The Democratic Coup

Volume 53, Number 2, Summer 2012
The Democratic Coup dE tat

O a! O" Varol
Table o# Co!te!t$ %" %%" %!troductio! """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""2&2 T'pical Characteri$tic$ o# a Democratic Coup dE tat """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 2 The Co!$titutio!al E!tre!chme!t The$i$ """"""""" 3 & 0 A. Self-Interested Behavior in Democratic Politics """"""""""" 3 0 B. Self-Interested Behavior by Military Leaders in a Democratic Coup """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 3 C. Constitutional ntrenchment Durin! Military "ule """""" 3 1 1 Ca$e Studie$ """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 3 2 A. #he #ur$ish Coup of %&'() Institutional ntrenchment """ 3 2 %. #he Prelude and Aftermath of the Coup """""""""""" 3 2 *. Institutional ntrenchment """"""""""""""""""""""" 3 2 a. #he #ur$ish Constitutional Court """"""""""""" 3 2 b. #he +ational Security Council """""""""""""""" 3 B. #he Portu!uese Coup of %&,-) Substantive ntrenchment " " 3 %. #he Prelude and Aftermath of the Coup """""""""""" 3 *. Substantive ntrenchment """""""""""""""""""""""" 3 C. #he !yptian Coup of *(%%) Procedural ntrenchment """" 3 %. #he Prelude and Aftermath of the Coup """""""""""" 3 ( *. Procedural ntrenchment """"""""""""""""""""""""" 3 ( Co!clu$io! """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 3 5
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.arvard International La/ 0ournal 1 2ol. 34
The Democratic Coup dE

O a! O" Varol)
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#his Article e5amines the typical characteristics and constitutional conse6uences of a lar!ely ne!lected phenomenon that I call the 7democratic coup d8e9tat.: #o date; the academic le!al literature has analy<ed all military coups under an anti-democratic frame/or$. #hat conventional frame/or$ considers military coups to be entirely anti-democratic and assumes that all coups are perpetrated by po/er-hun!ry military officers see$in! to depose e5istin! re!imes in order to rule their nations indefinitely. =nder the prevailin! vie/; therefore; all military coups constitute an affront to stability; le!itimacy; and democracy. #his Article; /hich dra/s on field/or$ that I conducted in !ypt and #ur$ey in *(%%; challen!es that conventional vie/ and its underlyin! assumptions. #he Article ar!ues that; althou!h all military coups have anti-democratic features; some coups are distinctly more democracy-promotin! than others because they respond to popular opposition a!ainst authoritarian or totalitarian re!imes; overthro/ those re!imes; and facilitate free and fair elections. >ollo/in! a democratic coup; the military temporarily !overns the nation as part of an interim !overnment until democratic elections ta$e place. #hrou!hout the democratic transition process; the military behaves as a self-interested actor and entrenches; or attempts to entrench; its policy preferences into the ne/ constitution drafted durin! the transition. Constitutional entrenchment may occur in three /ays) procedural; substantive; and institutional. #he Article uses three comparative case studies to illustrate the democratic coup phenomenon and the constitutional entrenchment thesis) ?%@ the %&'( military coup in #ur$ey; ?*@ the %&,- military coup in Portu!al; and ?4@ the *(%% military coup in !ypt.
%!troductio! O! *ebruar' 11, 2011, the E+'ptia! ,rmed *orce$ $ei ed po-er #rom .re$ide!t /o$!i 0ubara1 i! a coup detat" The coup -a$ $ta+ed i! re$po!$e to determi!ed prote$t$ o2er ei+htee! da'$ b' hu!dred$ o# thou$a!d$ o# E+'ptia!$ dema!di!+ the ou$ter o# the autocratic a!d corrupt 0ubara1 re3 +ime a!d it$ replaceme!t -ith democrac'" The demo!$tratio!$ -ere lar+el' !o!3ideolo+ical a!d the prote$tor$ hailed #rom all #acet$ o# E+'ptia! $ociet'" 4ome! a!d me!, 0u$lim$ a!d Chri$tia!$, $eculari$t$ a!d %$lami$t$, the poor a!d the -ealth' all 5oi!ed ha!d$ i! the aptl' !amed al3Tahrir, or 6iber3 atio! S7uare, i! a call #or #reedom a!d democrac' a#ter decade$ o# rule b' dictator$"1 That call -a$ a!$-ered, !ot b' a #orei+! po-er, but b' the
cou!3
) Vi$iti!+ ,$$i$ta!t .ro#e$$or o# 6a-, Chica+o38e!t Colle+e o# 6a-" *or help#ul di$cu$$io!$ a!d #eedbac1, % tha!1 9er!adette ,tuahe!e, 6i$a 9er!$tei!, 4illiam 9irdthi$tle, %rit 9rod$1', Natha! 9ro-!, Chri$topher 9ucca#u$co, :ia!li! Che!, Ste2e! /e'ma!, Tom ;i!$bur+, Ta''ab 0ahmud, <o$$ 0cS-ee!e', :oh! .arr', 0u$tapha el3Sa''id, 8ri$te! Stilt, Chri$topher Schmidt, Tacetti! Varol, =urda!ur Varol, Tere$ita ;arc>a de la /uerta Vial, %!+ram 4eber, a!d the participa!t$ i! the =ale3 %lli!oi$3.ri!ceto! Comparati2e 6a- 4or1$3i!3.ro+re$$ 4or1$hop, Chica+o3 8e!t *acult' 4or1$hop, a!d the ?!i2er$it' o# Chica+o 6e+al Scholar$hip 4or1$hop" *or out$ta!di!+ re$earch a$$i$ta!ce, % tha!1 8e2i! 0cClure" ,ll Tur1i$h tra!$latio!$ i! the ,rticle are mi!e" 1. See; e.!., Da2id D" 8ir1patric1, !ypt rupts in 0ubilation as Mubara$ Steps Do/n, N"=" Time$, *eb" 11, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A02A12A-orldAmiddleea$tA12e+'pt"htmlBpa+e-a!tedCall DEThi$ i$ a re2olutio! #or all E+'ptia!$F there i$ !o room #or a $i!+le +roup$ $lo+a!$, !ot the G0u$limH 9rother3
*(%* 1 #he Democratic Coup d8
tat
tr'$ o-! militar', -hich $ei ed po-er #rom 0ubara1 a!d a$$umed co!trol o# the +o2er!me!t" 0ubara1$ #all $par1ed a -a2e o# celebratio!$ arou!d the -orld" ,$ the Etouch$to!e #or cha!+eI i! the ,rab -orld, 2 E+'pt +a2e hope to the op3
pre$$ed people o# 6ib'a, S'ria, =eme!, a!d be'o!d to re2olt a+ai!$t their oppre$$or$"3 Credit #or the $ucce$$#ul o2erthro- o# the 0ubara1 re+ime -e!t i! lar+e part to the E+'ptia! ,rmed *orce$, -ho re#u$ed to #ire o! the prote$tor$ duri!+ the demo!$tratio!$ a!d $tepped i! to a$$ume co!trol o# the +o2er!me!t -he! 0ubara1 $tubbor!l' re#u$ed to reli!7ui$h hi$ $tro!+hold" .re$ide!t 9arac1 Obama heaped prai$e o! the E+'ptia! militar' #or E$er2Gi!+H patrioticall' a!d re$po!$ibl' a$ a careta1er to the $tateI a!d eJpre$$ed hi$ co!#ide!ce that the militar' -ould Ee!$ure a tra!$itio! that i$ credible i! the e'e$ o# the E+'ptia! people"I(
The E+'ptia! militar' coup appear$ to brea1 the traditio!al mold o# mili3 tar' coup$" /i$toricall', mo$t militar' coup$ ha2e bee! perpetrated b' po-er3hu!+r' militar' o##icer$, primaril' i! South ,merica a!d ,#rica, $ee1i!+ to depo$e eJi$ti!+ re+ime$ i! order to rule their !atio!$ i!de#i3 !itel'"5 The term militar' coup detat *re!ch #or E$tro1e o# the $tateI
bri!+$ to mi!d coup$ $ta+ed throu+h corrupt bac1room plot$ b' o##icer$ li1e Colo!el 0uammar ;adda#i" 0ilitar' o##icer$ i! mo$t coup$ abu$e public tru$t a!d o2erthro- the eJi$ti!+ re+ime, !ot to bri!+ about $tructural re3 +ime cha!+e, but to co!ce!trate po-er i! their o-! ha!d$ a$ dictator$"K
The a$$umptio! that all militar' coup$ #it -ithi! thi$ traditio!al, a!ti3 democratic model per2ade$ the literature" ,ccordi!+ to the pre2aili!+ 2ie-, a democratic militar' coup i$ a! oJ'moro!" *or eJample, <ichard ,lbert$ rece!t -or1 o! democratic re2olutio!$ $tate$ that Eb' de#i!itio!, a coup ca!!ot be democratic"IL 0ilitar' coup$, accordi!+ to .ro#e$$or
,lbert, co!3 $titute Ea! a##ro!t to the democratic ideal$ o# $tabilit', co!$e!t, a!d le+iti3 mac'"IM ,!dre- :a!o$ li1e-i$e ha$ ar+ued that a coup detat Ei$ the re2er$al
hood$ or a!'bod' el$e"I D7uoti!+ 0ohamed Saad el38atat!i, a $po1e$ma! #or the 0u$lim 9rotherhoodNNF <obert *" 4orth, In Cairo; A "oom /ith a 2ie/ of the "evolution , N"=" Time$, 0ar" (, 2011, http@AA---" !'time$"comA2011A03A0KAma+a i!eA0K=ou</ere3t"html" 2. Editorial, !ypt8s =nfinished "evolution, N"=" Time$, 0ar" 2(, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA 2011A03A25Aopi!io!A25#ri2"htmlB re#Cmiddleea$t" 3. The #ir$t upri$i!+ o# the ,rab Spri!+ be+a! i! Tu!i$ia a#ter 0ohamed 9oua i ia, a! u!lice!$ed #ruit 2e!dor, $et him$el# o! #ire i! prote$t -he! a mu!icipal i!$pector attempted to co!#i$cate hi$ pro3 duce a!d $lapped him i! the #ace -he! he re#u$ed" See 8areem *ahim, Slap to a Man8s Pride Set Aff #umult in #unisia, N"=" Time$, :a!" 21, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A01A22A-orldAa#ricaA22$idi"html" 4. Ste2e 9e!e!, Abama) !yptians BBent the Arc of .istory #o/ard 0ustice Ance More ,8 4a$h" 0o!thl' D*eb" 11, 2011, (@10 .0N, http@AA---"-a$hi!+to!mo!thl'"comAarchi2e$Ai!di2idualA2011O 02A02L&K1" php" 5. :o!atha! 0" .o-ell P Cla'to! 6" Th'!e, Clobal Instances of Coups from %&3( to *(%() A +e/ Dataset, (M :" .eace <e$" 2(&, 255 D2011N DECoup$ ha2e bee! mo$t commo! i! ,#rica a!d the ,merica$ " " " "IN" 6. See <ichard ,lbert, Democratic "evolutions, M& De!2" ?" 6" <e2", !o" 2 D#orthcomi!+ ,pr" 2011N Dma!u$cript at 22N, available at http@AA$$r!"comAab$tractC1M0M021" 7. Id. at 20" 8. Id.
tat
o# the proce$$ o# re2olutio!"I& Other eJample$ o# thi$ academic 2ie-
abou!d"10 *ederal la- i! the ?!ited State$ re#lect$ the $ame di$dai! #or mili3 tar' coup$ b' prohibiti!+, -ith certai! eJceptio!$, a!' #i!a!cial a$$i$ta!ce Eto the +o2er!me!t o# a!' cou!tr' -ho$e dul' elected head o# +o2er!me!t i$ depo$ed b' militar' coup or decree"I 11 The Europea! ?!io! made a $imi3 lar commitme!t i! 1&&1"12
%! thi$ ,rticle, % challe!+e thi$ co!2e!tio!al i!tellectual #rame-or1 a!d it$ u!derl'i!+ a$$umptio!$" *ir$t, % propo$e that althou+h all coup$ ha2e a!ti3democratic #eature$ i!$o#ar a$ the' place the militar' i! po-er b' #orce or the threat o# #orce, $ome militar' coup$ are di$ti!ctl' more democrac'3 promoti!+ tha! other$" %! the$e coup$, the militar' re$po!d$ to popular oppo$itio! a+ai!$t a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime, o2erthro-$ that re+ime, a!d #acilitate$ #air a!d #ree electio!$ -ithi! a $hort $pa! o# time" ,lthou+h militar' leader$, li1e ci2ilia! leader$, ca! abu$e a!d ha2e abu$ed their po-er$, eJample$ eJi$t o# militar' coup$ de tat that ha2e $ucce$$#ull' tra!$itio!ed authoritaria! re+ime$ to democracie$" Thi$ ,rticle thu$ ad2o3 cate$ a more !ua!ced approach to e2aluati!+ the de$irabilit' o# coup$ that accou!t$ #or coup$ that produce democracie$, e$peciall' -here other path$ to democrati atio! ha2e bee! bloc1ed b' a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re3 +ime" Dra-i!+ o! #ield-or1 that % co!ducted i! E+'pt a!d Tur1e' duri!+ the $ummer o# 2011, thi$ ,rticle de$cribe$ the t'pical characteri$tic$ o# democratic coup$ a!d eJami!e$ their co!$titutio!al co!$e7ue!ce$ u$i!+ three comparati2e ca$e $tudie$@ D1N the 1&K0 militar' coup i! Tur1e', D2N the 1&L( militar' coup i! .ortu+al, a!d D3N the 2011 militar' coup i! E+'pt"
9. Id. D7uoti!+ ,!dre- C" :a!o$, #he Sei<ure of Po/er) A Study of >orce and Popular Consent , in <e$earch 0o!o+raph No" 1K, at 3K DCtr" %!tl Studie$, 4oodro- 4il$o! Sch" .ub" P %!tl ,##air$, .ri!ceto! ?!i2", 1&K(NN" 10. See; e.!., ;re+or' /" *oJ, Internationali<in! +ational Politics) Lessons for International Ar!ani<ations, 13 4ide!er 6" <e2" 2K5, 2K5 D200LN D!oti!+ that the i!ter!atio!al commu!it' ha$ u!i2er$all' co!3 dem!ed militar' coup$ a!d ha$ $upported Edemocrac' a$ i!crea$i!+l' ce!tral to a 2ariet' o# traditio!al le+al co!cer!$INF Stephe! E" ;ottlieb, Does Dhat De Eno/ About the Life Cycle of Democracy >it Constitutional La/F, K1 <ut+er$ 6" <e2" 5&5, K0( !"(3 D200&N D!oti!+ that a coup i$ a E!o!3democraticI #orm o# re+ime cha!+eNF Ve!1at %'er, "estoration Constitutionalism in the South Pacific , 15 .ac" <im 6" P .ol' :" 3&, 3& D200KN D!oti!+ that coup$ o#te! lead to Ere+ime$ a!tithetical to #reedom a!d democrac'INF E!3 ri7ue 6a+o$ P Timoth' D" <ud', #he #hird Summit of the Americas and the #hirty->irst Session of the AAS Ceneral Assembly, &K ,m" :" %!tl 6" 1L3, 1L5 D2002N D!oti!+ that a coup co!$titute$ Eu!democratic beha2iorINF Sal2ador 0aria 6o ada, #he Successful Appeal from Ballots to Bullets) #he .erculean .ardships of 0udiciali<in! Politics in Latin America, 25 N"="?" :" %!tl 6" P .ol" 123, 125 D1&&2N DEThe coup detat eJti!+ui$he$ democratic +o2er!me!t a!d e$tabli$he$ a militar' dictator$hip, -hich implie$ the di$appear3 a!ce o# le+i$lati2e po-er" *rom the! o! the la-$ are !o lo!+er made b' people$ repre$e!tati2e$, elected politicia!$ u!der the i!#lue!ce a!d co!trol o# their #ello- citi e!$" No-, the militar' ma1e$ the la-$ -ith the help o# ci2ilia! collaborator$ recruited amo!+ the co!$er2ati2e, opportu!i$tic, a!d reactio!ar' eleme!t$ o# the populatio!"INF Ta''ab 0ahmud, 0urisprudence of Successful #reason) Coup d8 tat G Common La/, 2L Cor!ell %!tl 6":" (&, 51 D1&&(N DESi!ce a! i!cumbe!t re+ime #orm$ part o# the co!$titutio!al order, it$ eJtra3co!$titutio!al o2erthro- i$ !ot o!l' ille+al but amou!t$ to the hi+h crime o# trea$o!"IN" 11. See Co!$olidated ,ppropriatio!$ ,ct o# 2010, .ub" 6" No" 111311L, Q L00M, 123 Stat" 303(, 33(5 D2010N" 12. Ni1ola' 0ari!o2 P /ei! ;oema!$, Coups and Democracy L D0ar" 12, 2012N Du!publi$hed ma!u3 $criptN, available at http@AA---"!i1ola'mari!o2"comA-p3co!te!tA#ile$A;oema!$0ari!o2Coup"pd#"
tat
Democratic militar' coup$ commo!l' #eature $e2e! attribute$@ the mili3 tar' coup i$ $ta+ed a+ai!$t a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+imeF the mili3 tar' re$po!d$ to popular oppo$itio! a+ai!$t that re+imeF the authoritaria! or totalitaria! leader re#u$e$ to $tep do-! i! re$po!$e to the popular oppo$i3 tio!F the coup i$ $ta+ed b' a militar' that i$ hi+hl' re$pected -ithi! the !atio!, ordi!aril' becau$e o# ma!dator' co!$criptio!F the militar' eJecute$ the coup to o2erthro- the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+imeF the militar' #acilitate$ #ree a!d #air electio!$ -ithi! a $hort $pa! o# timeF a!d the coup e!d$ -ith the tra!$#er o# po-er to democraticall' elected leader$" The democratic coup i$ the eJceptio!, !ot the !orm" The 2a$t ma5orit' o# coup$ do !ot #it -ithi! the democratic coup #rame-or1 put #orth i! thi$ ,rticle, primaril' becau$e either the' are $ta+ed a+ai!$t a democraticall' elected +o2er!me!t, !ot a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime, or the' re3 $ult i! a dictator$hip, !ot i! #ree a!d #air electio!$" 9ut !either i$ the demo3 cratic coup phe!ome!o! limited to the three ca$e$ eJplored i! thi$ ,rticle" ,ccordi!+ to a rece!t empirical $tud', i! the po$t3Cold 4ar era, $e2e!t'3 #our perce!t o# coup$ -ere #ollo-ed b' democratic electio!$ -ithi! #i2e 'ear$"13 ,$ the
author$ o# that $tud' !ote, the E!e- +e!eratio! o# coup$ ha$ bee! le$$ o# a me!ace #or democrac' tha! their hi$torical predece$$or$"I 1(
*ollo-i!+ a democratic coup, the militar' temporaril' +o2er!$ the !atio! a$ part o# a! i!terim +o2er!me!t u!til democratic electio!$ o# ci2ilia! lead3 er$ ta1e place" Duri!+ that democratic tra!$itio! proce$$, -hich t'picall' la$t$ #or o!e to t-o 'ear$, the militar' mu$t o2er$ee a !umber o# hou$e1eep3 i!+ ta$1$ to tra!$itio! the !atio! to a democrac'" Thi$ ,rticle #ocu$e$ o! o!e $peci#ic ta$1@ dra#ti!+ a !e- co!$titutio! to replace the co!$titutio! that +o2er!ed duri!+ the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime" The ,rticle$ $eco!d the$i$ i$ that, e2e! thou+h a democratic coup e!d$ i! #ree a!d #air electio!$, the militar' beha2e$ a$ a $el#3i!tere$ted actor duri!+ the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$ a!d e!tre!che$, or attempt$ to e!tre!ch, it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ i!to the !e- co!$titutio! dra#ted duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$"15 Co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t ma' occur i! three mode$@
procedu3
13. Id. at 12" Thi$ doe$ !ot mea!, ho-e2er, that $e2e!t'3#our perce!t o# all coup$ i! the po$t3 Cold 4ar era co!#orm to the democratic coup #rame-or1 i! thi$ article" *or eJample, i# the coup -a$ $ta+ed a+ai!$t a democraticall' elected +o2er!me!t Da$ oppo$ed to a totalitaria! or a! authoritaria! +o2er!3 me!tN, that coup -ould #all out$ide thi$ article$ democratic coup #rame-or1, -hether or !ot democratic electio!$ #ollo-ed the coup" See infra .art % Da!al' i!+ the t'pical characteri$tic$ o# a democratic coupN" 14. 0ari!o2 P ;oema!$, supra !ote 12, at 12" 15. The 2a$t literature o! public choice ha$ a!al' ed $el#3i!tere$ted beha2ior b' politicia!$ a!d a+e!c' co$t$ i! democratic rule" See; e.!., Da2id ,u$te!3Smith P :e##re' S" 9a!1$, .o$iti2e .olitical Theor' %%@ Strate+' a!d Structure 32K D2005NF Timoth' 9e$le', .ri!cipled ,+e!t$B@ The .olitical Eco!om' o# ;ood ;o2er!me!t 3K3M DOJ#ord ?!i2" .re$$ 200KNF /a!$ ;er$bach, De$i+!i!+ Democrac'@ %dea$ #or 9etter <ule$ 131( D2005N Dad2ocati!+ a combi!atio! o# i!ce!3 ti2e co!tract$ a!d electio!$ to moti2ate politicia!$ to pur$ue $ociall' de$irable do-!3up policie$NF 4il3 liam /" <i1er P .eter C" Orde$hoo1, ,! %!troductio! to .o$iti2e .olitical Theor' D1&L3NF <obert :" 9arro, #he Control of Politicians) An conomic Model, 1( .ub" Choice 1& D1&L3NF :oh! *ere5oh!, Incumbent Performance and lectoral Control, 50 .ub" Choice 5, M D1&MKNF Terr' 0" 0oe, #he +e/ conomics of Ar!ani<ation, 2M ,m" :" .ol" Sci" L3& D1&M(NF 0ar1u$ 0uller, Motivation of Politicians and Lon!-#erm
