins Play!

! Dolphins are important to the ecosystem in the sense that they are apex or top-level predators which control populations of fishes and squids and keep the ecosystem balance. Also Dolphins - like many other high-level predators - are prey mainly on old and ill fish. This way they are playing an important role in fighting diseases among fish populations and ensure the reproduction of fisheries resources. It has been proved in many studies that the elimination of top predators in marine systems has negative effects for the entire ecosystem. By killing dolphins, we are killing the sanitary police of the oceans, which may result in more diseases and diminished fish populations. To kill a dolphin, therefore, means to directly damage sustainable fisheries. ! ! A dolphin's food chain consists of Plankton that feeds on bodies of dead animals in the ocean. Krill feeds on plankton. Small fish and Squid eat krill. Large fish and large squid feed on small squid and fish. Dolphins feed on small and mediumsized squid and fish, crustaceans and octopus. Finally sharks and killer whales feed on dolphins.! ! So if the dolphin were to be eliminated from the food chain theoretically the squid population would increase greatly as its main predator is gone. With the dolphins gone sharks and killer whales would not have their main prey meaning they would have to adjust to eating the next best thing, possibly each other. Also with the dolphins gone you would have to assume all the jobs that would be lost. Dolphins being as intelli36
Image Source:

https://www.google.ca/search?q=dolphins+and+the+food+chain&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&biw=1366&bih=667&bv m=pv.xjs.s.en_US.MpiVkF51mpA.O&um=1&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=JKb 2UdSDGpLI4AO6lIDQBg#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=qZYxf-Vnl83rQM%3A%3Bybi4KKkIWgqDkM%3Bhttp %253A%252F%252Fwww.sciencelearn.org.nz%252Fvar%252Fsciencelearn%252Fstorage%252Fimages%252F contexts%252Flife-in-the-sea%252Fsci-media%252Fimages%252Fmarine-trophic-pyramid%252F169349-5-e ng-NZ%252FMarine-trophic-pyramid_gallery_supersize_landscape.png%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.sc iencelearn.org.nz%252FContexts%252FLife-in-the-Sea%252FScience-Ideas-and-Concepts%252FMarine-food -webs%3B509%3B339

gent as they are make them easy to train, which is why industries such as SeaWorld and marine land hire trainers to train the animal to show the public, for a fee of course. With dolphins gone that means the industries could not show dolphins anymore meaning that the trainers would be fired along with the people who groomed the dolphins feed the dolphins and cleaned its home. Also people who work in the dolphin finning industry would be fired; well actually the whole industry would not exist at all. With all of the people out of work it brings up inflation. Over all if dolphins were to be eliminated it would not only affect the ecosystem and marine food chain but also the economy. ! ! !

Curve! A dolphin's fin has a curved edge, while most shark fins have a straight edge. In some shark species, the rear edge of the dorsal fin may be curved. Some types of shark can also change the height of their dorsal fin, so that it droops slightly. However, a change in fin height is rarely severe enough to make it seem close to the look of a dolphin's fin. Shark fins may slant backward or stand up straight, but generally do not curve back in the same way as a dolphin's dorsal fin.!

Comparative Anatomy!
! Sharks and Dolphins may seem very alike however they have both skelelatory differences precisely in the fins and respiratory system . Number! Most types of dolphins have just one dorsal fin, situated toward the middle of the back. Many shark species have a second dorsal fin, located closer to their tails. These fins may not protrude from the water unless the shark is swimming very close to the surface of the water, almost on the top. The second dorsal fin is usually much smaller than the first one, but tends to mirror the shape of the larger fin. ! This picture shows the difference between the two fins.
Image Source: http://bioinfiji.edublogs.org/files/2013/07/20130707-214501.jpg

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Respiratory System
The main difference between a sharks respiratory and a dolphins respiratory is that a dolphin breathes through a blowhole a unique hole that doesn't prevents the intake of water but allows both air to be both inhaled and exhaled. No species of sharks have a blow hole they breathe like like most fish do by pumping water over their gills water enters the gill chambers and exits through the gill slits. Thus creating the process of breathing. !

Another large threat to the dolphins is the fishing industry. Not only do dolphins get caught up in the next they throw out to catch fish, its the fact that the fishing industries are catching so much fish. Fishing techniques have advanced greatly over the last one hundred years; as a result, many of the species that dolphins traditionally preyed upon have been dramatically reduced. ! Yet with all these ways to harm dolphins man still finds more. One of the most inhumane and worst threats to dolphins is there fellow man. Dolphin hunting occurs in Asia, parts of Africa and South America.!Here is a video to show what words cannot create. ! ! Viewer discretion is advised.! ! ! !
Video: Dolphin Hunt and Slaughter

Threats to the Dolphin!

! One thing affecting not only humans but dolphins is climate change. Climate change is causing the oceans to become warmer causing the dolphins primary food sources to seek deeper cooler areas of the ocean. Scientists are concerned that the dolphins will have difficulty adapting as quickly as necessary to find new feeding grounds to sustain their populations. Some dolphins that live in areas where rivers and oceans meet, known as brackish waters, are losing habitat as ocean levels are raising due to global warming. An additional threat is pollution, humans have taken the sea for granted and polluted it with our waste. A common threat to not only dolphins but all marine animals is the fact that is very likely to ingest things such as plastic bags and debris that can be mistaken for food, obviously such things cannot be digested causing death to the dolphin or other marine animal.! !

! !

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WbMsa nOYldk

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Dolphin vs Human DNA!

! Recently the University of Texas has begun to compare the DNA od dolphins to the DNA of humans in hope to gain some information that will help them to map the genes of dolphins.! ! Genes are organized into segments along the length of a chromosome a tightly wound spool of DNA. This spool is made up of two, complementary, single strands of DNA bound together. Every living thing has a characteristic number of chromosomes, and each chromosome carries different genes. Dolphins have 44 chromosomes, and humans have 46. Dr. Busbee who leaded the experiment said We started looking at these and it became very obvious to us that every human chromosome had a corollary chromosome in the dolphin, Busbee said. Weve found that the dolphin genome and the human genome basically are the same. Its just that theres a few chromosomal rearrangements that have changed the way the genetic material is put together.! ! With the genes compared and the results in the University of Texas will now try to map the genes of the dolphins.! ! !

dolphin and the spinner dolphin.!

Comparing Species of Dolphins!

! Just like every human dolphins differ from each other, here are a few charts comparing dolphins. I will be comparing the highest known dolphin the bottlenose dolphin to the striped
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Bibliography!
http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/spinnerdolphin.htm! http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/bottlenosedolphin.htm! http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/bottlenose-dolphin/! http://www.dolphin-way.com/dolphins-%E2%80%93-the-facts/threats-to-dolphins/! http://www.rhesusnegative.net/work/dolphin-dna-very-close-to-human/! http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans! http://dolphinswimming.dolphindiscovery.com/index.php/evolution-cetaceans/! http://www.dolphins-world.com/Dolphin_Evolution.html! http://www.dolphins-world.com/how_are_dolphins_important_to_the_ecosystem.html! http://www.ask.com/question/what-is-a-dolphins-food-chain!

! !

! As you have read today Dolphins are very diverse animals which evolved from a simple minded land animal into one of the most intelligent species our ocean sees today. ! !
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C HAPTER 5

Antibiotic Resistance
Sebastian Morales and Lazar Joksimovic Throughout the past century, the worlds advance in medicine has grown exponentially. Thanks to a closer look at bacteria, one of the major advances in this field has been the introduction of antibiotics. Bacteria are living organisms existing as single cells. They are found everywhere around us (we cannot escape them!) and luckily most don't cause any harm, and can sometimes even be beneficial. However, some bacteria are harmful and can cause illness by invading the human body, multiplying, and interfering with the regular functions of the human body. The discovery of antibiotic drugs in the early 1940s, proved to be a critical turning point in the world of medicine as many new bacterial illnesses could be cured. However, there are problems involved with this new technology. The second half of the 20th century has been outlined by the development of resistance of some dangerous bacteria to these antibiotics that once use to cure infectious diseases. Antibiotic resistance is a serious and growing phenomenon in medicine and has emerged as one of the preeminent public health concerns of the 21st century.

What are antibiotics?

Whenever you have a bacterial infection your doctor will prescribe you antibiotics. But when you have a viral infection, you will never get prescribed antibiotics. This is because antibiotic drugs are medications that only treat bacterial infections. Antibiotics do not work on viruses because viruses are not alive. A bacterium is a living, reproducing organism. On the other hand, a virus is just a component of DNA. It injects its DNA into a living cell in order for the cell to reproduce more of the viral DNA. With a virus there is nothing to kill, so antibiotics don't work on it. Before bacteria can multiply and cause symptoms, the body's immune system can usually destroy them. We have special white blood cells that attack harmful bacteria. Even if symptoms do occur, our immune system can usually cope and fight off the infection. Nonetheless, there are occasions, our immune system cannot fight off a harmful microorganism and it is up to antibiotics to help us kill the bacteria and eliminate the disease that it is causing. Certain bacteria produce chemicals that damage or disable parts of our bodies. In an ear infection, for example, bacteria get into the inner ear and cause damage. The body is working to fight the bacteria, but the immune system's natural processes produce inflammation. Inflammation in your ear is painful. So you take an antibiotic to kill the bacteria and eliminate the inflammation.
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Antibiotics are naturally occurring substances secreted by bacteria and fungi to kill other harmful bacteria that are competing for limited nutrients. Their targeted microbes include parasites, bacteria and fungi. They kill harmful bacteria by stopping their growth and reproduction. Each different type of antibiotic affects different bacteria in different ways. For example, an antibiotic might inhibit a bacterium's ability to turn glucose into energy, or its ability to construct its cell wall. When this happens, the bacterium dies instead of reproducing. At the same time, the antibiotic acts only on the harmful bacterium's mechanism, not on that of a normal cell. The antibiotic era began in 1929 with Alexander Flemings observation that bacteria would not grow near colonies of the mold Penicillium. In the decades that followed this breakthrough discovery, molecules produced by fungi and bacteria have been successfully used to combat bacterial diseases such as tuberculosis and pneumonia. Antibiotics drastically reduced death rates associated with many infectious diseases. Examples of antibiotics include Penicillin, Ampicillin, Amoxicillin, Cephalosporin and Tetracycline.

Some illnesses they cure include: syphilis, tuberculosis, salmonella, and some forms of meningitis, which are all caused by harmful bacteria. They are the most widely used medications to treat, and prevent bacterial infections. One of the examples of antibiotics that have been a very purposeful discovery in medicine is antimicrobial chemotherapy. This form of chemotherapy has been a leading cause for the dramatic rise of average life expectancy in the 20th century and has saved many lives. There are two main categories of antibiotics: a broadspectrum antibiotic and a narrow-spectrum antibiotic. A broad-spectrum antibiotic can be used to treat a wide range of infections. A narrow-spectrum antibiotic is only effective against a few types of bacteria.

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Although there are a number of different types of antibiotics, they function in only one of two ways: bactericidal antibiotics such as Penicillin kill the bacteria either by inhibiting the formation of the bacterium's cell wall or its cell contents. The second form of antibiotics is called a bacteriostatic antibiotic and is used in order to stop the bacteria from multiplying.

Antibiotic Resistance

Unfortunately, the miraculous, life-saving era of antibiotics proved to be a short-lived one. During the past few decades, many strains of bacteria have evolved resistance to antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance is the resistance of harmful microbes: parasites, bacteria, and fungi to antibiotic medications (whose purpose was to kill that bacterium). This causes the standard treatments to render ineffective and these bacteria continue to spread throughout the body. Antibiotic use promotes development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria: whenever a person takes antibiotics, sensitive bacteria are killed, but resistant microbes survive and begin multiplying.

Video: Explaining Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance

Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjR6L38yReE
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organisms since the time when antibiotic use became common. In the 940s, penicillin was used to treat infections in soldiers in World War II. But then bad news came when in 1967 the first penicillin-resistant bacteria, Streptococcus pneumonia, was observed in Australia, and seven years later in the U.S. another case of penicillin-resistant bacteria called S. pneumoniae was observed in a patient with pneumococcal meningitis. In 1980, 3-5% of S. pneumoniae were penicillinresistant and by 1998, 34% of this species of bacteria were resistant to penicillin. These frightening stats and the unfortunate reality of antibiotic resistance force us to take extreme precautions when using antibiotics.

Today, about 70 percent of the bacteria that cause infections in hospitals are resistant to at least one of the antibiotic drugs most commonly used for treatment of various dangerous diseases and illnesses. In a study conducted in 2012, 25% of bacterial pneumonia cases were shown to be resistant to penicillin, and an additional 25% of cases were resistant to more than one antibiotic. An example of rapidly growing antibiotic resistance is Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the bacteria that causes gonorrhea, shown at right. In the 1960s penicillin and ampicillin were able to control most cases of gonorrhea. Today, more than 24 percent of gonorrheal bacteria in the U.S. are resistant to at least one antibiotic. Additionally, the progressive resistance to another antibiotic called penicillin reveals the increase in the frequency of antibiotic-resistant

Genetics
Throughout the past fifty years, bacteria have evolved to be able to withstand and survive the antibiotics used to treat them. Genetic mutations have taken place in their DNA to be able to become resistant to these antibiotics. To define the genetics of bacteria and its resistance to antibiotics there are two main components: the structure of bacteria (and its reaction to the contact to antibiotics) and the DNA/ gene configuration of the bacteria (how the resistance is developed in the genes and how it affects the structure).
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Structure of the bacteria and how antibiotics affect it

Bacteria can be structured like a typical prokaryotic cell (bacteria are prokaryotes), they have a cell wall, ribosomes, and they have no nucleus. Instead of a nucleus, like prokaryotes, they have a nucleoid which is the general area where the DNA is located. Antibiotics are the excretions of other bacteria and fungi that, in naturally occurring cases, are used to kill the harmful bacteria when trying to enter the fungus or bacterium. The antibiotics kill the bacteria in two ways: by preventing them from growing and by actually killing them. As mentioned before, bacteriostatic antibiotics prevent the bacteria from growing. They do this by interfering with bacterial protein production, DNA replication, or other features in the bacteriums metabolism. One way that this antibiotic could stop the reproduction of bacteria is by binding to the DNA gyrase, one of the mechanisms used for replicating the DNA, and by doing so it

disallows the DNA from dividing and therefor growing. This antibiotic must work together with the immune system to kill the bacteria because the antibiotic does not kill the bacteria rather than prevent it from growing; it is the immune systems job to kill the bacteria. The other antibiotic, also known as the bactericidal antibiotic, performs the job of killing the bacteria itself. It does this by taking down the cell wall of the bacteria and thereby killing it or by taking away the bacteriums ability to convert glucose into energy which ultimately kills it as well. A great example of a bactericidal antibiotic is penicillin. As seen in the picture, as the penicillin gets closer to the bacterium, it ruptures the bacteriums cell wall which then allows the cytoplasm from the cell to leak into the bacteriums surroundings which ultimately kills the cell. When the bacteria acquire resistance to antibiotics (an explanation of how this happens will be provided in the next subchapter), the structure of certain parts of the bacteria change to be able to be resistant. For example, bacteria have developed a mechanism called the
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efflux pump which is used to pump out the antibiotic of the bacteriums system before it could cause damage. They are located at the cell membrane. Another adaptation that bacteria have made to become resistant to antibiotics is the formation of the Ribosomal Protection Proteins (RPP). Antibiotics that attack the ribosomes have the goal to interfere with the protein synthesis of the bacteria. However, with RPP, the ribosomes of the bacteria are able to change their configuration and shape which thus prevents the antibiotics from interfering in their protein synthesis procedure. Bacteria with the right genetic modification also have the ability to become resistant to antibiotics by producing enzymes which are not harmful to the bacterium but are able to neutralize the antibiotics which renders them useless.

There are four ways that the bacteria can develop resistance to antibiotics. This is through mutations, conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Mutation is the changing of structure of a gene. Mutation is one of the key factors behind Charles Darwins theory of evolution. For species to become the fittest they must evolve through changes in their DNA. For example, if their genotype for a distinct defence mechanism is AaBB, a mutation may occur, changing the genotype to AcBB. This change in the genotype may be bad for the bacterium as it may be useless in the defence system, however the change may also provide resistance against antibiotics. This mutation that provides resistance may only happen if the bacterium has been exposed to the antibiotics. Also, since bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission, a replication of the new, mutated, genes would get passed on as the bacteria reproduce and form a colony of the resistant strain of bacteria. For example, the antibiotic floroquinalones purpose is to suspend the replication of DNA in bacteria by lodging itself into important enzymes, such as the DNA gyrases, which are crucial for the replication of DNA. Some bacteria have mutated by changing the shape of their DNA gyrases which disables the function of the antibiotics. Another example is the bacterias ability to develop Ribosomal Protection Proteins (RPP, as mentioned before). However, by mutating and acquiring this ability, it does not only have positive effects, it also elongates the time the bacterium requires to grow and divide.

DNA/ Genetic structure of how bacteria become resistant

Since bacteria do not have a nucleus, it has a circular nucleoid where all of its DNA and information is located. Bacteria reproduce through binary fission which is a type of asexual reproduction. This means that as the chromosomes replicate, the daughter cell has the same genetic formation as that of the parent bacterium hence passing on the resistant qualities into the daughter bacteria.

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For the latter three methods of gaining antibiotic resistance, since there are no nuclear membranes in bacteria, it is possible for foreign DNA to incorporate itself into the bacteriums DNA. These three methods are also known as horizontal gene transfer (HGT). HGT is a process whereby genetic material contained in small packets of DNA is transferred between individual bacteria of the same species or even between different species. Conjugation is a unique bacterial characteristic that allows the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another. Bacteria contain rather circular plasmids that contain important genetic information. As the two bacteria approximate to each other, an empty bridge-like structure called a pilus forms between the bacteria to the exchange the plasmids. When the bacteria come into close proximity, the plasmids replicate and transfer the genetic information through the pilus. This genetic information, which may contain the resistant genes, then enters the nucleoid and registers itself into the bacterium thus giving it the resistant genes. When a bacterium dies, its cell wall dissolves in its surroundings and its genetic material starts traveling freely. Transformation occurs when those naked DNA strands, usually located in a plasmid, find a way into a living bacterium and they join the genetic configuration of the new bacterium. If the DNA contained resistance to any antibiotic, that resistance gets passed on to the new bacterium.

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Transduction is the process in which genetic information is passed on from one bacterium to the next though the transportation of a virus. As the virus lives in the bacteriums body, it acquires all of its genetic information; therefore, when the bacterium dies it frees all of those viruses that contain its genetic information that gets passed on to other cells.

The last two cases happen very infrequently compared to mutation and conjugation, however, to slow down the process of all of these methods our world must greatly advance in the field of genetic science.

Video: Antibiotic Resistance

Case Study
This is a true story. Two weeks ago, my granduncle got hit in the head very hard and developed a hematuria, a pool of blood gathering in the brain. He was rushed to the emergency clinic and was injected a steroid, through his vein, to get rid of the inflammation in his head. As he was recovering from his brain injury, he noticed a bump on his wrist; he had caught a bacterial infection when he was injected with the steroids. This is called septic thrombophlebitis. It is given the name septic because the bacteria that were just in the wrist traveled through the blood (since it had a pathway to the vein from the infection) and the bacteria made nests in his lungs. The doctors treated him with regular antibiotics but they didnt work because they had developed resistance to almost all available antibiotics. He started worsening. He got pneumonia, very high fever, and other breathing problems. He is now in the intensive care unit with methicillin resistant antibiotics (very strong antibiotics).
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The above video gives a brief summary of this chapter. Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AYvX8tnCM9s&list=P L31EE4EB5D900890E

Developing bacterial infections in a hospital is very dangerous because the bacteria acquired have already been in contact with the available antibiotics in that hospital. With intensive care and very strong antibiotics my granduncle is sure to get better.

Evolution
The bacterias capability of fighting against antibiotics is a perfect example of evolution. In the early twentieth century, Charles Darwin came up with the theory of evolution which generally states that the strongest and fittest species survive. These bacteria evolve naturally by evolutionary changes through which random mutations in the bacterias genes occur and multiply rapidly. When an antibiotic is given, it kills the sensitive bacteria, but any resistant ones can survive and multiply. This reaction is a perfect example of Darwins theory: These bacteria are forced to evolve to survive, making the bacteria fitter and stronger and therefore harder to find antibiotics to treat them. The more antibiotics are used (this includes animals, plants and of course humans) the greater the selective pressure will be, favouring resistant bacteria. Selective pressure is when the bacteria cannot reproduce anymore (due to the antibiotic) so it is forced to evolve to be able to gain resistance to the antibiotic.

Apart from what was previously mentioned in the genetic section, one of the evolutionary methods bacteria become resistant to antibiotics is by selective pressure. Selective pressure is when the bacteria cannot reproduce anymore (due to the antibiotic) so they are forced to evolve to be able to gain resistance to the antibiotic. The more antibiotics are used (this includes animals, plants and of course humans) the greater the selective pressure will be, favouring the rapid replication of resistant bacteria. This diagram shows the difference between non-resistant bacteria and antibioticresistant bacteria. Non-resistant bacteria multiply, when the antibiotic is

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implemented, the non-resistant bacteria are killed. But on the other side, bacteria resistant to antibiotics multiply as well, but when the antibiotic is administered, the bacteria continue to multiply instead of dying. This picture is also a great example of mutation.

Further Causes
Besides evolution, scientists have discovered plentiful other explanations behind the increasing rates of antibiotic resistant bacteria. The various different causes of antibiotic resistance are: use of antibiotics in livestock and agriculture; overuse and inappropriate use of antibiotics; improper diagnostics; contact with contaminated food, water, and environmental surfaces; and use of antibiotics in hospitals. To begin, feeding antibiotics to animals in order to cure their illness and prevent infections in the agro-food industry, or speed up faster growth, accelerates the spread of resistant-bacteria, including many that cause dangerous disease in humans. Usually subtherapeutic doses are used on animals and when they are used over a long period of time, the antibiotic residues that are present in the animal meat will enter the body of the consumer and start to accumulate gradually giving time
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Video: Antibiotic Resistance and Evolution

Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3zyvWhVk_nI

for the harmful microbes to adapt with it and develop resistance. Antibiotic products are also sprayed on fruit trees to prevent or control disease. Drug-resistant organisms can then be transferred to humans in meat, milk, fruit or drinking water, adding to the resistance problem. An example of this is the drug-resistant bacteria known as Salmonella, which can be transferred from animals to humans when we eat meat. Furthermore, if the animals are fed improperly antibiotic resistance may develop and constitute a graver problem. During animal husbandry (the process in which animals are farmed for their food), animals are given antibiotics to make sure that they pass health regulations before slaughtering. If the bacteria in animals are able to develop to resist the drug, those bacteria may pass into humans, when we eat the raw meat, with the same resistance as in the animals which makes it harder to treat in humans. Those newly resistant bacteria may also start killing cattle and make farmers lose money. Additionally, an overuse or inappropriate use of antibiotic drugs in preventing or treating infections in people was found to increase the spread of antibiotic resistant-bacteria. Germs constantly adapt to their environment and have the ability to take on the characteristics of other germs. When antibiotics are used inappropriately, the weak bacteria are killed, while the stronger, more resistant ones survive and multiply. An example of improper use of antibiotics deals with not finishing the entire prescription. When the prescription is not terminated, the small quantity that remains in the bacteria grows resistant to that antibiotic and is easily capable of

spreading and infecting other humans who have not taken any antibiotics. Then once resistance has been established, it is an irreversible and destructive cycle of resistant bacteria evolving rapidly. In fact, overnight, one bacterium can multiply to become a billion. Furthermore, resistant-bacteria can develop with an improper diagnosis. If the physician provides antibiotics to an insistent patient in order to treat their viral infection, or does not explain to their patient how to properly take their antibiotic (making sure to finish it), antimicrobialresistant-bacteria might develop and spread. Moreover, physicians must use incomplete or imperfect information to diagnose an infection and thus prescribe an antimicrobial just-in-case or prescribe a broad-spectrum antimicrobial when a specific antibiotic might be better. These situations contribute to selective pressure and accelerate antibiotic resistance. The use of antibiotic drugs in hospitals accelerates the spread of resistant-bacteria. Critically ill patients are more susceptible to infections and, thus, often require the aid of antibiotics. However, the heavier use of antibiotics in these patients can worsen the problem by selecting for antibioticresistant microorganisms. The extensive use of antibiotics and the close proximity of sick patient constitute a perfect environment for the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The development of resistant-bacteria in hospitals is particularly a major concern because these bacteria are lifethreatening and in hospital environments they spread quickly

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and by being in contact with more people they develop significantly more resistance.