tat
ral, $ub$ta!ti2e, a!d i!$titutio!al" %! the procedural mode, the militar' $et$ up the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$ $o that the proce$$ produce$ a $ub$ta!3 ti2e co!$titutio!al outcome #a2orable to the militar'" %! the $ub$ta!ti2e mode, the militar' re$er2e$ $ub$ta!ti2e po-er$ #or it$el# u!der the !e- co!3 $titutio!" %! the i!$titutio!al mode, the militar' e$tabli$he$ cou!ter3 ma5oritaria! i!$titutio!$ u!der the !e- co!$titutio! that co!ti!ue to e!3 #orce the militar'$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ e2e! a#ter the militar' reli!7ui$he$ po-er to democraticall' elected leader$" %! democratic coup$, there#ore, the people a!d the militar' $eem to $tri1e a *au$tia! bar+ai! -here the militar' eJtract$ a price i! the #orm o# co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t i! eJcha!+e #or depo$i!+ a dictator$hip a!d tur!i!+ po-er o2er to the people" ,lthou+h militar' coup$ -ere o!ce a hot topic i! academia, $cholar$hip o! coup$ ha$ $i+!i#ica!tl' decrea$ed i! rece!t 'ear$"1K Scholar$ rece!tl' !oted
that the academ' Eco!ti!ueG$H to lac1 a ba$ic u!der$ta!di!+ o# hocoup$ mi+ht ha2e a broad impact o! a ra!+e o# topic$"I1L That dearth o# $cholarl' u!der$ta!di!+ eJte!d$ to the militar'$ role i! co!$titutio!al de$i+!, o! -hich there i$ little literature"1M The militar' thu$ remai!$ the Elea$t $tud3 ied o# the #actor$ i!2ol2ed i! !e- democratic mo2eme!t$"I1&
Thi$ $cholarl' $hortcomi!+ i$ e2e! more pro!ou!ced #or democratic mili3 tar' coup$, -hich ha2e bee! lar+el' !e+lected b' the literature" The co!cept o# a democratic coup, i!cludi!+ both it$ aim$ a!d it$ co!$titutio!al co!$e3 7ue!ce$, remai!$ #orei+! #or academic$ a!d politicia!$ ali1e" 4e are there3 #ore u!able to +ra$p a!d properl' addre$$, e5 ante, the pote!tial e##ect$ that a democratic militar' coup ma' ha2e o! the re$ulti!+ democratic co!$titu3 tio!"20 E$peciall' +i2e! the rece!t
hi+h3pro#ile coup i! E+'pt, there i$ a! ur+e!t !eed #or academic atte!tio! to the co!cept a!d co!$titutio!al co!$e3 7ue!ce$ o# a democratic militar' coup" Thi$ ,rticle i$ a! attempt to #ill that $cholarl' 2oid"
Thi$ ,rticle proceed$ i! three .art$" .art % a!al' e$ the t'pical character3 i$tic$ o# a democratic militar' coup detat" .art %% $et$ #orth the co!$titu3 tio!al e!tre!chme!t the$i$" .art %%% applie$ the co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t the$i$ to three ca$e $tudie$@ .art %%%", eJami!e$ the 1&K0 militar' coup i! Tur1e'F .art %%%"9 $tudie$ the 1&L( militar' coup i! .ortu+alF a!d .art %%%"C a!al' e$ the 2011 E+'ptia! militar' coup"
Policies, 132 .ub" Choice 2L3 D200LN" To m' 1!o-led+e, ho-e2er, $el#3i!tere$ted beha2ior b' militar' o##icial$ duri!+ militar' rule ha$ attracted little atte!tio! i! the literature" 16. See .o-ell P Th'!e, supra !ote 5, at 2(&F see also 0ahmud, supra !ote 10, at 52 D!oti!+ that the la$t article o! 5udicial re$po!$e$ to coup$ detat -a$ publi$hed i! 1&MKN" 17. .o-ell P Th'!e, supra !ote 5, at 2(&" 18. See; e.!., 0ahmud, supra !ote 10, at 103 DE, coup detat, o! the other ha!d, t'picall' aim$ o!l' at capturi!+ political po-er eJtra3co!$titutio!all'" O!l' that part o# the Co!$titutio! -hich bear$ o! the #ormatio! o# political or+a!$ o# the $tate i$ $ub2erted"IN" 19. See ,l#red Stepa!, <ethi!1i!+ 0ilitar' .olitic$ Ji D1&MMN" 20. See :ua! :" 6i! P ,l#red Stepa!, .roblem$ o# Democratic Tra!$itio! ,!d Co!$olida3 tio! KL D1&&KN"
tat
I. T'pical Characteri$tic$ o# a Democratic Coup dE tat

The primar' purpo$e o# a militar' i$ to protect the $tate #rom eJter!al threat$"21 To achie2e that purpo$e, the $tate mu$t e!do- the militar'
-ith the mea!$ to u$e coerci2e po-er 2ia militar' e7uipme!t a!d per$o!!el"22 Thi$ abilit' to u$e coerci2e #orce, thou+h !ece$$ar' to de#e!d the !atio! a+ai!$t threat$, create$ the da!+er that the militar' -ill tur! it$ -eapo!$ o! the 2er' re+ime that empo-ered it$ eJi$te!ce"23 %! a $emi!al article o! -hat he termed the Eci2il3militar' problemati7ue,I .eter *ea2er $ucci!ctl' $um3 mari ed the #u!dame!tal te!$io! cau$ed b' mai!tai!i!+ a militar' -ithi! a ci2ilia! +o2er!me!t@ EThe 2er' i!$titutio! created to protect the polit' i$ +i2e! $u##icie!t po-er to become a threat to the polit'"I 2( ,lthou+h mo$t !atio!$ emplo' le+al a!d admi!i$trati2e mea$ure$ to 1eep the militar' $ub3 $er2ie!t to the ci2ilia! +o2er!me!t, tho$e mea$ure$ are e##ecti2e o!l' i!$o#ar a$ the militar' choo$e$ to #ollothem"25 4he! the militar' di$re+ard$ tho$e mea$ure$ a!d u!lea$he$ it$ coerci2e po-er to topple the ci2ilia! +o2er!me!t, the re$ult i$ a coup detat"
The literature i$ ri#e -ith competi!+ de#i!itio!$ o# a coup detat" , coup detat, a$ the term i$ u$ed i! thi$ ,rticle, occur$ E-he! the militar', or a $ectio! o# the militar', tur!$ it$ coerci2e po-er a+ai!$t the apeJ o# the $tate, e$tabli$he$ it$el# there, a!d the re$t o# the $tate ta1e$ it$ order$ #rom the !e- re+ime"I2K Thi$ de#i!itio! eJclude$ coup$ perpetrated b'
$tate actor$ other tha! the militar' a!d al$o eJclude$ re2olutio!$, -hich are de#i!ed a$ epi3 $ode$ -here !o!3$tate actor$ e##ectuate re+ime cha!+e"2L The de#i!itio! #ur3 ther eJclude$ ca$e$ -here the militar' pla'$ a more pa$$i2e role i! a democratic tra!$itio! b', #or eJample, re#u$i!+ to $uppre$$ a popular oppo$i3 tio! -ithout o2ertl' a$$i$ti!+ it, or b' allo-i!+ a +o2er!i!+ cou!cil com3 pri$ed o# elected repre$e!tati2e$, !ot militar' o##icer$, to ru! the proce$$ o# tra!$itio! to democrac'" 9ecau$e thi$ ,rticle $tudie$ the militar'$ role i! democratic tra!$itio!$ a!d democratic co!$titutio!al de$i+!, % #ocu$ o! ca$e$ -here the militar' it$el# depo$e$ the eJi$ti!+ authoritaria! re+ime a!d $u3 per2i$e$ the democratic3tra!$itio! proce$$"
To date, academic di$cu$$io! ha$ primaril' ce!tered o! de#i!i!+ a coup i! term$ o# it$ tar+et$, perpetrator$, tactic$, a!d $ucce$$ or #ailure"2M *or eJam3
.eter D" *ea2er, Civil-Military "elations, 2 ,!!" <e2" .ol" Sci" 211, 21( D1&&&N" Id. Id.F see also 4alter *" 0urph', Co!$titutio!al Democrac'@ Creati!+ a!d 0ai!tai!i!+ a :u$t .olitical Order 1(M D200LN DE*or a!' political $'$tem, at lea$t pa$$i2e accepta!ce b' the armed #orce$ i$ a! ab$olute preco!ditio!" %# tho$e -ho 2irtuall' mo!opoli e 2iole!ce i!$trume!t$ are read' to tur! their -eapo!$ a+ai!$t a re+ime, that re+ime -ill either co!#orm to militar' dema!d$ or become a ci2il -ar 2ictim"IN" 24. *ea2er, supra !ote 21, at 21(" 25. Id. 26. Charle$ Samp#ord, Coups d8 tat and La/, in Shapi!+ <e2olutio! 1K( DE" ,tt-ooll ed", 1&&1N" 27. See id. 28. .o-ell P Th'!e, supra !ote 5, at 25052"
21. 22. 23.
tat
ple, $cholar$ di$a+ree o! -hether the tar+et o# a coup i$ the e!tire +o2er!3 me!t or o!l' the chie# eJecuti2e"2& 6i1e-i$e, $cholar$ ha2e debated
-hether the perpetrator o# a coup $hould be limited to the armed #orce$ or ma' i!clude a!' participati!+ part o# the $tate apparatu$ De"+", $ecurit' $er2ice$, ci2ilia! member$ o# the +o2er!me!t, etc"N" 30 Scholar$ al$o di$a+ree o! -hether the coup mu$t be ille+al 31 a!d -hether the de#i!itio! $hould i!3 clude coup plot$ a!d rumor$"
The de#i!itio!$ i! the eJi$ti!+ literature ha2e a! importa!t $hortcomi!+" The$e de#i!itio!$ #ocu$ primaril' o! the proce$$ b' -hich the coup ta1e$ place" The literature thu$ reduce$ coup$ detat to mecha!ical term$, -hile !e+lecti!+ po$$ible $ub$ta!ti2e compo!e!t$" 32 Thi$ .art attempt$ to
addre$$ thi$ $cholarl' o2er$i+ht b' de2elopi!+ a $ub$ta!ti2e #rame-or1 #or a$$e$$i!+ militar' coup$ that #ocu$e$ o! the re$ulti!+ cha!+e, or lac1 thereo#, to the +o2er!a!ce $tructure o# the re+ime #ollo-i!+ the coup"
0' +oal here i$ !ot to create a Eu!i2er$al o!e3$i e3#it$3all theor'I o# dem3 ocratic coup$ or a! Eele+a!t model that ab$tract$ a-a' the di$ti!cti2e"I33 The chaotic actualit' o# a coup detat rarel' #it$ -ithi!
!eat le+al cate+orie$" Coup$ te!d to i!2ol2e a ra!+e o# di##ere!t moti2atio!$, actor$, a!d outcome$" The ob5ecti2e$ o# the militar', a$ -ell a$ the outcome o# the coup, -ill o#te! be co!teJt3 depe!de!t" %t i$ !o!ethele$$ po$$ible to cate+ori e coup$ detat i!to t-o admittedl' $impli#ied +roup$ that #ocu$ o! -hether the coup pro3 duce$ democratic re+ime cha!+e"
The #ir$t t'pe o# coup $tructural demo3 cratic coupI t'picall' bri!+$ about o!l' per$o!i#ied cha!+e, !ot
-hich, #or ea$e o# re#ere!ce, % call the E!o!3
re+ime cha!+e"3( %! other -ord$, the coup leader$ replace the political lead3 er$ o# the pre3eJi$ti!+ re+ime -ith militar' o##icer$, but the #orm o# the +o2er!me!t a!d the political $'$tem remai! u!altered" %! a !o!3democratic coup, the ob5ecti2e o# the militar' o##icer$ i$ o#te! to co!ce!trate po-er i!
Id. at 250" Id. at 251" Id. *or eJample, Samuel *i!er$ de#i!itio! o# a coup i!clude$ the militar'$ Ei!ter2e!tio!I i!to political a##air$ -hether that i!ter2e!tio! i$ le+al or eJtra3le+al" See Samuel *i!er, The 0a! o!
29. 30. 31.
/or$ebac1@ The <ole o# the 0ilitar' i! .olitic$ 3 D1&MMN" %! co!tra$t, :o!atha! .o-ell a!d Cla'to! Th'!e re$trict their de#i!itio! to ille+al attempt$" See .o-ell P Th'!e, supra !ote 5, at 251" ?!der /a!$ 8el$e!$ $emi!al theor' o# re2olutio!ar' le+alit', the $ucce$$ o# a coup determi!e$ it$ le+al3
it'" See /a!$ 8el$e!, ;e!eral Theor' o# 6a- a!d State 11M D,!der$ 4edber+ tra!$", 1&K1N DEG%# the re2olutio!H $ucceedG$H, i# the old order cea$e$, a!d the !e- order be+i!$ to be e##icaciou$, becau$e the i!di2idual$ -ho$e beha2ior the !e- order re+ulate$ actuall' beha2e, b' a!d lar+e, i! co!#ormit' -ith the !e- order, the! thi$ order i$ co!$idered a$ a 2alid order"INF see also 0ahmud, supra !ote 10, at &0&1 DEGNHothi!+ $ucceed$ li1e $ucce$$"I Di!ter!al citatio!$ omittedNN, 10K0L" *or a critici$m o# 8el$e!$ theor', $ee ,lbert, supra !ote K, at 2122" 32. <ichard ,lbert rece!tl' addre$$ed a $imilar problem i! the co!teJt o# re2olutio!$" See !enerally ,lbert, supra !ote K" .ro#e$$or ,lbert ar+ue$ that the eJi$ti!+ re2olutio! theorie$ mecha!icall' #ocu$ o! a re2olutio!$ procedural compo!e!t$, -hile lac1i!+ a !ormati2e le!$ throu+h -hich to e2aluate the pur3 po$e
tat
that a re2olutio! $er2e$" Id. at M" 33. See 8im 6a!e Scheppele, Constitutional thno!raphy) An Introduction, 3M 6" P Soc" <e2" 3M&, 3&1 D200(N" 34. See ,lbert, supra !ote K, at 23"
10
tat
their o-! ha!d$ a!d rule the !atio! i!de#i!itel' a$ dictator$" Some o# the mo$t i!#amou$ rece!t eJample$ o# !o!3democratic coup$ detat i!clude 0uammar al3;adda#i$ o2erthro- o# the 6ib'a! re+ime a!d Omar /a$a! ,hmad al3 9a$hir$ coup i! Suda!" 9ut there i$ a $eco!d cate+or' o# militar' coup$, lar+el' !e+lected i! the eJi$ti!+ literature, -ho$e outcome$ are $ub$ta!ti2el' di##ere!t tha! tho$e o# !o!3democratic coup$" The$e coup$ o2erthro- a totalitaria! or authoritaria! re+ime, !ot to bri!+ about i!de#i!ite per$o!i#ied cha!+e, but to e##ectuate $tructural re+ime cha!+e b' #acilitati!+ #air a!d #ree democratic electio!$ -ithi! a $hort $pa! o# time" The e!d o# $uch a coup i$ mar1ed b' the tra!$3 #er o# po-er b' the militar' o##icer$ to democraticall' elected leader$" *or ea$e o# re#ere!ce, % re#er to $uch a coup a$ a Edemocratic coup"I 9e#ore % de$cribe the t'pical characteri$tic$ o# a democratic coup, three ca2eat$ are i! order" *ir$t, % do !ot mea! to $u++e$t that a militar' coup ca! e2er be democratic i! the traditio!al $e!$e o# that -ord" *ree a!d #air elec3 tio!$ are the sine 6ua non o# democrac', a!d the militar' a$$ume$ po-er !ot throu+h electio!$, but b' #orce or the threat o# #orce duri!+ a coup"35 ,ll
coup$, i!cludi!+ -hat % call the Edemocratic coup,I there#ore ha2e !o!3 democratic #eature$" 0' ar+ume!t here i$ that !ot all coup$ are e7uall' a!ti3 democraticF $ome coup$ are di$ti!ctl' more democrac'3promoti!+ tha! other$ becau$e the' depo$e a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime a!d tra!$3 #er po-er to democraticall' elected leader$"
Seco!d, % al$o do !ot ar+ue that a coup detat i$ pre#erable to other meth3 od$ o# re+ime cha!+e" %! certai! co!teJt$, a people$ re2olutio! i! -hich ci2ilia!$, a!d !ot militar' leader$, co!trol the tra!$itio! proce$$ ma' be pre#erable to a militar' coup" 9ut i! other$, militar' i!ter2e!tio! ma' be the o!l' a2ailable optio! to $hepherd a !atio! throu+h the tumultuou$ tra!3 $itio! proce$$ to democrac' becau$e other method$ o# democrati atio! ha2e bee! bloc1ed b' the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime" *or eJample, i! .ortu+al i! 1&L(, the authoritaria! +o2er!me!t e!$ured that the popular oppo$itio! a+ai!$t the re+ime remai!ed too di$or+a!i ed, $ociall' a!d politi3 call', to ta1e the primar' role i! depo$i!+ the +o2er!me!t, -hich prompted the .ortu+ue$e militar' to $ta+e a coup to topple the +o2er!me!t a!d re3 place it -ith a democratic re+ime"3K Third, m' #ocu$ here i$ o! the t'pical attribute$ o# a democratic coup, #rom the i!itial $par1 #or the coup to the ha!do## o# po-er to democraticall' elected leader$" % do !ot di$cu$$ -hether the re+ime that re$ult$ a#ter the militar' ha!d$ o2er po-er to democraticall' elected leader$ i$ EdemocraticI
35. See 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at (F see also =o$$i Shai! P :ua! :" 6i! , 9et-ee! State$@ %!terim ;o2er!me!t$ a!d Democratic Tra!$itio!$ & D1&&5N DE,$ lo!+ a$ tho$e -ho hold po-er duri!+ the i!terim period do !ot or+a!i e them$el2e$ a$ a co!te!di!+ part' a!d -i! a ma!date i! #ree a!d #air electio!$, the' ha2e !o democratic le+itimac'"IN" 36. See :ordi Sole Tura, Iberian Case Study) #he Constitutionalism of Democrati<ation, in Co!$titutio!3 ali$m a!d Democrac'@ Tra!$itio!$ i! the Co!temporar' 4orld 2M& DDou+la$ ;ree!ber+ et al" ed$", 1&&3N"
*(%* 1 #he Democratic Coup d8 301
tat
i! the traditio!al $e!$e o# that -ord or -hether the militar'$ e!tre!chme!t o# it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ i!to the re$ulti!+ co!$titutio!, -hich % di$cu$$ i! .art %%, pre2e!t$ democratic co!$olidatio!" % i!te!d to eJami!e the !orma3 ti2e implicatio!$ o# co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t i! #uture pro5ect$" 4ith the$e three ca2eat$ i! mi!d, ho- doe$ o!e determi!e -hether a militar' coup #it$ -ithi! the $eco!d, more democratic, protot'pe de$cribed abo2eB , democratic militar' coup t'picall' #eature$ the #ollo-i!+ $e2e! attribute$@ D1N the coup i$ $ta+ed a+ai!$t a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re3 +imeF D2N the militar' re$po!d$ to per$i$te!t popular oppo$itio! a+ai!$t that re+imeF D3N the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime re#u$e$ to $tep do-! i! re$po!$e to the popular upri$i!+F D(N the coup i$ $ta+ed b' a militar' that i$ hi+hl' re$pected -ithi! the !atio!, ordi!aril' becau$e o# ma!dator' co!3 $criptio!F D5N the militar' $ta+e$ the coup to o2erthro- the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+imeF DKN the militar' #acilitate$ #ree a!d #air electio!$ -ithi! a $hort $pa! o# timeF a!d DLN the coup e!d$ -ith the tra!$#er o# po-er to democraticall' elected leader$" >irst, a democratic coup $ee1$ to o2erthro- a totalitaria! or authoritaria! re+ime" %! a totalitaria! $'$tem, the ruli!+ part' ha$ elimi!ated almo$t all political, $ocial, a!d eco!omic plurali$m that eJi$ted be#ore the ad2e!t o# that re+ime"3L The o##icial part' o# the $tate ha$ a
2irtual mo!opol' o! po-er that it eJerci$e$ to #urther a u!i#ied utopia! ideolo+'"3M The political leader$ o# the ruli!+ part' +o2er! the !atio!, u$uall' chari$maticall', -ith u!de#i!ed limit$ o! their authorit' a!d +reat 2ul!erabilit' a!d u!predict3 abilit' #or both member$ a!d !o!3member$ o# the ruli!+ part'"3&
%! a! authoritaria! re+ime a -atered3do-! 2er$io! o# a totalitaria! re3 +ime there i$ little or !o re$po!$ible political plurali$m"(0 The ruli!+
part' o#te! act$ a##irmati2el', 2ia le+al or eJtra3le+al mea!$, to $uppre$$ po3 litical oppo$itio!" ,lthou+h a! authoritaria! re+ime lac1$ re$po!$ible politi3 cal oppo$itio!, #airl' eJte!$i2e eco!omic a!d $ocial plurali$m eJi$t$ that pre3 date$ the e$tabli$hme!t o# the authoritaria! re+ime"(1 The ruli!+ leader or leader$ o#te! lac1 a! elaborate a!d +uidi!+ ideolo+' a!d eJerci$e po-er -ithi! ill3de#i!ed !orm$"(2
, coup $ta+ed a+ai!$t a !o!3authoritaria! or !o!3totalitaria! +o2er!me!t there#ore doe$ !ot co!$titute a democratic coup u!der thi$ #rame-or1" 0a!' coup$ ha2e bee! perpetrated -ith the o$te!$ible purpo$e o# toppli!+ -hat militar' leader$ 2ie- a$ corrupt, i!e##icie!t, or $hort$i+hted politicia!$" Tho$e coup$ #all out$ide the democratic coup #rame-or1 becau$e the people ma' depo$e $uch politicia!$ b' 2oti!+ them out o# o##ice, -ithout the !eed
37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.
6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at (0, (3" Id. Id. at (5" Id. at 3M, (3" Id. Id. at 3M"
*(%* 1 #he Democratic Coup d8 301
tat
to re$ort to militar' i!ter2e!tio!"(3 , coup ma' be democratic o!l' -he!
electio!$ are !ot a mea!i!+#ul mecha!i$m #or depo$i!+ a political leader becau$e that leader i$ u!-illi!+ to reli!7ui$h po-er"
Second, i! a democratic coup, the militar' re$po!d$ to a per$i$te!t popular oppo$itio! a+ai!$t a totalitaria! or authoritaria! leader" That oppo$itio! or3 di!aril' ta1e$ the #orm o# a popular upri$i!+"(( , popular upri$i!+, a$ % u$e
that phra$e here, re#er$ to a ma$$i2e +atheri!+ o# citi e!$ #rom ma!' $ociet' u!ited b' a commo! political cau$e i! thi$ co!teJt, the #acet$ o# o2erthroo# the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime" (5 Citi e!$ u$uall' $'mbolic place e"+" al3Tahrir S7uare i! Cairo or Tia!a!me! +ather i! a S7uare i! 9ei5i!+ to call #or the re$i+!atio! o# a! autocratic leader a!d the u$heri!+ i! o# democrac'"(K The +atheri!+ co!ti!ue$ o2er a period o# time a!d cro-d$ +ro- i! $i e, de!$it', a!d #er2or each da', i!dicati!+ broad popular $upport #or re+ime cha!+e"(L The citi e!$ re+ard them$el2e$ a$ the 2a!+uard o# a better #uture, o!e i! -hich the' co!trol their o-! de$ti!' -ithout the $tro!+hold o# a! oppre$$i2e re+ime"(M The' democrac' a -ill that ha$ bee! de!ied to are u!ited b' a commo! -ill #or them at the ballot boJ"(& ,l3 thou+h u!ited b' the commo! cau$e o# democratic re#orm, the cro-d$ t'pi3 call' lac1 a cohere!t bluepri!t #or achie2i!+ democratic re#orm a!d rarel' $ee #ar be'o!d the $i!+ular +oal o# the o2erthro- or re$i+!atio! o# the auto3 cratic leader"50
Duri!+ the popular oppo$itio!, the citi e!$ mi+ht eJpre$$l' call upo! the !atio!$ militar' to i!ter2e!e" *or eJample, Ethe people a!d the arm' are o!e ha!dI -a$ a cha!t #re7ue!tl' i!2o1ed duri!+ the popular upri$i!+ that
43. See Samuel ." /u!ti!+to!, The Third 4a2e@ Democrati atio! i! the 6ate T-e!tieth Ce!tur' 10 D1&&1N DE;o2er!me!t$ produced b' electio!$ ma' be i!e##icie!t, corrupt, $hort$i+hted, irre$po!$ible, domi!ated b' $pecial i!tere$t$, a!d i!capable o# adopti!+ policie$ dema!ded b' the public +ood" The$e 7ualitie$ ma' ma1e $uch +o2er!me!t$ u!de$irable, but the' do !ot ma1e them u!democratic"IN" 44. The popular oppo$itio!, ho-e2er, !eed !ot ta1e the #orm o# a popular upri$i!+" *or eJample, i! the ca$e o# .ortu+al, there -a$ !o ma$$i2e popular upri$i!+ a+ai!$t the re+ime, primaril' due to the oppre$$i2e practice$ o# the $ecret police that cru$hed a!' oppo$itio! be#ore it blo$$omed" The popular upri$i!+ came a#ter the coup, -he! thou$a!d$ poured i!to the $treet$ o# .ortu+al to le!d their $upport to the militar' o##icer$ -ho perpetrated the coup" % di$cu$$ the .ortu+al coup infra i! .art %%%"9" 45. See <a!dol# S" Da2id, People Po/er and the Le!al System) A Sociolo!ical +ote, in <e#lectio!$ o! Sociolo+' P .hilippi!e Societ' 2(1, 2(2 D<a!dol# S" Da2id ed", 2001N" 46. See id. 47. See id. 48. See id.F see also Da!te 9" ;atma'ta!, It8s All the "a!e) Popular =prisin!s and Philippine Democracy, 15 .ac" <im 6" P .ol' :" 1, 2& 30 D200KN DEThat public o##icial$ actuall' lea2e o##ice ca!!ot ma1e popular pre$$ure #or their re$i+!atio! u!democratic" The$e popular upri$i!+$ are, at their core, a re#lectio! o# adhere!ce to democratic pri!ciple$"INF <a!dol# Da2id, #he #hird #ime as >arce, .hil" Dail' %!7uirer, ,pr" 2&, 2001, at ,L" 49. , democratic coup re$emble$ a people$ re2olutio! i!$o#ar a$ the i!itial $par1 #or a democratic coup i$ popular oppo$itio! b' the people a+ai!$t the eJi$ti!+ re+ime" See Samp#ord, supra !ote 2K a!d teJt accompa!'i!+ !ote 2L D!oti!+ that re2olutio!$ are i!$ta!ce$ -here !o!3$tate actor$ e##ectuate re3 +ime cha!+eN" , democratic coup i$ u!li1e a re2olutio!, ho-e2er, becau$e it i$ the militar' or a $ectio! o# the militar' !ot ci2ilia!$ that o2erthro-$ the eJi$ti!+ re+ime a!d ru!$ the proce$$ o# tra!$itio! to democrac'" 50. See ;atma'ta!, supra !ote (M, at 22"
13
tat
occurred i! E+'pt i! earl' 2011"51 ,! E+'ptia! -ho too1 part i! the al3
Tahrir prote$t$ de$cribed to me ho- the cro-d$ erupted i! celebratio! at the $i+ht o# the #ir$t militar' ta!1 that e!tered the $7uare" The cro-d$ 1!e- that the militar' -a$ there either to $hield the prote$tor$ #rom the $tate riot police -ho had bee! #iri!+ li2e ammu!itio! upo! them, to u$e the $7uare a$ the i!itial $ta+e o# a coup i!te!ded to e##ectuate re+ime cha!+e, or both" 52 0ohamed El9aradei, #ormer head o# the %!ter!atio!al ,tomic E!er+' ,+e!c' a!d a -ell 1!o-! oppo$itio! leader i! E+'pt, eJpre$$l' called #or a militar' coup o! hi$ T-itter pa+e@ E% a$1 the arm' to i!ter2e!e immediatel' to $a2e E+'pt"I 53 6i1e-i$e, #ollo-i!+ the .ortu+ue$e coup i! 1&L(, cro-d$ #loc1ed to the $treet$ to cheer o! the militar' o##icer$ a!d a ba!!er that read ET/,N8 =O?, ,<0ED *O<CESI -a$ u!#urled i! a $occer $tadium pac1ed -ith a cro-d o# 200,000"5(
.opular $upport #or the coup$ i! !atio!$ $uch a$ E+'pt a!d .ortu+al al$o call$ i!to 7ue$tio! the pre2aili!+ 2ie- i! the literature that a militar' coup ca! !e2er e!5o' popular $upport" *or eJample, <ichard ,lbert ha$ ar+ued that Ea coup i$ more tha! $impl' a re2olutio! -ithout popular $upport " " " " %t i$ a! arro+atio! o# po-er b' u!la-#ul mea!$"I55 6i1e-i$e,
Dou+la$ 6ito-it -rite$ that a coup i$ Ea mere $ei ure o# the $tate apparatu$ b' the re2olutio!ar' part' -ithout popular $upport"I5K Co!trar' to thi$ pre2aili!+ 2ie-, a$ illu$trated abo2e, citi e!$ ma' eJpre$$ popular $upport #or a mili3 tar' coup that e##ectuate$ $tructural re+ime cha!+e"
#hird, i! re$po!$e to thi$ $u$tai!ed popular oppo$itio!, the autocratic leader remai!$ de#ia!t a!d re#u$e$ to reli!7ui$h po-er" The mome!t o# #i!al triumph a-aited b' the cro-d$ doe$ !ot come, at lea$t !ot 2olu!taril'" >ourth, democratic militar' coup$ te!d to happe! i! !atio!$ -ith ma!dator' !atio!al co!$criptio!"5L The militar' #orce$ are compri$ed ril' o# $o!$, dau+hter$, !ei+hbor$, relati2e$, a!d #rie!d$ !ot paid
prima3
$io!al$" ,#ter decade$ o# !atio!al co!$criptio!, the militar', i! a 2er' real $e!$e, become$ the $ociet'" %! the other-i$e corrupt a!d oppre$$i2e authori3 taria! $phere, a militar' compri$ed o# citi e!3 $oldier$ ma' ear! a reputatio! a$ the o!l' u!corrupt a!d $table i!$titutio! impe!etrable b' the other arm$
pro#e$3
8ir1patric1, !ypt rupts in 0ubilation as Mubara$ Steps Do/n, supra !ote 1" See .osni Mubara$ "esi!ns as President, ,l :a eera, *eb" 11, 2011, http@AA---"al5a eera"comA !e-$Amiddleea$tA2011A02A20112112515ML05MK2"html D!oti!+ that E+'ptia! prote$tor$ -ere Ecalli!+ o! the arm' to $ide -ith them a!d remo2e 0ubara1IN" 53. ,!tho!' Shadid P Da2id D" 8ir1patric1, Mubara$ "efuses to Step Do/n; Sto$in! "evolt8s >ury and "esolve, N"=" Time$, *eb" 10, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A02A11A-orldAmiddleea$tA11e+'pt" html" 54. Portu!al) Cheers; Carnations; and Problems, Time, 0a' 13, 1&L(, available at http@AA---"time"comA timeAma+a i!eAarticleA0,&1L1,&0M5LL31,00"html" 55. ,lbert, supra !ote K, at 20" 56. Dou+la$ 6ito-it , Cramsci; .e!emony; and the La/, 2000 9=? 6" <e2" 515, 521 D2000N" 57. % do !ot mea! to $u++e$t that militarie$ i! !atio!$ -ith ma!dator' co!$criptio! -ill al/ays $ta+e democratic coup$" , !umber o# #actor$, $uch a$ a chari$matic militar' leader, mi+ht moti2ate e2e! a militar' compri$ed o# citi e!3$oldier$ to $ta+e a !o!3democratic coup" <ather, % ar+ue that -he! demo3 cratic coup$ do occur, the' te!d to happe! i! !atio!$ -ith ma!dator'
51. 52.

co!$criptio!"
14
15
tat
o# the corrupt a!d autocratic $tate apparatu$" 5M *or eJample, a poll co!3
ducted b' the dail' !e-$paper .uHrriyet i! September 2005 #ou!d that the militar' i$ Tur1e'$ mo$t tru$ted i!$titutio!,5& de$pite it$ hi$tor' o# med3 dli!+ i! Tur1i$h political a##air$, lar+el' becau$e o# compul$or' militar' $er3 2ice #or all me!"K0 Se!do## o# $oldier$ to per#orm militar' $er2ice $till prompt$ public celebratio!$ i! Tur1e' -ith mu$ic a!d parade$, a!d Tur1$ co!ti!ue to thi!1 o# them$el2e$ a$ a! Earm' !atio!I Das$er milletN, re#lecti!+ the Eperceptio! that a $'mbiotic relatio!$hip bi!d$ the $tate to the armed #orce$ that #ou!ded it a!d !o- protect it"IK1
*or $imilar rea$o!$, ma!' o# the #ou!der$ o# the ?!ited State$ -ere deepl' $1eptical about mai!tai!i!+ a militar' compri$ed o# pro#e$$io!al $oldier$"K2 The #ramer$ 2ie-ed pro#e$$io!al $oldier$ a$ automato!$,
E$tripped o# i!di3 2idualit' a!d $u$ceptible o# ide!ti#'i!+ more -ith their leader$ tha! -ith the +e!eral populatio!"IK3 ECompo$ed o# o##icer$ #rom the ari$tocrac' a!d $oldier$ #rom the bottom o# $ociet' brutali ed b' har$h di$cipli!e, i$olated #rom the re$t o# $ociet', lo'al !ot to a! ideal or to a +o2er!me!t but to a comma!d -ed to it$ o-! traditio!$,I pro#e$$io!al $oldier$ -ere percei2ed a$ more li1el' to be beholde! to their leader$ tha! to the +reater ideal$ #or -hich the' #ou+ht or the people -ho the' purported to protect"K( *or 0adi$o!, pro#e$$io!al $oldier$ -ere thu$ Emore readil' tur!ed b' corrupt comma!der$ a+ai!$t the i!tere$t$ o# The .eople"I K5 6i1e-i$e, i! *ederali$t No" 2&, /amilto! ar+ued, E4hat $hado- o# da!+er ca! there be #rom me! -ho are dail' mi!+li!+ -ith the re$t o# their cou!tr'me! a!d -ho partici3 pate -ith them i! the $ame #eeli!+$, $e!time!t$, habit$, a!d i!tere$t$BI KK ,!d accordi!+ to :oh! /a!coc1, EG#Hrom a -ell3re+ulated militia -e ha2e !othi!+ to #earF their i!tere$t i$ the $ame -ith that o# the $tate " " " " GTHhe' do !ot 5eopardi e their li2e$ #or a ma$ter -ho co!$ider$ them o!l' a$ the
58. See Eboe /utch#ul, "econstructin! Political Space) Militarism and Constitutionalism in Africa , in Co!3 $titutio!ali$m a!d Democrac', supra !ote 3K, at 215, 21K DEThe militar' $ee$ it$el#, a!d i$ #re3 7ue!tl' $ee!, a$ the o!l' or+a!i atio! $u##icie!tl' remo2ed #rom political parti$a!$hip to be able to claim a! arbitrati!+ role a!d to $et commo! rule$ o# political di$cour$e" %t$ relati2e auto!om' " " " promote$ thi$ $el#3 co!ceptio! -ithi! the militar' a!d +ra!t$ it 2ar'i!+ de+ree$ o# le+itimatio! -ithi! $ociet' a$ a -hole"INF 0ahmoud /amad, #he Constitutional Challen!es in Post-Mubara$ !ypt , 1( %!$i+ht Tur1" 51, 53 D2012N DE0a!' E+'ptia!$ $a- the arm' a$ a mai! pillar o# $tate $tabilit' a!d !atio!al $ecurit', a! ima+e that the re+ime co!trolled media care#ull' !urtured"IN" 59. Er$el ,'di!li et al", #he #ur$ish Military8s March #o/ard urope, M5 *orei+! ,##" LL, LM D200KN" 60. See id. at M0" 61. Id. 62. See Deborah N" .earl$tei!, #he Soldier; the State; and the Separation of Po/ers , &0 TeJ 6" <e2" L&L, M(2 D2012N" 63. Id. 64. Id. D7uoti!+ <ichard /" 8oh!, Ea+le a!d S-ord@ The *ederali$t$ a!d the Creatio! o# the 0ilitar' E$tabli$hme!t i! ,merica, 1LM31M02, at 2 D1&L5NN Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedN" 65. Id. at (&50" 66. The *ederali$t No" 2&, at 1MK D,leJa!der /amilto!N"
16
tat
i!$trume!t$ o# hi$ ambitio!"IKL , militar' compri$ed o# citi e!3$oldier$ i$
there#ore le$$ li1el' tha! it$ pro#e$$io!al cou!terpart$ to $tra' too #ar #rom the dema!d$ o# the public or to e$tabli$h a militar' dictator$hip, a!d more li1el' to $ta+e a democratic coup"KM
>ifth, the militar' a!$-er$ the people$ call #or re+ime cha!+e a!d $ta+e$ a coup to o2erthro- the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime" Si5th, the militar' hold$ #air a!d #ree electio!$ o# democratic leader$ -ithi! a $hort $pa! o# time" ,$ :ua! 6i! a!d ,l#red Stepa! ha2e !oted, Ethe $tro!+e$t democratic cou!ter2aili!+ po-er to the !o!democratic d'3 !amic o# a! i!terim +o2er!me!t i$ #ree electio!$ -ith a $et date"IK& The promi$e o#
electio!$ Epre$uppo$eG$H a democratic re+ime i! #ormatio!"IL0 , #iJed date #or electio!$ i$ !ece$$ar' to create a !e- mar1etplace #or demo3 cratic political actor$, or+a!i atio!$, a!d i!$titutio!$" L1 Electio!$ ca! al$o pro2ide $ome le+itimac' to the i!terim militar' +o2er!me!t" 9' $etti!+ a #iJed date #or electio!$, the temporar' militar' +o2er!me!t ac1!o-led+e$ the limited !ature o# it$ role a!d $i+!al$ that it$ term i$, i! #act, temporar'"
O!e o# the militar'$ #ir$t prioritie$ i! a democratic coup i$ there#ore to $et a 7uic1 date #or electio!$ a!d to $er2e a$ a relati2el' !eutral careta1er #or tho$e electio!$"L2 *or eJample, the .ortu+ue$e militar', i! a
$tateme!t i$3 $ued the da' a#ter a 1&L( coup, committed it$el# to holdi!+ democratic parliame!tar' a!d pre$ide!tial electio!$ -ithi! t-o 'ear$"L3 ,$ a !eutral careta1er, the militar' doe$ !ot u$e i!timidatio! or #raud to ri+ the elec3 tio!$" The militar' al$o allo-$ political partie$ to #reel' or+a!i e a!d partici3 pate i! the electio!$, -ith the eJceptio! o# the political part' a$$ociated -ith the depo$ed authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime" %! ma!' ca$e$, that part' i$ di$$ol2ed #ollo-i!+ the coup a!d there#ore doe$ !ot participate i!