Prevention
Antibiotic resistance is to some extent inevitable because we cannot stop using them, but physicians and patients can both stop or slow down the antibiotic resistant bacteria from developing and spreading. Physicians should strongly be discouraged to prescribe antibiotics for viral infections such as mild coughs, colds and sore throats because antibiotics cannot kill the viruses, but instead they introduce a selective pressure on bacteria in your body, inadvertently selecting for antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This is why antibiotics should only be prescribed if the patient shows signs of a bacterial infection. Furthermore, doctors should always advise their patients, if they are prescribed antibiotics, to complete the full course; because stopping before the end of a course may facilitate the development of resistant bacteria. Doctors should also avoid the prescription of mild doses of antibiotics. If an infection needs to be controlled with antibiotics, a shortterm, high-dosage prescription is preferable. This is because you want to kill all of the illness-causing bacteria, leaving no bacterial survivors. Any bacterium that survives a mild dose is likely to become resistant. If the antibiotic does not demonstrate any positive effect on the patient, the physician

should use a different combination of antibiotics. If one particular drug doesn't help with a bacterial infection, you may be dealing with a resistant strain. Giving a stronger dose of the same antibiotic just increases the strength of the same selective pressure and may even cause the evolution of super-resistant strains. Instead, the physician should prescribe an entirely different antibiotic that the bacteria have never encountered before. This new and different selective pressure might do a better job of destroying all the harmful bacteria. Lastly, physicians should only prescribe antibiotics to the patient if absolutely needed, making sure they prescribe an appropriate dose of an antibiotic agent that targets the likely pathogens.

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Patients can also play a major role in reducing the rate of antibiotic resistance by doing several different key things. The most important thing to consider is to never stop taking prescribed antibiotics part way through the treatment (unless it is causing a very serious reaction) without your physicians permission. Even if you start feeling considerably better, use the entire course of the prescribed antibiotic and do not skip any doses to make sure that all of the bacteria are destroyed. An unfinished medication allows bacteria to adapt and multiply leading to resistance. Secondly, it is important for patients to remember to not share their medication with someone else, no matter how urgently they needed. This is because if the person is given an inappropriate antibiotic for their condition, it will delay their treatment and cause bacteria to multiply. The reason behind this is because specific antibiotics treat particular infections. Third, if you have any leftover medication make sure to discard it once the prescribed course of the treatment is completed. And when you are discarding the leftover medication do not flush it down the toilet, instead, put it in the garbage. If the antibiotic was to be flushed down the toilet, it would end up in the water table, increasing resistance to that specific antibiotic. Also, if your physician determines that you do not have a bacterial infection, do not pressure him/her to prescribe you antibiotics, but instead ask about possible ways to relieve your symptoms. Not only can useless use of antibiotics develop resistance to the antibiotic being used but it can also cause harm to your body as there are no existent bacteria for the antibiotic to attack. Even though organic food is usually more

expensive, buy it because antibiotics in the food of some nonorganic farm animals may contribute to antibiotic resistance. Lastly, in order to decrease the global use of antibiotics and thus, the problem of resistance avoid antibiotic drugs unless they are absolutely necessary. As Louis Rice, MD-expert on resistant bugs and chief of medical service at Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center, once said, We could probably cut our antibiotic use by 70% if people only took them when they are absolutely necessary, An example of an illness for which antibiotics should be avoided is an ear infection because these bacterial infections typically go away on their own. It is also important to reduce the use of antibiotics in farm animals because usually resistant bacteria develop in animals and are transferred to humans through food. This could be done by encouraging farmers to only give antibiotics to their livestock in case of extreme illnesses. Also, when dealing with meat from these farm animals, careful precautions should be made. When preparing food for instance, make sure to wash cutting boards and knives with detergent and water. Use bleach on surfaces where you have handled raw meat. Thoroughly wash all fruits and vegetables that will be eaten raw. Lastly and evidently, hygiene and sanitation should certainly not be disregarded, especially in hospitals where resistant bacteria proliferate. This includes: washing your hands frequently with soap and water for at least 20 seconds and if soap and water are not available, making sure to use alcohol54

based cleansers. Keeping all recommended vaccinations up to date would also be another way of preventing antibiotic resistance.

research, scientists have discovered that this type of honey is capable of destroying infectious bacteria that are responsible for many different types of bacterial infections such as MRSA. Furthermore, in recent years, scientists have started working on possible ways of inhibiting the mechanisms of bacteria that produce antibiotic resistance. With rigorous research, they found out how to inhibit the function of one of the bacterial cells mechanisms responsible for causing resistance to antibiotics. Chemists at Brown University have recently synthesized a new compound that makes drug-resistant bacteria susceptible again to antibiotics. The new compound of C-capped dipeptides (a dipeptide is a protein molecule built from two amino acids) called BU-005, functions by blocking efflux pumps that a bacterium uses to remove an antibacterial agent called chloramphenicol. This compound was discovered to be useful in inhibiting efflux pumps associated with Gram-positive bacteria (these are bacteria that retain crystal violet dye and stain dark violet or purple; and remain coloured blue or purple with gram stain when washed with absolute alcohol and water), which include dangerous bacterial infections such as MRSA and tuberculosis strains. This was an impressive discovery because until now, C-capped dipeptides were known to work only against an efflux pump family associated with
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Medical Applications
Possible solutions One of the main solutions to overcome antibiotic resistance is developing new antibiotic drugs. This is however, a continuous and exhausting process because after a while, a specific microbe will develop resistance against the new drug and scientists will be forced to look for another new antibiotic. However, there is a new yet ancient solution to antibiotic resistance that has outlined a potential fascinating medical discovery. This solution is honey, specifically Manuka Honey. Honey destroys microbes very differently compared to antibiotics. Most microbes need moisture to sustain life. It is, therefore, difficult for microbes to develop resistance to the moisture-extracting properties of honey. Much of honey's antimicrobial activity is bacteriostatic (freezing the bacteria in time and preventing them from spreading) rather than bactericidal or killing the bacteria. This is why antibiotic resistance is very unlikely to develop in honey. The reason Manuka Honey would work best is because it contains more antibacterial properties than any other type of honey. With

Gram-negative bacteria (these are bacteria stain red or pink, and don't retain the Gram stain when washed with absolute alcohol and acetone).

Surgery and hospital use

Not only are antibiotics used at home to cure bacterial infections, but they also play an important role in various hospital procedures. They do not only exist in pill forms which we are all almost used to, but they can also be administered intravenously, or through an IV. While in the hospital, antibiotics are most commonly given through an IV, but the vast majority of home antibiotics are prescribed as pills-which are usually used to relieve more mild bacterial infections such as ear infections. On the other hand, intravenous antibiotics (injections or infusions of antibiotics directly into the veins) are typically used to treat severe bacterial infections such as: bacterial meningitis, septicaemia (blood poisoning), infection of the outer layer of the heart (endocarditis), some extreme cases of MRSA infection, and if an infection that develops inside a bone (osteomyelitis). In some cases you are given antibiotics as a precaution to prevent, rather than treat, an infection. This is known as antibiotic prophylaxis. For example, antibiotic prophylaxis is normally recommended if you are having surgery on a certain part of the body that is known to carry a high risk of infection or that could lead to devastating effects if it were to become accidentally infected. Surgeries for which antibiotics are needed include: breast implant surgery, pacemaker surgery,
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Newly discovered compound called BU-005,

inhibiting efflux pump Source: http://news.brown.edu/pressreleases/2011/11/ bacteria

and surgery to remove the gall bladder. Antibiotic prophylaxis may also be required if the individual has a bite or wound that has a high chance of becoming infected, for example because it has come into contact with soil or faeces. There are also several medical conditions that make people particularly vulnerable to infection, meaning antibiotic prophylaxis is necessary. For example, people with the blood disorder sickle cell anaemia often have to take antibiotics for the rest of their lives as their spleen does not work properly. If the spleen gets infected this could be a major issue because the spleen plays an important role in filtering out harmful bacteria from the blood. Wound infections are the most common hospital-acquired infections in surgical patients. However, appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis can reduce the risk of infections that emerge as an aftermath of surgeries. Surgical antibiotic prophylaxis means using antibiotics to prevent infections at the site being operated on. Before being operated on, doctors will always make sure to administer the right selection of the antibiotic-in order to prevent infection because from the moment the surgeon cuts the skin, the risk of developing a bacterial infection increases tremendously. The antibiotic being used depends on the microbe most commonly causing a bacterial infection in the specific procedure. Usually narrow spectrum antibiotics appropriate to the site of surgery are used because the purpose of the antibiotic is to prevent a bacterial infection from developing on the specific surgical site. Additionally, the doctors will ensure that surgical

antibiotic prophylaxis is given as a single intravenous does as soon as the patient is stabilized under anaesthetics, prior to skin incision. Antibiotic prophylaxis is usually only used for cleancontaminated and contaminated surgeries. Before the procedure beings, the surgeon assesses whether the operation will cause clean wounds, clean-contaminated wounds, or contaminated wounds. A wound is judged to be clean if the procedure does not require an incision in an internal organ or in an inner open space or cavity of a tubular organ, as of a blood vessel or an intestine. A surgical site is judged to be clean-contaminated surgical site if the surgeon enters into an internal organ or cavity of the body, but under controlled circumstances. Surgical procedures for which antibiotics are absolutely recommended are those that abide contaminated surgical sites. A wound is judged to be contaminated if gross contamination is present at the surgical site in the absence of obvious infection. A laparotomy for penetrating injury with intestinal spillage is an example of a contaminated procedure. Examples of antibiotics used in surgical prophylaxis include: intravenous gentamicin; intravenous or rectal metronidazole (if anaerobic infection is likely); oral tinidazole (if anaerobic infection is likely); intravenous flucloxacillin (if methicillinsusceptible staphylococcal infection is likely). Currently, nearly half of the antibiotics being used in hospitals are for surgical prophylaxis.

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Dangers of MRSA
A very common antibiotic used to treat skin infections is methicillinor at least it used to be. Staphylococcus aureus, commonly referred to as Staph is a species of bacteria that is commonly found on the skin and in the noses of healthy people. Some forms can be treated quite

simply but others can develop into major complications. Lately, most staph bacteria have become resistant to the antibiotic methicillin rendering it completely useless for the treatment of Staph infections. The resistant form of Staph is known as Methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus or MRSA. MRSA is a very serious bacterial infection that if not treated properly can result in life-threatening complications that include: infections of the bloodstream, and pneumonia (lung
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infection). Many people wonder how they obtain such a serious bacterial infection so unexpectedly. MRSA is primarily spread by skin-to-skin contact or through contact with items contaminated by the bacteria. Individuals with weak immune systems and chronic illnesses are more susceptible to the infection and MRSA, which explains why MRSA is mainly spread in hospitals.

Shigella dysenteriae isolates were discovered to be resistant to the following antibiotics: ampicillin, co-trimoxazole, and nalidixic acid; and up to 40% were resistant to the antibiotic drug called mecillinam. Another reason for multidrug-resistant organisms in developing countries is due to the non-existent regulation of the manufacture of antibiotics to any extent that would assure the quality and potency of the drugs. This was proven by a study conducted in Vietnam in 2009 that showed how a 500mg capsule of ciprofloxacin that was acquired locally in Vietnam was analyzed and found to contain the equivalent of only 20 mg of ciprofloxacin. Many developing countries also allow the distribution of antibiotics without a prescription which essentially leads to people taking usually-prescribed drugs without any medical directions. When individuals use antibiotics without the directions of a trained physician, they most likely use them inappropriately, causing resistant bacteria to emerge. In one survey from the Rajbari district of Bangladesh, 100,000 doses of antibiotics had been dispensed without a prescription in one month. Evidently, money is a major concern for people in developing counties. Most people in these countries are poor so in order to obtain some sort of medication they will avoid consultation with a physician and self-medicate by purchasing the least expensive (and possibly least potent antibiotics) under the assumption that they are all bioequivalent. Furthermore,
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Developing countries compared to developed countries

There are many factors that explain high antibiotic resistance rates in developing countries. These include: inappropriate antibiotic use, underlying diseases, immunisation rates, social factors, inadequate access to effective drugs, the unregulated manufacture and distribution of antibiotics, and quality of hospital care. In these poverty-stricken regions with high mortality rates, bacterial infections are the main cause of death. This shown by a study done earlier, demonstrating how in 1990, an estimated 78% of the world's population lived in developing countries and in those countries, 23% of deaths were attributable to infectious and parasitic diseases. In fact most resistant bacteria have emerged in developing countries such as Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Pakistan; and in most tropical countries. In 1996, in Bangladesh, over 95% of

these people may only complete a truncated course of therapy because of their inability to pay for the full course of medications. Such inappropriate use of antibiotics for inadequate periods of time can exert strong selective pressures on bacterial populations and can greatly contribute to resistance. Besides individual lack of money, the overall countries poverty and lack of resources is a major problem. In developing countries, physicians receive a large volume of patients every day, but due to inadequate time and resources for meaningful education and communication with patients on how to use their medications and avoid adverse drug/food interactions, patients head of with improperly prescribed antibiotics. While increasing the prescription volume of antibiotics, a big gap is created between drug prescription and physician practices designed to educate patients on the rational because the patients are either prescribed incorrect antibiotic agents or are not told by the physician how to use their medication, resistance to treatment emerges, initiating a vicious cycle whereby more potent second- and thirdgeneration agents are prescribed. Nonetheless, not only is antibiotic resistance a problem in developing countries, but it also directly affects developed countries (such as Canada and the United States) because the globalization of travel, education, and commerce and health care permits facilitated distribution of these resistant strains. For example, penicillin-resistant and multidrug-resistant

pneumococci have been found not only in developing countries but also in developed countries.

Application to Fiji
Unfortunate for Fiji, because it is still a developing country it there is a higher bacterial resistance to antibiotics. One of the reasons behind this is because developing countries have considerably lower control of the use of antibiotics. The inappropriate use of the antibiotic drugs thus, allows the rapid overtaking of resistant bacteria. This is because of the lack of education by physicians and patients in Fijis remote villages and islands. These places definitely have higher antibiotic resistance rate compared to a developed country like Canada because not only their medical care is not nearly as advanced but they are not offered adequate antibiotic treatment and the immunisation rates are lower of course because of poverty issues. For instance, in Fiji there is a problem featuring the bacteria Shigellosis. These bacteria had become resistant to all of its antibiotics. Doctors were giving patients antibiotics such as Ampicillin while the bacteria had not yet been severe so those antibiotics had little effects and Shigellosis developed resistance to those antibiotics. This happened with various antibiotics so it is now harder to treat these bacteria. Now, in
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Fiji, doctors may only prescribe antibiotics if the case is moderate to severe.

Bibliography
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7986/ http://www.thestar.com/opinion/commentary/2013/03/26/ antibiotic_resistance_a_growing_crisis.html http://www.pacifichealthdialog.org.fj/Volume%208/No.%201%20-%20The %20Health%20of%20Samoa%20&%20Other%20Pacificans/Case%20Studies %20and%20Short%20Communications/Death%20from%20multi%20resistant %20shigellosis%20in%20Fiji%20Islands.pdf http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/a/antibiotic_resistance.htm http://textbookofbacteriology.net/resantimicrobial.html http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hl-vs/iyh-vsv/med/antibio-eng.php http://kidshealth.org/parent/h1n1_center/h1n1_center_treatment/ antibiotic_overuse.html http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/eaad/antibiotics/Pages/facts.aspx?MasterPage=1 http://answers.reference.com/wellness/perscriptions/ how_does_antibiotic_resistance_occur http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v2/n3/antibiotic-resistance-ofbacteria http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/relevance/IA1antibiotics.shtml http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2855488/

Conclusion
Clearly, antibiotics have saved many lives in the second half of the 20th century due to their powerful ability to kill harmful bacteria meanwhile helping cure severe illnesses such as tuberculosis. While rapid medical discoveries were continually being unfolded, lately, the harmful bacteria originally being killed off by the drugs have started showing strong resistance to the antibiotics thus decreasing their useful effects. Additionally, to make matters worse for developing countries such as Fiji, the lack of careful and appropriate use of antibiotics has increased the spread and effect of antibiotic resistance over the course of the last few years. Antibiotic resistance is a phenomenon that is affecting our world significantly. It is hard to believe how bacteria could evolve so fast to be able to survive our antibiotics. However, with proper use and care, antibiotic resistance could be significantly lowered with the help of doctors and patients alike to ensuring the health of the worlds population.

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/10278.php http://health.howstuffworks.com/medicine/medication/question88.htm http://www.icr.org/article/do-bacteria-evolve-resistance-antibiotics/ http://www1.cnsi.ucla.edu/arr/paper?paper_id=196039 http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/about_issue/antibiotic_res.shtml http://mmbr.asm.org/content/74/3/417.full

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http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/antimicrobialresistance/understanding/Pages/ causes.aspx http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/about_issue/about_antibioticres.shtml http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/antibiotic-resistance-faqs.html http://biology.about.com/b/2012/04/06/stopping-antibiotic-resistance.htm http://thefern.org/2013/05/whats-causing-the-rise-in-antibiotic-resistantbacteria/ http://www.jabfm.org/content/20/6/533.full http://www.scidev.net/global/health/feature/antibiotic-resistance-and-thedeveloping-world.html http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2855488/ http://genethics.ca/personal/papers/antimicrobial-resistance.pdf http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hl-vs/iyh-vsv/med/antibio-eng.php http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2011/09/antibiotic-resistance-andthe-case-for-organic-poultry-and-meat/245067/ http://www.icr.org/article/14/ http://www.chiro.org/LINKS/FULL/Challenge_of_Antibiotic_Resistance.shtml http://news.brown.edu/pressreleases/2011/11/bacteria

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C HAPTER 6

The evolution of iguanas in Fiji

By: Desmond Beck
I will be talking about the evolution of iguanas in Fiji such as, specific features, the bone structure and some hypothesis of how they got there. The one hypothesis of the iguanas getting to Fiji is them coming from South America. The thought was that the iguanas had drifted across the ocean on floating piles of vegetation. The other hypothesis is when the world was all joined together in the super continent that the iguanas had simply walked over to the islands from, what is now today, Asia. So those are the two hypothesis and I will be weighing the evidence and come up with my own hypothesis.

Fiji is home to two different types of iguanas the first type of iguana is the banded iguana. The type of iguana that I have on my shoulder is a banded iguana. An easy way to spot a male banded iguana is looking for the white or blue bands that they have along their body. The colour of the male banded iguana is a beautiful emerald green with light bands. Banded iguanas have long claws that they use for climbing and digging, and spindly toes. The banded iguana lays its eggs in the ground so the soil can incubate the eggs and protect them from some predators. The female banded iguana does not in fact have bands, they have the occasional spots along their body. The females are solid green, unlike the males, and their spots they have will either be white or blue like the bands on the male. Both sexes are green because they live in the wet coastal parts of Fiji so the green would help them blend in with the bright green canopy of the wet leaves. Some of the characteristics that the banded iguana have are shown in both sexes. Like the underside, or belly, of the iguana is yellow or gold in both sexes. The reason they have this feature is for camouflage, the yellow on the belly of the iguana looks like the sun when looking up in to the canopy. The banded iguana has brownish redish eyes that help them with their night vision. All iguanas have great night vision, the iguanas night vi-

sion is as good as their day vision. If you look at the picture with the iguana on my shoulder you will see that the tail is the largest part of the iguana. The tail serves many functions for the iguana, one function that it is used for is balance when climbing. The tail is actually the longest part of the body, so when the iguana is being attacked and uses its tail to defend itself it gets a long range of attack. The tail of an iguana can also be used for a distraction, when defending itsself with its tail the predator can grab a hold of the tail and not let go. In this case the iguana will let the tail drop off and the predator take the tail while the iguana gets away. The tail will grow back fast for any iguana and can fall off again and again. This is one species that inhabit the Fijian islands. The second species of iguana that inhabits the Fijian islands is the crested iguana. The crested iguana gets its name from the large crest of spikes or spines going along its back. These spikes are used for protection agents predators and can be used to identify the difference between the banded and crested iguana.

www.iguanafoundation.org
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As you can see in the picture the crest spines are very large and noticeable to the eye. There is another thing you may notice in the picture is that the iguana seems to be black or going black in colour. This is normal for both crested and banded iguanas in Fiji to turn black in colour. When an iguana in Fiji is threatened they will blend in with their surroundings to avoid being seen. But when the iguana is trapped out in the open or knows that they have been spotted what they will do is blow themselves up with air, to make them look bigger, and their colour will turn black in an attempt to scare off the predator. So when the photographer had went up to this iguana to try and photograph it he or she had startled it and caused it to go into defence mode. Also in this picture you may notice that the iguana is much larger than the banded iguana and it is not just from the blowing up of air. The crested iguana is the larger iguana out of the two in Fiji and can grow up to just short of 3 feet and the banded iguana can grow up to 2 feet. The crested iguana is more aggressive than the banded iguana. The crested iguana stays with the eggs and actually protects them the best to the iguanas ability. It is hard to see in the picture because the iguana is in defence mode but the crested iguanas colour is actually darker green almost black colour. This helps them with camouflage, the crested iguana lives in the dry coastal parts of Fiji whereas the banded iguana lives in both wet and dry parts of Fiji. The darker colour of the crested iguana is better because not everything is happy bright green like in the wet parts. Things are duller in the dryer parts so having a duller green would be helpful for camouflage. The crested iguana has one of the longest incubation times at al-

most nine months in the ground. When the eggs hatch they hatch in the rainy season, they hatch in the rainy season for a reason. When the new born babies go out on their own the need the basic needs of any organism, food and water. The food they get from eating insects that come out during the rainy season, and they get their water from licking the water droplets from the leaves hence the rainy season. Crested iguanas have great night vision just like the banded iguana but, funny enough, both iguanas are dormant at night and do all their living during the day. The crested iguana uses its tail the same way that the banded iguana uses its tail including the falling off, defence and the balance when climbing trees. Both species of iguanas can swim when needed. The two species of iguanas that inhabit Fiji may be different but they are the same as well. I think that the two species of iguana can be related very closely to each other. What I think had happened to the species is when they had arrived on the islands there were two groups of iguanas and they had evolved differently from each other because of the different habitats they were exposed to. They then had travelled to other islands in Fiji and now inhabit different islands but is still the same type of iguana. Ecological isolation is the type of speciation that has occurred to the Fijian iguanas. Ecological isolation is a form of speciation that means that the two inhabited iguanas had lived in different habitats so they couldnt mate. If the two iguanas were related and did evolve from each other than that will be the type of speciation that had occurred.