the democratic electio!$ at lea$t !ot u!der the $ame !ame"L( *or eJample,
67. :oh! /a!coc1, 9o$to! 0a$$acre Oratio! D0ar" 5, 1LL(N, available at http@AAla-2"um1c"eduA #acult'Apro5ect$A#trial$Abo$to!ma$$acreAha!coc1oratio!"html" 68. Democratic coup$ al$o te!d to pit the u!corrupt militar' a+ai!$t the corrupt $tate police" %! a democratic coup, the militar' repre$e!t$ the people, a!d the $tate police repre$e!t the corrupt a!d auto3 cratic re+ime" *or eJample, duri!+ the 2011 E+'ptia! coup, the much3de$pi$ed blac13clad E+'ptia! riot police brutall' ope!ed #ire o! the prote$tor$ to e!d the prote$t$ a+ai!$t the re+ime, -herea$ the militar' re#u$ed to #ire o! the prote$tor$, i!$tead $hieldi!+ them #rom the riot police, a!d e2e!tuall' $ta+ed a coup detat to o2erthro- the 0ubara1 +o2er!me!t" See Da2id D" 8ir1patric1, Mubara$8s Crip on Po/er is Sha$en, N"=" Time$, :a!" 31, 2011, ---"!'time$"comA2011A02A01A-orldAmiddleea$tA01e+'pt" htmlB pa+e-a!tedCall" 69. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 120F see also ;iu$eppe Di .alma, To Cra#t Democracie$@ ,! E$$a' o! Democratic Tra!$itio! M5 D1&&0N Dar+ui!+ that $-i#t electio!$ duri!+ the tra!$itio! pro3 ce$$ te!d to Ecurb chao$I a!d Ee2e! -he! 2ariou$l' th-arted, co!#i!ed, ma!ipulated, or 5u$t !ot i! the card$, o!ce the' are called, electio!$ ca! $till e!er+i e a!d po$$ibl' protect democrati atio! be'o!d the hope$ or #ear$, a!d i!deed be'o!d the u!der$ta!di!+, o# the pri!cipal actor$IN" 70. See Thoma$ C" 9ru!eau, >rom "evolution to Democracy in Portu!al) #he "oles and Sta!es of the Provi- sional Covernments, in Shai! P 6i! , supra !ote 35, at 152" 71. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 120" 72. See id. at L1" 73. Id. at 120" 74. See; e.!., infra !ote$ L5, 21&, 31(, a!d accompa!'i!+ teJt"
17
tat
#ollo-i!+ the 2011 coup i! E+'pt, political partie$ -ere allo-ed to #reel' e$tabli$h them$el2e$ a!d participate i! parliame!tar' electio!$, but E+'pt$ /i+h ,dmi!i$trati2e Court di$$ol2ed /o$!i 0ubara1$ Natio!al Demo3 cratic .art' #or mo!opoli i!+ po-er a!d ma!ipulati!+ electio!$"L5 %! democratic coup$, electio!$ te!d to happe! -ithi! a $hort $pa! o# time, u$uall' o!e to t-o 'ear$"LK , militar' determi!ed to tra!$#er po-er to
demo3 craticall' elected leader$ t'picall' -a!t$ to +et out o# the u!#amiliar bu$i3 !e$$ o# +o2er!i!+ a cou!tr' a!d +et bac1 to -hat it 1!o-$ be$t@ de#e!di!+ the !atio! #rom eJter!al threat$" *or eJample, the Tur1i$h a!d .ortu+ue$e militarie$, -hich $ta+ed democratic coup$ i! 1&K0 a!d 1&L(, re$pecti2el', both retur!ed po-er to democraticall' elected leader$ -ithi! t-o 'ear$" Duri!+ the tra!$itio! period, a !umber o# hou$e1eepi!+ ta$1$ !ece$$ar' to holdi!+ #ree a!d #air electio!$ ma' occur" *or eJample, the militar' ma' create the re7ui$ite political i!#ra$tructure #or political partie$ to or+a!i e a!d #or #ree a!d #air electio!$ o# democratic leader$ to ta1e place De"+", the #ormatio! o# a! electio! commi$$io!, the e!actme!t o# electio! la-$ a!d re+ulatio!$, etc"N" The militar' ma' hold electio!$ #or a co!$titue!t a$$embl' to dra#t a !e- co!$titutio! be#ore parliame!tar' or pre$ide!tial electio!$, a$ did the .ortu+ue$e militar' #ollo-i!+ a coup i! 1&L(, or it$el# ha!dpic1 a +roup o# per$o!$ to dra#t a !e- co!$titutio!, a$ did the Tur1i$h militar' #ollo-i!+ a coup i! 1&K0" 9ut re+ardle$$ o# -hich e2e!t$ tra!$pire duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$, the militar' doe$ !ot attempt to perpetuate it$ time i! po-er a!d $ta'$ i! po-er !o lo!+er tha! i$ !ece$$ar' to tra!$itio! the !atio! to democrac'"
The re+ime that emer+e$ out o# a democratic coup thu$ co!#orm$ to Sa3 muel /u!ti!+to!$ $emi!al de#i!itio! o# democrac'@ a re+ime i! -hich po3 litical leader$ are $elected throu+h #ree a!d #air electio!$" LL /u!ti!+to!$
de#i!itio!, -hich #ocu$e$ o! electoral proce$$, ha$ t-o dime!$io!$@ co!te$ta3 tio! a!d participatio!"LM Co!te$tatio! mea!$ that ca!didate$ #reel' compete #or the co!te$ted $eat o# the i!cumbe!t"L& ,!d participatio! re7uire$ that
75. See Shaimaa *a'ed P .atric1 4err, !ypt Court Dissolves Mubara$8s >ormer "ulin! Party , <euter$, ,pr" 1K, 2011, available at http@AA---"reuter$"comAarticleA2011A0(A1KAu$3e+'pt3politic$3id?ST<EL3 *11R20110(1K" The di$$olutio! o# the depo$ed authoritaria! or totalitaria! part' doe$ !ot re!der the coup !o!3democratic" %! ma!' ca$e$, the di$$ol2ed part' or+a!i e$ u!der a!other !ame a!d the deputie$ o# the depo$ed part' ma' $till ru! #or electio!" *or eJample, i! E+'pt, #ormer deputie$ o# the di$$ol2ed Natio!al Democratic .art' -ere allo-ed to participate i! parliame!tar' electio!$ a$ lo!+ a$ the' had !ot bee! co!2icted o# corruptio!" *urther, the di$$olutio! o# the depo$ed part' $er2e$ importa!t democrac'3 promoti!+ #u!ctio!$" The di$$olutio! $'mboli e$ a brea1 #rom the authoritaria! pa$t a!d $er2e$ a$ the #ir$t $tep i! di$ma!tli!+ the $tructure$ that $upported the authoritaria! re+ime" *urther, i# !ot di$$ol2ed, the #ormer authoritaria! part' -ould ha2e a $i+!i#ica!t ad2a!ta+e o2er the !e-l' e$tabli$hed political partie$ -ho lac1 the or+a!i atio!al $tructure a!d the #u!d$ a2ailable to the #ormer authoritaria! part' to mou!t a! electoral campai+!" 76. Cf. Shai! P 6i! , supra !ote 35, at M, 10(05 !"1K DE S.ro2i$io!alit' i! our -or1 " " " be+i!$ -ith the eJplicit promi$e o# tra!$itio!al re+ime$ to hold #ree a!d co!te$ted electio! -ithi! a rea$o!able #rame o# time up to t-o 'ear$"IN" 77. 78. 79.
See /u!ti!+to!, supra !ote (3, at LM" See id. at L" Id. at LM"
18
tat
2irtuall' all o# the adult populatio! be allo-ed to 2ote"M0 The u$e o# /u!t3
i!+to!$ dichotomou$, procedural approach $uit$ the #rame-or1 i! thi$ ,rti3 cle, -hich dra-$ a di$ti!ctio! bet-ee! coup$ that re$ult i! #ree a!d #air electio!$ a!d tho$e that do !ot" 9ecau$e thi$ ,rticle emplo'$ /u!ti!+to!$ de#i!itio! o# democrac', it doe$ !ot u$e the term Edemocrac'I to ma1e a !ormati2e 5ud+me!t o! the 7ualit' o# the democrac' that emer+e$ out o# a democratic coup"
E2e! thou+h /u!ti!+to!$ de#i!itio! o# democrac' #ocu$e$ o! proce$$, the procedural ri+ht to participate i! #ree a!d #air electio!$ ha$ importa!t $ub$ta!ti2e 2alue$, e$peciall' i! $ocietie$ that ha2e lo!+ bee! de!ied that ri+ht" E% 2ote, there#ore % am,I read the headli!e o# a Tu!i$ia! !e-$paper #ollo-i!+ democratic electio!$ there i! 2011"M1 6i1e-i$e, i! E+'pt, -here
a -hole +e!eratio! +re- up -ithout a!' mea!i!+#ul ri+ht to 2ote, 2oter$ pa3 tie!tl' -aited i! li!e #or hour$ to 2ote i! parliame!tar' electio!$ #ollo-i!+ the 2011 coup"M2 Echoi!+ the $e!time!t$ o# it$ Tu!i$ia! cou!terpart, the headli!e o# a! E+'ptia! !e-$paper read EThe be+i!!i!+I o! the #ir$t da' o# the parliame!tar' electio!$"M3
E2e! thou+h democraticall' elected leader$ ca! abu$e a!d ha2e abu$ed i!di2idual libertie$, the correlatio! bet-ee! democrac' a!d i!di2idual liber3 tie$ i$ 2er' hi+h"M( Elected leader$ u$e #ar le$$ 2iole!ce o! their citi e!$
tha! authoritaria! leader$"M5 %! democracie$, there are al$o #e-er i!ce!ti2e$ to re3 $ort to 2iole!ce becau$e accepted a2e!ue$ eJi$t #or the eJpre$$io! o# di$$e!t, i!cludi!+ the ballot boJ, -here 2oter$ ma' $a!ctio! +o2er!me!t o##icial$ b' 2oti!+ them out o# o##ice"MK .opular participatio! i! electio!$ there#ore !ot o!l' e!coura+e$ i!di2idual auto!om', but al$o deter$ +o2er!me!t i!cur$io!$ i!to i!di2idual ri+ht$"ML ,$ the ?"S" Supreme Court put it, the ri+ht to 2ote i$ a E#u!dame!tal ri+ht, becau$e pre$er2ati2e o# all other ri+ht$"IMM
See id. at L" See 6i ' Da2ie$, #unisian lections) Pollin! Day as it .appened, ;uardia! D?"8"N, Oct" 23, 2011, http@AA---"+uardia!"co"u1A-orldAmiddle3ea$t3li2eA2011AoctA23Atu!i$ia!3electio!$320113arab3a!d3mid dle3ea$t3prote$t$" 82. See ,!tho!' Shadid, .ope Climmers in Lon! Lines at Polls in Cairo, N"=" Time$, No2" 2M, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A11A2&A-orldAa#ricaAi!3cairo3a!3electio!3brid+e$3e+'pt$3di2ide$"html" 83. Id. 84. /u!ti!+to!, supra !ote (3, at 2M" 85. Id. 86. Id. 87. 4alter *" 0urph', Constitutions; Constitutionalism; and Democracy, in Co!$titutio!ali$m a!d Democrac', supra !ote 3K, at 3, (" 88. =ic1 4o" 2" /op1i!$, 11M ?"S" 35K, 3L0 D1MMKN" :oh! Stuart 0ill ha$ al$o -ritte! about the 2irtue$ o# deci$io!3ma1i!+ b' leader$ elected i! #ree a!d #air electio!$" See Tom Chri$tia!o, Democracy, The Sta!#ord E!c'clopedia o# .hilo$oph' D*eb" 200MN, available at http@AAplato"$ta!#ord"eduA archi2e$A#all200MAe!trie$Ademocrac'" 0ill ar+ue$ that, $i!ce electio!$ +i2e political po-er to each citi e!, democraticall' elected leader$ mu$t ta1e i!to accou!t the i!tere$t$ a!d opi!io!$ o# more people tha! authoritaria! or totalitaria! leader$" Id. Democratic deci$io!3ma1i!+ te!d$ to be more i!#ormed becau$e it bri!+$ more people i!to the deci$io!3ma1i!+ proce$$" Id. *i!all', accordi!+ to 0ill, democrac' im3 pro2e$ the character$ o# the citi e!$ b' e!coura+i!+ more auto!om'" Id.
80. 81.
19
tat
Seventh, #ollo-i!+ #air a!d #ree electio!$, the militar' promptl' tra!$#er$ po-er to democraticall' elected leader$" The militar' doe$ !ot alter or 2oid the electio! re$ult$ a!d e!$ure$ that the re$ult$ are promptl' certi#ied" The militar' the! ha!d$ po-er to the leader$ $elected b' the people, re+ardle$$ o# their ide!titie$ a!d -hether or !ot their polic' pre#ere!ce$ are i! li!e -ith tho$e o# the militar'"M& The literature a$$ume$ that the purpo$e o# a coup detat i$ to mai!tai! co!ti!uit' i! the le+al $'$tem a!d bri!+ about o!l' per$o!i#ied cha!+e i! the political leader$hip throu+h the u$urpatio! o# political o##ice$, rather tha! $tructural re+ime cha!+e"&0 %! #act, Ed-ard 6utt-a1$ $emi!al tio! o# a coup Ethe i!#iltratio! o# a $mall but critical $e+me!t o#
de#i!i3
apparatu$, -hich i$ the! u$ed to di$place the +o2er!me!t the remai!derI a$$ume$ that a coup doe$ !ot alter #rom it$ co!trol o# the +o2er!i!+ $tructure o# the $tate"&1
the $tate
That a$$umptio! ca!!ot be correct" 0ilitarie$ that $ta+e democratic coup$ detat bri!+ about $tructural re+ime cha!+e b' teari!+ do-! a! authorita3 ria! re+ime to #or+e a path to democrac'" O# cour$e, the tra!$itio! to de3 mocrac' doe$ !ot happe! $imulta!eou$l' -ith the coup" ,t the out$et, the o!l' cha!+e i$ to the leader$hip o# the re+ime Di"e", per$o!i#ied cha!+eN" The u!'ieldi!+ autocratic leader$ mu$t !ece$$aril' be dethro!ed to tra!$itio! the !atio! to democrac'" .er$o!i#ied cha!+e become$ the mea!$ -ith -hich the militar' achie2e$ it$ ultimate purpo$e i! a democratic coup@ to #acilitate the #air a!d #ree electio!$ o# ci2ilia!$" *or eJample, #ollo-i!+ the democratic coup i! Tur1e' i! 1&K0, ;e!eral Cemal ;uT r$el ruled the !atio! a$ head o# $tate #or $e2e!tee! mo!th$ be#ore retur!i!+ po-er to democraticall' elected leader$"&2 ,$ the rece!t e2e!t$ i! E+'pt demo!$trate, ho-e2er, democratic coup$ do !ot e!$ure a $mooth tra!$itio! to democrac'" Democratic coup$, li1e other re2olutio!$ that brea1 do-! decade$3old +o2er!a!ce $tructure$ a!d replace
89. %! $ome democratic coup$, the militar' ma' #ield a ca!didate to compete i! the democratic elec3 tio!$" *or eJample, ;e!eral <amalho Ea!e$ ra! #or a!d -a$ elected .re$ide!t #ollo-i!+ a democratic coup i! .ortu+al i! 1&L(" See infra !ote 33L a!d accompa!'i!+ teJt" , militar' o##icer$ participatio! i! the electio!$ doe$ !ot re!der the coup !o!3democratic a$ lo!+ a$ the electio!$ are !ot ri++ed i! #a2or o# that ca!didate" There ma' be i!$ta!ce$ -here a -ell3re$pected militar' leader, $uch a$ ;eor+e 4a$hi!+3 to!, i$ elected to o##ice becau$e o# hi$ or her merit$" 90. See; e.!., ,lbert, supra !ote K, at 2223 D!oti!+ that the purpo$e o# a coup i$ Eto cha!+e the ha!d$ co!trolli!+ the $tateI a!d Eto hi5ac1 it b' comma!deeri!+ the rei+!$ o# it$ i!$titutio!$INF 0ahmud, supra !ote 10, at 10L" 91. See Ed-ard 6utt-a1, Coup DE tat@ , .ractical /a!dboo1 2L D1&L&N" Samuel /u!ti!+3 to!$ co!ceptio! o# a Ebrea1throu+h coupI i$ al$o a+!o$tic o! -hether the coup re$ult$ i! $tructural re+ime cha!+e" See Samuel ." /u!ti!+to!, .olitical Order i! Cha!+i!+ Societie$ 1&M21& D1&KMN" /u!ti!+to! de#i!e$ a Ebrea1throu+h coupI a$ a coup i! -hich the militar' o2erthro-$ a! eJ3 i$ti!+ re+ime to i!au+urate a !e- bureaucratic Da!d u$uall' middle cla$$N elite i! po-er" See id. at 20L" ?!der /u!ti!+to!$ de#i!itio!, ho-e2er, a coup ca! be Ebrea1throu+hI e2e! i# a! authoritaria! re+ime i$ replaced -ith a !e- $et o# authoritaria! leader$, a$ i! the ca$e o# 6ib'a i! 1&K&" 92. See 0ichael V" 0cCrae, Coup .re2e!tio!@ , Critical %!+redie!t o# Natio!39uildi!+ Operatio!$ LM
D0ar" 30, 2010N Du!publi$hed 0"S"S" the$i$N, available at http@AA---"dtic"milAc+i3bi!A;etT<DocB ,DC,D,5200(1"
20
tat
them -ith a !e- re+ime, ca! be 7uite turbule!t" %!terim militar' leader$ empo-ered -ith the u!#amiliar ta$1 o# ru!!i!+ a +o2er!me!t o#te! #ace e!ormou$ di##icultie$ i! e!$uri!+ a! orderl' tra!$itio! to democrac'" The i!terim leader$ o# E+'pt ha2e per#ormed e$peciall' poorl' i! that ta$1, re3 $ulti!+ i! the death$ a!d beati!+$ o# prote$tor$ o! $e2eral occa$io!$" &3 ,$ the
*re!ch re2olutio!ar' 0irabeau put it, E-he! 'ou u!derta1e to ru! a re2olu3 tio!, the di##icult' i$ !ot to ma1e it +oF it i$ to hold it i! chec1"I&( The $ame i$ true #or a democratic coup" The militar' mu$t be tried, b' ci2ilia! pro$e3 cutor$, #or a!' crimi!al la- 2iolatio!$ that occur duri!+ the tra!$itio! pro3 ce$$" ,lthou+h militarie$ u$uall' !e+otiate immu!it' a+reeme!t$ a$ a co!ditio! #or $urre!deri!+ po-er to ci2ilia! leader$, cou!trie$ $uch a$ E+'pt ca! #ollo- the eJample$ o# ,r+e!ti!a a!d ?ru+ua', -hich both rece!tl' repealed am!e$t' la-$ #or militar' o##icer$ #or crime$ committed i! the co!3 teJt o# !o!3democratic coup$"&5 The militar' mu$t al$o trai! it$ ra!13a!d3 #ile $oldier$, -ho ma' ha2e !e2er bee! deplo'ed to police the populatio!, o! ho- to mai!tai! order duri!+ peace#ul prote$t$" %!ter!atio!al i!#lue!ce ca! al$o pla' a
determi!ati2e role duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$" *or eJample, ca! be placed o! #i!a!cial a$$i$ta!ce to aid3depe!de!t cou!trie$ $uch a$ E+'pt to e!$ure that the militar' leader$ mai!tai! a! orderl' tra!3 $itio! to democrac'"&K 6i1e-i$e, i!ter!atio!al or+a!i atio!$ ca! impo$e co!3 ditio!$ o! their eJi$ti!+ or #uture member$ to promote democratic +o2er!a!ce $tructure$ a!d to decrea$e the i!#lue!ce that the militar' pla'$ i! democratic politic$"&L II. The Co!$titutio!al E!tre!chme!t The$i$
$tri!+$
*ollo-i!+ a democratic coup, a tra!$itio! period #ollo-$ duri!+ -hich the militar' leader$hip rule$ the cou!tr' a$ part o# a! i!terim or pro2i$io!al +o2er!me!t" Duri!+ the tra!$itio! period, the militar' mu$t o2er$ee a !um3
93. !ypt Protests) Death #oll up in Cairo8s #ahrir S6uare, 99C Ne-$, No2" 20, 2011, http@AA---" bbc"co"u1A!e-$A-orld3a#rica315M0&L3&" 94. See Tom ;i!$bur+, Libya8s +e/ Constitution) Lessons from Ira68s Missteps , Chi" Trib", Oct" 21, 2011, http@AAarticle$"chica+otribu!e"comA2011310321A$iteAct3oped310213lib'a320111021O1O!e-3co!$titutio!3 po$t3+adha#i3lib'a3!atio!al3tra!$itio!al3cou!cil" 95. See ,$hle' /ilema!, Ar!entina 5-Military Afficers Sentenced to Life for Crimes A!ainst .umanity, :uri$t, Oct" 2L, 2011, http@AA5uri$t"or+Apapercha$eA2011A10Aar+e!ti!a3eJ3militar'3o##icer$3 $e!te!ced3to3 li#e3#or3crime$3a+ai!$t3huma!it'"phpF Da! Ta+lioli, =ru!uay Le!islature "epeals Amnesty La/, :uri$t, Oct" 2L, 2011, http@AA5uri$t"or+Apapercha$eA2011A10Auru+ua'3le+i$lature3repeal$3am!e$t'3 la-"php" 96. See 0ari!o2 P ;oema!$, supra !ote 12, at 2 D!oti!+ that, i! the po$t3Cold 4ar era, Edepe!de!ce o! 4e$ter! aid te!d$ to ma1e cou!trie$ more li1el' to hold competiti2e electio!$ a#ter coup$IN" 97. *or eJample, the Europea! ?!io! ha$ pla'ed that role i! the ca$e o# Tur1e' b' co!ditio!i!+ Tur1e'$ member$hip i! the Europea! ?!io! o!, amo!+ other thi!+$, Tur1e'$ a+reeme!t to limit the i!#lue!tial role that the militar' ha$ pla'ed i! Tur1i$h politic$" See; e.!., Cou!cil Deci$io! 200MA15L, Tur1e' 200L ,cce$$io! .art!er$hip, ,!!eJ, 200M O":" D6 051N ( 1M, available at http@AAeur3leJ"europa" euA6eJ?riSer2A6eJ?riSer2"doBuriCO:@6@200M@051@000(@01@EN@/T06 DEE!$ure that the militar' doe$ !ot i!ter2e!e i! political i$$ue$ a!d that ci2ilia! authoritie$ #ull' eJerci$e $uper2i$or' #u!ctio!$ o! $ecur3 it' matter$, i!cludi!+ a$ re+ard$ the #ormulatio! o# the !atio!al $ecurit' $trate+' a!d it$ impleme!tatio!"IN"
21
tat
ber o# hou$e1eepi!+ ta$1$ be#ore democratic electio!$ ma' be held" % #ocu$ o! o!e ta$1 i! thi$ .art@ the preparatio! o# a !e- co!$titutio! to replace the co!$titutio! that +o2er!ed the authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime" %! dra#ti!+ a !e- co!$titutio!, the militar' leader$hip ha$ three primar' optio!$" *ir$t, it ca! rei!$tate a pre2iou$ democratic co!$titutio! that +o23 er!ed the !atio! be#ore the i!troductio! o# totalitaria!i$m or authoritaria!3 i$m"&M Seco!d, the leader$hip ma' ame!d the eJi$ti!+ !o!3democratic
co!$titutio! to elimi!ate the autocratic eleme!t$ a!d i!troduce !edemo3 cratic +o2er!i!+ $tructure$"&& Third, the militar' ma' $crap the !o!3demo3 cratic co!$titutio! a!d re-rite a !e- co!$titutio! -ith or -ithout the aid o# a democraticall' elected a!d i!depe!de!t co!$titue!t a$$embl'"100 %! addi3 tio! to the #ir$t three optio!$, i# the militar' choo$e$ to $u$pe!d the pre3 eJi$ti!+ authoritaria! co!$titutio!, it ma' al$o dra#t a! i!terim co!$titutio! that #ill$ the co!$titutio!al 2oid duri!+ the tra!$itio! period"
Thi$ .art ar+ue$ that i# the militar' choo$e$ to dra#t a! i!terim co!$titu3 tio!, ame!d the eJi$ti!+ !o!3democratic co!$titutio!, or re-rite a !eco!3 $titutio!, it e!+a+e$ i! the co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t o# it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$" 9e#ore eJplai!i!+ ho- co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t -or1$, % #ir$t di$cu$$ -hat ma1e$ co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t po$$ible duri!+ the tra!$itio! period" Thi$ i$ a cla$$ic ca$e o# $el#3i!tere$ted beha2ior b' a $tate actor" Sectio! , brie#l' a!al' e$ the literature o! $el#3i!tere$ted beha2ior b' politicia!$ a!d mecha!i$m$ #or miti+ati!+ $el#3i!tere$ted beha2ior duri!+ democratic rule" Sectio! 9 the! a!al' e$ -h' the$e mecha!i$m$ are lar+el' u!a2ailable to miti+ate $el#3i!tere$ted beha2ior b' militar' leader$ duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$ #ollo-i!+ a democratic coup" Sectio! C $et$ out the co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t the$i$ a!d eJplai!$ ho- the militar', a$ a $el#3 i!tere$ted actor, e!tre!che$, or attempt$ to e!tre!ch, it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ i!to the !e- co!$titutio! dra#ted duri!+ the democratic3tra!$itio! proce$$"
A. Self-Interested Behavior in Democratic Politics

The eJi$ti!+ literature -idel' 2ie-$ politicia!$ a$ $el#3i!tere$ted i!di2id3 ual$"101 ,$ earl' a$ 1L(2, Da2id /ume -rote that i! Eco!tri2i!+ a!'