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The way people had thought that the iguanas had gotten to the Fijian islands is from floating on pieces of vegetation that had come from South America. The South American iguana is called the green iguana and this is the type of iguana that has been hypothesised that had floated across the ocean. The green iguana lives in tropical forests in South America, close to water and with lots of sun light. South American iguanas are larger iguanas that can grow to about 6 feet in length. So these iguanas are larger than the crested iguana and towers over the banded iguana. The habitat is the same as the crested iguana which is a similarity but is different from the banded iguana. But that can be the way the iguana had evolved if the Fijian iguanas had come from South America. The South American iguanas can also swim really well in water, the Fijian iguanas can swim in water but the banded iguana prefers to stay in the trees. That is another similarity between the iguanas. The green iguanas can use their tail for all the things that the Fijian iguana use, but the tail is longer. The overall structure of the iguana is very similar to the Fijian iguanas structure.

As the picture shows that the green iguana has a lot of the same features that the banded and crested iguanas have. The large crest of spikes on its back like the crested iguana. The long tail with coloured bands along it like the banded iguana. But there are some differences in the picture from both of the Fijian iguanas like the dewlap, neither banded or crested Fijian iguanas have the dewlap. The green iguana also has an outer toe that is opposite from the rest and is used for climbing. The Fijian iguanas have their toes on one side of their foot, but they are longer in size compared to the green iguana. The green iguana also has great eye vision just like the Fijian iguanas. The green iguanas eye sight is so great that they communicate with eye movements and attract mates this way as well. The green iguana can live up to 15 years if left untouched.

www.All-iguana.blogspot.com www.enchantedlearning.com
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The Fijian iguanas both have protection from predators whether it be colour or spikes or, for both, a tail. But the green iguana has another weapon that they use for protection, some iguanas have a horn on their head that they use for protection. The reason that the green iguanas have more protection than the Fijian iguanas is because they are exposed to more threats in the wild. The camouflage that the green iguana has is excellent just like the banded iguana. The green iguana blends in with all of the vegetation that is around it. Even when the iguana is swimming it looks like a piece of vegetation rather than an iguana. Green iguanas have a skill that the Fijian iguanas dont have, the green iguana can jump from branch to branch. The green iguana needs all of these defences because of all the threats that wonder in the forest. As seen in the coloured picture above the green iguana actually looks like and Fijian banded iguana and the crested iguana put together in one iguana. There is one big difference in the two types of iguanas, the breeding season of Fijian and South American iguanas do not match up. The breeding season for the Fijian crested and banded iguanas is March-April whereas the breeding season for the American iguana is January-February. I am not sure why this is but what could have caused it is when the Fijian iguanas had evolved the mating season could have changed, if they were from South America. South American iguanas and Fijian iguanas are very similar in a lot of other ways besides colour. It is easy to see why scientists had thought that Fijian iguanas had come from South

America, but I dont like the hypothesis. The hypothesis states that Fijian iguanas had come over from South America on pieces of floating vegetation. This is a good hypothesis because pieces of vegetation do float away from South America often during floods. I also think that the fact that Fijian iguanas and South American iguanas are related could possibly be true because of how similar they are. What I am doubting in the hypothesis is the fact that these iguanas had travelled 10,000 kilometres across the pacific ocean and made it to the Fijian islands alive. That is what I am doubting in the first hypothesis. The Asian fossilised iguana is a part of the second hypothesis which is that the Asian iguanas had walked over to the Fiji islands when all of the continents of the world were together in the super continent. Little is known about the Asian fossilised iguana, the iguana is said to have lived 120million years ago. The iguana could possibly swim because they said it lived near water and could swim away from predators. That is a similarity that they have in common with the Fijian iguana. They had figured that the Asian iguanas could have walked over to the Fijian islands when all of the continents were together in the super continent. This does seem like a good probability but they need more evidence to support their hypothesis because that is all they know about the Asian iguana except that it is very similar to the modern gecko. To support the theory of the iguanas walking over to Fiji they need more data to make it more convincing. The theory does sound more probable than South American iguanas floating across the Pacific Ocean.
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There is also no evidence of fossilised iguanas on Fiji that suggests that they have been there for a long time. To conclude the two theories about how the Fijian iguanas had come to inhabit the Fijian islands, I think there has to be another way. The two theories of how the Fijian iguanas came to the islands are very good and convincing. The theory about the iguanas walking to the Fijian islands when the world was one super continent can possible be true. The only thing holding me back from agreeing to this hypothesis is the fact that there is not enough evidence to convince me to believe it. The theory about the South American iguana floating on pieces of vegetation to the island is very odd. The evidence for this hypothesis is there because the present iguanas are very similar. The problem with this hypothesis is that, at least two iguanas, had traveled 10,000 kilometres across the ocean and landed safely on the Fijian islands. What I think had happened is that the Fijian iguanas were from South America but did not float across the ocean on pieces of vegetation but when the world was one super continent they had walked from South America to the Fijian islands. I know that it may be along walk but there could have been a trouble in the migration and the iguanas could have been pushed on from forest to forest by predators until they had reached the Fijian islands and when the islands had broken off they evolved into their own species of iguana. That is how I think the Fijian iguanas had come to inhabit the Fijian islands.

Bibliography
http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/174471/0 http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/2965/0 http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080225133330AAUOLto http://www.reptilepark.com.au/animalprofile.asp?id=232 http://www.arkive.org/fiji-banded-iguana/brachylophus-fasciatus/ http://www.australiazoo.com.au/ouranimals/amazinganimals/reptiles/?animal=fijian_cr ested_iguana&reptile=lizards http://www.stlzoo.org/animals/abouttheanimals/reptiles/lizards/fijibandediguana/ http://seapics.com/feature-subject/reptiles/fiji-iguana-pictures.html http://www.arkive.org/fiji-crested-iguana/brachylophus-vitiensis/ http://gosouthamerica.about.com/od/landcreatures/qt/greeniguana.htm http://www.greenigsociety.org/inthewild.htm http://a-z-animals.com/animals/iguana/ http://www.rfadventures.com/Iguana.htm http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2017392/120-million-year-old-fossil-worl ds-oldest-pregnant-lizard.html http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100111155112.htm http://www.ditc-eef.org/pdfs/The-Fiji-Crested-Iguana.pdf http://www.vanuatupost.vu/iguana.html iguana article 1981 iguana article 2008 picture 1: my camera picture 2: www.iguanafoundation.org picture 3: www.enchantedlearning.com picture 4: all-iguana.blogspot.com

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C HAPTER 7

Wonders Of Sea Turtles

By: Alex Ford Sea turtles are exotic creatures that can be found in many oceans all over the world. There is 7 species of sea turtles, Leatherback (Dermochelys Coriacea), Green Turtle (Chelonia Mydas), Loggerhead (Caretta Careatta), Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricate), Kemps Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii), Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) and Flat back (Natator depressus).

Sea turtles are exotic creatures that can be found in many oceans all over the world. There is 7 species of sea turtles, Leatherback (Dermochelys Coriacea), Green Turtle (Chelonia Mydas), Loggerhead (Caretta Careatta), Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricate), Kemps Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii), Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) and Flat back (Natator depressus). All those species are different some are carnivorous, omnivorous and herbivorous. All 7 of those species all have different features and traits but all have one thing in common, their shell. In this piece of writing about sea turtles, there is information about their anatomy, the role of sea turtles in their ecosystems and food chains, threats to their survival, evolution of sea turtles and how many chromosomes sea turtles have. The sea turtles structure is what makes the animal so unique and interesting. Their forelimbs are long and paddle like. Long bones are present throughout the flipper, only one or two claws are on each fore flipper. The flippers move with wing like beats that make the sea turtle able to swim so powerfully. The hind flippers serve as rudders, stabilizing and directing the sea turtle as it swims. The hind flippers are used a lot when digging in the sand for the nest to be dug. Sea turtles are unable to retract their limbs under their shell like some turtles, this is a disadvantage when it comes to camouflage and protection. Sea turtles are also unable to retract their head under the shell like some turtles because of the sea turtles long neck and they do not have an external ear opening because they spend most of their time under water. Sea turtles lack teeth jaw shape but it varies because species have different di-

ets and the jaw shapes have adapted to their food sources and diet. The topside of the shell is called the carapace. The adult sea turtle species can either have an oval or heart shaped carapace and when they are young, since they are still forming the shell can take place of many different round shapes. All the species except the leatherback, the bony shell is made of broadened, fused ribs and the backbone is attached to the carapace. The ventral, bottom half of the shell is called the plastron. In all the species except the leatherback the shell is covered in a layer of horny plates that are called scutes, scutes are firm but flexible and not brittle shell. Scutes are the reason scientists can identify the species by the number and pattern of the scutes. The leatherback turtle has a thick and oil soft skin, that is an insulator that makes the turtle able to go into cold water and call it home. The leatherbacks carapace is made of mostly cartilage raised into strong longitudinal ridges (good knowledge for dichotomous keys). Thousands of small dermal bones are between the leathery skin and that is why it is called a leatherback sea turtle. The sea turtles bony shell provides protection from predators. All sea turtles both male and female all look the same for the youth but they start to differ once reaching maturity. Adult females have shorter, thinner tails than male sea turtles because male reproductive organ is housed in the base of the tail. In males the tail may go pass the hind flippers. Not including the leatherback sea turtle the claws on the fore flippers of sea turtles, males are long and curved because that makes them able to grasp onto the females shell during mating. This would be a good trait that evolution has created for reproduction. As you can see there is
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many things that the sea turtles need that are mandatory for the turtle race to have, without one of the structures the sea turtles might not be able to survive and could go extinct. Sea turtles play a key role in two ecosystems: oceans, beaches and dunes. In the ocean, sea turtles, especially green turtles are one of the few creatures that eat the sea grass that grows on the bottom of the ocean. The sea turtles graze along the sea grass and keep the sea grass healthy and cut 24/7. The sea grass beds provide a breeding ground for fish, shellfish and marine crustaceans. Without the sea grass and the sea turtles maintaining it the humans harvest would be gone and there would be lower levels of the food chain. No sea grass could result in having less marine species and more endangered species as well. Beaches and dunes are the second key ecosystem that Sea turtles play a major role in. They are fragile ecosystems that vegetation is mandatory to protect it against erosion. Hatched or unborn eggs that do not make it to the ocean are nutrient sources for the dune vegetation. Sea turtles use beaches and the lower dunes to nest and lay their eggs. The mother sea turtle sits on the 100 eggs per nest for the nesting season, there will be 3-7 nests per summer. Along a 32 km area of beach on the east coast of Florida, sea turtles lay over 150,000 lbs. of eggs in the sand. The presence of the sea turtles eggs makes the vegetation stronger and healthier because the nutrients. This is key for our beaches because the nutrients helps the beaches stay beautiful and strong. Humans use beaches for many fun activities, if the beaches had erosion there would be many kids and families in the future who

would not get to experience the beaches together, and that would be a really huge shame. Thank you sea turtles. By the sea turtles making the dunes stronger and healthier they are helping protect the beach from erosion. The food chain for the sea turtles is different for all the species of the sea turtles, but all the turtles are omnivores except one, the green turtle, it is an herbivore, which changes from a carnivore when young. Most of the sea turtles diet is based on sea sponges, jellyfish, algae, cnidarians, comb jellies and sea anemones. The sea turtles lower the jellyfish rate because jellyfish is their main food source. The food chain in the ocean would be overpopulated and under populated if the sea turtles were extinct. Many animals that feeds off the sea grass that sea turtles help maintain would die off, the animals that eat those animals would die off and the whole marine ecosystem would downfall. The sea turtles are a key to the food chain just like any other animal, so why do humans continue to hurt these beautiful creatures. Sea turtles are one of the main reasons overpopulation in the marine life has not been a major problem. Sea turtles are not invisible but when they are adults they are usually the predator not the prey. Raccoons, crabs and ants attack the eggs and hatchlings in the nest. When the newborn sea turtles get out of the nest they have a huge risk of being eaten by birds of prey because of their tiny size. In adulthood the only really big predator sea turtles have to worry about are sharks, but shark attacks on sea turtles only happen once in awhile. Humans, unfortunately, are the biggest threat to this beautiful creature. Sea turtles are hunted mostly in Central
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America and Asia, for eggs and meat. Sea turtles to hunters can be used for products, oil, cartilage, skin and shell. The poachers wait until the mother leaves the nest than kills her, taking the eggs right after. The eggs are sold in the local markets usually. Human long fishing and trawl fishing is also a major problem to the sea turtles. Around the world it is estimated that 150,000 turtles are killed in shrimp trawls, more than 200,000 loggerheads turtles and 50,000 leatherbacks turtles captured, injured or killed by longlines, and many leered by gill nets. Oil spills have a huge impact on both sea turtles and their food. Turtles are now developing this disease called fibropapillomas, its from all the chemicals and pollution that are in the water after an oil spill. When the chemicals break up it becomes even more powerful. Domestic animals are also a threat to sea turtles, these invasive species, cats and dogs are eating the sea turtle eggs before they even mature or escape the shell. Domestic animals are not as big as a problem as humans are but they do create a dent in the sea turtle population. The evolution of the sea turtles, 220 million years ago sea turtles were two times bigger than they are now and their shell formation was a lot different as well. The turtles shell even after millions of years the shell formation has not left the turtles traits, since the shell is used for protection and camouflage the use of the shell is still very important for the turtles survival. The sea turtle still lacks the ability to pull its head into the shell for protection because of its long neck. The turtles spike tail that ended with a club went away with evolution be-

cause it was too hard to swim faster in water to catch food and escape life-threating situations. It is better that the club tail went away with evolution because in this century, the club tail would look to be a threat and a danger to humans, so the turtle specie would be made extinct because of human actions for cautions. Different predators have came into the areas where sea turtles live and nest so the shell has formed more protection and coverage for the turtle. Convergent evolution is the cause for the change of the shell. All the shells are the same just look and provide different qualities. Convergent evolution is very important to scientific research because if all the species of turtles and their shells looked the same it would be very difficult for scientists to tell apart the different species of turtles, therefore we would know a lot less about the sea turtle race. Sea turtles have chromosomes just like humans, but how many chromosomes do sea turtles have? Sea turtles have 2N=28-66 diverse chromosomes depending on the specie of sea turtle. The numbers of chromosomes are not extensively detailed in many articles because of the lack of knowledge of the variation of these creatures.

Sea turtles are very important animals to our world and because of human activities, those beautiful creatures are dying for our expenses, this is unacceptable. By reading this piece of writing you have learned about their anatomy, the role of sea turtles in their ecosystems and food chains, threats to their
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survival, evolution of sea turtles and how many chromosomes sea turtles have. The sea turtles do not sound like a threat to me, so why should we be a threat to them? Hopefully the reader has learned a lot about the sea turtles and will continue to look more into the field of biology. Sea turtles have been swimming in earths waters for 220 million years and hopefully theres thousands more to come.

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C HAPTER 8

Importance of Coral Reefs

By: Amy Fiji contains 3.5% of the worlds coral reef and is the 6th largest coral reef system in the world. However, these reefs are being threatened in a number of different ways. One being overharvesting. Why do we harvest coral? Coral is collected for 3 main reasons. The first, is for souvenirs/jewelry that is used in the dried ornamental trade business or often sold to tourists and exporters.

Fiji contains 3.5% of the worlds coral reef and is the 6th largest coral reef system in the world. However, these reefs are being threatened in a number of different ways. One being overharvesting. Why do we harvest coral? Coral is collected for 3 main reasons. The first, is for souvenirs/jewelry that is used in the dried ornamental trade business or often sold to tourists and exporters. The second is for marine aquaria. This requires live coral to be collected and removed from the ocean. It is then used for the marine aquarium industry and/or displayed in public aquariums. Below are some examples of coral in an aquarium at Kula Ecopark, in Suva, Fiji.

The third reason as to why coral is harvested is for medicinal reasons. This is very common in Fiji. Another threat to coral reefs in Fiji is destructive fishing practices. Destructive fishing practices include overfishing, the incorrect/damaging use of fishing gear, or poisons. Poisons are commonly used coral reefs and coastal lagoon fisheries. Frequently used poisons are cyanide and/or pesticides. These poisons are effective at killing or stunning the fish, which are then collected by divers or by nets/seining. Fish are an important factor to keeping a coral reef healthy as they regulate the ecosystem and keep it balanced. However, these poisons kill other organisms, including the organisms that help build up a coral reef. The picture provided shows a local fisher spraying coral with pesticides to kill/stun the fish that live inside.

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One of the most common threats to Fijis coral reefs is water pollution. Oil, gas, pesticides, animal waste, etc. that are dumped into the ocean by humans pollute the reef waters. These pollutants increase the level of nitrogen in the waters, causing the overgrowth of algae. This can then further cause the reef to become damaged as the algae smothers the reef, allowing no sunlight to pass through, killing the coral reef as well as the animals living there. This is an example of a coral reef that is overgrown with algae.

Adding to the growing lists of threats to coral reefs is sedimentation. The runoff from construction sites (along coasts), inshore construction, mining, farming along inshore all can lead to erosion. Erosion results in thousands of particles landing in the ocean, which can then lead to the smother the coral just as the overgrowth of algae would. This, again, prevents the sunlight needed to survive from entering the ecosystem. Similar to the picture above, below, this pictures shows a coral reef that is smothered by sediments from runoff.

Lastly, the leading threat of coral reefs of Fiji is ocean warming and/or coral bleaching. Due to global warming, the excessive amount of carbon dioxide and heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere accumulate to act like a blanket to prevent the heat of our sunlight to escape through the atmosphere. This is thought to be the cause of rising ocean surface temperatures. This can be very dangerous for coral reefs as it can cause mass coral bleaching. Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps lose their zooxanthellae (a type of algae that provides nutrients and oxygen to the coral through photosynthetic processes). Zooxanthallae is responsible not only for the corals nutrients, but also for the corals colour. This is why when the coral loses this algae, it appears white or bleached. In many cases, bleached coral colonies have not been able to recover and have deceased.

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Coral farming is the cultivation of coral for commercial purposes and/or for coral restoration. In Fiji, coral farming is generally done for the restoration purpose. The process of coral farming starts with the growth of coral seeds in a nursery or (more realistically) the collection of seeds from the reef itself. These seeds are then taken by coral farmers and replanted on the reefs. However, to restore a coral colony, the farmers take the seeds and implant them in a cement base (previously planted). Then the cement bases are grown out on racks until they are much larger.

The diversity in coral reefs is very important because it is what keeps the ecosystem healthy. Coral reefs with high levels of diversity are more likely to survive the threats to the ecosystems. Every single organism existing in the coral reef plays an important role to keeping the ecosystem sustainable not only for the coral, but for the other organisms that treat the reef as a habitat. Diversity within the reef keeps the ecosystem healthy and balanced.

This growth can take anywhere from 3-8 months. Then, the colonies are transported to marine protected areas (MPAs) by the farmers. This process can have very positive impacts on a degraded colony. The replantation of coral increases diversity among the ecosystem. Coral reefs are home to more than 25% of the worlds marine species, needless to say, they are very important. They provide homes, nutrients, and economic oppor77

tunities for the local. Replanting coral will drastically improve the health of the colony, providing a better ecosystem for other marine life to grow and live, not to mention the coral itself. Some other preventative measures that can be taken to further protect coral reefs include restrictions on fishing gear, protection of individual species, spatial protection across ecosystems/habitats. The avoidance of using chemically enhanced pesticides/fertilizers can prevent the reefs from dying off as these pollutants commonly end up in the waters that support the coral. Water use reduction can be helpful in protecting coral reefs as well. Since less water is used, this means that less runoff and wastewater will eventually end up in the oceans. As one can see there are many ways to help protect coral reefs, some one can even do on their own!

Sources
http://s3.amazonaws.com/trazzler-images/af/69/coral.jpg

http://cdn.asiancorrespondent.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/coral19.jpg

http://ocean.si.edu/sites/default/files/photos/coral_for_sale_full.jpg

http://www.coral-reef-info.com/image-files/algae-reef2.gif

http://www.wri.org/files/wri/reef_story_palau.jpg

http://www.reefresilience.org/images/Bleaching-and-mortality.gif

http://www.wunderground.com/hurricane/2011/coral_bleach.jpg

http://www.yalescientific.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/features-reef-1.jpg

http://www.ramadianbachtiar.com/assets/20060512_Indonesia_VoicesFromTheSea_RB _010.jpg

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C HAPTER 9

Kava
By: Erika Oolup

Kava is a crop grown in the Southern Pacific. One of the main places kava can be found is all over the islands of Fiji, being grown locally and sold for profit or it can be found growing wildly in the vast forests of Fiji. It belongs in the plantae kingdom and has the binomial name of Piper Methysticum.

The roots of the kava plant are used to produce a drink with sedative and anesthetic properties. They can also be ground into pills and used for anxiety symptoms. The kava drink is culturally valuable to Fijians and is used in many different rituals and ceremonies. It is used to relax the body without affecting the clarity of ones perception. Kava can be consumed in many different ways with different cultures. It can be chewed, grinded, or pounded into a drink. Once made, the kava drink has a brown colour to it and is not very viscous. Kava pills are also brown and usually in the form of a soft gel caplet.

Herbal Medicine
In countries, such as Fiji, kava is also used for herbal medicinal purposes. It can be chewed to relieve throat pain by numbing the tongue and throat. This occurs from the kava lactones found in the kava. Six of the fifteen kava lactones found in a single plant produce noticeable effects of sedation and numbing. The people of Fiji value kava and are lucky to have such a large supply growing on their land.

Specifically to Fiji
Fijians commonly use kava to make the kava drink for religious ceremonies or welcoming ceremonies but it is also popular for social gatherings amongst young men. They pound the kava root into a fine powder and strain and mix it with cold water. It is then drunk from a half-shell of coconut called a bilo. In Fiji, kava is very popular and it brings people together for story telling and bonding. Kava numbs the tongue and causes a feeling of relaxation and laziness. In places like Fiji, they have a great respect for kava and treat it as if it were a gift.

Effects of Kava
In a traditional setting, it takes about 20-30 minutes for kava to have any effect. The numbing and relaxing feeling lasts for usually about two hours but can stay in effect for up to eight hours. The first noticeable effect of kava is slight numbing of the tongue, lips and gums. Slightly after, the feeling of relaxed muscles and calmness will start to set in. The effects of kava can vary based on the amount consumed and the strength of the kava plant. Some people may be more sensitive to the effects causing them to feel more drowsy or relaxed. Doctors can prescribe kava to treat anxiety but many of these professionals outside of the South Pacific began to stop prescribing kava because it was associated with fatal liver toxicity.

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Anatomy
If the kava is fresh, the roots contain about 80% water. If the kava root is dried, it contains about 43% starch and 12% water. The kava lactone increases as you get higher up the plant, this means that the roots have more effect when ingested than the leaves. Kava roots can be harvested for up to five years before they reach their peak. One kava plant produces around 50 kg of root once harvested. There is the crown root and the lateral root. Majority of the plant is crown root. Crown roots are larger and round whereas lateral roots are smaller and look like regular roots. Lateral roots have a higher content of kava lactones, making them more valuable for producing the drink. The leaves on the plant appear to be dotted with holes when held against light. This is due to oil cells. Plant height varies between 1 and 4 metres tall. Flowers due exist on this plant but fall off directly after pollination. Kava cannot reproduce sexually and it is very rare for the plant to be female. The roots of the plant can reach 60 centimetres in depth. Water is absorbed through the roots of the plant and transported up through the stem. It is then distributed amongst the plant to the leaves. This process takes place in the xylem of the plant, which is the system of tubes that transports cells that circulate water and dissolved minerals.