$'$tem o# +o2er!me!t a!d #iJi!+ $e2eral chec1$ a!d co!trol$ o# the co!$titutio!, e2er' ma! ou+ht to be $uppo$ed a 1!a2e a!d to ha2e !o other e!d, i! all hi$ 98. See 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at M3" ,lthou+h the re$toratio! o# a pre2iou$ democratic co!$titutio! a2oid$ a pote!tial $talemate o2er the dra#ti!+ o# !e- co!$titutio!al pro2i$io!$, it pre$e!t$ t-o primar' problem$" Id. *ir$t, i# the !atio! ha$ u!der+o!e $i+!i#ica!t cha!+e$ duri!+ the authoritaria! re+ime, a pre2iou$ democratic co!$titutio!al arra!+eme!t ma' !ot re#lect eJi$ti!+ $ocietal !orm$ a!d de$ire$" Id. Seco!d, the pre2iou$ democratic co!$titutio! ma' ha2e bee! re$po!$ible, at lea$t partiall', #or the brea1do-! o# democrac' a!d the i!troductio! o# autocrac'" Id. %# that i$ the ca$e, it mi+ht be more de$irable $tart a!e- -ith a !e- a!d impro2ed co!$titutio! le$$ $u$ceptible to democratic brea1do-!" See id. 99. Id. 100. Id. 101. *ere5oh!, supra !ote 15, at L&"
22
tat
actio!$, tha! pri2ate i!tere$t"I102 %! more rece!t $emi!al -or1$, <obert
9arro a!d :oh! *ere5oh! ha2e co!$tructed theorie$ o# political beha2ior o! the a$$umptio! that politicia!$ are $el#3i!tere$ted actor$" *or eJample, i! de2elopi!+ a! eco!omic model #or the co!trol o# politicia!$, .ro#e$$or 9arro a$$ume$ that the public o##iceholder act$ Eto ad2a!ce hi$ o-! i!tere$t$, a!d the$e i!tere$t$ do !ot coi!cide automaticall' -ith tho$e o# hi$ co!$titu3 e!t$"I103 6i1e-i$e, .ro#e$$or *ere5oh!$ model o# i!cumbe!t per#orma!ce a!d electoral co!trol i$ ba$ed upo! the po$$ibilit' that Ethe politicia!$ pre#3 ere!ce$ ma' di2er+e #rom tho$e o# hi$ co!$titue!t$ a!d that he ma' there#ore choo$e policie$ at 2aria!ce -ith hi$ plat#orm"I10( .ro#e$$or *ere5oh! a$$ume$ that o##iceholder$ Ede$ire reelectio! i! order to ta1e ad2a!ta+e o# the per7ui3 $ite$ o# o##ice a$ -ell a$ to pur$ue their o-! idea$ about polic'"I105
,t lea$t three mecha!i$m$ eJi$t i! democratic politic$ to miti+ate $el#3 i!tere$ted beha2ior a!d create a! i!ce!ti2e $tructure $o that the politicia! act$, to the eJte!t po$$ible, i! the be$t i!tere$t$ o# the citi e!r'@ D1N $cree!3 i!+ politicia!$ be#ore electi!+ them i!to o##ice, D2N mo!itori!+ the politi3 cia!$ co!duct to miti+ate the i!#ormatio!al a$'mmetr' bet-ee! the politicia!$ a!d the citi e!$, a!d D3N $a!ctio!i!+ politicia!$ b' 2oti!+ them out o# o##ice" ,$ di$cu$$ed i! .art %%"9, the$e mecha!i$m$ are ordi!aril' u!a2ailable duri!+ militar' rule, -hich pro2ide$ the militar' ample lee-a' to maJimi e it$ -el#are b' e!+a+i!+ i! the co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t o# it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$" 9e#ore eJplai!i!+ -h' the$e mecha!i$m$ are u!a2aila3 ble duri!+ militar' rule, % #ir$t di$cu$$ ho- the' operate i! democratic polit3 ic$ to miti+ate $el#3i!tere$ted beha2ior" >irst, the 2oter$ ma' $cree! the politicia!$ be#ore electi!+ them i!to o##ice b' u$i!+ rou+h proJie$ to predict -hether the' are li1el' to di2er+e #rom the 2oter$ i!tere$t$"10K The$e rou+h proJie$ i!clude political ideolo+', com3
pete!ce, ho!e$t', a!d -or1 ethic, a$ demo!$trated b' prior eJperie!ce i! politic$ a!d other #ield$"10L .oliticia!$ -ho lac1 the$e rou+h proJie$ de$ired b' the electorate -ill !ot be elected i!to o##ice" Scree!i!+ thu$ pro2ide$ a method to the 2oter$ #or #ilteri!+ out politicia!$ -ho$e i!tere$t$ di2er+e #rom the citi e!r' be#ore the' e2e! ta1e o##ice" 102. See Da2id /ume, O# the %!depe!de!c' o# .arliame!t D1L(2N, reprinted in /ume@ .oliti3 cal E$$a'$ 2( D8!ud /aa1o!$$e! ed", 1&&(N" 103. See 9arro, supra !ote 15, at 1&" 104. See *ere5oh!, supra !ote 15, at 5" 105. See id. at 11F see also ,!tho!' Do-!$, ,! Eco!omic Theor' o# Democrac' 2M D1&5LN Da$$umi!+ that politicia!$ Eact $olel' i! order to attai! the i!come, pre$ti+e, a!d po-er -hich come #rom bei!+ i! o##iceINF 0oe, supra !ote 15, at LK1 DEG.Holiticia!$ are !ot primaril' moti2ated b' producti2e e##icie!c' or the public i!tere$t i! ma1i!+ GtheirH deci$io!$" 0o$t ob2iou$l', electoral co!$ideratio!$ prompt co!cer! #or co!$titue!c' $er2ice, plea$i!+ i!tere$t +roup$, re-ardi!+ co!tributor$, a2oidi!+ co!3 #lict, ta1i!+ $'mbolic $ta!d$, a!d claimi!+ credit #or popular outcome$"IN" 106. See 0oe, supra !ote 15, at LKL" 107. Cf. id. ,lthou+h the$e proJie$ do pro2ide the 2oter$ -ith a! imper#ect method #or $cree!i!+ politicia!$, the' do !ot +uara!tee, o# cour$e, that politicia!$ -ill beha2e a$ predicted o!ce the' ta1e o##ice"
23
tat
Second, the 2oter$ ma' emplo' mo!itori!+ de2ice$ to ob$er2e the politi3 cia!$ beha2ior a!d miti+ate the !ece$$ar' i!#ormatio!al a$'mmetr' bet-ee! the politicia!$ a!d the citi e!r'"10M Tra!$pare!c' i$ critical i! e!$uri!+ that
politicia!$ co!#orm their beha2ior to the 2oter$ i!tere$t$" 10& ,$ earl' a$ 1LK5, :oh! ,dam$ -rote that EGlHibert' ca!!ot be pre$er2ed -ithout a +e!3 eral 1!o-led+e amo!+ the people -ho ha2e a ri+ht " " " a!d a de$ire to 1!o" " " the character$ a!d co!duct o# their ruler$"I110 %# 2oter$ ca! ob$er2e the politicia!$ actio!$ a!d ha2e $u##icie!t i!#ormatio! about the rea$o!$ behi!d tho$e actio!$, the' ca! more e##ecti2el' re-ard or pu!i$h political beha23 ior"111 %! promoti!+ tra!$pare!c', the media, !o!3 pro#it or+a!i atio!$, thi!1 ta!1$, a!d other i!depe!de!t -atchdo+$ pla' a! importa!t role b' pro2idi!+ i!#ormatio! o! the 7ualit' o# politicia!$ a!d their policie$"112 9ut e2e! -ith a #ree media a!d ci2il $ociet', the electorate ma' be u!able to ob$er2e ma!' political acti2itie$ a!d -ill i!$tead 5ud+e political per#orm3 a!ce ba$ed o! it$ e##ect$ o! their o-! -ell3bei!+"113
#hird, citi e!$ ma' emplo' $a!ctio!i!+ mecha!i$m$ de$i+!ed to pu!i$h a politicia! -he! the politicia!$ per#orma!ce di2er+e$ #rom the citi e!$ be$t i!tere$t$" The primar' mecha!i$m #or $a!ctio!i!+ $el#3i!tere$ted politicia!$ i$ to 2ote them out o# o##ice"11( Voter$ dele+ate political authorit' to politi3
cia!$ throu+h electio!$"115 %# politicia!$ e!+a+e i! $el#3i!tere$ted actio!$ det3 rime!tal to the 2oter$ duri!+ their term, 2oter$ ma' pu!i$h them b'
108. Id. at LKK" 109. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 3LF id. at 203 DETra!$pare!c' i$ #a$t becomi!+ the motherhood a!d apple pie o# +ood +o2er!a!ce"IN" 110. See :oh! ,dam$, , Di$$ertatio! o! the Ca!o! a!d *eudal 6a- D1LK5N, reprinted in 3 The 4or1$ o# :oh! ,dam$ ((L, (5K DCharle$ *ra!ci$ ,dam$ ed", 1M51N" 111. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 3L, &&F *ere5oh!; supra !ote 15, at 10 DE4ith per#ect i!#ormatio!
the 2oter i$ able to eJtract mo$t o# the re!t$ i! the tra!$actio! " " " " %!tuiti2el', the +reater the i!#ormatio!al ad2a!ta+e that o##icial$ hold, the +reater their abilit' to ear! re!t$ #rom o##ice3holdi!+"IN" 112. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 3L, 203" 113. *ere5oh!; supra !ote 15, at 11" 114. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 3K DEThe mai! $a!ctio! o# poor per#orma!ce Gb' politicia!$H i$ electo3 ral tho$e -ho per#orm badl' -ill !ot be re3elected"INF ;er$bach, supra !ote 15, at 32F *ere5oh!, supra
!ote 15, at M DEThe !atural mecha!i$m to tra!$mit " " " i!ce!ti2e$ i$ the #act that electio!$ ta1e place repeatedl' a!d that o##iceholder$ de$ire to retai! o##ice" ?!der the$e circum$ta!ce$, 2oter$ ca! adopt $trate+ie$ that ca! a##ect the i!ce!ti2e$ o# o##iceholder$ i! 2ariou$ -a'$"IN" %! *ederali$t No" 5L, :ame$ 0adi$o! $imilarl' !oted the role o# popular electio!$ i! polici!+ politicia!$@
GTHhe /ou$e o# <epre$e!tati2e$ i$ $o co!$tituted a$ to $upport i! the member$ a! habitual recollectio! o# their depe!de!ce o! the people" 9e#ore the $e!time!t$ impre$$ed o! their mi!d$ b' the mode o# their ele2atio! ca! be e##aced b' the eJerci$e o# po-er, the' -ill be compelled to a!ticipate the mome!t -he! their po-er i$ to cea$e, -he! their eJerci$e o# it i$ to be re2ie-ed, a!d -he! the' mu$t de$ce!d to the le2el #rom -hich the' -ere rai$edF there #ore2er to remai! u!le$$ a #aith#ul di$char+e o# their tru$t $hall ha2e e$tabli$hed their title to a re!e-al o# it"
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The *ederali$t No" 5L, at 3M5 D:ame$ 0adi$o!N" 115. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 3K"
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de!'i!+ them reelectio!"11K The politicia!$ de$ire to retai! o##ice thu$
moti3 2ate$ them to co!#orm their beha2ior to the i!tere$t$ o# the electorate"11L B. Self-Interested Behavior by Military Leaders in a Democratic Coup
6i1e politicia!$, militar' leader$ are $el#3i!tere$ted actor$" *or the pur3 po$e$ o# thi$ ,rticle, the militar' a$ a! i!$titutio!, repre$e!ted b' it$ lead3 er$, ha$ t-o i!tere$t$"11M *ir$t, the militar' de$ire$ to pre$er2e a!d promote it$
pri2ile+ed $tatu$ i! $ociet'" 0ilitarie$ i! !atio!$ $uch a$ E+'pt a!d Tur3 1e' e!5o' ma!' eco!omic a!d $ocial pri2ile+e$ a!d it i$ i! their $el#3 i!tere$t to protect tho$e pri2ile+e$" Seco!d, the militar' ha$ a! i!tere$t i! pre$er2i!+ i!tra3$tate $tabilit'" 11& ,! u!$table re+ime i$ a di$tractio! #or the militar' a!d detract$ the militar'$ #ocu$ #rom it$ primar' ta$1, -hich i$ to de#e!d the !atio! #rom eJter!al threat$" The$e t-o i!tere$t$ are at -or1 #rom the i!ceptio! o# a democratic coup u!til it$ completio!"
%! a! authoritaria! re+ime, a! i!here!t te!$io! eJi$t$ bet-ee! the +o23 er!me!t a!d the people becau$e authoritaria! leader$ ordi!aril' re$ort to #orce or the threat o# #orce to $ile!ce oppo$itio! 2oice$ a!d pre2e!t competi3 ti2e electio!$" The militar' mu$t co!ti!uou$l' -ei+h that te!$io! bet-ee!