Industry In Fiji
Fijis economy is somewhat reliant on the kava industry. Kava is being exported worldwide at fast rates because countries outside of the South Pacific are discovering pharmaceutical and medicinal purposes for kava. The demand is increasing and it is becoming a big market demand. The kava farmers of Fiji are starting to do more research on the kava that they are planting. There are 12 varieties of kava plants in Fiji and they need to clarify the kava lactones in their crops in order for pharmaceutical companies to buy more. The council of Fiji believes that the kava industry can beat the sugar industry if they receive the support they need. The kava exports began increasing in the late 1990s and have been continuing to increase. Initially, kava was exported mainly between the South Pacific countries but this is changing. The industry was at an all time high in 1998. The prices were the highest and quality was being forgotten. Since then, prices have lowered and quality is being taken into consideration. In 2002, many countries began banning the import of kava because of health issues and concerns. As of now, many countries are unbanning kava but not promoting the use of it.
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Kava in Canada
In Canada, it was thought that kava had been banned back in 2002, but was discovered that Canada had not banned, they just didnt recommend it due to health concerns. Kava was simply removed from the Canadian market. Health Canada is trying to stop imports of kava from entering Canada. So to sum that up, businesses in Canada were not allowed to import or sell kava but kava farms outside of Canada could export kava products to private individuals in Canada without restriction. In February 2012, retail sale of kava was made publicly legal.

people of the Pacific were only using the peeled root of the plant. Many people saw positive effects from using kava pills for a short period of time but because they cant tell what part of the plant the pills are made from, it isnt the safest medication to take due to the many risks.

Video: Kava Ceremony in Fiji

Kava Pills
Kava pills are water-soluble extracts of the plant kava. Many people have found these pills to be very effective for short-term use to treat anxiety but there are concerns about the long-term effects. Kava pills hit an all time high in 1998 but soon after there were reports being made of liver damage and liver failure due to these pills. After more research, professionals began to discover that formulations using the whole plant were affecting the liver but pills mad from just the roots were not. It was confusing as to why the people in the Pacific were not being affected by kava when they had been digesting it for decades. It was discovered that
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Sources
http://gokava.com/kava-roots/ http://www.mazatecgarden.com/products/kavakava.htm http://www.luckyvitamin.com/p-255-natural-balance-kava-k ava-450-mg-60-vegetarian-capsules http://www.encognitive.com/node/14997 http://www.konakavafarm.com/kava-canada-banned.htm

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C HAPTER 10

The Magic of Mangroves

By: Kelson Phinney

Mangroves in nature are amazing examples of evolutionary genius and success.

Where the Magic Begins

Mangroves in nature are amazing examples of evolutionary genius and success. They live in an environment that most plants are unable to grow in. Mangroves live in environments that have such high salt levels that any plant living there would normally shrivel up and die. The mangroves are one of the few plants that have evolved to live in such a harsh environment. This is the magic of mangroves. This chapter will examine the basic anatomy of mangroves, reproduction of mangroves and how they deal with salt content.

Some Basics about Mangroves

Before we begin to examine anatomy, reproduction and salt content issues, here is some basic information about mangroves. Mangroves represent a large variety of plant families that are adapted to tropical intertidal environments. Tomlinson (1986) recognized three groups of mangroves, major mangrove species, minor mangrove species; and, Mangrove associates. The minor mangrove species are less conspicuous elements of the vegetation and rarely form pure stands. Mangroves are known for their roots which grow up out of the ground known as aerial roots and long twisting branches. Mangroves are also home to many various species of ware snakes and other reptilians that like to live in the stagnant pools created by the mangroves roots. They are also home to many amphibians that also live in the stagnant pools in among the mangroves roots.

Taken from: http://www.oceanclimatechange.org.au/content/index.php/site/report_card_extended/category/tidal_wetla nds

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are very important to the mangrove so here is some basic anatomy of the roots.

Taken from:http://www.cashou.com/portfolio/ocean/

Part 1 The Basic Anatomy of Mangroves

To describe the anatomy of the mangrove trees we have to explore the many different systems that make up the mangroves. First the roots play a huge part in allowing the plant to survive in coastal areas like Fiji. This is where they are likely to get hit by all sorts of natural forces like cyclones floods and earthquakes. Because of this the roots have to be tough and flexible to withstand great forces without breaking. The roots
Taken from: http://www.captainmarkzorn.com/Rivers%20and%20Flats%202012.htm

The general structure of the mangrove root is similar to that of most other vascular plants. There are two important differences with mangrove roots and other vascular plants. First mangrove roots have spaces in the leaves, stems and roots that help plants float (aerenchyma) and these are in a specialized respiratory root structure (pneumatophores). Second, they have a high content of lignin in buttress roots and plank

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roots. These are some of the anatomical adaptations that mangrove roots have made to cope with their harsh environment. Next is the anatomy of the leaf. The leaf helps deal with salt, it gathers energy and it also helps with gas exchange. Mangroves have adaptations to live in dry or saline environment. Water storage tissue is mostly present in the leaves and this tissue helps in filtering off heat rays. The leaves are medium sized and are arranged in a modified crossing pattern. This arrangement reduces self-shading and produces branch systems that fill space in the most efficient way for photosynthesis. Mangrove leaves are leathery with obscure leaf veins. The cuticle is thick and smooth with small hairs, giving the plant a glossy appearance. In general, sunken stomata (pores) are present in mangrove leaves. In most species, a horn or beaklike cuticular outgrowth covers the stomatal pores. These structures reduce stomatal transpiration, which is important, given the high solute concentration of the water. That is the anatomy of the mangrove leaf and how it helps the tree survive in its harsh environment. The last important part of the mangroves anatomy is the wood. In the wood of the mangroves water conduction through the wood is strongly influenced by size and distributions of the vessels, present inside the wood. Water moves most quickly through ring-porous woods in which the largest vessels are in the outermost growth layer. Conduction is much slower in diffuse-porous woods where vessels are more uniform in size and distribution. The wood of most mangrove trees is diffuse-porous which means that the water is con-

ducted through the wood a lot slower allowing the wood to extract the salt from the water before it continues to the leaves.

Part 2 Mangrove Reproduction

Mangroves are known as viviparous plants. This means is that they produce seeds that germinate before they detach from the parent. For instance, the seedling germinates and grows under its own energy while still attached to its parent. Mangroves have also evolved to have very buoyant seeds so if

From: http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_estuaries/media/supp_est07d_mang.html

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some drop into the water they can be easily dispersed by currents to new areas where they can plant themselves and begin to grow. Others develop a heavy, straight taproot that commonly penetrates mud when the seedling drops, thereby effectively planting the seedling deep in the mud. This allows the mangrove to disperse and plant its seeds without the need of animals to transport them. Also it allows the seeds to survive desiccation and stay dormant for over a year feeding of its own energy. This comes very handy in tropical areas where the weather is usually unpredictable and dangerous. For example you have a very long dry season or drought in Australia and the mangroves are unable to plant themselves at the time but are able to remain dormant until the rain comes again and they are able to plant. Most other seedlings would shrivel up and die due to the lack of moisture.

Part 3 Dealing with Salt

For the mangroves dealing with salt is a big deal so they evolved some pretty cool methods of dealing with it. Mangroves have developed impermeable roots which are highly suberised(hydrophobic and rubbery helps prevent intake of water and nutrients used by mangroves to limit salt intake), acting as an ultra filtration system to exclude Taken from sodium salts from the http://www.shellkey.org/mangroves-semper-fi/ rest of the plant. This allows the mangrove tree to have its roots in the salt water and not absorb all the salt in the water which would kill it. After the water has passed through the filtration of the roots almost 97% of salt has been extracted from the water. This filtration system is still not enough for the mangroves to easily live in salt water. The remaining three percent of the salt left over from the filtering starts to build up in the mangrove and the tree needs to have a way to get rid of
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that salt build up. To do this mangroves have developed the ability to secrete salt from two glands at the base of the leaf known as salt glands and can also store salt in cell vacuoles. These adaptations are what allow the mangroves to live and thrive in high saline concentrated areas around the world. Another theory of how the mangroves deal with salt is that they use sacrifice leaves in which they store all extra salt in until it dies usually the use older leaves for this purpous. This means that when the older leaves have absorbed the extra salt, they die and are shed by the tree. This theory has not yet been proven and is unlikely to be true.

Photos by Kelson:

Conclusion
Mangroves are an amazing example of an evolutionary masterpiece. They serve many functions including providing great natural habitats, preventing erosion and surviving in the ecosystem despite harsh environments. This chapter has looked at the anatomy of the mangrove, the way they deal with salt and how they reproduce. Learning about mangroves was a surprising and interesting experience. I learned that mangroves are more than just a tree.

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Bibliography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove#Limiting_salt_inta ke http://www.mangrovewatch.org.au/index.php?option=com_ content&view=category&layout=blog&id=59&Itemid=300148 http://ocw.unu.edu/international-network-on-water-environ ment-and-health/unu-inweh-course-1-mangroves/Biology-ofmangroves.pdf

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C HAPTER 11

Coral Reefs

By: Jaya

Coral Reefs cover 0.1% of the worlds oceans but Fijis largest reef system in the South Pacific covers 32% of the South Pacific reef area.

Coral Reefs cover 0.1% of the worlds oceans but Fijis largest reef system in the South Pacific covers 32% of the South Pacific reef area.

CORAL ANATOMY
Corals are marine invertebrates in class Anthozoa in of phylum cnidaria generally living in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps. Unlike other Cnidarians, corals exhibit very limited organ development. They share two anatomical features with other Cnidarians: a gastrovascular cavity (simple stomach) that opens only on one end, and a ring of tentacles. Corals have no central nervous system.

surrounded by retractable, stinging tentacles which are used to catch food. The corallite is the hard calcium carbonate shell that protects the polyps. Each polyp is a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in length. Polyps interconnect by a system of gastrovascular canals which allows sharing of nutrients and symbiotes. These can range in size of 50-500 micrometers in diameter in soft corals, and allows transport of metabolites (which is a substance produced by metabolism) and cellular components. An example of a type of coral is soft coral.
(this photo was taken at the Kula EcoPark in Fiji)

Coral polyps are tiny animals that build protective calcium carbonate skeletons and are used to perform various functions. The also create the basic structure of coral reefs with the help of single-celled algae. Even coral has the same body mechanisms that humans have; the coral polyps are the living animals that basically have a sack with a stomach and a mouth

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Soft corals dont produce calcium carbonate skeletons, and they contain something called scelerites which are useful in species identification. For the most part, soft corals develop in nutrient-rich waters with low light intensities.

which the corals use as nutrients. The corals discharge this organic matter as a viscous liquid, providing nutrients for tiny creatures, forming a base for the marine ecosystem. There are other important roles played by coral and coral reefs as well which is the regulation of carbon dioxide levels in the oceans. Carbon dioxide regulations is very important and without the corals or coral reefs there would be an imbalance of carbon dioxide levels which would then create a great impact all marine creatures. Another role is protection from strong ocean currents and high waves. As the name "barrier reef" implies, reefs act as a barrier protecting the shorelines. Barrier reefs help stabilize mangroves and seagrass beds, which can easily be uprooted by large waves. Everything from lobsters and octopus to sea turtles and dolphins depend on the reef for food, habitat and protection. Each animal plays an important role in the reef ecosystem, be it filtering water, consuming prolific algae or keeping a particular species under control. In addition, reefs are able to maintain balanced relationships between predators and prey and organisms in competition for the same resources. It is these balanced relationships that keep our marine ecosystems diverse and abundant with life. From small scale fisheries to big commercial fleets, the marine life is a major economic force in all of the worlds oceans. Local fisheries, such as lobster, stone crab, snapper and grouper, all directly rely on the reef for growth and habitat.

FUNCTION OF CORAL IN MARINE ECOSYSTEM

(This photo was taken at the Kula EcoPark in Fiji)

To some people coral reefs are known as the tropical forests of the ocean and just like how tropical forests play role in our ecosystem, coral plays a huge role in the marine ecosystem. Coral reefs play an essential role in everything from water filtration and fish reproduction to shore line protection and erosion prevention. Living corals have a variety of different colours such as brown, purple and green, but zooanthellae is a single-celled algae that gives off colour, and it lives symbiotically inside the body of the coral.Corals provide a home for the zooxanthellae and in return, the zooxanthellae, provide oxygen from photosynthesis, and organic matter such as carbohydrates and protein

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On our trip to Fiji with edutravel one of our last activities on the trip was coral planting. We got the privilege to snorkel and help build the reef/marine ecosystem by planting coral. After coral planting we visited Votua Village and we were a shown a presentation on what Votua Village is doing to protect their coral and marine ecosystems.

to do to make a change. To them marine resource management is important is critical to maintaining food security, livelihood opportunities, and cultural heritage. We were also informed that Fijis reefs are impacted by overharvesting, destructive fishing practices, wastewater pollution, and run off from land. Noticeable declines in coastal resources due to these problems and global climate change have prompted Fijian communities to take locally-managed actions to protect their coral reef resources. The goal of this community based management project in Votua Village is to increase local incomes and strengthen traditions, and develop and implement a resource management plan. In Votua Village/Korolevu-i-wai district they are continuing research to learn more about the state of resources and improve understanding of the natural environment. Also, community development plays a big role to improve standard living and quality of life. Some issues that are already being addressed are sewage and waste water pollution, overfishing, and poor village water supply and quality. The desired outcome for marine protected areas (MPA) is to increase in size and amount of fish and other targeted species in and around marine protected areas. With the work that Votua Village is doing right now they are informing many people on what is happening to our coral and what we can do to help. With the research that they are currently doing they can continue to make changes to their village, and to many other villages.
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(this photo was taken at Votua Village in Fiji)

In the presentation, some of the first things said about the importance of coral were that it is an important source of food for marine animals, medicine, and it is a part of cultural identity. Also, coral provides economic opportunities such as tourism, fisheries, and research & education. In Votua Village they teach the youth that were the same age as us about the problems in the marine ecosystems today, and what they are trying

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C HAPTER 12

Developing Sustainable Water Supplies For Fijian Villages

By: Liam

Votua Village

As part of our trip to Votua Village we were shown two presentations on projects that the village has been working on. The first was a project that has been going on for ten years and is the restoration of the coral reefs around Fiji. The second presentation was about developing sustainable water supplies for Fijian villages. Some of the water supply issues that the village faces are the bad water quality, not enough water, and bad water pressure. To try and help these issues the village decided that there was a question that they must ask first. Where is their wastewater going? Water comes enters the houses and leaves the house. The problem was the poor disposal of the wastewater. Wastewater is any water that has been used for washing, flushing, or in a manufacturing process, it is also referred to as raw sewage. When the wastewater was leaving the houses it was ending up in rivers, streams, and in puddles behind houses and from there they continued away from the village down towards the ocean. Wastewater can have a huge effect on the coral reefs that surround Fiji because it nurtures algae. When the algae grows too much it can outgrow the coral and kill it and since the coral has died new coral is prevented from growing. As we each wrote in our final blog, this could ruin the biodiversity of the coral reef because it takes away and kills the habitat of fish and other animals in the reef. The other environmental impact that the sewage can have is on the water quality. Since there is not enough information on the internet about wastewaters impact on water quality in Fiji, I will be using an example from Canada.

Every year 200 billion liters of wastewater finds its way from Canadian households into different bodies of water, including t he St. Lawrence River, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and the Pacific Ocean. Although that is only about six percent of the total raw sewage Canada produces annually, it is still enough to fill up 40 000 Olympic-sized swimming pools. The effect that the sewage can have on the water is very extreme. The sewage can use up all of the dissolved oxygen in the lake leaving none for the fish and other animals to survive on. If the sewage contains a virus or disease it will lead to restrictions on human water consumption. This is a bigger problem in Fiji because; unlike in Canada where most places can filter its water, a lot of villages in Fiji have very little to no filtering to their water. In an attempt to stop all of these problems the community set a few goals for the project. The first one was to find an inexpensive and easy to maintain equipment and treatment for the wastewater around Fiji. The second objective was to save and improve the health of the rivers streams and coral. Finally the third goal actually incorporated a few different objectives into one. It was to educate people around the island about this issue and how they can help to end it, and at the same time encourage them to help because even when they know what to do some people are still not motivated enough to do anything. The example of the villages presentation was Votua Villiage, Baravi (themselves). When the project was launched in 2006, Vatukulelima County had a population of about 400 people, around 70 households, 3 businesses, a damaged concrete water storage tank, and two dams (the first was from the 1960s
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while the second was from the 80s). When they showed the statistics for this year it was clear how successful the project has been during the last eight years. The concrete water storage tank had been repaired and upgraded, the dam was upgraded five years ago in 2008, they had enhanced the distribution of the water throughout the county, and finally the pipeline transporting water from the dam and tank has been upgraded. In 2006 the pipes were made of iron, PVC, and polyethylene and had a circumference of two inches. Eight years later in 2013 the pipes are still made of the same material, but now they range from two to three inches in circumference. Below is the map of the pipes throughout the village.

go to a friends or neighbors. But around the village there was very little space to do on-site treatment on the wastewater. When you noticed at that last fact it was very obvious that the people of the village needed to find another way and another place to treat the water. So the Votua villagers held a meeting where they identified the threats to the environment to make sure they have everything. They then decided to sample and measure the bacteria levels of six different spots along the river; the Votua Dam, upstream housing, down stream housing, Votue Bridge, creek mouth, and the water inbetween the bridge and the creek mouth. Below you can see the chart with the results of the villagers. The saddest thing in my opinion is the fact that the area between the bridge and the creek mouth had the most bacteria and when you look and the map (also shown below) it says that that is the area the children played in.

In 2006 the village itself had 300 people living in just 56 households. Of these 56 houses about 88% of them had sanitation facilities, which is not that bad because those who did not have a toilet or something else with the same function could
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worse the blackwater can be then the greywater if left untreated. The village then came up with a System on how to treat the nitrogen and the phosphorous in the blackwater. To begin the installation of the entire system, they dug holes in different spots around the village and installed 22 different septic tanks. Septic tanks are usually found below ground and are used for storing sewage to be decomposed by anaerobic bacteria. They then installed the pump station at the edge of the village. The function of a pump station is exactly like it sounds like; it is a tank that can pump fluids from one place to another. Then came the construction of the treatment area. The village then did a variety of things while they were preparing for what they would do next. These things included educating the children, sampling and testing the ground, and continuing to meet together and plan. They also researched what their wastewater was. They found that 80% of the water was greywater, which is the used water from the showers, baths, sinks, etc. While only the remaining 20% was blackwater, the part of the wastewater that includes urine, human feces, and a few other things; in fact only nine percent of the blackwater was feces, while 83% was urine. When you look at those statistics it would seem that the greywater would be much worse for the environment than the blackwater, but when the villagers did further research they found that it was the opposite. Of all the hazardous things from wastewater being released into the ocean (nitrogen), only eight percent was from the greywater while 92% was from the blackwater. This proves how much There are three different areas in the treatment area, the vertical wetlands, the horizontal flow wetlands, and the wetland garden channels. The first stage that the wastewater must go through is the vertical wetlands. The vertical flow wetland is a lawn growing out of ground. The waste runs through the ground so that the roots of the grass can get nutrients while helping to treat the water. The soil under the grass is layered and contains of crushed gravel, pebbles and rough sand. The second stage is the horizontal flow wetland, which is very similar to the vertical wetland in the way that there is a lawn and the water flows underneath giving nutrients to the grass. The main different is the ground underneath because instead of having multiple layers, these wetlands only have pebble while the water enters and leaves through coarse gravel. The final stage is the wetland garden channels. It has the same concept but with flowers and plants. The plants that Votua Village
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used were the dalo plant and the bird of paradise flowers. At the end of the entire process the total percentage of nitrogen extracted from the wastewater is 96.8% while the total phosphorus extracted is 93.8%. This is huge improvement from before when the wastewater was not being treated at all.

The process that they came up with to dispose the greywater was much simpler. They needed to put a big plastic drum/bin into the ground, so they dug a big hole and then refilled half way with rock and gravel. They then drilled a lot of holes into the bottom half of the plastic drums. The drum was then filled up with coconut shells on the bottom half and coconut husks on the top half. The drums were then placed in the holes and they were re-filled with soil. Each household has two of these systems and the idea is that one of them is in use while the other is resting and then it switches. A pipe leads the greywater from the house into the drum where the water can be treated by the coconut husks and shells and is then let out into the earth. Since this project has started in 2006 only one other nearby village has adopted it. But with the benefits that it is having
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not only on the villagers quality of living but also on the environment, it seems like it is a must do project for all Fijian villages that are facing the problems that Votua was facing seven years ago. Along with their coral restoration project Votua Village is making a great example of how a small village or community can have on the earth. Vinaka!

Works Cited
"Wastewater."!Ec.gc.ca. Government of Canada, Environment Canada, 14 June 2010. Web. 30 July 2013. <http://www.ec.gc.ca/eu-ww/default.asp?lang=En>. West, Larry. "Canada Takes Crap for Flushing Raw Sewage into the Ocean."!About.com. About.com, 2010. Web. 30 July 2013. <http://environment.about.com/od/waterpollution/a/canad asewage.htm>. Most of the information came from first hand knowledge from members of the Votua Village, Fiji. All of the pictures are from the powerpoint presentation that the members of Votua Village presented to us.

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C HAPTER 13

Flowers in Fiji

By: Clare Washbrook

There are many different beautiful and exotic looking flowers on the different islands of Fiji, each adding not only to the environment they are in but also adding colour to all parts of the country.

There are many different beautiful and exotic looking flowers on the different islands of Fiji, each adding not only to the environment they are in but also adding colour to all parts of the country. While we were roaming around Fiji we had the opportunity to see quite a few of these wonderful plants but a few I really loved, and was able to get the names of, are;

The Bird Of Paradise,

The White Tendril

Each of these flowers was found in different habitats on our various excursions throughout the trip, and has their own, purpose to serve in the environment around them, their own structure, and way of reproducing.

About the Plants

The Hibiscus The first flower I found while we were on a day trip in Suva in the Thurston Gardens, was the White Tendril, which is also known as the Hymenocallis Littoralis, and closely related to the Spider Lily. It is a white, tube like flower with six, long fingers or tendrils growing out of the petals of the flower along with the multiple seeds of the plant which have orange tips. Up to eight flowers can grow out of one flower stalk at a time. These flowers can appear in green, yellow or white, although we only saw them in white while we were in Fiji. These unordinary looking flowers grow best in warm, but shaded climates and need to be kept in moist soil. The White Tendril repro103

The Beach Morning Glory

duces sexually and asexually, through having its seeds transferred by pollinators, such as other animals, or by having the plant divided and the offshoot bulbs removed from the stem and replanted. Generally the flower wont bloom for 4 years after the seed has been planted. The next plant we saw quite a few throughout our time in Fiji was the Hibiscus. We saw them in many different shades of red, purple and pink, but also can be found in yellow and white. We managed to find them everywhere from outside the doors of our resorts to spotting them while we were on our way up a mountain. This flower with five, trumpet-shaped petals, blooms off of woody shrubs or small trees and are mainly grown for the beautiful flowers. The leaves are different, simple and oval. The leaves margins are generally either toothed or lobed. Although my picture shows the hibiscus being used as table dcor, it has also been said to be used as a toothbrush, able to assist in childbirth, treating loss of appetite, added in as flavour, stomach irritation, heart and nerve diseases and many more medical issues. Im not entirely sure if all, or any, of these applications are used in Fiji but it defiantly used as decoration. The hibiscus reproduces sexually, with the help of pollinators such as the wind or bees. Their fruit consist of a dry 5-lobed capsule with multiple seeds inside of each; these capsules open at maturity and release the contained seeds. This seed process happens after pollination. One planted that we saw multiple times on the different beaches we took trips to, was the Beach Morning Glory. The picture I took of this flower was at the beach the day we went

sand boarding. This pantropical creeping vine grows along the upper part sandy beaches. Beach Morning Glory is one of the most commonly known salt-tolerant plants. It was one of the first plants to colonize the dune and is a primary sand stabilizer. It grows mostly on the seaward slopes of the dunes. The `runners` or vines of the plant sprawl out along the sand a support few leaves which prevents this plant from covering the area it inhabits. This species is a useful sand binder, thriving under harsh conditions of low nutrient levels, abrasion, high soil temperatures, occasional frost, sand blasts, and burial by blown sand and salt spray. The last plant that Im going to talk about is unusual in its structure and has the extravagant name of the Bird of Paradise. It also has been known as Strelitzia, or Crane Flower. This beautiful flower grows tall and consists of long, broad, and large leaves which can grow up to 70 cm long and 30 cm wide, are arranged in two ranks making a fan-shaped crown, which are produced on petioles. The flower grows up above the leaves in long stalks. The spathe is the hard, beak-leak sheath which the flower grows out from. This spathe is perpendicular to the stem and is what gives the flower the appearance of a birds head and beak, which then supports pollinators, such as sunbirds, for the flower. One flower grows at a time from the spathe and each has three bright orange sepals and three purplish-blue petals. Two of the blue petals are joined together to form an arrow-like nectary which opens when sunbirds sit to drink the nectar and covers their feet in pollen. The bird of paradise grows best in warm and sunny cli104

mates and is a very maintainable plant due to it not needing a lot of water once planted but also being able to survive in multiple soil conditions but thrive in loamy soil. They need to be protected from frost and are sensitive to the cold. This beautiful plant is slow growing and will not flower unless properly established in its environment; usually flowers are not seen for 3-5 years after being planted. The flowers are used mainly for decoration and flower arrangements.