moti2ati!+ the politicia!$ to ad2a!ce the i!tere$t$ o# their co!$titue!t$" See 9arro, supra !ote 15, at 20F 0uller, supra !ote 15, at 2L3 DEGDHemocratic electio!$ alo!e ca!!ot moti2ate politicia!$ to u!derta1e lo!+3 term, $ociall' be!e#icial pro5ect$ that do !ot per#orm -ell i! the $hort ru!, -he! politicia!$ are $hort3term orie!ted or #uture electio!$ do !ot $u##icie!tl' re#lect the $ucce$$ o# pa$t policie$"IN" 118. %!$titutio!al i!tere$t i$ o#te! a $hortha!d #or the moti2atio!$ o# i!di2idual$ -ho are member$ o# that i!$titutio!" :o! El$ter, E$$a', >orces and Mechanisms in the Constitution-Ma$in! Process, (5 Du1e 6":" 3K(, 3M0 !"(0 D1&&5N" :o! El$ter ha$ ar+ued that le+i$lator$ te!d to ide!ti#' -ith the le+i$lature #or 2ariou$ rea$o!$, i!cludi!+ the !eed #or co+!iti2e co!$o!a!ce DEThi$ mu$t be a! importa!t i!$titutio! $i!ce % am a member o# itIN or $ociali atio!" See id. *or eJample, i# member$ o# a political part' de2iate #rom the part' li!e, the' ma' be $a!ctio!ed b' #aili!+ to +et re3!omi!ated or reelected" Id. The $ame d'!amic i$ lar+el' at -or1 i! a militar'" The i!tere$t$ o# the militar' a$ a! i!$titutio! a!d the i!tere$t$ o# it$ leader$ -ill o#te! co!2er+e $i!ce it i$ the militar' leader$ that be!e#it #rom the militar'$ eco!omic a!d $ocial pri2ile+e$ a!d the i!tra3$tate $tabilit' that allo-$ them to #ocu$ o! eJter!al threat$" See 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at KL DEThe o##icer corp$, ta1e! a$ a -hole, $ee$ it$el# a$ a perma!e!t part o# the $tate apparatu$, -ith e!duri!+ i!tere$t$ a!d perma!e!t #u!ctio!$ that tra!$ce!d the i!tere$t$ o# the +o2er!me!t o# the da'"INF :ua! <ial, Providin! for the Common Defense) Dhat Latin American Constitutions .ave to Say About the "e!ion8s Armed >orces, in Co!$titutio!ali$m a!d Democrac', supra !ote 3K, at 235, 2(3 DEThe armed #orce$, ho-e2er, are $tro!+l' u!i#ied i! their political 2ie-$" %t i$ preci$el' thi$ u!it' o# political 2ie-$ that ma1e$ ci2ilia!$ percei2e the militar' a$ a $i!+le corporatio!"IN" The hierar3 chical comma!d $tructure o# the militar' al$o co!tribute$ to the cohere!ce o# it$ member$ ideolo+' a!d o#te! e!$ure$ that 5u!ior o##icer$ a!d ra!13a!d3#ile $oldier$ #ollo- the comma!d$ o# their leader$" % do !ot mea! to $u++e$t, ho-e2er, that the militar' al-a'$ act$ a$ a mo!olithic u!it or that the i!tere$t$ o# the militar' a$ a! i!$titutio! a!d it$ member$ -ill al-a'$ be ali+!ed" *or eJample, the i!tere$t$ o# the militar' a$ a! i!$titutio! a!d the i!tere$t$ o# it$ leader$ ma' di2er+e -here #actio!al di$pute$ ari$e -ithi! the leader$hip a!d the leader$ decide to pur$ue co!#licti!+ +oal$ or -here a militar' leader act$ irratio!3 all'" %! additio!, 5u!ior o##icer$, +uided b' their o-! per$o!al ideolo+ie$ a!d -ithout the co!$e!t o# their leader$, ma' perpetrate a coup e2e! -here the coup i$ a+ai!$t the i!tere$t$ o# the militar' a$ a! i!$titutio!" 119. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at KL DEG,H$ member$ o# a $ituatio!al elite -ho deri2e their po-er a!d $tatu$ #rom the eJi$te!ce o# a #u!ctio!i!+ apparatu$, the militar'3a$3i!$titutio! ha2e a! i!ter3 e$t i! a $table $tate, a!d thi$ re7uire$ a +o2er!me!t"IN"
116. Id. 117. ;er$bach, supra !ote 15, at 32" E2e! electoral co!trol i$ o!l' a partiall' e##ecti2e method o#
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the re+ime a!d the people" %# the authoritaria! re+ime i$ $tro!+ e!ou+h to $uppre$$ a popular oppo$itio!, the militar' -ill o#te! 'ield to that re+ime to pre$er2e $tabilit' a!d it$ pri2ile+ed $tatu$ i! $ociet'" *or eJample, #or de3 cade$, the E+'ptia! militar' $upported the authoritaria! 0ubara1 re+ime"120 ?!til earl' 2011, 0ubara1 1ept oppo$itio! 2oice$ i! chec1
throu+h eJtra3 le+al mea$ure$ a!d appeared $tro!+ e!ou+h to remai! i! po-er i!de#i3 !itel'"121 ,$ di$cu$$ed i! .art %%%"C, the E+'ptia! militar' had ama$$ed e!ormou$ pri2ile+e$ duri!+ 0ubara1$ rule a!d thu$ had a! i!ce!ti2e to $upport hi$ re+ime a$ lo!+ a$ he remai!ed po-er#ul e!ou+h to mai!tai! co!trol"
4hat moti2ate$ a militar', -he! it i!itiall' $upport$ a! authoritaria! re+ime, to tur! it$ arm$ a+ai!$t that re+ime a!d $ta+e a coup detatB ,t $ome poi!t duri!+ the authoritaria! re+ime$ rule, the po-er d'!amic be3 t-ee! the re+ime a!d the people mi+ht cha!+e, a!d popular oppo$itio! ma' become po-er#ul e!ou+h to th-art $uppre$$io! e##ort$ b' the authoritaria! leader$" The cha!+e i! that po-er d'!amic mi+ht cau$e the militar'$ i!ce!3 ti2e$ to cha!+e a$ -ell" 4he! the bala!ce o# po-er $hi#t$ to the people, the militar' -ill ha2e three primar' optio!$" *ir$t, the militar' mi+ht $ide -ith the re+ime a!d $uppre$$ the prote$t$ throu+h the u$e o# #orce" %! ma!' ca$e$, that optio! -ill !ot be i! the mili3 tar'$ i!tere$t" %# the militar' u$e$ #orce to $uppre$$ a popular oppo$itio!, it mi+ht #ace retaliatio! b' a #orei+! po-er that come$ to the aid o# the re2o3 lutio!arie$, a$ i! the ca$e o# 6ib'a i! 2011" 122 9' u$i!+ #orce o! the popula3
tio!, the militar' -ould ri$1 irre2er$ibl' lo$i!+ it$ popular a!d pri2ile+ed role i! $ociet'" The militar' -ould al$o ri$1 de#ectio!$ #rom the ra!13a!d3 #ile $oldier$ -ho mi+ht re#u$e to #ire o! the prote$tor$ a!d perhap$ $ta+e a coup a+ai!$t the +o2er!me!t a!d the militar' leader$hip" That ri$1 i$ e$pe3 ciall' +reat i! a militar' compri$ed o# citi e!3$oldier$ -ho are more li1el' tha! pro#e$$io!al $oldier$ to ide!ti#' -ith the populatio! o! -hom the' are ordered to u$e #orce" 9ecau$e ra!13a!d3#ile co!$cript$ ma' re#u$e to obe' order$ to u$e 2iole!ce o! the +e!eral populatio!, re$ulti!+ i! a brea1do-! o# the comma!d $tructure, democratic coup$ te!d to occur i! !atio!$ that ha2e ma!dator' !atio!al co!$criptio!"123
Seco!d, the militar' mi+ht remai! !eutral a!d allo- the re2olutio! to carr' it$ cour$e" That optio! i$ al$o a ri$1' o!e" %# the popular oppo$itio! $ucceed$ i! o2erthro-i!+ the authoritaria! re+ime, the people, a!d !ot the militar', -ill be i! char+e o# the tra!$itio! proce$$ to democrac'" Duri!+
120. See To!' 8aro!, !yptian Military Provin! to Be "ival Po/er Center to Mubara$, Time, *eb" 1, 2011, available at http@AA---"time"comAtimeA-orldAarticleA0,M5&&,20(5(55,00"html" 121. See id. 122. See Libya) .o/ the Apposin! Sides Are Armed, 99C Ne-$, ,u+" 23, 2011, http@AA---"bbc"co"u1A !e-$A-orld3a#rica312K&20KM" 123. See supra teJt accompa!'i!+ !ote$ 5MKM"
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that proce$$, the people mi+ht elimi!ate or curb the pri2ile+ed $tatu$ o# a militar' that bli$$#ull' cho$e to remai! o! the $ideli!e$ duri!+ the upri$i!+" Third, the militar' mi+ht $ta+e a coup detat a!d $ei e po-er #rom the authoritaria! re+ime a!d o2er$ee a tra!$itio! proce$$ that e!d$ -ith the tra!$#er o# po-er to the people" That optio! -ould allo- the militar' to e!able the e$tabli$hme!t o# a more $table re+ime, emer+e i! the e'e$ o# the people a$ a credible $tate i!$titutio!, a!d pre$er2e it$ o-! i!tere$t$ duri!+ a tra!$itio! proce$$ that the militar' leader$ them$el2e$ co!trol" %! ma!' ca$e$, $ta+i!+ a democratic coup -ill there#ore be i! the militar'$ i!tere$t$ o# pre$er2i!+ co!ti!uit' a!d $tabilit', e2e! i# tho$e i!tere$t$ are achie2ed throu+h a #u!dame!tal cha!+e o# the +o2er!i!+ $tructure" Note, ho-e2er, that the primar' purpo$e o# the militar' i! a democratic coup i$ !ot democ3 rac' promotio!" %t i$ the pre$er2atio! o# $tabilit'" The e$tabli$hme!t o# a democratic re+ime co!$titute$ the mea!$ -ith -hich the militar' achie2e$ the e!d re$ult o# i!tra3$tate $tabilit'"12( *ollo-i!+ the coup, a!d duri!+ the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$, the militar' -ill co!ti!ue o! it$ $el#3i!tere$ted path" 4hat i$ more, the method$ #or miti+ati!+ $el#3i!tere$ted beha2ior i! democratic primar' politic$
$cree!i!+ politicia!$ be#ore electi!+ them, mo!itori!+ a!d $a!ctio!i!+ $el#3i!tere$ted politicia!$ b' their per#orma!ce, 2oti!+ them out o# o##ice125 are +e!erall' u!a2ailable duri!+ militar' rule" % di$cu$$ each i! tur! belo-"
%! electoral politic$, the $electio! o# the mo$t compete!t politicia!$ -ho$e moti2e$ are mo$t li1el' to be i! li!e -ith the public i!tere$t #ilter$ $el#3 i!tere$ted politicia!$ be#ore the' ta1e o##ice"12K 9ut i! a militar' coup, the
people are i!capable o# mea!i!+#ul $electio! bet-ee! competi!+ a+e!t$" The militar', !ot the people, choo$e$ to i!ter2e!e to o2erthrothe eJi$ti!+ re3 +ime" ,!d there i$ little, i# a!'thi!+, that the people ca! do to pre2e!t the militar' #rom a$$umi!+ co!trol o# the +o2er!me!t"
Seco!d, the opportu!it' o# the people to mo!itor the actio!$ o# the mili3 tar' i$ $i+!i#ica!tl' curtailed b' a lac1 o# tra!$pare!c' duri!+ the demo3
124. Thi$ $el#3i!tere$t model i$ admittedl' a reducti2e accou!t o# the optio!$ a2ailable to the militar' i! a! authoritaria! re+ime" The model ma' !ot capture the e!tire compleJit' o# the i!ce!ti2e$ a!d moti2atio!$ o# the militar' leader$ that $ta+e democratic coup$" .erhap$, i! additio! to acti!+ i! $el#3 i!tere$t, a militar' that $ta+e$ a democratic coup ha$ a! i!depe!de!t commitme!t to the e$tabli$hme!t a!d promotio! o# democrac', e$peciall' $i!ce the t'pe o# militar' that $ta+e$ democratic coup$ te!d$ to be compri$ed o# citi e!3$oldier$, $ome o# -hom ma' act altrui$ticall' to protect the -el#are o# the $ociet' a$ a -hole" See supra teJt accompa!'i!+ !ote KM" Ne2erthele$$, altrui$m i$ u!li1el' to be the primar' moti2ator" %# it -ere, the militarie$ that ha2e $ta+ed democratic coup$ -ould be eJpected to $ta+e the coup re+ardle$$ -hether $tro!+ popular oppo$itio! eJi$ted a+ai!$t the authoritaria! re+ime" The E+'p3 tia! militar', #or eJample, -ould !ot ha2e $upported the authoritaria! 0ubara1 re+ime #or decade$ a!d -ould ha2e $ta+ed a coup -he! 0ubara1 #ir$t adopted a! authoritaria! $ta!ce" 9ecau$e democratic coup$ te!d to happe! o!l' -he! the po-er d'!amic bet-ee! the authoritaria! +o2er!me!t a!d the popular oppo$itio! $hi#t$, a!d the people become $tro!+ e!ou+h to th-art $uppre$$io! attempt$ b' the re+ime, $el#3i!tere$t appear$ to be the primar' moti2ator" 125. See Tom ;i!$bur+ P Eric ," .o$!er, Subconstitutionalism, K2 Sta!" 6" <e2" 15M3, 15&0&1 D2010N" 126. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at &&"
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cratic tra!$itio! period" 0uch happe!$ i! relati2e $ecrec' duri!+ militar' rule" Due i! lar+e part to the hierarchical comma!d $tructure o# it$ re+ular operatio!$, the militar' 5u!ta rarel' #eel$ the !eed to 5u$ti#' or eJplai! the rea$o!$ behi!d it$ actio!$ duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$" 6a-$, proclama3 tio!$, a!d i!terim co!$titutio!$ are o#te! dra#ted behi!d clo$ed door$ throu+h a lar+el' opa7ue proce$$, -ith little or !o participatio! b' ordi!ar' citi e!$"12L ta!t
4hat i$ more, the 2oice$ o# the or+a!i atio!$ that pla' a! impor3 role i! e!$uri!+ tra!$pare!c' i! democratic politic$ e"+", the media, !o!3 pro#it or+a!i atio!$, thi!1 ta!1$, a!d other i!depe!de!t -atchdo+$ ma' be curtailed or e2e! completel' $ile!ced, at lea$t o! certai! $ub5ect$, b' the militar' duri!+ the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$" 12M The citi e!$ thu$ lac1 mea!i!+#ul mo!itori!+ mecha!i$m$ to ob$er2e the co!duct o# the militar'"
The primar' mo!itori!+ method a2ailable to the citi e!$ i$ direct ob$er3 2atio! o# the results o# the militar'$ actio!$" ,lthou+h the populace i! mo$t ca$e$ ca!!ot mo!itor, #or eJample, the i!ter!al debate$ o2er the co!te!t o# a! i!terim co!$titutio!, the citi e!r' ca! ob$er2e -hether the militar' ha$ a!!ou!ced a $chedule #or the tra!$itio! to democrac' De"+", a date certai! #or democratic electio!$N a!d -hether the depo$ed de$pot$ #rom the authorita3 ria! re+ime ha2e bee! put o! trial" The$e re$ult$ pro2ide a! a2e!ue #or a modicum o# mo!itori!+ to the citi e!r', but, a$ di$cu$$ed belo-, there i$ 2er' little b' -a' o# $a!ctio!$ that the citi e!r' ca! impo$e o! the militar' #or -hat the' ob$er2e a$ $el#3i!tere$ted co!duct" *i!all', i! mo$t ca$e$, the primar' mecha!i$m #or $a!ctio!i!+ $el#3 e$ted politicia!$ 2oti!+ them out o# o##ice i$ u!a2ailable #or the i!ter3 militar'"
Ordi!aril', the militar' doe$ !ot $ee1 reelectio! at the e!d o# a democratic coup" %t$ purpo$e i$ limited to tra!$itio!i!+ the !atio! to a democrac' a!d retur!i!+ to the barrac1$" ,lthou+h the militar' remai!$ i! po-er u!til the tra!$itio! i$ complete, the people ca!!ot 2ote the militar' out o# o##ice be#ore the tra!$itio! e!d$" *urther, the impo$itio! o# $a!ctio!$ o! the mili3 tar' a#ter the tra!$itio! to democrac' ma' al$o be 2er' di##icult" The mili3 tar' u$uall' !e+otiate$ immu!it' #rom pro$ecutio! a$ a co!ditio! #or reli!7ui$hi!+ po-er to democraticall' elected leader$, -hich prohibit$ the impo$itio! o# crimi!al $a!ctio!$ o! the militar' a#ter the coup"12& The mili3
127. *or eJample, amo!+ the mo$t commo! complai!t$ i! the o!+oi!+ democratic tra!$itio! i! E+'pt Ei$ that the militar' i$ utterl' opa7ue, i$$ui!+ edict$ #rom behi!d clo$ed door$I a!d -ith E!o $e!$e o# popular co!$ultatio!"I Neil 0ac*ar7uhar, Protestors Scold !ypt8s Military Council , N"=" Time$, ,pr" 1, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A0(A02A-orldAmiddleea$tA02e+'pt"html" 128. See; e.!., !ypt) #orrid Post-"evolutionary #imes, Eco!omi$t, :ul' 30, 2011, available at http@AA ---"eco!omi$t"comA!odeA2152(M51 D!oti!+ attempt$ b' the ruli!+ E+'ptia! militar' to Epla!t plai!3 clothe$ a+itator$ i! prote$t$ a!d to mute the thri2i!+ i!depe!de!t pre$$ -hile e!coura+i!+ $tate3o-!ed media to portra' prote$ter$ a$ hooli+a!$IN" 129. *or eJample, the co!$titutio! dra#ted #ollo-i!+ a 1&K0 coup i! Tur1e' prohibited the impo$i3 tio! o# a!' ci2il or crimi!al $a!ctio!$ a+ai!$t the militar' ruler$ that +o2er!ed the !atio! duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$" See TuT r1i'e Cumhuri'eti ,!a'a$a$i GCo!$titutio!H 1&K1, temp" art" ( DTur1"N"
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tar' thu$ ha$ little #ear o# pre$e!t or #uture $a!ctio!$ #or $el#3i!tere$ted beha2ior" The a2ailabilit' o# $a!ctio!$ i$ al$o limited becau$e there eJi$t$ !o eJter3 !al e!#orcer o# the bar+ai! bet-ee! the people a!d the militar'"130 ?po!
$ei i!+ po-er, the militar' ordi!aril' di$ba!d$ the .arliame!t, a!!ul$ the co!$titutio!, a!d $u$pe!d$ 5udicial re2ie-,131 pro2idi!+ it$el# a 2irtual mo3 !opol' o! coerci2e po-er"132 The people ca!!ot i!2o1e the po-er o# the court$ to e!$ure that the militar' remai!$ #aith#ul to the be$t i!tere$t$ o# the populace" ,!d e2e! -here 5udicial re2ie- i$ a2ailable, the 5udiciar' lac1$ the po-er to e!#orce a!' 5ud+me!t a+ai!$t the militar'"133 The militar' ma' i+!ore the 5udiciar'$ ruli!+$, aboli$h or $u$pe!d 5udicial re2ie-, or e2e! impeach u!cooperati2e 5ud+e$"13(
The o!e limited a2e!ue #or $a!ctio!$ i$ the prote$t, a1i! to -hat the political3$cie!ce literature label$ Ethe decibel meter"I135 %! political $cie!ce,
the decibel meter re#er$ to the #eedbac1 that politicia!$ recei2e #rom their co!$titue!t$ about bureaucratic per#orma!ce" 13K The militar' li1e-i$e re3 cei2e$ #eedbac1 #rom the citi e!$ i! the #orm o# prote$t$" 4he! u!happ' about the militar'$ per#orma!ce duri!+ the tra!$itio!, the #ru$trated ma$$e$ ru$h bac1 to the $'mbolic $7uare i! -hich the i!itial upri$i!+ a+ai!$t the autocratic re+ime be+a! i! order to #orce the ruli!+ militar' to accede to their dema!d$" *or eJample, i! the o!+oi!+ tra!$itio! proce$$ i! E+'pt, the cro-d$ retur!ed to al3Tahrir S7uare to prote$t the $lo- pace o# the tra!$itio! a!d the militar'$ #ailure to $peedil' pro$ecute the member$ o# the 0ubara1 re+ime"13L O!e o# the or+a!i er$ o# the al3Tahrir S7uare prote$t$ told me duri!+ a! i!ter2iethat a cro-d o# about 100 to 200 prote$tor$ -ould remai! i! the S7uare i!de#i!itel' E5u$t $o the militar' 1!o-$ -e are $till here a!d -ill ta1e o2er the S7uare a+ai! i# thi!+$ +o a-r'"I13M ,$ a!other E+'ptia! prote$tor put it@ E.rote$t$ a!d popular pre$$ure Ga+ai!$t the mili3 tar'H mu$t retur!, becau$e the' are o!l' the real method o# reali i!+ the 130. See ;i!$bur+ P .o$!er, supra !ote 125, at 15M&" 131. See 0ahmud, supra !ote 10, at 103, 12L" 132. See ;i!$bur+ P .o$!er, supra !ote 125, at 15&2F 0ahmud, supra !ote 10, at 10( DE9ecau$e the
militar' e!5o'$ a prepo!dera!ce, e2e! a mo!opol', o# coerci2e po-er i! the $ociet', it ca! e!#orce it$ -ill o! a!' $ectio! o# the $tate or ci2il $ociet' -hile it remai!$ relati2el' immu!e #rom cou!ter2aili!+ pre$3 $ure #rom a!' other 7uarter"IN" 133. 0ahmud, supra !ote 10, at 10(" 134. Id. 135. Cf. 0oe, supra !ote 15, at LKL" 136. Id. 137. See #he Arab A/a$enin!) "evolution Spinnin! in the Dind , Eco!omi$t, :ul' 1(, 2011, available at http@AA---"eco!omi$t"comA!odeA1M&5M23LB#$rcC$c!A#bA-lAarAre2olutio!i!the-i!d DE%! the ab$e!ce o# parliame!t$ a $ort o# rolli!+ dialo+ue ha$ u!#olded Gi! the ,rab -orldH, -hereb' public a!+er build$ at the lac1 o# pro+re$$, re$ulti!+ i! prote$t$ that prompt i!terim +o2er!me!t$ to #urther co!ce$$io!$"IN" 138. %!ter2ie- -ith /a'tham /ammad i! Cairo, E+'pt D,u+" 1, 2001NF see also 8ir1patric1, !ypt rupts in 0ubilation as Mubara$ Steps Do/n , supra !ote 1 DE SE2e! i# Gthe prote$tor$H lea2e, a!' +o2er!me!t -ill 1!o- that -e ca! +et them to the $treet$ a+ai! i! a mi!ute" I D7uoti!+ Shad' el3;ha al' /arb, o!e o# the or+a!i er$ -ho +uided the E+'ptia! re2olutio!NN"
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people$ dema!d$"I13& 9' i!2o1i!+ the po-er or the threat o# prote$t$,
the citi e!$ thu$ pro2ide #eedbac1 to the militar' about their -i$he$"1(0
%! additio! to pro2idi!+ #eedbac1, prote$t$ al$o $er2e a limited $a!ctio!3 i!+ #u!ctio!" The' di2ert the militar'$ re$ource$ #rom other area$ o# co!cer! to re$po!d to the prote$t$" The po-er o# the people eJpre$$ed throu+h per3 $i$te!t prote$t$ there#ore ma' al$o moti2ate the militar' to act" *or eJample, the E+'ptia! Supreme Cou!cil o# ,rmed *orce$ ha$te!ed to bri!+ to trial $e2eral member$ o# 0ubara1$ depo$ed cabi!et i! re$po!$e to determi!ed prote$t$ i! al3Tahrir S7uare dema!di!+ accou!tabilit' #or the 0ubara1 re3 +ime"1(1 The decibel meter that mea$ure$ the 2oice o# the people i$ thu$
rele2a!t i! polici!+ the co!duct o# the militar', but ultimatel', the po-er o# the prote$t$ i$ limited" The militar' po$$e$$e$ the coerci2e po-er to 7uell the prote$t$, arre$t the prote$tor$, a!d co!ti!ue o! it$ $el#3 i!tere$ted path"1(2 ,!d i! re$po!$e, there i$ 2er' little, i# a!'thi!+, that the people ca! do"
4ith little or !o opportu!it' #or $cree!i!+, mo!itori!+, a!d $a!ctio!$, the militar' i$ ordi!aril' u!accou!table #or ma!' o# it$ actio!$ duri!+ the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$"1(3 The militar' i$ !ot obli+ed to act o! behal#
o# the people, a!d the people +e!erall' lac1 a le+al mecha!i$m #or $a!ctio!3 i!+ or re-ardi!+ the militar' #or it$ per#orma!ce duri!+ the tra!$itio!"1(( Thi$ 2irtual mo!opol' o! po-er, -ith #e- mecha!i$m$ #or miti+ati!+ $el#3 i!tere$ted beha2ior, pro2ide$ the militar' ample lee-a' to maJimi e it$ -el3 #are duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$" %! the !eJt $ectio!, % #ocu$ o! o!e $peci#ic #orm o# -el#are maJimi atio!@ co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t" C. Constitutional ntrenchment Durin! Military "ule
Co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t re#er$ to the militar'$ placeme!t i!to the i!terim co!$titutio! or the re$ulti!+ democratic co!$titutio! pro2i$io!$ that #a2or the militar'$ i!$titutio!al or polic' pre#ere!ce$ or $ee1 to perpetuate the militar'$ 2oice i! the !atio!$ political a##air$ be'o!d the e!d o# the democratic tra!$itio! period" ,lthou+h, a$ de$cribed i! .art %, the militar' reli!7ui$he$ po-er at the e!d o# a democratic coup, it al$o $et$ it$ term$
2012, http@AA---"the+lobea!dmail"comA!e-$A-orldAmubara13pro$ecutor$3dema!d3the3death3pe!alt'A article22&2K(LA" 142. %!deed, the Supreme Cou!cil o# ,rmed *orce$ i! E+'pt outla-ed demo!$tratio!$ a!d $it3i!$ i! re$po!$e to co!ti!ued prote$t$" 0ichael Slac1ma!, Islamist Croup Is "isin! +e/ >orce in a +e/ !ypt , N"=" Time$, 0arch 2(, 2001, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A03A25A-orldAmiddleea$tA25e+'pt"htmlBpa+e -a!tedCallF see also 0ac*ar7uhar, Protestors Scold !ypt8s Military Council, supra !ote 12L D!oti!+ a Ehea2' militar' ha!d i! brea1i!+ up demo!$tratio!$ a!d credible alle+atio!$ o# torturi!+ arre$ted prote$tor$IN" 143. Cf. 9e$le', supra !ote 15, at 101 DEG,Hchie2i!+ accou!tabilit' i$ o!e o# the 1e' role$ o# electio!$"IN" 144. See :ame$ D" *earo!, lectoral Accountability and the Control of Politicians) Selectin! Cood #ypes 2ersus Sanctionin! Poor Performance, in Democrac', ,ccou!tabilit', a!d <epre$e!tatio! 55 D9er!ard 0a!i! et al" ed$", 1&&&N"
139. See 0ac*ar7uhar, Protestors Scold !ypt8s Military Council, supra !ote 12L" 140. Cf. #he Arab A/a$enin!) "evolution Spinnin! in the Dind, supra !ote 13L" 141. See /am a /e!da-i, Mubara$ Prosecutors Demand the Death Penalty, ;lobe P 0ail, :a!" 5,
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throu+h co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t"1(5 , democratic coup ma' $ho- a!'
o!e or a combi!atio! o# three t'pe$ o# e!tre!chme!t@ i!$titutio!al, $ub$ta!3 ti2e,1(K a!d procedural" % di$cu$$ each i! tur!"