Pollinators
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one plant to the stigma of the same or another plant by either a biotic organism, in a lab or by gardening done by humans. Pollination is the step before fertilization, without it the seeds of plants would not be able to fertilize and the flower would not be able to reproduce if it is a sexually reproducing plant. One major pollinator here in North America is the bee, and all though they are pollinators in Fiji as well they are new to the country. Since bees have not been around as long as flowers have been pollenating in Fiji this shows that multiple animals, insects and birds are also capable of pollinating flowers. Insect such as the common egg fly, the house fly, grass fly, mosquito, hover flies and many others have been known to assist in the pollination of plants. Alongside these insects birds have played a major role in the pollination of Fiji`s plants. Birds such as the Sun bird, as mentioned earlier, crimson rosella, rose-crowed fruit-dove, superb fruit-dove, topknot pigeon and many others, eat the fruit or nectar produced by plants and then the seeds get moved around with the fruit or the pollen which gets on the birds feet as they perch on the flower gets transferred from flower to flower. Other forms of pollination can be from the environment itself such as wind blowing the pollen through the air, and lastly plants can be mechanically pollinated by humans transferring the pollen and seeds themselves.

Monocot vs. Dicot

Plants and flowers can be separated into two classifications, monocot or Dicot. The difference between these two is based off the number of petals, the look of the leaves and their vein systems, and even down to their roots and seeds. Monocots have petals in multiples of three and their leaves consist of a vein system that runs parallel along the blade of each leaf. Where with dicots, they have flowers with petals in multiples of four or five and their leaves have a vein system that branches out across the blade from a center midrib towards the outer margin. Each of the plants I choose to talk about are Dicot. You can tell this from the number of petals they have, with the exception of the bird of paradise because Im not entirely sure what one petal is considered as. But also the leaves are the next give away to which category they fit into. As shown in a few of the pictures each of these plants has large flat leaves which have the veins branching out from the midrib.

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The plants with in Fiji are what help to make it such a diverse, beautiful and green country. They know how to use them and were to find them and utilize every part of the plant. This trip was one amazing experience and I loved seeing all the different environments and species and learning about biology in such a unique way.

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C HAPTER 14

The Mongoose Invader in Fiji

http://yellowmongoose.yolasite.com/picture-gallery.php

By: Cole Welter

During the early 1880s Britain started to move their sugar companies to Fiji due to the perfect weather and lack of industry. However with this move came unexpected rodents that were killing their plants and costing them money. Although the pests were native to Fiji and the native species where keeping the rat populations down the company decided to introduce a pest control squad. The squad that they decided to bring over was not native to Fiji; this animal was native to northern India. In 1885 they introduced the small Indian mongoose to the sugar fields hoping that it would eliminate the rats, however it did the complete opposite.

While the snakes were able to climb the sugarcane and prey on the rats, the mongoose although very agile, was unable to climb. This allowed the rats to safely remain in the sugar cane and avoid their new predator. The other downfall of the mongoose was its inability to hunt the rats when they were active. The rats were nocturnal and devouring sugar cane during the night, while the mongoose was active during the day. Due to the selfishness of the sugar refinery owners Fiji has lost species of snakes and ground dwelling birds. Because the mongoose was unable to feed on the rats it started to prey on the small native snakes that hunted the rats and controlled the population. The mongoose also succeeded in controlling many varieties of Fijis ground-nesting birds, terrestrial lizards and frogs, wiping them out on the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The Fiji petrel can no longer be found on islands that have mongoose. They are also known for their vicious attacks on highly poisonous snakes like the king cobra.

The Mongoose an alert mammal Mongoose versus King Cobra

http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/mongoose/ www.interestingstrangefacts.com/cobra-vs-mongoose-fight

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While the mongoose has threatened the survival of various native species, especially birds, it is ironic that in its natural environments it is threatened due to habitat loss.

ANATOMY
The mongoose is a sleek, furry animal that belongs to the Herpestidae family. There are about 38 species of mongoose belonging to 18 genera. It ranges in size from about 20-64 cm long, plus a tail which is15-53 cm long. It has a tapered snout, sharp teeth, short feet, and a long tail. It has sharp claws, which it uses to dig burrows, to scratch the ground for insects to eat, and to catch prey. They normally have browns or gray grizzled fur, and a number of species have striped coats or ringed tails.

Food Web The mongoose (right centre) is affected when there is a lack of reptiles (snakes) in its environment.

http://simbania.wordpress.com/2010/08/page/3 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoose#Anatomy

Meekrat a member of the mongoose family

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389425/mongoose

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EYES
The mongooses eyes are very similar to pandas. They are outlined by dark brown or black fur like sunglasses to prevent glare and to help them to see objects in the distance. The dark circle makes their eyes look bigger and scarier, which can prevent predators as it makes them appear more threatening. They have good peripheral vision, which allows them to look widely without turning their head around. With good colour vision the mongoose is able to stare into bright and sharp colours.

NOSE
The nose is probably the most important part of the mongoose. They are mostly light brown in colour with a mediumsize that points out 5-8 centimetres. They identify each other by their own smell. Family members are differed into different groups for couple of days, smell could help them to recognize each other when they come together. Amazingly a mongoose can tell by smell if one of them is sick or has given birth.

LEGS AND FEET

The mongoose has four paws to walk on. However, they are able to stand with their hind legs.

Perfect Vantage Point

Distinctive Facial Features

http://yellowmongoose.yolasite.com/picture-gallery.php

http://yellowmongoose.yolasite.com/picture-gallery.php

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This position provides them with a very good vantage point and allows them to detect danger approaching. They are capable of easily climbing rocks and trees. Besides their strong paws they have non-retractile claws they use mainly for digging.

TAIL
The Mongoose has a long bushy tail that is 15 53 centimetres long. It is mostly in brownish colour. Their tails are used for balance when they are standing up on their hind legs. It is also used during snake-mobbing.

Most species of mongoose have a large anal scent gland, used for territorial marking and signaling reproductive status. They also have receptors like snakes that are shaped so it is impossible for snake venom to attach to them.

SPECIES OF MONGOOSE FOUND IN FIJI

The Indian grey mongoose (Herpestes edwardsii) is a species of mongoose found in Fiji. It was imported from southern Asia; mainly India and Pakistan. The grey mongoose is commonly found in open forests, scrublands and cultivated fields, often close to human habitation. It lives in burrows, hedgerows and thickets, among groves of trees, taking shelter under rocks or bushes and even in drains. While it is very bold and inquisitive, it is wary and rarely ventures far from cover. It climbs very well. It is usually spotted on its own or in pairs. It preys on rodents, Snakes, birds eggs, lizards and a variety of invertebrates..

FUR
Species of Mongoose can be recognized by their fur's colour. It ranges from dark brown to light brown or grey. Their fur adapts to its surroundings. For example in southern Africa the mongooses fur is darker while those found in the desert are light brown or orange in colour. Their fur is also a conductor of heat. They do not sweat and can moderate their temperature with their fur.

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CHROMOSOMES IN THE MONGOOSE VERSUS HUMAN

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46. Twenty-two of these pairs, called autosomes, look the same in both males and females. The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differs between males and females. Females have two copies of the X chromosome, while males have one X and one Y chromosome. While this is the same for the mongoose that is where the similarities end. The mongoose has roughly onethird of the chromosomes as a human. It has seventeen chromosomes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389425/mong oose

http://www.iledefrance-est.cnrs.fr/com/documents/Veron%2 0et%20al%20in%20press%20(Biol.%20Invasions).pdf

http://fijiguide.com/page/natural-history

While the mongoose was first introduced to Fiji more than a century ago for biological control of rats in agricultural (sugarcane) habitats, it proved to be extremely devastating as they quickly spread throughout the surrounding areas. The small Indian mongoose is a voracious and opportunistic predator of a variety of native species in Fiji. In some islands where the mongoose was introduced it has been linked to the extinction of a number of amphibians and reptiles. If precaution are not taken, we will see the lose of even more native species.

http://www.stuff.co.nz/waikato-times/news/environment/30 02010/Mongoose-tough-on-locals

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/mon goose/Mongooseprintout.shtml

http://meeerkats.wikispaces.com/Modern+Meerkats

www.animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/m ongoose
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C HAPTER 15

Marijuana Industry in Fiji

By:Isobel For my culminating activity I chose to focus on the Marijuana industry in Fiji. When we were at the Agricultural Chemistry Lab, the scientist that was touring us around explained how Marijuana has been affecting Fiji. I found this very interesting because of the huge phenomenon surrounding marijuana in our age group.

Anatomy of the Marijuana Plant

Roots: The roots of a Cannabis plant are very similar to most plant roots. They transport water and nutrients. On most plants, roots take up around one-fourth to one third of the total dry weight. The roots store products of photosynthesis (carbohydrates, sugars, proteins) as well as anchoring the plant. The roots contain little THC. THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) is a compound,!C!21!!H!30!!O!2!!,!!that is!the!physiologically!active!component!in!cannabis!preparatio ns. !

Seeds: About half the seeds are male and half of the seeds are female. The!cannabis plant!is usually dioecious meaning that the plant is either male or female and only the female plant produces seeds. If a male flower pollinates a female cannabis plant the seeds will form in the flower.

Buds: The buds grow at each end of the plant. On a cannabis plant the buds can be found on every node. As the plant matures the buds grow to a very large size and are recognizable during the flowering stage. The bud at the top of the plant, the Cola, grows the largest.

Stalk: A stalk is a stem or main axis of an herbaceous plant. An herbaceous plant lacks a permanent woody stem; many are flowering garden plants or potherbs; some having medicinal properties and some are pests.

Flowers: The cola consists of sub-units, which is a composition of buds. Single female flowers are brought together to form buds. The female flowers are also called pistils which form stigmas which is where the pollination occurs.

Leaves: The leaves is most recognized part of the cannabis plant. The leaf is the universal symbol for the drug. Cannabis has two types of leaves, the vegetative leaf and the sugar leaf. The vegetative leaf grows at the base of the bud. The sugar leaf grows within the bud and has a high THC content.

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Breeding
! Most of the cannabis growers use artificial selection for breeding or creating hybrid crosses of different types of marijuana. Cannabis strains!are either pure breeds or hybrid varieties of!Cannabis. They typically come from the species Cannabis Sativa and/or the putative!Cannabis Indica. Indica is generally used for medicinal purposes while Sativa is used for the illegal drug. Varieties are developed to make a combination of properties of the plant.. Variety names are typically chosen by their growers, and often reflect properties of the plant, such as taste, color, or smell. Here is a quote from Hilary Black of the British Columbia Compassion Society: "Indica and Sativa are the two main varieties of the cannabis plant used as medicine. There are many strains that are crosses of those two varieties. Within each of those varieties and crosses there are a huge number of individual strains, each with a different cannabinoid profile and effect." Combining Indicas and Sativa produces hybrids. The benefits of hybridization for the growers are that they can breed to fit exact needs, depending on the grower or the user. I found out that hybrids have dominated the marijuana market. In 1998 the Dutch Passion Company made a major breakthrough in marijuana seed technology with the development of feminized marijuana seeds. Hybrid is a term used to de116

scribe marijuana plant offspring produced by crossbreeding two different true-breeding parents. Breeding involves pollinating a female cannabis plant with male pollen. This will happen naturally. However, the intentional creation of new varieties typically involves selective breeding in a controlled environment. Often male plants, will be separated from female flowers. This prevents accidental fertilization of the female plants and this provides more control over which male is chosen. Pollen produced by the male is caught and stored until it is needed. The seeds produced by a germinated female will be!F1 hybrids!of the male and female. These offspring will not be identical to their parents. Instead, they will have characteristics of both parents. A common technique to stabilize a cannabis variety is called "cubing", where the breeder will use specific traits in the hybrid offspring (for example, greater resin production, tighter node spacing, etc.) and breed the offspring with a parent plant. The same traits are used in the new inbred offspring, which are then again bred with the original parent plant. This process is called cubing because it usually repeated across three or more generations before a variety can be considered stable.

Genetics
All information transmitted from generation to generation has to be contained in the pollen of the staminate parent and the ovule of the pistillate parent. Fertilization unites these two sets of genetic information and a seed forms. This is when a new generation begins. Both pollen and ovules are known as gametes. Individual plants have two identical sets of genes in every cell except the gametes, which through reduction division have only one set of genes. With fertilization one set from each parent combines to form a seed. In Cannabis, the haploids (a single set of unpaired chromosomes) number of chromosomes is 10 and the diploids (two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.) number of chromosomes is 20. Each chromosome contains hundreds of genes, influencing every phase of the growth and development in the plant.

Impact of the Industry and what is being done

In Fiji the marijuana industry is big considering the size of the country, but the law enforcement is working hard to stop it. There are not many police officers in Fiji, but
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theyre very aware of where the marijuana is being sold and usually know the dealers and growers. Nadi is the most popular city for the marijuana industry in Fiji. Limited data exists to help understand the illicit drug use across the Pacic. In addition, there are no surveillance systems in Fiji. There is illicit drug trafcking and increasing use. This is happening because of rapid transitional and social changes caused from urbanization. The developments create an atmosphere which exposes communities to greater risk associated with drug use. Cannabis is by far the most common and widespread drug used in Fiji. Like many other countries in the South Pacific, evidence shows there has been a considerable increase in drug use among young people. I found an article on teens in Fiji who are being affected by drug use and how the Fiji Community Education Association is trying to help them. It says that the villagers in the interior of Fiji's two main islands are believed to be harvesting and selling marijuana for thousands of dollars a kilo. Teens as young as 15 years old are farming the drug as a cash crop and abandoning their education. The economic factor is that villagers receive more money growing marijuana than other agricultural products. In the article it says, "The breakdown of culture in many villages is affecting personal attitudes." It says that they have found that drug use has been affecting personal health, work productivity and the teens ability to make good choices. The Fiji Community Education Association has started running drug awareness workshops in Labasa and the greater Suva area. The association is also planning to run drug

awareness programs in Ra, Tavua, Ba, Lautoka, Nadi, Tailevu and the Northern Division. The association has been communicating with the Ministry of Youth, provincial offices, schools and other agencies in the fight against drugs. The thing that I was most interested in, that the scientist said on the tour, was the work they have been doing with the police to stop this problem. The police and the agriculture lab are trying to get the people who are growing the drugs to stop and grow produce instead. Money is the issue for the farmers so the government is trying to help fund this project. If they continue this drug use will go down and youth will be able to get on the right track. I think this is an amazing idea and that it should be implemented in other countries.

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C HAPTER 16

Cultural and Medicinal Uses of Fijian Plants

Cultural medicinal uses of Fijian plants

Exploring the vast uses's of Fiji's most important plants

Written and Submitted by: Ross Johnston and David mill

Friday August 2 2013

Submitted to: Jaclyn Calder "

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Slide Show on the Uses of Fijian Plants

Bibliography
! http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2012/pickruhn_mega/adaptation.htm ! http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4588141_citrus-tree-reproduce.html#ixzz2alOXXMuM ! http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.cobalt-group.com/frontpagewebs/Con tent/Classify/images/lemon.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.cobalt-group.com/frontpagewebs /Content/Classify/classifi.htm&h=300&w=384&sz=14&tbnid=eJ0Etyv7OWNvsM:&tbnh =90&tbnw=115&prev=/search%3Fq%3Danatomy%2Bof%2Bthe%2Blemon%26tbm%3Dis ch%26tbo%3Du&zoom=1&q=anatomy+of+the+lemon&usg=__jma0AB8I_JqtAJoSGGB NKL-JH-8=&docid=C0zX1xFw7dQhPM&sa=X&ei=Puv6UeWZDpen4APNxIGACg&ved=0 CEAQ9QEwAw&dur=437#imgdii=eJ0Etyv7OWNvsM%3A%3By8fQyk8ASKodpM%3BeJ0 Etyv7OWNvsM%3A http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.cobalt-group.com/frontpagewebs/Con tent/Classify/images/lemon.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.cobalt-group.com/frontpagewebs /Content/Classify/classifi.htm&h=300&w=384&sz=14&tbnid=eJ0Etyv7OWNvsM:&tbnh =90&tbnw=115&prev=/search%3Fq%3Danatomy%2Bof%2Bthe%2Blemon%26tbm%3Dis ch%26tbo%3Du&zoom=1&q=anatomy+of+the+lemon&usg=__jma0AB8I_JqtAJoSGGB NKL-JH-8=&docid=C0zX1xFw7dQhPM&sa=X&ei=Puv6UeWZDpen4APNxIGACg&ved=0 CEAQ9QEwAw&dur=437#imgdii=_ ! http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://img442.imageshack.us/img442/9831/lemo nplant003ho0.jpg&imgrefurl=http://forums2.gardenweb.com/forums/load/organic/msg 051900422326.html&h=480&w=640&sz=110&tbnid=JC2qeSIHgessuM:&tbnh=91&tbnw =121&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dlemon%2Bplant%26tbm%3Disch%26tbo%3Du&zoom=1&q =lemon+plant&usg=__PUprOqZhphcjJXGX3LC58zBkUZs=&docid=ZDFsVzw8KtMfiM& sa=X&ei=6-z6UaHIOpa-4APx3IGYAw&ved=0CC4Q9QEwAA&dur=300

!http://www.google.ca/search?tbs=sbi%3AAMhZZitsz_1aoD3HbCk2G-zceDkcmQbJX3F78pi TU7TXEPv9qITJ8HxkeJm1S-mnSU6-yYCQBN6a89K4xIRyznuXGHV7TLZoAnNyfHToEzF3y V_1I7LuQ0D3HxkOgwqH-lD_1MMB_1-9bRUsHPXnvVS8CmOvgk99l8Xye4peuF5ZAJM7jkB HRc22S98nW-7WXDAXSy9SmYLFCipdvoyxzmbQExZwJC4yXlhtZs7VsO6va_136ArLCiioqqq o&ei=0Q_8UZnWGsTn2QXzyICwDg&ved=0CAcQiBw&biw=908&bih=645 ! http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://theincredibleshrinkingwomansguidetoweightlos s.com/_files/Image/kavaPLANT.JPG&imgrefurl=http://theincredibleshrinkingwomansguidet oweightloss.com/kavaherbaldietpill.php&h=226&w=300&sz=34&tbnid=3dj0NEuCMSRSSM: &tbnh=86&tbnw=114&prev=/search%3Fq%3D%26tbm%3Disch%26tbo%3Du&zoom=1&q=& usg=__peCLrZPr2hWcWtH4fscrau_7ZUQ=&docid=JT-bz9cm5hCOxM&sa=X&ei=1w_8UeK GO8mzyAHM8IGYAQ&ved=0CDMQ9QEwAQ&dur=2665

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http://www.google.ca/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&docid=k98ctF10sMlj 1M&tbnid=D6ORArVKBHUunM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sugarcanecro ps.com%2Fgrowth_morphology%2Fthe_leaf%2F&ei=71f8Ue7IJ6HF2QW7toD4CA&bvm=bv. 50165853,d.aWc&psig=AFQjCNFoqWJ0aTAxbklGdeGni7H37YNOmQ&ust=13755783376272 14 ! http://www.kew.org/plant-cultures/plants/sugar_cane_cosmetics.html

http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://img442.imageshack.us/img442/9831/lemo nplant003ho0.jpg&imgrefurl=http://forums2.gardenweb.com/forums/load/organic/msg 051900422326.html&h=480&w=640&sz=110&tbnid=JC2qeSIHgessuM:&tbnh=91&tbnw =121&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dlemon%2Bplant%26tbm%3Disch%26tbo%3Du&zoom=1&q =lemon+plant&usg=__PUprOqZhphcjJXGX3LC58zBkUZs=&docid=ZDFsVzw8KtMfiM& sa=X&ei=6-z6UaHIOpa-4APx3IGYAw&ved=0CC4Q9QEwAA&dur=300#imgdii=JC2qeSI HgessuM%3A%3ByfMLe8A-KQUqsM%3BJC2qeSIHgessuM%3A !http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gardenology.org-IMG_0908_rbgs10dec.jpg ! http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piper_dilatatum-Rio_Tabaro-Venezuela.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piper_lanceaefolium_(inflorescense).jpg

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C HAPTER 17

Shark Finning

By: Alex D

Anatomy of the Shark

Sharks belong to a class called Elasmobranchs, which also includes the rays, skates, and ratfish. What these creatures all have in common is that they possess no bones, but instead are made up of cartilage. Cartilage is a strong, fibrous material that is more flexible then bones. However, some parts of their skeleton, like their vertebrae, are calcified. This means that some parts have calcium allowing them to be stronger and more durable. The shark's jaw is not fused to the braincase and can enlarge allowing them to capture larger prey. At one time, sharks may have up to 3000 teeth. The standard shape for a tooth is pointed assisting the shark in tearing their food. Their teeth are not meant for chewing so they eat their food in gulps. Sharks have U-shaped stomachs that use very strong acids and enzymes to dissolve most of what is eaten. The stomach produces an easily absorbed substance. Only this liquid enters the intestines because the pyloric valve is small. Indigestible things, like very large bones and non-nutritive items, are vomited. The nutrients are absorbed in the intestines. The intestines are either arranged in folds or some are in a spiral pattern, like a spiral staircase enclosed within a cylinder. Most sharks have the standard torpedo like shape to allow them to move through the water with minimal friction with optimum speed to be able to catch prey. The bottom dweller sharks have a flat body allowing them to hide in the sand.

They also have large oily livers to aid in their buoyancy. The oil in the liver is lighter than water and gives the shark some buoyancy, but it is still heavy and will sink if it does not actively swim. Some sharks livers are up to 25% of the animal's body weight. They also have to have a constant water flow over their gills because they have no gill covers. Water must continually flow across the slits in order for the shark to breathe. This can be accomplished by the shark's swimming, by it standing still in a current, or by it fanning water across the gills with its fins. If it is unable to have water continuously moving across the gills, the shark will drown. Sharks have anywhere from 5-7 gills on each of their sides in front of their pectoral fins. However, some sharks have spiracles, which are special gill slits located just behind the eyes. They supply oxygen directly to the eyes and brain of the shark.

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A unique part of the sharks anatomy is their extra senses that they possess. They are able to detect electricity. Sharks are more sensitive to electric fields than any other animal. They have a special network of jelly-filled canals in their head called the ampullae of Lorenzini that detect electric fields. This lets the shark pick up weak electrical stimuli from the muscle contractions of animals and also serves to detect magnetic fields which some sharks may use in navigation. In addition to the electricity sensitivity, sharks can sense vibrations in the water using the lateralis system. The "lateral line" system is a network of neuromasts, which are fine, fluid-filled vessels that run along a shark's body under the skin along the length of a shark. Many small pores open up on the skin, detecting the vibrations in the water. This system enables the shark to detect easy prey such as injured fish that are thrashing around in the water.