>irst, the militar' ma' create cou!ter3ma5oritaria! i!$titutio!$ i! the !eco!$titutio! De"+", !atio!al $ecurit' cou!cil$, co!$titutio!al court$, etc"N that co!ti!ue to e!#orce the militar'$ i!$titutio!al or polic' pre#ere!ce$ a#ter the militar' reli!7ui$he$ po-er to democraticall' elected leader$" %!$titutio!al3 i ed prero+ati2e$ allo- the militar' to EeJerci$e e##ecti2e co!trol o2er it$ i!ter!al +o2er!a!ce, to pla' a role -ithi! eJtra3militar' area$ -ithi! the $tate apparatu$, or e2e! to $tructure relatio!$hip$ bet-ee! the $tate a!d po3 litical or ci2il $ociet'"I1(L *or eJample, a
!atio!al $ecurit' cou!cil, de$i+!ed a$ a #orum #or eJcha!+e o# 2ie-$ bet-ee! ci2ilia! a!d militar' leader$, ma' allo- the militar' to i!#lue!ce political polic'3ma1i!+" 6i1e-i$e, a co!$titu3 tio!al court compri$ed o# 5ud+e$ ali+!ed -ith the militar'$ polic' pre#er3 e!ce$ ma' $tri1e do-! democraticall' e!acted le+i$latio! co!trar' to tho$e pre#ere!ce$"
Tom ;i!$bur+ a!d <a! /ir$chl ha2e de2eloped theorie$ o! the creatio! o# i!$titutio!al prero+ati2e$ i! a $eparate but clo$el' a!alo+ou$ co!teJt@ the e$tabli$hme!t o# a co!$titutio!al court to pre$er2e the political prero+ati2e$ o# ci2ilia! political leader$ threate!ed -ith the lo$$ o# po-er" ,ccordi!+ to .ro#e$$or ;i!$bur+$ Ei!$ura!ce modelI o# 5udicial re2ie-, i# politicia!$ dra#ti!+ a !e- co!$titutio! #ore$ee them$el2e$ lo$i!+ po-er i! po$t3co!$ti3 tutio!al electio!$, the' ma' e!tre!ch 5udicial re2iei! the co!$titutio! a$ political i!$ura!ce"1(M The #orm o# the co!$titutio!al electio!$, a!other a2e!ue
court empo-ered -ith 5udicial re2ie-, ar+ue$ .ro#e$$or ;i!$bur+, -ill te!d to re#lect the i!tere$t$ o# the co!$titutio!al dra#ter$"1(& E2e! i# the co!$titutio!al dra#ter$ lo$e the 5udicial re2ie- remai!$ a2ailable to challe!+e le+i$latio! pa$$ed b' their oppo!e!t$"150 6i1e-i$e, .ro#e$$or /ir$chl ha$ ar3 +ued that threate!ed political elite$ tra!$#er po-er #rom political i!$titu3 tio!$ to the 5udiciar' to pre$er2e their political he+emo!' a!d e!tru$t their 145. Co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t i$ !ot u!i7ue to democratic coup$F it ma' al$o occur i! !o!3demo3 cratic coup$" E!tre!chme!t, ho-e2er, i$ more li1el' to occur, a!d -ith lo!+er3la$ti!+ e##ect$, i! a demo3 cratic coup -here the militar' o2er$ee$ the dra#ti!+ o# a !e- co!$titutio! a!d po$$e$$e$ the authorit' to eJtract a price i! the #orm o# co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t a$ a co!ditio! #or 2olu!taril' ha!di!+ o2er po-er to democraticall' elected leader$" %! co!tra$t, the leader$ o# !o!3democratic coup$ ma' be brou+ht do-! i!2olu!taril', b' #orce or the threat o# #orce, -ithout the $ame opportu!it' a$ the leader$ o# a democratic coup to $et co!ditio!$ #or the $urre!der o# po-er or to e!+a+e i! co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t" The rece!t ou$ter o# coup leader 0uammar ;adda#i i! 6ib'a i$ a +ood eJample" 9ecau$e ;adda#i -a$ brou+ht do-! i!2olu!taril', he lac1ed the opportu!it' to dictate the co!te!t o# 6ib'a$ !e- co!$titutio!" 146. %! the political3$cie!ce literature, the po$$ibilit' o# a hierarchical militar' impo$i!+ Ere$er2e domai!$I o! a! elected +o2er!me!t ha$ bee! di$cu$$ed pre2iou$l'" See 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at KL" 147. ,l#red Stepa!, <ethi!1i!+ 0ilitar' .olitic$@ 9ra il a!d the Souther! Co!e &3 D1&MMN" 148. See Tom ;i!$bur+, :udicial <e2ie- i! Ne- Democracie$@ Co!$titutio!al Court$ i! ,$ia! Ca$e$ 1M D2003N" 149. See id. 150. See id.
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polic' pre#ere!ce$ to u!elected 5ud+e$ -ho $hare the elite$ ideolo+' a!d $hield the elite$ policie$ #rom the 2a+arie$ o# dome$tic politic$"151 E2e! i# the
political elite$ lo$e po-er, the u!elected 5ud+e$ co!ti!ue to e!#orce the elite$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ 2ia 5udicial #iat"152
%! a democratic coup, b' de#i!itio!, the militar' leader$ -ill e2e!tuall' ha!d o2er po-er to democraticall' elected leader$ -hich, i! mo$t ca$e$,
-ill !ot be the member$ o# the militar' 5u!ta that $ta+ed the coup" %! $uch ca$e$, the militar' ha$ a! i!ce!ti2e, i! li!e -ith the theorie$ o# .ro#e$$or$ ;i!$bur+ a!d /ir$chl, to create cou!ter3 ma5oritaria! i!$titutio!$ that -ill perpetuate their polic' pre#ere!ce$ lo!+ a#ter the' reli!7ui$h po-er" 153 %! #act, the militar'$ i!ce!ti2e to create cou!ter3ma5oritaria! i!$titutio!$ dur3 i!+ a democratic tra!$itio! i$ +reater tha! that o# ci2ilia! elite$" 15( ,lthou+h ci2ilia! elite$ ma' ru! a+ai! #or o##ice a!d po$$ibl' -i! electio!$ a#ter the tra!$itio!, militar' leader$ do !ot ordi!aril' ru! #or electio! #ollo-i!+ dem3 ocratic coup$"155 %! ma!' ca$e$, the o!l' optio! #or the militar' to perpetu3 ate it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ i$ to e!tre!ch tho$e pre#ere!ce$ i! a cou!ter3 ma5oritaria! i!$titutio! be#ore the militar' leader$ reli!7ui$h o##ice"15K O# cour$e, cou!ter3ma5oritaria! i!$titutio!$ ma' di$appoi!t the militar' leader$ that e$tabli$hed them, but the$e i!$titutio!$, -ho$e $tructure a!d member3 $hip ha2e bee! de#i!ed b' the militar', are li1el' to be more reliable part3 !er$ tha! the elected bra!che$"
, particularl' attracti2e optio! #or i!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t i$ the e$3 tabli$hme!t o# a co!$titutio!al court" ?!li1e a! i!$titutio! $uch a$ a !a3 tio!al $ecurit' cou!cil compri$ed partl' o# militar' o##icer$, a co!$titutio!al court ordi!aril' ha$ !o militar' member$" The creatio! o# a co!$titutio!al court thu$ allo-$ the militar' to e!#orce it$ i!tere$t$ throu+h a $eparate i!$titutio! -ith !o o2ert militar' i!2ol2eme!t"15L 9' e!tre!chi!+ it$ polic'
pre#ere!ce$ i! a 5udiciar', the militar' ca! let a di##ere!t bra!ch o# +o2er!3 me!t protect it$ i!tere$t$ a!d a2oid accou!tabilit' i! the proce$$"15M ,$ di$3 cu$$ed i! .art %%%",, to ma1e $ure that the co!$titutio!al court #ollo-$ it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$, the militar' ma' pro2ide the authorit' to appoi!t mem3
151. See <a! /ir$chl, Constitutional Courts vs. "eli!ious >undamentalism) #hree Middle astern #ales, M2 TeJ" 6" <e2" 1M1&, 1M5L D200(N" See !enerally <a! /ir$chl, To-ard$ :uri$tocrac'@ The Ori+i!$ a!d Co!$e7ue!ce$ o# the Ne- Co!$titutio!ali$m D200(N" 152. See /ir$chl, supra !ote 151, at 1M5L" 153. ,$ ,"4" .ereira ha$ al$o !oted, EGmHilitar' $tre!+th a!d auto!om' ca!!ot be achie2ed b' the militar' alo!e but mu$t be !urtured a!d $u$tai!ed b' le+al a!d le+i$lati2e pro5ect$ that co!2ert part$ o# the 5udiciar' a!d the co!+re$$ i!to de#e!der$ o# the $tatu$37uo"I ,"4" .ereira, 2irtual Le!ality) Authorita- rian Le!acies and the "eform of Military 0ustice in Bra<il; the Southern Cone; and Me5ico , 3( Comp" .ol" Stud" 555, 55L5M D2001N" 154. See /oota! Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime) #he #ur$ish Constitutional Court in Comparative Perspective, in Co!$titutio!al .olitic$ i! the 0iddle Ea$t &&, 103 DSa>Td ,mir ,r5oma!d ed", 200MN" 155. See id. 156. See id. 157. See id. 158. See id.
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ber$ to the court to i!$titutio!$ that are #rie!dl' to it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$" 15&
6i1e-i$e, the militar' ma' adopt a liberal de#i!itio! o# $ta!di!+ a!d allo- i!$titutio!$ ali+!ed -ith it$ ideolo+' to $ee1 5udicial re2iebe#ore the co!3 $titutio!al court, pro2idi!+ the court -ith additio!al opportu!itie$ to e!3 +a+e i! 5udicial re2ie- a!d to e!#orce the polic' pre#ere!ce$ that it $hare$ -ith the militar'"1K0 The creatio! o# a! i!depe!de!t a!d $'mpathetic 5udici3 ar' mi+ht thu$ be the be$t Ei!$ura!ce polic'I #or the militar'"1K1
Second, the militar' ma' re$er2e $ub$ta!ti2e po-er$ #or it$el# i! the !eco!$titutio!" Sub$ta!ti2e e!tre!chme!t i$ di$ti!ct #rom i!$titutio!al e!3 tre!chme!t i! that the #ormer pro2ide$ the militar' it$el# -ith $ub$ta!ti2e co!$titutio!al po-er$, -herea$ the latter dele+ate$ co!$titutio!al authorit' to a $eparate i!$titutio!" ,t it$ mo$t eJtreme, a$ i! the ca$e o# .ortu+al Ddi$cu$$ed i! .art %%%"9N, the militar' ma' pro2ide it$el# the po-er to e!act la-$ a!d re+ulatio!$ or to 5ud+e the co!$titutio!alit' o# la-$ pa$$ed b' the democraticall' elected le+i$lature" To a le$$er eJte!t, a$ i! the ca$e$ o# Ecua3 dor a!d Tur1e', the militar' ma' i!clude a E+uardia! o# the !atio!I clau$e i! the !e- co!$titutio!, eJpre$$l' declari!+ it$el# to be the protector o# the $tate"1K2 ,t #ir$t blu$h, thi$ pro2i$io! ma' $eem i!!ocuou$F a#ter all, the
militar' i$ authori ed to +uard the $tate #rom eJter!al threat$" 9ut i! ma!' ca$e$, the militar' i!$ert$ a +uardia!3o#3the3$tate clau$e to protect -hat it deem$ to be the #u!dame!tal pri!ciple$ o# the $tate #rom democraticall' elected +o2er!me!t$" Thi$ clau$e ma' thu$ pro2ide the militar' -ith co!$ti3 tutio!al authorit' to ha2e a! o!+oi!+ 2oice i! political a##air$ a!d to dictate -hat democraticall' elected +o2er!me!t$ ma' or ma' !ot do" *or eJample, a$ di$cu$$ed i! .art %%%",, the Tur1i$h militar' ha$ #re7ue!tl' i!ter2e!ed i! political a##air$ to protect the $ecular !ature o# the $tate a+ai!$t theocratic3 lea!i!+ +o2er!me!t$"
#hird, the militar' ma' de$i+! the tra!$itio! proce$$ $o that it produce$ a $ub$ta!ti2e co!$titutio!al outcome #a2orable to the militar'" .rocedural e!3 tre!chme!t i$ mo$t li1el' to happe! -he! the co!$titutio! i$ dra#ted, !ot b' the militar', but b' a democraticall' elected le+i$lati2e bra!ch or co!$titu3 e!t a$$embl'" %# that i$ the ca$e, the militar' ma' !ot ha2e the po-er to directl' dictate the co!te!t o# the !e- co!$titutio! a!d ma' thu$ re$ort to procedural e!tre!chme!t to i!#lue!ce the co!$titutio!$ co!te!t" *or eJam3 ple, the militar' ma' decide to hold electio!$ -ithi! a $hort time #rame, ma1i!+ it 2er' di##icult #or !e- partie$ to e##ecti2el' or+a!i e a!d mou!t a!
159. See infra !ote$ 2(3(K a!d accompa!'i!+ teJt Da!al' i!+ the appoi!tme!t$ proce$$ #or the Tur13 i$h Co!$titutio!al CourtN" 160. See infra !ote$ 2(K(& Ddi$cu$$i!+ the $cope o# $ta!di!+ #or bri!+i!+ petitio!$ #or 5udicial re2iebe#ore the Tur1i$h Co!$titutio!al CourtN" 161. See Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 15(, at 103" 162. See ,urel Croi$$a!t et al", Beyond the >allacy of Coup-ism) Conceptuali<in! Civilian Control of the Military in mer!in! Democracies, 1L Democrati atio! &50, &5K D2010N"
34
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electoral campai+!"1K3 The militar' ma' ha2e a! i!ce!ti2e to protect
e$tab3 li$hed political partie$ a+ai!$t !e- a!d u!#amiliar o!e$, belie2i!+ that the e$tabli$hed partie$ -ill better protect the militar'$ pre#ere!ce$ -he! dra#t3 i!+ the !e- co!$titutio!" ,$ di$cu$$ed i! .art %%%"C, the E+'ptia! ,rmed *orce$, #or eJample, ma' ha2e e$tabli$hed a $peed' timeli!e #or electio!$ #ollo-i!+ the *ebruar' 2011 coup i! order to #a2or the more e$tabli$hed a!d or+a!i ed partie$ a+ai!$t !e-l' #ormed partie$ compri$ed primaril' o# E+'p3 tia! 'outh"
%! additio! to co!trolli!+ the timeli!e #or the electio!$, the militar' ma' al$o alter the $e7ue!ce o# the electio!$ that ta1e place duri!+ the tra!$itio! $o that the electoral proce$$ produce$ a $ub$ta!ti2e co!$titutio!al outcome #a2orable to the militar'"1K( Three primar' t'pe$
o# electio!$ ma' ta1e place i! 2ariou$ order$ duri!+ the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$"1K5 .re$ide!tial electio!$ ma' be held #ir$t, -ith the !e-l' elected pre$ide!t holdi!+ po-er #or a #iJed period o# time a!d -ithout a!' chec1 b' a! i!depe!de!t parlia3 me!t"1KK ,lter!ati2el', parliame!tar' electio!$ ma' be held #ir$t, -ith the le+i$lature +i2i!+ it$ co!#ide!ce to a +o2er!me!t eJecuti2e $uch a$ a prime mi!i$ter or a cabi!et"1KL *i!all', electio!$ #or a co!$titue!t a$$embl' to dra#t a !e- co!$titutio! ma' be held be#ore pre$ide!tial or parliame!tar' electio!$"1KM
The determi!atio! o# -hich i!$titutio! i$ elected #ir$t the pre$ide!t, the parliame!t, or the co!$titue!t a$$embl' the i$ Eo# ma5or importa!ce to
relatio!$hip bet-ee! the le+i$lati2e a!d the eJecuti2e bra!che$, the role o# political partie$, a!d the !ature o# political li#e i! +e!eral"I1K& *or eJample, the deci$io! to elect a pre$ide!t #ir$t ma' ha2e a pro#ou!d e##ect o! the !atio!$ co!$titutio!al #uture"1L0 4ith a popularl' elected pre$ide!t alread' i! place, the co!$titutio!al dra#ter$ are much le$$ li1el' a!d able to alter the $tatu$ 7uo a!d opt #or a parliame!tar', a$ oppo$ed to a pre$ide!tial, de3 $i+!"1L1 %! co!tra$t, i# electio!$ #or a co!$titue!t a$$embl' or the parliame!t 163. .rocedural e!tre!chme!t doe$ !ot re!der the re$ulti!+ electio!$ u!#air or !ot #ree" ,$ lo!+ a$ u!i2er$al adult $u##ra+e a!d mea!i!+#ul competitio! eJi$t, the electio!$ that occur #ollo-i!+ the demo3 cratic coup are #ree a!d #air u!der Samuel /u!ti!+to!$ de#i!itio! o# that term" See supra !ote$ K&MM a!d accompa!'i!+ teJt" .rocedural e!tre!chme!t ma' tilt the electoral pla'i!+ #ield to-ard o!e or more political partie$, but e2e! i! e$tabli$hed democracie$, the electoral #ield i$ rarel' le2el" %! the ?!ited State$, #or eJample, procedural mecha!i$m$ $uch a$ +err'ma!deri!+, 2oter ide!ti#icatio! re7uireme!t$, a!d #elo! di$e!#ra!chi$eme!t la-$ ma' produce $ub$ta!ti2e e##ect$" 164. See Shai! P 6i! , supra !ote 35, at & D!oti!+ that the determi!atio! o# electoral $e7ue!ce b' a! i!terim +o2er!me!t ca! be criticalN" 165. See =o$$i Shai! P :ua! :" 6i! , #imin! of >irst Democratic lections, in Shai! P 6i! , supra !ote 35, at LK, M3" 166. Id. 167. Id. 168. Id. The democratic tra!$itio! proce$$ i! Tu!i$ia a#ter the re2olutio! i! 2011 #ollo-ed thi$ third $e7ue!ce" 169. Id. at M(" 170. See id. 171. Id. %# pre$ide!tial electio!$ occur #ir$t, the co!$titutio!al dra#ter$ ha2e to -or1 -ith a! elected leader -ho i$ !ot accou!table to the le+i$lature a!d -ho$e term i$ #iJed a!d ma' eJte!d be'o!d the
35
tat
are held #ir$t, the! the e$tabli$hme!t o# a parliame!tar' $'$tem remai!$ a po$$ibilit'"1L2 ,!d the militar', a$ i! the ca$e o# E+'pt di$cu$$ed i! .art
%%%"C, ma' #a2or a pre$ide!tial $'$tem o2er a parliame!tar' o!e o! the ba$i$ that a $tro!+ pre$ide!t -ill better pre$er2e it$ polic' a!d i!$titutio!al pre#ere!ce$"
E2e! thou+h a democratic coup e!d$ i! #ree a!d #air electio!$, $ub$ta!3 ti2e, i!$titutio!al, a!d procedural e!tre!chme!t allo- the militar' to pla' a! o!+oi!+ role i! the !atio!$ political a##air$" Ne2erthele$$, co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t doe$ !ot la$t #ore2er" Tur1e' a!d .ortu+al, #or eJample, -hich re$pecti2el' eJperie!ced democratic coup$ i! 1&K0 a!d 1&L( a!d re3 $ulti!+ co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t b' their militarie$, both ha2e e$tab3 li$hed 2ibra!t democracie$" .ortu+al remo2ed the e!tre!chme!t #rom it$ co!$titutio! b' ame!di!+ it $iJ $hort 'ear$ a#ter the coup e!ded" ,!d be+i!3 !i!+ i! 2001, Tur1e' ame!ded it$ co!$titutio! a !umber o# time$ to chip a-a' the pro2i$io!$ e!tre!ched b' the militar'" 1L3