Sharks are classified under the animal kingdom with the chordata/vertabreta phylum and under the class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish). There are over 350 different species of sharks. To classify them they are separated into eight different orders: Squatiniformes (flat body, mouth at front, no anal fin) Pristiophoriformes (long snout, mouth underneath, no anal fin) Squaliformes (short snout, mouth underneath, no anal fin) Carcharhiniformes (anal fin, 5 gill slits, 2 dorsal fins, no fin spines, mouth behind the eyes, nictitating eyelids) Lamniformes (anal fin, 5 gill slits, 2 dorsal fins, no fin spines, mouth behind the eyes, no nictitating eyelids) Orectolobiformes (anal fin, 5 gill slits, 2 dorsal fins, no fin spines, mouth in front of the eyes) Heterodontiformes (anal fin, 5 gill slits, 2 dorsal fins, dorsal fin spines) Hexanchiformes (anal fin, 6-7 gills)

Genetics and Classification

The genetic makeup of a shark consists of 82 chromosomes, which means 41 from each parent, where as humans only have a total of 46 chromosomes, 23 from each parent. A chromosome is a structure found in living cells which carry genetic information in the nucleus of the cell. Chromosomes vary in number and shape among living things. Most bacteria have one or two circular chromosomes. Humans, along with other animals, such as sharks, have linear chromosomes that are arranged in pairs within the nucleus of the cell.

For example based off the above characteristics, the classifaction of the Great White shark is under the group Lamniformes whereas the Whale Shark is under the group Orectolbiformes.

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Sharks and Their Ecosystem

Sharks are the longest surviving, unchanged creature known to earth. They were here before the dinosaurs meaning their existence has been over 350 million years. During the early stages of fish development, sharks did not have jaws, and their bodies were comprised of cartilage, like the modern day shark. They are believed to be descendants of Placoderms, a group of ancient, jawed fish that possessed a dermal skeleton. For the most part, sharks have stayed pretty much the same for millions of years. Since they are for the most part unchanged, they are the ones who shaped their ecosystem and their prey beneath them. Sharks are so important to the ecosystem because they are the top predator of the ocean. Predators control the ecosystem because they control the population and keep an ecosystem in balance. Above any other organism within an ecosystem, the predator has the most power shaping the initial structure of it. Through intimidation, sharks regulate the behavior of prey species, and prevent them from overgrazing vital habitats. Predatory sharks prey on the sick and the weak members of their prey populations, and some also scavenge the sea floor to feed on dead carcasses. By removing the sick and the weak, they prevent the spread of disease and prevent outbreaks that could be devastating. Preying on the weakest individuals also

strengthens the gene pools of the prey species. This proves the importance of sharks .

Throughout the years, the shark fining industry has boomed causing a huge disruption of the ecosystem. The growing demand for shark fin soup has increased the slaughters of sharks to such an extent where many species are nearing extinction. The oceans cover two thirds of the earths surface and supply us with 70 percent of our oxygen, and with sharks extinct, the ocean would be thrown out of balance affecting us directly. By messing with the ocean ecosystem, there is a risk that it will greatly affect our ecosystem and our oxygen, but it is difficult to predict exact results. We do know however that by eliminating the sharks there will be a domino effect.

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Sharking Finning
Every year, in oceans around the world, tens of millions of sharks are hunted to meet the demand for shark fin soup, an East Asian dish. Shark finning doesnt just attack one type of shark, but instead affects all species as they are all used for shark fin soup. This has caused an ecological crisis of shark finning. Shark finning refers to the mass slaughter of sharks by capturing them, cutting off only their fins, than throwing them back in the water where they are left to die in an inhumane way by either drowning or bleeding to death.

The effects of shark finning are disastrous, leading species of sharks close to extinction thus throwing the entire ocean out of balance. Yet many people seem to be blind to the effects and the possible outcomes of the situation because of the money involved. Shark finning at sea enables fishing vessels to increase profitability. The global trade of shark fins are estimated at around 540 million dollars to 1.2 billion dollars US. A single fin can be worth 10,000 dollars to 20,000 dollars and a bowl of shark fin soup ranges from 70 dollars to 150 dollars. Studies have shown that on average 26 to 73 million sharks are harvested for their fins annually. It has been reported that in the year 2012 alone, 100 million sharks were finned. Sharks are being killed at a way faster rate than they are able to reproduce causing a drastic decline in the shark population.

Conservation Efforts
Throughout the years of shark finning, awareness to the situation has been raised. There are now several conservation efforts in place to help save the sharks from extinction and to restore their ecosystem. The Shark Conservation Act was passed in 2010 that amended the High Seas Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act. The purpose was for the MagnusonStevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act to improve the conservation of sharks. Ten years before that, the Shark Finning Prohibition
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Act (SFPA) had been passed because of the increased practice of removing fins from sharks, usually taken in bycatch by long line fishing vessels, to satisfy increased demand for shark fin soup. Long line fishing is now illegal in most parts of the world. It is very harmful to the environment. Fishermen attach lines to their boat that stretch deep into the ocean. It captures a lot of different sea creatures, including sharks. Many of these see creatures get tangled and end up drowning, even if they are the not the desired captured specie. Long line fishing is like a mass murder of ocean creatures creating a huge effect within ecosystems. Aside from laws being passed, there are many organized charity and awareness groups that have been formed. The Support Our Sharks campaign (SOS) was established to raise awareness, educate the public, research and get people involved with saving sharks. It was established in May 2010 when there was a drastic decline in shark populations.

The documentary Sharkwater also raised a lot of awareness to the hidden crisis of shark finning and received funding to save the sharks. Inspired by Sharkwater, another campaign called Shark Angels was formed. The Shark Angels and United Conservationists began to work together to build global movement through localized campaigns to save sharks with positive education, media and outreach. These are just a few of the many campaigns formed to save the worlds sharks and protect our oceans that we depend on.

Sources: http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/sharks/anatom y/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark_finning http://www.sharkwater.com/ http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Number_of_chromosomes_in_a _shark&view=classic http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark_Conservation_Act http://www.bite-back.com/ http://www.saveoursharks.com.au/Save_Our_Sharks_-_Mor e_Conservation_Issues.html http://www.saveoursharks.com.au/Save_Our_Sharks_-_Wel come.html !

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C HAPTER 18

The Taro Plant

By: Nicole

Taro is a root and leaf vegetable originating from South India and Southeast Asia. From this centre of origin taro spread to China, Japan, the Pacific islands, the Caribbean, West Africa and some of Europe. It is still found in all these locations today but may be known by different names. Taro is most intensively cultivated in the Pacific islands however the highest quantity of production occurs in West Africa, making it the main exporter. Taro leaves are boiled while the corm can be fried, boiled, baked or crushed into flour, making it a very versatile and useful plant.

Anatomy
Taro can grow to a height of 1-2m. The plant consists of leaves, a central corm, leaf stalks and roots sprouting from the corm. A corm is a short, vertical underground plant stem used as a storage organ. It is quite similar in shape to a bulb. The corm itself can be up to 30cm long and 15cm in diameter. The outermost layer is a thick brown periderm. Inside this is starchy parenchyma ground tissue. This is basically filler tissue, and is what makes the corm filling to eat. Growing up from the central corm are the leaf stalks, which account for most of the plant height.

At the end of the leaf stalks are the leaves. The leaves of taro are usually a dark green colour but can vary anywhere from a pale green to a dark almost-brown purple colour. The leaves will often have thick, dark coloured mid veins and major side veins of a contrasting colour. The veins can be almost any colour such as; green, purple, yellow, even pink. The veins are composed of vascular tissue, the tissue used in the transportation of water. The leaf anatomy is composed of a cuticle, epidermis, the mesophyll and then another layer of epidermis
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and cuticle. The lower cuticle and epidermis on taro leaves may be a lighter colour than the top layer. Also on the under layer of epidermis, is many more stoma. The stoma allow for the natural release of water on very warm days, the equivalent to sweating in humans. This is very important in a plant whose roots are almost always submerged in water.

Reproduction

Natural flowering occurs rarely in taro, but can be artificially prompted by applying a certain acid the flower will come either from the leaf axil or from a cluster of unopened leaves. The flower itself is made up of a petal (spathe), stalk (spadix) and flowers on the spadix. The petal is actually a leaf that protects the flower stalk. The flower stalk has female flowers on the bottom and male flowers on the top, with sterile flowers in between. The spathe wraps around the very bottom of the spadix and completely conceals the female flowers from view. The very tip of the flower stalk is called the sterile appendage, as it has no flowers at all. Fruit is produced occasionally but only under natural conditions. Each fruit is a berry about 3-5mm in diameter that contains numerous seeds.

Taro reproduces through vegetative reproduction. This is a process that takes place in certain plants that do not produce seeds, or whose seeds fail to germinate. In the case of taro, seeds are not produced at all. The central corm will develop a bud that branches off from it, much like what happens with potato spuds. This bud of corm will then break off and separate itself from the mother plant. This piece will then sprout a leaf. The leaf will grow to break through the top layer of soil, after which more leaves will sprout and a whole new taro plant will have grown. This type of reproduction is appealing to farmers because it allows the next generation of taro to have the same characteristics as the previous one. This predictability is very valuable to farmers as they need to know their crops will be profitable.

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Water Transport
Taro is one of the few plants that can be grown in flooded conditions. In fact, it thrives under such conditions. It is able to grow in these conditions due to air spaces in the petiole that allow for the underwater gas exchange with the atmosphere. The optimal water for growing taro in is cool and flowing. This allows for a constant flow of dissolved oxygen even under completely flooded conditions. If the water becomes warm and stagnant, rotting is likely to happen. The actual water transport within taro is through high to low pressure. As water evaporates from the top of the plant because of the sun, the pressure on the top of the plant is significantly reduced. This causes the pressure at the bottom of the taro to be much higher and allows the water to be forced up to the low pressure areas. Xylem and phloem are the pathways that the actual water goes through. Xylem is basically a set of tubes throughout the whole plant that circulates water. Phloem is the same but with minerals and nutrients. These two working together move the water from the roots to all parts of the plant using the high to low pressure water transport process.

Threats
There are few threats to taro. In Fiji, the dalo beetle (Papuana uniondis) is the major concern. First found in Veisari, Fiji in 1984 they have become a nuisance for farmers. The beetles are black, shiny and about 22mm in length. They breed in moist areas such as; rotten logs, poultry manure and compost heaps. ! The adult beetles fly from the breeding site to the taro field and begin to wreak their havoc. The feeding of the dalo beetles can cause wilting and even death of the taro. The beetles burrow inside the corm creating tunnels and large cavities. These cavities in the corm allow fungus to develop in the corm, causing corm rot. The cavities and corm rot combined cause the taro to be rejected for selling. This low quality of corm results in a loss of profit for farmers, and a smaller population of Taro overall. Luckily, dalo beetles are not present on the island of Taveuni, Fiji. Taveuni is responsible for 80% of the taro exported from Fiji annually so it is crucial that the taro there is not infected. As this is a threat to one of the main exports in Fiji, steps are being taken to develop effective control measures over the problem. Cultural control is one, meaning that crop rotation and the use of clean planting material takes place. Both a fungus and a virus have been tested without success as an at137

tempt at biological control. Chemical control is so far the most effective solution. An insecticide called Confidor exterminates beetles at the sight of application. Quarantine and biosecurity containment are both other protective measures taken to avoid the spread of the dalo beetle to any more islands than it is already on.
! Taro leaf blight (Phytophthora colocasiae) is another threat to the taro population, although it is not present in Fiji. It causes the leaves to develop large, circular purple-brown spots. As the spots increase in size, they merge together and quickly destroy the leaf. The first symptoms of taro leaf blight are small, dark brown spots on the tips and edges of leaves where water accumulates. On the other parts of the leaf, the spots have a watersoaked or dry gray appearance. In dry weather, the centre of the lesions become papery and fall out. The dead leaves just wilt and hang off the stems, weighing them down. Often, orange or red fluid will ooze from the infection site as another symptom of taro leaf blight. This disease is spread through rain-splash and wind blown rain between plants or within the same plant.

chemical sprays have been effective in preventing the disease, but heavy, frequent rainfall makes repeated applications necessary. Lastly genetic resistance aims to breed taro to make it resistant to leaf blight. Although unsuccessful thus far, there is a bright future ahead in this area of disease management.

Industry and Economy

For the islands in the south pacific, taro is a very valuable industry. In Fiji, taro is ranked second in terms of quantity produced and cultivated. It is one of the main food exports with about $20 million of taro is being exported annually, and an increase of about $500 000 every year. The market for taro expanded dramatically in 1993 when the island of Samoa had a taro leaf blight epidemic. Although a terrible loss for Samoa, Fiji benefitted greatly as the market increased from $60 000 to over $1 million in a short period of time. As earlier stated, the island of Taveuni is responsible for 80% of taro export. The market for taro is so profitable there that farmers lacking secondary school education are now millionaires as a result of this growing industry. This shows the impact that taro has on Fiji, and just how valuable taro is to the Fijian economy. Taro is exported from Fiji to New Zealand, Australia, USA and Japan. Present day competitors to the Fijian taro market include Nigeria, China and West Africa. This mapshows the distribution of taro production.

The managing of this disease takes place through cultural practices, chemical management and genetic resistance. Cultural practices are aimed to reduce the bacteria level and relative humidity in the field. This is for early disease management and is usually not effective in the case of an epidemic. Protective

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Alternatives
Although taro is considered a traditional Fijian food, and is used very frequently, there are some alternatives to it in Fiji. Cassava is the number one food that is produced and cultivated, making it taros main competition. Cassava is a woody shrub that is extensively cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. It has an edible, starchy tuberous root that is a very high source of carbohydrates. Unlike taro, cassava thrives in drought conditions, the complete opposite of the flood loving taro. Cassava, although high in calcium and phosphorus, is very low in protein. Another alternative to taro in Fiji, is rice. Rice is not as popular as cassava or taro, but its popularity rises and falls depending on the dalo beetle population. Rice and cassava are the main alternatives to taro, but taros place as one of the major foods in the Fijian culture is safe.

This map shows the distribution of taro production.

The taro industry is important not only to Fijian economy, but also to the culture. Taro has been a staple in the Fijian diet for centuries. It can be looked at as the equivalent to potatoes in Western society. It is not overly expensive, making it available as consistent food for everyone. It is so valued in Fijian society that there is an event called Taro Day. It is a holiday that takes place on the first full moon in the month of May. It is a day filled with events and traditions, many of which include games played by Fijian children. One of these games is a race in which the children run across the fields planting corm, with the goal of planting the most. In recent years the festivities of the day have taken a backseat to practical ideologies where planting the most corm possible is an actual life concern because of dalo beetles.

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Bibliography
Pictures Taro Diagram:
http://www.google.ca/imgres?q=taro&um=1&hl=en&biw=1280&bih=603&tbm=isch&tbnid=3nAi3rg6fj87qM :&imgrefurl=http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/botany/taro/key/HawaiianKalo/Media/Html/glossary.html&doci d=X-zdtMS2ZlghtM&imgurl=http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/botany/taro/key/HawaiianKalo/Media/Images/ entire-plant-diagram.jpg&w=545&h=590&ei=kW_8UYmNF86i4AO064GQBg&zoom=1&iact=rc&page=1&tbn h=139&tbnw=129&start=0&ndsp=21&ved=1t:429,r:3,s:0,i:93&tx=115&ty=76

Information Botany: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac450e/ac450e04.htm General: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taro Cassava: http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/ complementaryandalternativemedicine/dietandnutrition/cass ava

Flower:
http://www.google.ca/imgres?q=taro+flower&um=1&sa=N&biw=1280&bih=603&hl=en&tbm=isch&tbnid=9 4O9cSLUF6h-jM:&imgrefurl=http://tropicalhomestead.blogspot.com/2011/10/pua-kalo-taro-flower-in-our-g arden.html&docid=go_jGVXdDp071M&imgurl=http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-zUwaLmmaYmk/TpheLt4_0jI/A AAAAAAAAK0/DzIBaGMtaNA/s400/111014kaloflower2.jpg&w=576&h=768&ei=Tm_8UcmzMtG34AOlioDg BA&zoom=1&iact=rc&page=1&tbnh=143&tbnw=107&start=0&ndsp=25&ved=1t:429,r:16,s:0,i:127&tx=-498& ty=21

Beetle:
http://www.google.ca/imgres?q=Taro+day+fiji&um=1&sa=N&biw=1280&bih=603&hl=en&tbm=isch&tbnid= zTmgOFgbyc_91M:&imgrefurl=http://www.brisvaani.com/taro-beetle-confirmed-on-fijis-gau-island/&docid =Tw265oYGIUtTpM&imgurl=http://brisvaani.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Taro-beetle.jpg&w=300&h =193&ei=SG78UfjkH4n94AP81YHYCA&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=821&vpy=61&dur=687&hovh=154&hovw=24 0&tx=150&ty=81&page=2&tbnh=146&tbnw=206&start=20&ndsp=26&ved=1t:429,r:31,s:0,i:177

Leaf Blight:
http://www.google.ca/imgres?q=taro+leaf+blight&um=1&hl=en&biw=1280&bih=603&tbm=isch&tbnid=bH Yd6zvM-aay9M:&imgrefurl=http://archive.iwlearn.net/www.sprep.org/factsheets/invasives/index.htm&doci d=hS7urusHgsoDTM&imgurl=http://archive.iwlearn.net/www.sprep.org/factsheets/invasives/images/leafbli ght.jpg&w=200&h=131&ei=3m_8UZmoIvWl4APJmYCwCA&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=7&vpy=334&dur=203&h ovh=104&hovw=160&tx=120&ty=48&page=1&tbnh=104&tbnw=160&start=0&ndsp=23&ved=1t:429,r:8,s:0,i: 101

Map: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Tarooutput.png Cassava:

http://www.google.ca/imgres?q=Cassava&um=1&hl=en&biw=1280&bih=603&tbm=isch&tbnid=Uc1XGsRyW Q6aqM:&imgrefurl=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1967235_1967238_1967 250,00.html&docid=BVnpaXfjG9uBCM&imgurl=http://img.timeinc.net/time/photoessays/2010/top10_dan gerous_foods/cassava.jpg&w=307&h=200&ei=anD8UaX3DJK14APs9oH4Cg&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=79&pag e=1&tbnh=136&tbnw=212&start=0&ndsp=19&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0,i:84&tx=174&ty=96

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141

Bibliography

http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/lessons/fungi/Oom ycetes/Pages/TaroLeafBlight.aspx

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C HAPTER 19

The Coconut Industry

By: Rachel Krueger Paradise in the Fiji Islands. Idyllic images that come to mind when this sentence is uttered are white, soft, sandy beaches, crystal clear ocean water, soaking up the sun on luxurious towels, leafy palm trees swaying above You find yourself in complete serenity with the warmth beating down on your sun kissed face and the lull of the ocean creating a relaxing sound to just, ever so slowly drift---to---sleep. THUD! A coconut lands directly beside you in the sand! Its round brown head and jovial eyes stare back at you, you begin to question what the significance of these common coconuts is and their history in the country of Fiji. Let us discover this dominant, exotic palm tree, starting from the beginning.

Origin of the Plant

There are two types of coconut trees in Fiji, the Sago palm and the most common tree known as the coconut palm, or simply the word niu in Fijian. The scientific name for the common coconut palm is Cocos nucifera. The word coco stems from European languages that, go back to the Spanish coco grinning face, grimace or the Portuguese quoque monkey, with reference to the three eyes at the end of each coconut which make it look like a monkey-like-face (Walting). Nucifera is simply the Latin word for something that bears nuts. This species will be the focus of this report.

The origin of the coconut is still under debate. The written recordings of the history of coconuts goes as far back as 15th century explorer Vasco de Gama reporting to King Manuel I of Portugal who describes the findings as these trees and their fruit that serve the natives everything they need (Foale). There now is a massive population of coconuts on this planet, over 12 million hectares of coconut are grown across 89 tropical countries is proof enough of their geographical spread (Prasad). This is why it is so difficult to pinpoint the original location and genetics surrounding the plant. It is now speculated that these plants have two very different origins of their initial cultivation in the world, one being the Pacific basin and the other the Indo-Atlantic basin. Plant biologists collected over a thousand samples from coconut trees

Figure 1. An example of the widespread coconut tree population is shown at Thurston Gardens, Suva. Photo by Rachel Krueger

Figure 2. A map displaying the navigational and dispersal routes of the coconut across the world throughout history. Image from ScienceDaily

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across the globe and were able to genotype multiple places in each palm through microsatellites for thorough distinction. They found that, the very high level of differentiation within a single species and provides pretty conclusive evidence that there were two origins of cultivation of the coconut (Washington). Therefore the countries that each group belonged to could be established after this DNA analysis due to the similarity in genetic information. The countries belonging to the Pacific basin group are the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia--Southeast Asia locations. Those belonging to the Indo-Atlantic basin group are mainly India and places south of India like Sri Lanka and the Maldives. After this initial colonization, the coconuts spread eastward and westward across the Atlantic Ocean and more of the Pacific due to the start of European exploration in the 15th century, trade, emigration, immigration and other factors like their ability to float yet still survive in salt water.

Figure 3. The trunk of a coconut tree with the scattered xylem and phloem visible. Photo courtesy of flickr.com. See link in works cited

Figure 4. The veins that run parallel along the leaves of the coconut palms are easy to spot with the naked eye. Photo courtesy of shutterstock.com. See link in works cited

The Plant
First off, here is a chart displaying the scientific classification of the coconut palm:

Knowing the different levels of taxonomic classification for an organism is always useful in identifying the plant when researching, and in this case also gives us an idea of its relativity to other palm species. A unique fact about this species is that it is the only member in the genus Cocos. As they are in the family of Arecaceae, (palms) coconut palms are considered monocots. The veins of their leaves run parallel, their root system is fibrous, the petals of their flowers grow in multiples of three, they are unable to increase the width of their trunk by means of secondary growth (making them herbaceous) and their vascular bundles are scattered in the trunk rather than forming a ring shape. Coconut trees definitely have a presence. Growing up to 30m tall with large, thick, green leaves of about 4-6m in length they sure grab ones attention. This tree will likely be found on the
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beach, as they prefer sandy soil, direct sunlight, temperatures above 27 degrees Celsius and the fact that they are able to grow with a high level of salt in their soil. Although high temperatures are necessary, humidity (levels between 70-80%) and a great deal of rainfall are required as well; this is why tropical regions such as coastlines and tropical rainforests are the natural habitat for this palm. If the area meets these climatic conditions, fairly large amounts of fruit will be produced. (tall coconuts can produce up to 75 nuts per year if treated well!) The fruit is actually a one-seeded drupe; this means it has a hard surrounding shell around the seed. It has three layers, the outermost layer called the exocarp, the middle layer of the mesocarp and finally the endocarp that acts as the tough layer surrounding the seed. Such protection for the precious seed! Because there are so many tough layers, the fruit that can be purchased at stores in North America usually has the husk of the exocarp or even mesocarp removed from it for easy opening access. Of the three pores or stoma on a coconut, one pore has a shoot that germinates to produce a stem and leaves to shoot out of it. The embryo of the coconut is inside the germinated pore, enclosed by the white flesh of the coconut--its endosperm. This is the nutrient filled tissue inside of the seed that encloses the embryo and contains oils, protein and starch. The hollow space in the inside of the coconut holds nutrient rich and refreshing coconut water. It takes up to about 11-12 months for a coconut to mature and soon after it will fall and lay in the shade for the final step of the maturation proc-

ess. Mature coconuts are characterized with a hairy, brown fibre called coir on their exocarp, a solid, thick endosperm and slightly bitter water inside. Young coconuts on the other hand contain more pleasant tasting and generally a larger amount of coconut water than mature coconuts, coir is not present, their endosperm is thin and of a gelatinous texture (sometimes known as the coconut jelly or pulp) and their exocarp is green.

Figure 5. Here shows the different layers of the nut. Photo courtesy of biologie.uni See works cited

Based on size and fruit production yield, coconuts are classified into two categories; tall and dwarf. The heterozygous, tall coconut trees grow relatively quickly (more than 50cm per year) and begin to grow flowers and fruit between 6-10 years of age. They will produce fruit all year round. These crosspollinating palms are greatly used in the commercial industry
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as they provide a sufficient amount of copra, (coconut meat) about 200 grams per one nut. Dwarf coconuts grow far more slowly, only reaching about 8-10 metres after twenty years of growth. These trees bear fruit seasonally and only have about 80-100 grams of copra per nut. Their lifespan is not as long and they are more rare (being homozygous) than tall coconuts. All coconuts have flowers that are arranged in an inflorescence that forms on each leaf. This means that all the flowers are clustered onto the stem that attaches to one main branch. Coconut flowers are unisexual and can produce male (a staminate flower) and female (a carpellate flower) flower on the same inflorescence, they are called MonoeFigure 6. The inflorescence is visible with the cious or polygamomonoesmall, yellow flowers emerging from their sheath cious because of this. The and small nuts growing. Photo courtesy of backyardnature.net See works cited female flowers are the flowers that will eventually grow into coconuts that form seeds and the male flowers are the numerous, small flowers that grow upon the top of the spikelet that the females inhabit. Pollination dominantly oc-

curs by the wind, not so much by insects seeing as the trees grow directly by the ocean and they are extremely tall. Relying solely on the wind as a means of pollination is more likely for these palms as they have adapted in diverse locations in the world and could not rely on specific mammal and insect pollinators. As some dwarf palms are self-pollinators and are Monoecious, they transfer pollen from the anther of an individual flower to the stigma of another flower all on the same coconut tree. In this way they are self sufficient and quite stable in their entire life cycle (growth, reproduction, pollination, fertilization, germination; repeat.)

Industrial, Economic and Commercial ties in Fiji

Coconuts are often called, The Tree of Life by those who are lucky enough to live where it thrives. Fijians have a long and close association with this palm and have made full use of the tree they refer to as natures greatest gift to man (Walting). This is because it is such a versatile plant and practically every part of it can be used in one way or another, from food, to furniture, household decorations, traditional medicine and more. Because this tree thrives in Fiji, the people consider the tree sacred and have been evolving their use of it for years for their own general benefit and the global markets. (Mainly trading with Australia, New Zealand, Japan and a few countries of the European Union) Copra is the dried white flesh of the nut. Originally, small kilns were used to dry the meat but in this
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day and age, giant aluminum machines dry the coconuts flesh, after this the oil can be extracted under high-pressure presses. The copra industry is fourth largest industry in the country, after tourism, sugar cane and clothing. This means that the coconut is not only an important factor in the day to day lives of Fijians, but their small nations financial stability as a whole. It is the unfortunate but true reality that the countries economy has been weakening, The government began to implement industry reform in 2010, but it has done little to improve Fijis dangerously Figure 7. A striking picture of a coconut planta- slowing economy (Index). tion in Taveuni Island, Fiji. Courtesy of However this past winter, AllPosters.com efforts to revive the once See link in Works Cited thriving copra industry were publicized by The Ministry of Agriculture. There are plans to commence the One Million Coconut Trees Campaign for 2013. On January 23rd 2013, the Ministry of Agriculture announced news about the time frame, One million trees will be launching next week but we are trying to run this for two to three years; hopefully on the third year we should be able to reach that target (Stolz). The site will be in Yadua Village in Nadroga (a province in Viti Levu) and the planting will likely be done by the . It has been slow going so far, however fortu-

nately the project has been gaining support by rural people who are easily able to register to take part in the campaign.

As a man named Anare from the Koronivia Research Center told me, there is a great need to replant the old trees that are not yielding as much fruit (the productivity value of coconuts is almost zero after they are about 60-70 years old) and simply taking up valuable land. There are coconut estates owned by wealthy hotel owners and land owners that are selling off land to Americans, Australians and Figure 8. This shows a Reniu Gift Set made of Europeans Anare says. coconut oil at the popular department store This area of commercial esProuds. Photo by Rachel Krueger tates and plantations is in the southern part of Vanua Levu, where there are hectares and hectares of coconut trees in plantations, there are also a few small islands devoted to plantations. This may sound like a good thing for the coconut sales, however plantations are artificial forests that are only grown to be chopped down again. Often the original ecosystem has been destroyed to make room for the new plantation
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site. This causes a loss in biodiversity as the ecosystem and habitat were cleared and the fact that all of the same sort of species are planted in a plantation (for example, only coconut trees) mean there are less diverse species that learn to adapt to the unnatural circumstances. This is not as taxing on the environment when the forests are replanted after being cut down, however Fijis poor agricultural and industrial planning have led to abandoned plantations with the land in poor condition. Hopefully the One Million Trees Campaign is successful as the Fiji Islands need to improve their economy, but they must educate people in doing so in a sustainable fashion. This tree provides shelter and nourishment to island and coastal villages, it is vital for the people and its surrounding ecosystem. If not properly preserved, the fertile, lush forests of Fiji could be damaged detrimentally for this newfound hunger for industrial products. With this being said, coconuts can produce thousands of products. Let us begin with the trunk. The trunk is thick and durable, its wood is often used as furniture, flooring and small items around the house such as bowls, jewelry and picture frames. Pulp can be taken from the trunk to make paper products as well. Coconut leaves are flexible yet strong, they can be pulled straight off the plant to use as a fan or broom, the leaves can be bended into toys or little trinkets for decoration, they can be weaved into sturdy trays, mats, bags, boxes, purses, shades for lamps and even as materials for the roofs of huts or buildings. The fibrous coir obtained from the husk of

Figure 9. A man fills up a tractor with half diesel half coconut oil in the Solomon Islands. Picture courtesy of kokonutpacific.com! See works cited

the coconut is wound together and used for rope and mats as it is coarse and can withstand heavy weights once bound together. The shells are used to serve the sacred kaveh drink at traditional ceremonies. Coconut meat can eaten right out of the shell, is commonly used for livestock feed, once it is dried can be grated for culinary dishes, candy and other food products and grinded for coconut flour and strained to obtain coconut milk. The male flowers of the palms are sometimes squeezed to produce juice that once fermented, can turn into an alcoholic substance used to make gin. Coconut water is used as a hydrator and has been gaining popularity for its beneficial health purposes. It is low in sugar, high in potassium, minerals and electrolytes, and has no cholesterol. It is often used as a cleansing substance for the kidneys. Fun fact about this water, when saline UV solution was running out in World War II, coconut water was given to British and Japanese soldiers as it is an excellent substance for rehydration and is said to be similar to blood plasma. The oil is the most dynamic source of products, for instance in luxury soaps, shampoos and lotion, other substances like rubber and glycerin contain coconut oil, and when it is refined to take
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away the slightly strong scent and remove some of the fatty acids, it is used as a fat in products like vegetable shortening and chocolate. It keeps without becoming rancid as it does not oxidize very quickly, therefore products can stay on shelves for months without going rancid, making it a popular ingredient in food. The Virgin coconut oil can also be applied directly to the skin to, nourish, moisturize and protect skin and hair as the Reniu products read on their products. Pure Fiji and Reniu are among the most popular and expensive virgin coconut oil toiletry companies; these products can be purchased at all leading Fijian department stores such as Prouds and Jacks. In an environmental sense, people have recently begun to us the oil as a smooth running alternative to petroleum. Thus, A coconut oil/diesel fuel blend currently being used in Vanuatu initially mixes 20 parts coconut oil with one part kerosene. This blend is then mixed 2:1 with diesel to give an effective 64% coconut oil bio-fuel (Kokonut). Using this fuel could provide an environmental breakthrough for the Pacific Islands as it emits less harmful emissions and toxic fumes than the most popular fuel choices like petroleum and diesel. Also, it would provide more availability for locals as it is cheaper, and easier to obtain than other fuels in remote villages. The oil is also being used to power lights as it can be substituted as the diesel fuel for electric generators. Our population is already straining under the prices of gas and worries about electricity security, biofuels such as vegetable oil, soybean oil and

of course coconut oil provide a sustainable energy option by their biomass conversion.

The wrath of the Rhinoceros Beatle and Lethal Yellowing Disease

Figure 10. The bright yellow leaves relay that death is close for this Cocos nucifera. Photo courtesy of lucidcentral.org. See works cited

There are many diseases that the coconut palm may succumb to, whether it is a bacterial disease, fungal disease, viral diseases or phytoplasmal disease. However the disease that is most prominent for coconut trees in Fiji is the lethal yellowing disease. This disease is phytoplasmic, meaning it is spread by bacteria that give rise to parasites to grow in the phloem and eventually turn into threatening insects. In the case of this specific disease, the planthopper Haplaxius crudus is guilty of the infection. Trees will likely die very shortly, slowly sickening and dying at
Figure 11. The dark spots display where the nut was attached to the infected tree. Photo Courtesy of plantwise.org. See works cited

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about 3-6 months prior to acquiring the infection. Yellowing of palm tree leaves can be caused by other natural causes, numerous palm trees display yellowing palm fronds caused by nutritional deficiencies (such as manganese, magnesium, iron), fungal bud rot, insect and nematode problems, or lightning strikes (Gabel). This is why it is sometimes difficult to identify if the plant is truly diseased by this pathogen. Signs of lethal yellowing include the premature dropping of almost all coconuts. These nuts will show dark areas of where it was attached to the tree. After this, the stalks of the flowers that begin to grow will be black or brown and will not show signs of more nuts appearing beside them. The concluding stage is when the leaves gradually turn yellow. It will start at the tips of the leaves and move towards the crown of the leaf. Death of the plant will be obvious as all of the leaves will be wilted or have fallen off. This disease is often found at resorts as they plant un-native, susceptible palms, may not properly balance their fertilizer and they cropped, short grass on the grounds of hotels and their golf courses breed the menacing planthopper. Only by being informed about what lethal yellowing is, how it spreads, and proper care and maintenance of palm trees can one minimize it attacking the palms (Gabel). Pests of the palms are many and varied but most economically significant in Fiji are the Rhinoceros beetles (Oryctes rhinoceros) (Deesh). This beetle is a large pest of coconut trees as they fly onto the top of the tree, eat through the middle of the palm and back up to the leaves to feed once again. They mark their destruction with a V-shaped cut in the trunk, allow-

ing people to determine a beetle dwelling tree. The leaves become so damaged that nutrients are unable to reach the leaves and it stops growing more leaves and possibly nuts. This beetle was unintentionally introduced to Fiji in 1953 by Asia and ever since has had horrible effects on palms both young and old. The adult beetles are about 4.5-5cm long and 2-2.5cm wide. The female has shorter horns than males and have fuzz growing on the end of their black or brown, shiny shells. There are three larva stages in the beetles life cycle that last about 215 days in total. The adult beetle stays in the shell for at least three weeks which undergoes maturity. The adult could live up to 5 to 9 months and the female would lay an average of 50 eggs per life cycle (Deesh).
Figure 12. A glass case holds a male (left) and female (right) Rhinoceros beetle at the Koronovia Research Center. Photo by Rachel Krueger

As quarantine programs to resist the spreading of the beetle to other Fijian Islands failed in the 1960s, the R. beetle is truly here to stay, therefore management methods are necessary. A laboratory analysis from the field collection of the larva and mature betetles let us know about the population of these pests and help aid in methods of control. To control the Rhinoceros beetle, it has been determined that the best ideas are to clear all dead logs, fallen timber and store compost in bug proof bins. Having a clear site will reduce the beetle drastically as it usually
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Final Words
The rainforests of Fiji are one of the many examples of forests that are being chopped and burned down at a rapid rate. These forests are home to endangered plants, birds, insects and diverse mammals. The coconut is ever present in these tropical rainforests, rising up from the canopy as a symbol of its strength and prominence in shaping the islands of Fiji. Life is not about battling with the wilderness to survive, it is about living and learning with all of the rich resources Earth provides for us. Although not always recognized, it is of the upmost importance that palms are protected as well for the interest of the life of all of the islands plant species. Raising awareness and continuous efforts in conservation and environmental sustainability must be continued to contribute in aiding this issue. The coconut tree is not simply a means of money to Fijians, it is of cultural importance and is a symbol of heritage for these people. Although such a pervasive and common tree seen in media, many facts about the Tree of Life are disregarded in the Western world. Our friends of Fiji in the South Pacific appreciate and care for their coconut trees with a passionate and innovative approach that should act as an example to other places that the notorious Cocos nucifera calls home. This tree has sustained them in the ways of health, nourishment, finance and truly demonstrated humans natural success of living off the land, now it is time for us and them to give back for all that this tree has supplied them in the past so that it can continue to prosper in the future.
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Figure 13. This shows the life cycle of the insect. From a pamphlet at the Koronovia Research Center. Photo by Rachel Krueger

lays its eggs on decaying stumps and trunks, animal feces, compost areas and other rotten wood materials. Speaking to farmers about their field cleanliness among other things like poisonous traps and spreading heavy pesticides on breeding grounds should help to combat this insect for the well-being of Fijis victimized coconut palms.

Works Cited:
Ancient Trade Routes, and Colonization of the Americas." Science News. ScienceDaily, 24 June 2011. Web. 28 July 2013. Deesh, Aradhana and Swamy, Bal Narayan. Management of Coconut Rhinoceros Beetle in Fiji. Suva: Ministry of Primary Industries, 2011. Print. Foale, Mike. The Coconut Odyssey. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 2002. Print. Gabel, Kim. "Yellow Palm Fronds: Is It Lethal Yellowing or Something Else?" Yellow Palm Fronds. UF/IFAS/Monroe County Extension Services, Web. 2 Aug. 2013. Hirst, Kris. "Coconut Domestication." About.com Archaeology. About.com, 2011. Web. 1 Aug. 2013. Index of Economic Freedom 2013. "Fiji." Economy: Population, GDP, Inflation, Business, Trade, FDI, Corruption. 2013 Index of Economic Freedom, 2013. Web. 2 Aug. 2013. Kokonut Pacific. "Coconut Oil as a Biofuel." Coconut Oil as a Biofuel. Kokonut Pacific, 2006. Web. 7 Aug. 2013. Prasad, R. "Coconut: Origin and East-west Spread from Asia." The Hindu. The Hindu, 29 June 2011. Web. 27 July 2013. ScienceDaily. "Deep History of Coconuts Decoded: Origins of Cultivation, Ancient Trade Routes, and Colonization of the Americas." Science News. ScienceDaily, 24 June 2011. Web. 28 July 2013. Stolz, Ellen. "One Million Coconut Trees Campaign to Launch next Week." One Million Coconut Trees Campaign to Launch next Week. Fiji Sun, 24 Jan. 2013. Web. 28 July 2013. Watling, Richard John and Bennett, George. Palms of the Fiji Islands. Suva: Environmental Consultants, 2005. Print.

Washington University in St. Louis. "Deep history of coconuts decoded: Origins of cultivation, ancient trade routes, and colonization of the Americas." ScienceDaily, 24 Jun. 2011. Web. 1 Aug. 2013.

Images
Figure 2: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110624142037.htm Figure 3: http://farm2.staticflickr.com/1317/5138873570_516000a428_o.jpg Figure 4:
http://image.shutterstock.com/display_pic_with_logo/347749/347749,12592445 24,5/stock-photo-green-palm-tree-leaf-texture-of-seychelles-islands-close-up-416 81614.jpg

Figure 5:
http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/library/webb/BOT410/Angiosper m/CoconutDrawFruitsLab.jpg

Figure 6: http://www.backyardnature.net/yucatan/cocoflrs.jpg Figure 7:

http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Coconut-Plantation-Taveuni-Island-Fiji-Posters_i 2677631_.htm

Figure 10:
http://itp.lucidcentral.org/id/palms/symptoms/images/LY_Jamaica%202005.jpg

Figure 11: http://www.plantwise.org/?dsid=38647&page=4270&site=234

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C HAPTER 20

Genetically Modified Foods

By: Sam MacLeod

Overview
Genetically-modified foods have been the topic of much debate recently. Genetically modified food has the potential to help feed a growing population worldwide, but also has the ability to harm humans and other species. The use of GM foods has become particularly common in both developed and developing countries. Canada and Fiji both grow genetically modified crops. In Canada, crops including soybeans, and corn dominate the market, while in Fiji, sugarcane is widely produced.

http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~sepa/genetics.htm

What are Genetically-modified foods?

Genetically modified foods, or GM foods, is a common term used to refer to crop plants genetically modified to be better suited for human or animal consumption. These plants have been modified in the laboratory to enhance, add, or remove certain traits of the plant through molecular biology techniques. Molecular biologists can isolate genes in plants and modify, remove, or replace them. By doing this, plants can be modified to have a variety of affects, some being: increased drought tolerance, resistance to herbicides, resistance to diseases, different tastes, or nutritional content.

Genetic engineering, is a branch of science that deals with the direct manipulation of an organisms genome using biotechnology. Genes can be transferred from one plant to another, but genes from non-plant organisms can also be used. For example, B.t. (Bacillus thuringiensis), is a naturally occurring bacterium that produces crystal proteins poisonous to insect larvae: these crystal protein genes can be transferred into corn. This enables the corn to produce its own pesticides against some types of insects.

History of Genetically Modified Foods

Genetic manipulation of foods can be traced back far throughout history. For thousands of years, people have been selectively breeding specific plants and animals to achieve desirable traits. Modern genetic modification really only came into existence over the last few decades: in the 1980s it was discovered that DNA could be transferred from one organism to another. In 1983 the first transgenic plant was created: a tobacco plant resistant to antibiotics was created. In 1990 genetically engineered cotton was successfully field tested. In 1995, Mon157

santo, the worlds leading biotechnology company released the first herbicide-immune soybeans. In 2000, scientists discovered that genetic modification could be used to introduce nutrients and vitamins to enrich foods.

counting for 20% of all GM crop. Below is a diagram of which countries produce the most genetically modified crops.

Production

http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/workspace/sect008/s8g5/history.htm

http://thecravingscoach.com/blog/gmo-genetically-modified-and-genetically-engineered-foods-monsanto/

Today, genetically modified food has been emerging and advancing across the planet. As of 2004, GM crops were being grown by 8.25 million farmers in 17 countries. Since then that number has increased exponentially. The most produced genetically modified crops are soybeans (60% of GM crop area), maize (23%), cotton (11%), and canola (6%) (2004). The United States uses a total of 47.6 million hectares for biotech agriculture as of 2004, and accounting for 59% of all GM crop. Argentina was 2nd in production at 16.2 million hectares, ac158

Types of Genetic Modification and How They are performed

Video

Genetically modified foods are created using a variety of biotechnology techniques used to change their genetics. The purpose of the alterations are to introduce or ameliorate desired genes or to remove or inactivate undesirable ones. Inside the cells of all living organisms, genes are found tightly bundled along strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA). Genes send chemical messages to instruct the cell to perform its functions: they act as a control factor for growth and development.

http://adam.about.net/reports/Prostate-cancer.htm http://tidymom.net/2010/royal-icing-recipe-snowflake-cookies/

Genetic modification refers to human manipulation of an organisms genetic material for the purpose of improvement or correction of defects. Traditional techniques of genetic modification have been used for millennia. These methods include randomly mixing genes and can only result in related organisms. Genetic engineering is a newly developed process of molecular biology employed to change, remove or insert genes di159

rectly into an organisms genome. Unlike traditional genetic modification, genetic engineering allows for interspecies genetic modification. An organism modified to have a combination of genes from multiple species is referred to as transgenic.

http://www.microbiologybytes.com/introduction/GeneticEngineering.html

Genetic engineering techniques that are commonly used today are bacterial infection, gene splicing, gene silencing, biolistics, electroporation, viral infection, and microinjection. Bacterial infection, also known as bacterial carriers, is a process of infect plants with Agrobacterium a bacterium which helps deliver DNA to the new organism by making the cell wall more porous. Its function is to act as a carrier and deliver a gene into the new plant through an extrachromosomal DNA mole-

cule (known as a plasmid). Biolistics is the process of attaching DNA to microscopic particles of tungsten or gold. The particles are shot at high speed into the cell and release the DNA. Electroporation is when the target cell is immersed in a DNA solution and given a shock to make micro-tears in the cell wall and allows the DNA to transfer into the cell. Gene silencing is used to eliminate an unwanted characteristic of an organism. One method is to attach a second copy of the unwanted gene inverted to the original: this makes the gene cease to function properly. Another method involves inserting foreign DNA which inactivates the gene. Gene splicing is a process through which a gene is cut from one organisms DNA and inserted into another organisms DNA to transfer desired characteristics from one organism to another. Molecular biologists use enzyme producing bacteria to cut the DNA in desired locations and then use an enzyme called DNA ligase to fuse the new gene into the chromosome. Additionally, gene splicing can also be performed by using plasmids to deliver DNA into the new organism. Microinjection is a process by which DNA is injected into a fertilised ovum with a glass capillary tube. This ensures that nearly every cell in the transgene will carry the modified gene sequence. Finally, viral infection is when a cell is infected by a virus which has DNA added to its genetic structure. As the virus multiplies within the target cell, it transfers the DNA into the chromosomes.

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less reliance on chemicals, greater nutritional value, greater food security through genetically engineered production of pesticides and insecticides, more adaptability in harsh climates, and heightened production of food to feed a growing population. While the potential of genetically modified foods is great there are many possible negative effects that could be harmful. One of the most controversial topics is the long-term health effects of GM foods on human health. Since this technology is still new, and still developing, long-term studies have not been conducted to confirm that the application of this is safe. Another problem associated with GM foods has to do with possible short-term health concerns: there is a possibility that transferring genes between organisms can cause allergic reactions for individuals with food sensitivities. Also, the unintentional transfer of specific genes can create a plethora of problems that modern science may, or may not be able to solve: contamination, antibiotic resistance. For instance if genes from genetically modified crops that allowed them to reproduce rapidly, were transferred to weeds, super weeds that are immune to many herbicides could come into existence. Many people are also concerned that it is unethical for society to tamper with nature. Finally, there is a concern that the control over biotechnology only lies in the hands of a few large corporations which have been taking advantage of developing nations and abusing their power. Ultimately, there are benefits and risks associated with genetically modified foods: society will have to judge to what degree they are acceptable in the future.
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http://diybio4beginners.blogspot.ca/2009/03/we-have-discovered-new-blog-dedicated.html

Above is an image of a microbiology lab where scientists study and practise genetic modification.

Advantages vs. Disadvantages of GM Foods

Genetically modified foods have many potential benefits: they can address problems like food security, malnutrition, safety, and agricultural efficiency. Genetic modification has also been used to enrich crops through the introduction of nutrients and vitamins. Genetically modified food may be an important key in solving problems like famine and malnutrition in parts of the world. Also, introducing pesticides and insecticides through genetic manipulation decreases reliance on conventional chemicals that can be harmful to consumers. In short, genetically modified food offers many different opportunities:

Regulation
Regulation for genetically modified foods in the United States is the responsibility of three jurisdictions: the FDA, EPA and USDA. But, many people say that regulations are too soft, and inadequate. Most of the approving, or disapproving of GM foods is left in the hands of large corporations that produce the crops, some being: Monsanto Co. (the largest GM company accounting for 90% of GM foods), Dow Chemical Company, and Syngenta AG. Many people believe that the regulation should be stricter and that the FDA should have to perform testing, and do a pre-market approval. Additionally, food manufacturers and distributors are not required to label whether a product was made with GM food. Fiji is currently working on improving food standards for genetically modified foods as well as standards for food imported into the country. At the Pacific Food Summit in Vanatu, the government vowed to strengthen food control systems. Fiji plans to increase its national food testing capabilities. In 2003, the Food Safety Act was implemented, and in 2009, the Food Safety Regulations were adopted in Fiji. They are enforcing stricter laws that limit the advertising and promotion of foods high in salt, fat, and sugar to youth. The AMA (Agriculture Marketing Agency) is responsible for improving connections with farmers, food producers, and markets. Additionally, the AMA is responsible for improving awareness on health and nutrition, and improving the planning and implementation of food security strategies.

http://www.usask.ca/nursing/cedn/programs/2010-11_Conferences/TB/TB_Conf_2010.php

In Canada, Health Canada is deemed responsible under the Food and Drugs Act and its regulations for public health, food safety and nutrition. Health Canada conducts pre-market evaluations to test if food is safe and is nutritionally adequate as well as to test for other health risks including chemical, physical and microbiological contaminants, and toxicants and allergens in the food. In Canada, foods derived from biotechnology are considered to be one class of novel foods: Health Canada regulates the sale of novel foods through a pre-market notification requirement. Before a new GM food is releases into the Canadian market it undergoes 7 to 10 years of research, development, and testing to ensure the safety of the food. Manufacturers and importers of the food must submit data to Health Canada as part of the pre-market safety assessment as required under Division 28 of part B of the Food and Drugs Regulations. The purpose of this testing is to provide assurance that the food is safe when used according to its intended uses. Health Canada Follows 8 steps in the novel foods regulatory process:
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1. Pre-submission consultation 2. Pre-market notification 3. Scientific Assessment 4. Requests for additional information 5. Summary report of findings 6. Preparation for the food rulings proposal 7. Letter of no objection 8. Decision document on Health Canada Web site

Sugar Cane Genetic Modification in Fiji

Health Canada and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) are cooperatively responsible for food labelling policies under the Food and Drugs Act. If the nutritional value or composition of a food has been changed, or if there is an allergen present in the food, the food must be labelled accordingly. In April 2004 the Government of Canada established the national standard for labelling genetically engineered foods. This standard consists of voluntary labeling and advertising of foods which are, and are not, products of genetic engineering. The objectives of these standards are to provide meaningful criteria for labelling, understandable messages of consumers, and the creation of a consistent policy to verify the truthfulness of labels on GM foods.

http://plantphys.info/plant_physiology/c4cam.shtml

Sugarcane (Saccharum edule) is a plant that is highly produced in Fiji for commercial purposes. The main parts of the sugarcane plant are the stalk, leaves, and the root system. The diagram below shows the anatomy of a sugarcane plant.

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http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/LyraEDISServlet?command=getImageDetail&image_soid=IMAGE%20SC:SC034F01 &document_soid=SC034&document_version=73747

As shown in the diagrams above, sugarcane is a monocot plant. This can be determined due to its fibrous and branched roots, and its parallel lead veins. Additionally, the embryos of sugarcane have only one cotyledon, its flowers have petals in multiples of 3, and the vascular bundles are scattered throughout the stem, which has no cortex. The pollen sugarcane produces only has a single furrow or pore. Below is a diagram of the leaf structure of sugarcane.

Sugarcane generally reproduces through artificial asexual propagation, but under certain circumstances can reproduce sexually. Commercial sugarcane is propagated by cutting a stalk which has more than one node with buds on it. The stalk with buds is planted and forms a new shoot and develop its own roots. Sugar cane requires a variety of different elements to produce a healthy crop: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, nitrogen, calcium, potassium, boron, chlorine, magnesium, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, sulphur, and zinc. Sugarcane grows best in sunny, warm conditions without frost. It requires well-drained, moist, fertile soil that receives at least 1,500 mm of rainfall annually. Sugarcane undergoes a few different processes: photosynthesis, respiration, translocation, ripening, and evapotranspiration. Shown below is the chemical equation for photosynthesis in sugarcane.

http://www.skyitoutrc.com/

! Since 1998, research has been done to genetically modify sugarcane for virus resistance, and tolerance to herbicides. In the near future USA and Brazil will begin commercially growing the first GM sugarcane. This sugarcane will be grown as a food product, for bioethanol vehicle fuel, for bagasse (a fuel used in manufacturing and electricity production), and animal feed. Modifying sugarcane to be resistant to viruses will prevent the
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sugarcane from being affected by certain viral infections which could wipe out the crop. Herbicide resistant sugarcane could be useful in allowing farmers to use herbicides on weeds in the vicinity of sugarcane without harming the plant. In the future, biotechnology companies are planning to further develop other agronomic traits: pathogen resistance, fungal resistance, bacterial resistance, herbicide tolerance, insect resistance, drought resistance, tolerance to high salinity environments, and increased sugar production.

in order to feed such a large population. This means that food production will have to be doubled, or even tripled to efficiently nourish the expected 6 billion people that will live on Earth. Of these 6 billion people, 90% are expected to reside in developing countries. This demand for food will have a large impact on both Canada and Fiji.

http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/dupont-and-bses-limited-partner-to-improve-sugarca ne-planting-technologies-and-varieties-69846972.html

http://www.resourceinvestor.com/2011/06/03/feeding-the-worlds-hunger-for-phosphorus

Impacts of Genetically Modified Foods on Canada and Fiji

Genetically modified foods have a major impact on both developed and developing countries. The worlds population is expected to almost double by 2050: this means that food reliability, security, and production will become extremely important

Canada is currently the third largest producer of GM crops producing over 5.4 million hectares of genetically modified produce annually. Genetically modified foods play a key role in the lives of Canadians. Much of the food we eat is genetically modified: approximately 70% of processed foods sold in
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Canada contain genetically modified ingredients. Since 1994, Health Canada has approved over 100 different GM foods for sale on the Canadian market. Below is a chart showing what modifications are made on the top 4 GM foods most produced in Canada, as well as the most commonly imported GM foods.

In Fiji, at the Koronivia research station, research is being done to minimize the impact of fruit flies on a variety of fruits grown locally including: guava, mango, breadfruit, papaya, and vutu.!They have been developing, and researching the use of pesticides to kill insects that threaten their production of fruits and other crops. Genetically modified foods could have huge potential in Fiji: plants could be genetically modified to have improved pest control to resist against the rising threat of fruit flies.

Conclusion
Genetically modified foods have many great benefits: the ability to solve malnutrition and hunger worldwide, greater nutritional value, ability to survive in harsh climates, greater food security, and reduced use of pesticides and insecticides. But, the ethical and health problems associated with genetically modified foods create controversy around the use and development of this newly emerging technology. Governments and consumers worldwide have been working together to develop and improve regulations and policies regarding the sale, production and labelling of genetically modified foods. Canada, the United States, and Fiji are just some of many countries which have been working independently on regulations and standards for these new types of foods that are dominating markets worldwide. The future use of genetic engineering is
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http://www.cban.ca/

believed to be inevitable by many: we cannot afford to disregard such a technology that has the possibility for such enormous potential benefits. Yet, we must proceed with caution in order to prevent causing unintended harm to human and animal health as well as damage our environment.

References
Genetically Modified Foods: Harmful or Helpful?. CSA ProQuest. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from www.csa.com/discoveryguides/gmfood/overview.php How GMO foods alter Human DNA - Underground Health . Underground Health - Health News, Holistic Healing, Alternative Medicine. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.undergroundhealth.com/how-gmo-foods-alter-human-dna/ Fiji to regulate improved food standards and imports. SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from www.spc.int/en/home/445-fiji-to-regulate-improved-food-standards-and-imports .html C, t. e. C4 and CAM Cycles. Home Page for Ross Koning. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://plantphys.info/plant_physiology/c4cam.shtml Category. Prostate cancer. Healthcare Center. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://adam.about.net/reports/Prostate-cancer.htm Contact | Continuing Nursing Education | College of Nursing. University of Saskatchewan. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.usask.ca/nursing/cedn/programs/2010-11_Conferences/TB/TB_Conf _2010.php GMO genetically Modified and Genetically Engineered Foods Monsanto. The Cavings Coach. Retrieved August 15, 2013, from thecravingscoach.com/blog/gmo-genetically-modified-and-genetically-engineered -foods-monsanto/ Genetic Engineering. (n.d.). MicrobiologyBytesMicrobiologyBytes The latest news about microbiology. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.microbiologybytes.com/introduction/GeneticEngineering.html Genetic Engineering. MicrobiologyBytesMicrobiologyBytes The latest news about microbiology. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.microbiologybytes.com/introduction/GeneticEngineering.html

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Genetically Modified Crops and Developing Countries. Plant Physiology Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.plantphysiol.org/content/124/3/923.full

Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary. Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://passel.unl.edu/pages/informationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=1075 412493&topicorder=3&maxto=12&minto=0 Royal Icing Recipe | Snowflake Cut Out Cookies | TidyMom. TidyMom | A place for easy recipes, household tips and products that help women ease the chaos of everyday life.. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://tidymom.net/2010/royal-icing-recipe-snowflake-cookies/ SABIO: Genetics Laboratory. ROHAN Academic Computing WWW Server. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~sepa/genetics.htm SS-AGR-234/SC034: Sugarcane Botany: A Brief View. EDIS - Electronic Data Information Source - UF/IFAS Extension. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/sc034 Sugar cane - GMO Database. GMO Compass. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/database/plants/76.sugar_cane.html Sugarcane Botany: A Brief View -- Figure 1. The sugarcane plant.. EDIS - Electronic Data Information Source - UF/IFAS Extension. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/LyraEDISServlet?command=getImageDetail&image_soid =IMAGE%20SC:SC034F01&document_soid=SC034&document_version=73747 Take Action - Canadian Biotechnology Action Network - CBAN. Take Action - Canadian Biotechnology Action Network - CBAN. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.cban.ca/ The Regulation of Genetically Modified Foods. Welcome to the Health Canada Web site | Bienvenue au site Web de Sant Canada. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/sr-sr/pubs/biotech/reg_gen_mod-eng.php We have discovered a new blog dedicated to LAB TUTORIALS!. BIO 4 Beginners. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://diybio4beginners.blogspot.ca/2009/03/we-have-discovered-new-blog-dedi cated.html Gene, i. a. Genetically modified foods - techniques | Better Health Channel. Home | Better Health Channel. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from

Genetically Modified Foods (Biotech Foods) Pros and Cons. WebMD - Better information. Better health.. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/features/are-biotech-foods-safe-to-eat Genetically modified food concerns - Fiji Times Online. The Fiji Times Online. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=173060 Growing Sugarcane. Welcome to Proserpine, Sweetheart of the Whisundays, and Service Centre of the Whitsunday Region. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.proserpine.com/sugar/page4.html Hancock, M. HANS - Genetically Modified Foods. HANS Health Action Network Society. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.hans.org/magazine/273/ History of Genetically Modified Foods. The Global Change Program at the University of Michigan. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/workspace/sect008/ s8g5/history.htm History of Genetically Modified Foods. The Global Change Program at the University of Michigan. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/workspace/sect008/ s8g5/history.htm History of Genetically Modified Foods. The Global Change Program at the University of Michigan. Retrieved August 16, 2013,

from

http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/workspace/sect008/ s8g5/history.htm Lifton, J. Feeding the World's Hunger for Phosphorus | Resource Investor. Resource Investor | News That Trades: Gold, Silver, Metals, Mining, Commodities. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.resourceinvestor.com/2011/06/03/feeding-the-worlds-hunger-for-ph osphorus Photosynthesis. Photosynthesis. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from www.skyitoutrc.com/

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http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Genetically_mo dified_foods_techniques Retval;}, e. DuPont and BSES Limited Partner to Improve Sugarcane Planting Technologies and Varieties -- BRISBANE, Australia, Nov. 12 /PRNewswireFirstCall/ --. PR Newswire: press release distribution, targeting, monitoring and marketing. Retrieved August 16, 2013, from http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/dupont-and-bses-limited-partner-to-i mprove-sugarcane-planting-technologies-and-varieties-69846972.html

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C HAPTER 21

There and back again A Fisheries Tale

By: Chris Wong

The great art of fishing dates back to about 40, 000 years, and fishing vessels crossing the ocean can date back to the 16th century. Fishing however, soon became a means of economy rather than fun and games, and on islands such as Fiji in the South Pacific, fishermen realised that the ocean waters were easily accessible to them and took gladly advantage of this. Fishing in Fiji in the more ancient days was less harmful to the ecosystems and marine environment due to the more primitive equipment- and while the South-Pacific brags about having the most developed and perfected sailing technology due to several thousands of years of open-ocean voyaging, the present-day fishing vessels can make you cringe and stutter when you imagine how much damage they can do to the environment. Olden time fishing in Fiji was done on a Drua, and ended near the 19th century (When European vessels were introduced, and later motorized vessels); the date when Drua fishing had originally began unfortunately has been lost, as well as only two original Drua boats remain (The Sema Makawa is preserved in the New Zealand National Maritime Museum, and the Ratu Finau is preserved in the Fiji Museum Suva where we were able to view it). The type of fishing done on the Drua was harmful, but less harmful and far more sustainable than present day fishing. The ancient fishing was done with tools like fish traps, spears, and the most common: pole and line. They were able to catch many fish, and did not harm the coral reefs too heavily- but they were overfishing at times. Since the ancient times, through the 1960s (When the first tuna cannery

opened in Levuka, where we were also able to visit) to present day, the amount of tuna catches annually in the South Pacific has been constantly dropping. Fiji Times Online mentions that it is a very real danger that tuna can be depleted. Fortunately, today there are certain time periods in threatened fishing communities in Fiji where fishing will be halted, to allow fish to regain its numbers. The fishermen of the olden times were not aware of this problem, and thus they fished to their hearts content, drastically lowering the population of many fish.

A picture of a Drua:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Fiji

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The ancient fishermen overfishing are not nearly as bad as todays fishing issues however. Overfishing and exploitation have been taking to a whole new level with present day fishing, as the fresh fish export industry has grown rapidly so much that fisheries is now the third largest natural sector in Fiji, behind sugar and other crops. Greed has been a drain on natural resources, as not all fishermen comply with the rules that contribute to the elimination of overfishing. Due to new fishing equipment today, fishermen in the South Pacific can harm the environment in a couple of ways. First off, overfishing and exploitation has grown, and is becoming critical now. The Telegraph states that Tuna Fishing is to be banned in two areas of the South Pacific to control the fishermen from depleting the source. The two zones will be between Papua New Guinea and Palau, and the Marshall Islands, Kiribati, the Solomon Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia. Seremaia Tuqiri, the Fiji-based South Pacific fisheries policy officer for WWF states that many boats from countries like China, Taiwan, Japan, and Korea are causing a lot of harm to the South Pacific from over-fishing, as well as pirate ships coming from South America. Overfishing and exploitation create whats known as a domino affect, once one species of fish decreases in numbers, their predators will have less food and likely decrease too, and their prey will have less predators and likely increase to an unstable number, causing the marine biodiversity to collapse.

Another problem with commercial fishing is By-catch or Discards. These are the species that were not meant to be caught, but were caught anyway due to large fishing equipment like nets. These are usually sold, killed, or discarded, but in any case its often a waste of life where the fishermen will kill the animal and toss it overboard. The net fishing in shallow waters also manages to damage coral (Will be discussed further later) and other seabed life, in a single run it can remove 5 to 25% of an areas seabed life. In other cases like when hunting for sharks, they will sometimes kill the shark and toss it overboard but only keep one part of the shark (The fin, which is used for a special delicacy called Shark fin soup). Keeping only a fraction of the dead shark leads to having to fish for more and more sharks. The worst however, is when animals are killed by chance. Boat propellers that are misused in more shallow to medium waters often kill the living sea creatures around it, including turtles, coral, and larger non-game fish. Boats are indeed just as harmful as the fishing equipment, as the boat propellers are not the only tools of destruction; there is ocean pollution from the boats, the silent killer.

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An innocent sea turtle sadly killed by a boat propeller:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing

Some commercial fishing industries have found away to work around by-catches and discards. Some companies are now utilizing the ancient technique of the pole and line rather than a net. This will minimize the seabed life and coral being damaged from nets being used in too shallow water, and will certainly minimize the amount of by-catches and discards. The pole and line seems like a lot of effort vs. the net for fishing, but it is surprisingly effective and efficient. Here is a video from BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) of commercial boat fishing for skipjack tuna, this specie of tuna is abundant and there is no worry for their numbers. The pole and line method is being used, which is worlds better than using a net:
Video

Ocean Pollution can be caused by numerous inconsiderate fishing practises. The prime cause of pollution is the discharge of crude oil into the ocean waters done by larger ships, some boats do this accidentally, and some do it deliberately. Either way, this is extremely hazardous for marine life. It seriously affects the life cycle of coral reefs in the ocean, and could possibly clog the gills of fishes and thus preventing respiration. Marine plants ability of photosynthesis will also be hindered due to the oil blocking sunlight. The emissions from these boats can be very toxic as well, the carbon dioxide emitted, due to the burning of fossil fuels, leads to the air being polluted. The contaminated air containing carbon dioxide will reach the ocean via acid rain, thereby polluting the water and the inhabitants within it.

Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i5mMI8t7vV0

Episode 6 Fragile Paradise: The South Pacific is still relatively healthy and teeming with fish, but it is a fragile paradise. International fishing fleets are taking a serious toll on the sharks, albatross and tuna, and there are other insidious threats to these bountiful seas. This episode looks at what is being done to preserve the ocean and its wildlife.!

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There are around five known species of tuna in total. There are two species that are worth discussing. The Southern Bluefin Tuna and The Yellowfin Tuna. The two were chosen specifically for many reasons. First of all, the Southern Bluefin Tuna is listed as critically endangered, something that cannot be taken likely. The Yellowfin Tuna is listed as near threatened but other issues surround it that will be discussed later. Second, Tuna is a huge industry in Fiji, as it the second largest exporting industry after tourism and a huge fraction of Fijis economy. Third, it is also interesting that the Southern Bluefin and the Yellowfin are both found in South Pacific Waters and that the Yellowfin Tuna is becoming a replacement for the Southern Bluefin Tuna due to its numbers being severely depleted. The issue surrounding the Yellowfin Tuna mentioned earlier is the fact juvenile Yellowfin Tuna swim in schools with adult Skipjack Tuna. Skipjack Tunas numbers are fine and it is a popular option for commercial fishing, however when nets are used the juvenile Yellowfin Tuna become by-catches and are unable to spawn, leading to less Yellowfin Tuna in the future. Overtime this could mean going from Near Threatened to Vulnerable or even Endangered. The PAFCO fishery in Levuka specializes in Tuna cannery and ships to markets to mostly Europe and Canada, PAFCO saved Levuka economically in 1964 when Levuka no longer used their stopover port for ocean vessels crossing the Pacific in 1950.

Here is a picture of a Bluefin Tuna:

http://www.njsaltwaterfisherman.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=393&Itemid=192

Here is a picture of a Yellowfin Tuna:

http://spearfishingcharters.com.au/pelagics/

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The internal anatomies of the two tuna are generally the same as the internal anatomies of other fish. The external anatomies of the two tuna are similar to each other, just different sizes and colours. The Tuna contains a first dorsal fin, a second dorsal fin, pectoral fins, a pelvic fin, an anal fin, and a caudal fin. The Tunas internal anatomy follows the diagram below, the brain is next to the eye, the gills are positioned behind the mouth, the hear is positioned behind the gills, the intestines/stomach/liver all connect from the heart and gills to the vent located just in front of the second dorsal fin, the muscle is located between the second dorsal fin and the anal fin, the spine run along the inner top of the tuna, the kidney is right under the spine, the swim bladder is right under the kidney, and the eggs are positioned between the pyloric caeca and the swim bladder. A diagram showing the internal general anatomy of a fish:

The Southern Bluefin Tunas scientific name is Thunnus maccoyii Yellowfin Tunas scientific name is Thunnus albacares. Tunas Taxonomy is as follows: Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Chordata, Class: Actinopterygii, Order: Perciformes, Family: Scombridae, Tribe: Thunnini. The Southern Bluefin Tuna and the Yellowfin Tuna belong to the Genera Thunnus. The Tuna has a few predators. These include: killer whales, pilot whales, sharks, predatory fishes and seabirds. Their prey can include: fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans. Both Southern Bluefin and Yellowfin Tuna are regarded for a number of delicacies. The Southern Bluefin Tuna is a gourmet food, which is high in demand for sushi and sashimi. The medium flavoured flesh is recognized by both Japanese and Western cultures to be the best raw fish to eat in the world. Yellowfin Tuna on the other hand is becoming a popular replacement for Southern Bluefin Tuna, due to the severely depleted supplies (As mentioned earlier) and is widely used for raw fish dishes like sashimi. Greenpeace International added the Yellowfin Tuna to its seafood red list in 2010. This list states the fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and currently have a high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries. After extensive research, the number of chromosomes in either a Southern Bluefin Tuna or Yellowfin Tuna was not available. The most information that could be found was that a carp fish contains 104 chromosomes.

http://sharon-taxonomy2009-p2.wikispaces.com/Chordata-Fishes

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Bluefin Tuna Sushi, a very expensive and prized delicacy of Japan:

http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/photos/oceans-overfishing/#/sushi_396_600x450.jpg

Cyanide fishing is a method of dumping cyanide in the waters to stun fish for easier harvesting; this cyanide however poisons the coral reefs greatly and kills about 90% of the fish living in it. Another method is Blast fishing, where explosives are used to stun fish, but coral reefs are caught in the crossfire. One method, is where fishermen will pound the reefs with nets to scare the fish out the crevices, this process is called muro-ami netting and has a very negative impact on the reefs. The biodiversity of coral reefs are incredibly more important than some would think. A large and diverse coral reef can contribute to protection from waves and storms, and provide larger fish to inhabit the waters. The coral reefs will also support tourism, as snorkelling or scuba diving would be nothing without the coral reefs. Tourism is one of Fijis biggest sources of income, so the real question is; how is present day fishing sustainable at all? Present Day Fishing only brings more income short-term, the damages done on the coral reefs will bring in less tourists, thus present day fishing will bring is less income long-term:

Now to answer the ultimate question: Which is more sustainable, present day fishing or back in the day fishing in Fiji? The answer is what one would call a no-brainer; the methods of ancient fishermen were much more environmentally sustainable compared to present day fishing, so much more that in industrial fishing companies are trying to use such methods. It is arguable that present day fishing brings in more money annually, but that argument is invalid, heres why: Coral reefs. There are some disgusting practices used by certain fishing companies in the South Pacific that have no concern for the coral reefs whatsoever. One method includes cyanide fishing.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/habitats/Reef

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SOURCES
http://www.mundusmaris.org/index.php/en/projects/transitions/188-the-traditi onal-fishing-ground-in-fiji-qoliqoli http://fisherymanagement.wikia.com/wiki/Fiji http://www.scidev.net/global/biodiversity/feature/old-and-new-knowledge-comb ine-to-protect-fiji-s-fish.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Fiji http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levuka http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=198145 http://www.investmentfiji.org.fj/pages.cfm/for-investors/sector-industry-profiles /fisheries-industries.html http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X9800044X http://www.gyokei.sakura.ne.jp/D.P/Vol5/No5_1.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_fishing http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Fiji http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/3343197/Tuna-fishing-ban-for-Sout h-Pacific-zones.html http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/fishing-affect-coral-reefs https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing http://worldwildlife.org/species/tuna http://www.njsaltwaterfisherman.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=art icle&id=393&Itemid=192 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuna http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/BluefinTuna/BluefinTuna.html

http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/yellowfintuna/yellowfintuna.ht ml http://www.yourgenome.org/dgg/general/compare/compare_2.shtml

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