,t the time o# thi$ -rit3 i!+, Tur1e' i$ i! the proce$$ o# dra#ti!+ a !e- co!$titutio! that -ill li1el' re!der the militar' #orce$ completel' $ub$er2ie!t to the ci2ilia! bra!che$" III. Ca$e Studie$
Thi$ .art u$e$ three comparati2e ca$e $tudie$ to illu$trate the democratic coup phe!ome!o! a!d the co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t the$i$" .art %%%", a!al' e$ the Tur1i$h coup o# 1&K0F .art %%%"9 $tudie$ the .ortu+ue$e coup o# 1&L(F a!d .art %%%"C eJami!e$ the E+'ptia! coup o# 2011" Emplo'i!+ co!3 $titutio!al eth!o+raph', % u$e the$e ca$e $tudie$ to create a repertoire o# democratic coup$"1L( Co!$titutio!al eth!o+raph' i$ Ethe $tud' o# the
ce!tral le+al eleme!t$ o# politie$ u$i!+ method$ that are capable o# reco2eri!+ the li2ed detail o# the politico3le+al la!d$cape"I 1L5 Co!$titutio!al eth!o+raph' aim$ #or comprehe!$io! a!d ide!ti#icatio! o# theme$ throu+h the tra!$latio! o# co!cept$ acro$$ locatio!$, time$, a!d re$earch 7ue$tio!$"1LK ,lthou+h it #ocu$e$ o! particular co!$titutio!al $etti!+$, it aim$ to teach about Emore +e!eral co!$titutio!al proce$$e$ that mi+ht illumi!ate $ite$ !ot $peci#icall' i! #ocu$"I1LL To that e!d, thi$ .art a!al' e$ the hi$torical a!d cultural co!3 teJt -ithi! -hich each o# the three coup$ too1 place a!d trace$, u$i!+ the $e2e!3$tep #rame-or1 de$cribed i! .art %, ho- each democratic coup u!#olded" 35 Id. at 3&2"
1LL" Id. at (02"
36
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rati#icatio! o# the !e- co!$titutio!" Id. The .re$ide!t ma' al$o eJert pre$$ure o! the co!$titutio!al dra#ter$ to pre2e!t the replaceme!t o# the eJi$ti!+ pre$ide!tial $tructure -ith a parliame!tar' $'$tem, a$ .re$ide!t Sar!e' did i! 9ra il" Id. 172. Id. 173. See infra .art %%%" 174. See Scheppele, supra !ote 33, at 3&1" 175. Id. at 3&5"
36 Id. at 3&2" 1LL" Id. at (02" 36 Id. at 3&2"

1LL" Id. at (02"
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A. #he #ur$ish Coup of %&'() Institutional ntrenchment

*or at lea$t the pa$t #i#t' 'ear$, the Tur1i$h ,rmed *orce$ ha2e eJerted a #ormidable i!#lue!ce i! Tur1i$h political a##air$" The ,rmed *orce$ ha2e $ta+ed #our coup$, #orced political leader$ to re$i+!, a!d acted a$ a de #acto, i# !ot de 5ure, #ourth bra!ch o# the Tur1i$h +o2er!me!t" The political i!#lu3 e!ce o# the Tur1i$h ,rmed *orce$ ha$ it$ root$ i! cou!ter3 ma5oritaria! i!$ti3 tutio!$ that the militar' e$tabli$hed i! a co!$titutio! dra#ted #ollo-i!+ a coup o! 0a' 2L, 1&K0" % #ir$t di$cu$$ the prelude a!d a#termath o# the coup a!d the! a!al' e ho- the militar' e!+a+ed i! the i!$titutio!al e!tre!ch3 me!t o# it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$" 1" #he Prelude and Aftermath of the Coup
9et-ee! 1&23, the 'ear o# Tur1e'$ #ou!di!+, a!d 1&50, the <epublica! .eople$ .art' DCumhuriyet .al$ PartisiN DEC/.IN +o2er!ed Tur1e' i! a $i!3 +le3part' #rame-or1"1LM C/. -a$ e$tabli$hed b'
0u$ta#a 8emal ,tatuT r1, the #ir$t .re$ide!t o# Tur1e', a!d the re$t o# the !atio!$ #ou!di!+ elite" 1L& Duri!+ tho$e t-e!t'3$e2e! 'ear$ o# $i!+le3part' rule, the $tate a!d the part' -ere o!e" 6i1e-i$e, the $tate$ ideolo+' -a$ the part'$ ideolo+', -hich -a$ ba$ed o! E8emali$mI a!d e$pou$ed 0u$ta#a 8emal ,tatuT r1$ belie#$ o! moder!i atio!, !atio!al u!it', a!d, abo2e all, $eculari$m" 1M0
4he! Tur1e' tra!$itio!ed #rom a $i!+le3part' $'$tem to a multi3part' re+ime bet-ee! 1&(K a!d 1&50, the Democrat .art' DDemo$rat PartiN DED.IN -a$ e$tabli$hed"1M1 C/. a!d D. $plit o2er cultural a!d political #ault
li!e$" C/. co!ti!ued to repre$e!t the !atio!$ $ecular elite, but D. emer+ed a$ a populi$t, a!ti3bureaucrac' part', repre$e!ti!+ a lar+el' rural co!$titue!c'"1M2 %! 1&50, D. -o! a $-eepi!+ ma5orit' i! the .arliame!t a!d ou$ted C/. #rom the +o2er!me!t $eat it had occupied #or the pre2iou$ t-e!t'3$e2e! 'ear$"1M3 *or the #ir$t time $i!ce the republic$ #ormatio!, the #ou!di!+ $ecular elite did !ot +o2er! the !atio!" ,lthou+h C/. -a$ !o lo!+er i! po-er, both the militar' a!d the ci2il bureaucrac' remai!ed #irml' lo'al to C/. a!d it$ 8emali$t ideolo+'"1M( The militar'$ $upport #or C/. -a$ buttre$$ed b' the #act that C/.$ leader, %$met %!oT!uT , had $er2ed alo!+3 $ide ,tatuT r1 a$ a -ell3re$pected +e!eral i! the Tur1i$h <e2olutio!"1M5 178. Cere! 9el+e, >riends of the Court) #he "epublican Alliance and Selective Activism of the Constitutional Court of #ur$ey, (0 6a- P Soc' <e2" K53, K5& D200KN" 179. Id.
38
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180. Id. 181. Id. at K5&K0" 182. Id.F O a! Er+ul, Tur1 ,!a'a$a 0ah1eme$i 2e Demo1ra$i GThe Tur1i$h Co!$titu3 tio!al Court a!d Democrac'H 21&21 D200LN" 183. 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at K5&K0" 184. Id. at KK0" 185. *ero ,hmad, Demo1ra$i Sureci!de Tur1i'e 1&(51&M0 GTur1e' i! the .ath to De3
mocrac' 1&(51&M0H K3 D1&&(N"
.arvard International La/ 0ournal 1 2ol. 34 4ell a-are o# the $turd' $upport C/. $till e!5o'ed amo!+ ma!' circle$, D. 7uic1l' too1 a! authoritaria! a!d repre$$i2e tur! a#ter it a$$umed po-er"1MK O2er the te! 'ear$ duri!+ -hich it +o2er!ed the
39
<epublic D1&50 to 1&K0N, D. $uppre$$ed the C/.3#rie!dl' pre$$, #orced di$obedie!t ci2il $er2a!t$, 5ud+e$, a!d pro#e$$or$ i!to earl' retireme!t, pa$$ed la-$ to 7uell political oppo$itio!,1ML a!d eJploited reli+io! to i!#lue!ce the public" 1MM *or eJample, D. empo-ered the 0i!i$tr' o# *i!a!ce to audit C/.$ i!ter!al #i!a!ce$ a!d #ro e a $ub$ta!tial portio! o# C/.$ a$$et$ pe!di!+ the audit"1M& mo!opoli ed the $tate radio the primar' !e-$ $ource at the time a!d pre2e!ted C/. #rom airi!+ oppo$itio! comme!tar'"1&0 %t pa$$ed a la- prohibiti!+ u!i2er$it' pro#e$$or$ #rom e!+a+i!+ i! political acti2itie$, -hich cut o## political $peech b' a lar+e portio! o# the i!telli+e!t$ia, a co!$titue!c' ali+!ed primaril' -ith C/."1&1 %! December 1&5(, $hortl' be#ore the +e!3 eral parliame!tar' electio!$, the D.3led .arliame!t 2oted to co!#i$cate all #i!a!cial a$$et$ o# C/., -hich $i+!i#ica!tl' curtailed C/.$ abilit' to mou!t a! electio! campai+!"1&2 De$pite it$ authoritaria! te!de!cie$, D. ma!a+ed to -i! a!other term i! o##ice, buo'ed primaril' b' a boomi!+ eco!om' a!d impro2ed $ocial -el#are"1&3
*ollo-i!+ it$ reelectio!, D. co!ti!ued it$ authoritaria! $trea1" %t im3 po$ed crimi!al pe!altie$ o! 5our!ali$t$ -ho$e -riti!+$ -ere deemed to dam3 a+e the political or eco!omic pre$ti+e o# the +o2er!me!t" 1&( %t D.
pa$$ed a la- that authori ed the +o2er!me!t to #orce i!to retireme!t pro#e$$or$ a!d 5ud+e$ -ho had $er2ed #or t-e!t'3#i2e 'ear$ or -ere o2er the a+e o# $iJt'" 1&5 %! re$po!$e to D.$ +ro-i!+ authoritaria! te!de!cie$, a +roup o# prote$tor$ too1 to the $treet$ a+ai!$t the D. +o2er!me!t i! September 1&55 i! %$ta!3 bul"1&K D. re$po!ded b' $-i#tl' declari!+ martial la- i! three metropolita!
citie$ %$ta!bul, % mir, a!d ,!1ara a$ a 1!ee35er1 reactio! to 7uell the
prote$t$"1&L
De$pite the com#ortable ma5orit' it e!5o'ed i! the .arliame!t, the D. +o2er!me!t, led b' .rime 0i!i$ter ,d!a! 0e!dere$, remai!ed u!certai! a!d u!ea$' about it$ political pro$pect$"1&M To e!$ure hi$ political #uture,
0e!dere$ ad2ocated a E!e- t'pe o# democrac'I that -ould allo- $up3 pre$$i!+ the oppo$itio! i! the !ame o# pre$er2i!+ !atio!al $ecurit' a!d 39 Id. at M2"
1&M" Id. at &3"
.arvard International La/ 0ournal 1 2ol. 34 9 *(%* 1 #he Democratic Coup d8 tat
40 40
186. 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK0" 187. Id. 188. Su$a!!a Do1upil, #he Separation of Mos6ue and State) Islam and Democracy in Modern #ur$ey, 105 4" Va" 6" <e2" 53, LK D2002N" 189. ,hmad, supra !ote 1M5, at K3" 190. Id. at KM" 191. Id. at L3" 192. Id. at L(" 193. Id. at L5" 194. Id. at L5" 195. Id. at M0M1" 196. Id. at M1M2"
40 Id. at M2" 1&M" Id. at &3" 40 Id. at M2"

1&M" Id. at &3"
.arvard International La/ 0ournal 1 2ol. 34 pre2e!ti!+ Ede$tructi2e acti2itie$"I1&& 0e!dere$$ do+ma $mac1ed o# a
41
de3 $ire to e$tabli$h authoritaria! rule a!d elimi!ate political plurali$m" ?!der 0e!dere$$ leader$hip, D. e$tabli$hed a 0cCarth'3 $t'le parliame!tar' com3 mi$$io!, compri$ed e!tirel' o# D. member$, to i!2e$ti+ate E$ub2er$i2e ac3 ti2itie$I b' the oppo$itio! partie$"200 D. authori ed the commi$$io! to ce!$or the pre$$ a!d to impo$e crimi!al $a!ctio!$, i!cludi!+ up to three 'ear$ impri$o!me!t, a+ai!$t tho$e -ho pre2e!ted or u!dermi!ed the com3 mi$$io!$ acti2itie$"201 Duri!+ it$ i!2e$ti+atio!, the commi$$io! prohibited all political acti2it' b' the i!2e$ti+ated partie$ #or three mo!th$ a!d prohib3 ited the pre$$ #rom reporti!+ o! the $ub5ect$ o# the i!2e$ti+atio!$"202
The e$tabli$hme!t o# thi$ i!2e$ti+ator' commi$$io! prompted -ide$pread prote$t$ be+i!!i!+ o! ,pril 1&, 1&K0"203 O! ,pril 2K, a +roup
o# la- pro#e$$or$ i$$ued a declaratio! ar+ui!+ that the i!2e$ti+ator' commi$$io! 2iolated the Tur1i$h co!$titutio!"20( The !eJt da', D., i! a de#ia!t attempt to #leJ it$ political mu$cle$, pa$$ed a lai!crea$i!+ the po-er$ +ra!ted to the commi$$io!"205 D. the! prohibited the leader o# C/., %$met %!oT!uT , #rom atte!di!+ the .arliame!t #or t-el2e da'$ o! trumped3up char+e$ o# i!citi!+ the !atio! to re2olt a!d 2iolate the la-"20K
D.$ -itch3hu!t a+ai!$t the oppo$itio! prompted re!e-ed prote$t$ a+ai!$t the D. re+ime i! %$ta!bul a!d ,!1ara o! ,pril 2M a!d 2&"20L %!
re$po!$e, D. a+ai! declared martial la- i! both citie$ to $uppre$$ the pro3 te$t$ a!d authori ed the militar' to #ire o! the prote$tor$" 20M The Tur1i$h militar', li1e it$ E+'ptia! cou!terpart i! 2011, $ided -ith the people, re3 #u$ed to #ire o! them, a!d $ta+ed a coup detat o! 0a' 2L, 1&K0, toppli!+ the D. +o2er!me!t"20&
,$ i$ t'pical o# other militarie$ that $ta+e democratic coup$, the Tur1i$h militar' i$ a! EeJtremel' popularI i!$titutio!"210 %! the tumultuou$ decade$
#ollo-i!+ the <epublic$ #ou!di!+, the militar' emer+ed a$ the Emo$t $eri3 ou$, -ell3or+a!i ed, a!d e##ecti2e i!$titutio! arou!d"I211 The militar'$ pop3 ularit' i$ bol$tered b' compul$or' militar' $er2ice #or all me!"212 The
199. Id. at 132" 200. ,hmad, supra !ote 1M5, at &LF 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK0" 201. ,hmad, supra !ote 1M5, at &M" 202. Id. at &L&M"
42
203. Id. at &MF 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK0" 204. ,hmad, supra !ote 1M5, at &M" 205. Id. 206. Id. 207. Id. at 205" 208. Id. 209. See E!+i! Sahi!, Si'a$et 2e /u1u1 ,ra$i!da@ ,!a'a$a 0ah1eme$i G9et-ee! .olitic$ a!d 6a-@ The Tur1i$h Co!$titutio!al CourtH K( D2010NF 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK0" 210. ,'di!li et al", supra !ote 5&, at LM" 211. Id. at L&" 212. See id. at M0"
43
tat
$oldier$ $er2i!+ i! the militar' are primaril' the $o!$, relati2e$, !ei+hbor$, a!d #rie!d$ o# the people !ot paid pro#e$$io!al$ lo'al to the
EuruluN DE098IN" Shortl' a#ter the i$$ua!ce o# thi$ declaratio!, the 098 a!!ou!ced that a committee o# pro#e$$or$, ha!dpic1ed b' the leader$ o# the militar' coup, -ould be+i! the proce$$ o# dra#ti!+ a !e- democratic co!$titutio! i! co!3 $ultatio! -ith the 098"21K %! a report prepared #or the militar' leader$,
,#ter $ei i!+ po-er i! 1&K0, the ,rmed *orce$ i$$ued a $tateme!t declar3 i!+ that the coup -a$ i!te!ded to Ere$cue the Tur1i$h democrac' #rom the u!#ortu!ate $ituatio! i! -hich it GhadH #ou!d it$el#"I21( The ,rmed *orce$ made a #irm commitme!t to Ehold #air a!d #ree electio!$ a$ 7uic1l' a$ po$$i3 bleI a!d to ha!d o2er the re+ime to the electoral 2ictor$"215 Duri!+ the tra!$itio! period, accordi!+ to the declaratio!, the militar' leader$ -ould +o2er! the !atio! a$ part o# the Natio!al ?!it' Committee DMilli Birli$
+o2er!me!t"213
the +roup o# pro#e$$or$ declared that the D. re+ime had lo$t it$ political le+iti3 mac' b' repeatedl' e!+a+i!+ i! actio!$ that amou!ted to #la+ra!t 2iolatio!$ o# the co!$titutio!"21L The$e actio!$, the pro#e$$or$ co!te!ded, pro2ided le3 +itimac' #or the militar' coup a!d re7uired the dra#ti!+ o# a !e- co!$titu3 tio! that -ould protect the rule o# la- a!d pre2e!t a #uture brea1do-! o# democrac'"21M O!ce dra#ted, the co!$titutio! -ould be $ubmitted #or ap3 pro2al #ir$t to a co!$titue!t a$$embl' a!d the! to popular re#ere!dum"21& The co!$titue!t a$$embl' -ould be compo$ed o# Emember$ o# the 098 a!d it$ appoi!tee$, repre$e!tati2e$ o# S$till operati2e political partie$ Dthu$ eJ3 cludi!+ the Gdi$$ol2ed Democrat .art'HN, elected re+io!al repre$e!tati2e$, a!d member$ o# $e2eral pro#e$$io!al or+a!i atio!$"I220
O! :u!e 12, 1&K0, a! i!terim co!$titutio! -e!t i!to e##ect eJpre$$l' au3 thori i!+ the 098 to +o2er! the cou!tr' u!til democratic electio!$ -ere held a!d a !e- co!$titutio! -a$ rati#ied" 221 Duri!+ the democratic
tra!$i3 tio! proce$$, the 098 -ould ha2e the authorit' to e!act a!d eJecute la-$ throu+h a Cabi!et o# 0i!i$ter$ appoi!ted b' the 098"222 The meeti!+$ o# the 098 -ould be held i! $ecret a!d it$ i!ter!al debate$ a!d deci$io!$ -ould !ot be reported to the public"223 ,$ i! ma!' democratic tra!$itio! 213. See id.
223" Id. at 212"
44
e!acti!+ a la- that prohibited the electio! o# tho$e -ho E-ith their acti2itie$, publicatio!$, a!d beha23 ior, had $upported act$ i! 2iolatio! o# the Co!$titutio! or o# huma! ri+ht$ be#ore the <e2olutio! o# 2L 0a' 1&K0"I Id. D7uoti!+ 6a- 15L o# 1&K0 DTur1"NN Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedN" 221. ,hmad, supra !ote 1M5, at 211" 222. Id.
214. ,hmad, supra !ote 1M5, at 20L" 215. Id. 216. Id. at 20M" 217. Id. at 210" 218. Id. 219. 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK0K1" 220. See id. at KK1" Speci#icall', the co!$titue!t a$$embl' eJcluded member$ a!d $upporter$ o# D. b'
223" Id. at 212"
45
tat
period$ led b' the militar', the Tur1i$h militar' -ould thu$ +o2er! the !atio! throu+h a lar+el' opa7ue proce$$, creati!+ a $i+!i#ica!t i!#ormatio!al a$'mmetr' bet-ee! the public a!d the militar'" O! 0a' 2L, 1&K1, the #ir$t a!!i2er$ar' o# the coup, the co!$titue!t a$3 $embl' appro2ed the co!$titutio! dra#ted b' the 098$ ha!d3pic1ed +roup o# pro#e$$or$ a!d e!acted a! electio! la- to +o2er! the democratic elec3 tio!$"22( The !e- co!$titutio! -a$ dra#ted to addre$$, i! particular, tho$e
problem$ that had i!$pired the coup@ abu$e o# +o2er!me!t po-er, oppre$3 $io! o# political di$$ide!t$, a!d a deca' o# the <epublic$ #ou!di!+ pri!ci3 ple$"225 The !e- co!$titutio! eJpa!ded the i!di2idual ri+ht$ a!d libertie$ +uara!teed i! the 1&2( Co!$titutio!, eJpre$$l' reco+!i i!+, #or eJample, the ri+ht to pri2ac', the ri+ht to tra2el, a!d the #reedom$ o# $peech, a$$em3 bl', a!d a$$ociatio!"22K The !eco!$titutio! added a $eco!d hou$e o# Co!3 +re$$, the Se!ate, a$ a! additio!al chec1 o! the eJi$ti!+ .arliame!t, a!d re7uired bill$ to be pa$$ed b' both the .arliame!t a!d the Se!ate i! order to become la-"22L The co!$titutio! -a$ $ubmitted to a popular re#ere!dum o! :ul' &, 1&K1 a!d -a$ appro2ed -ith K1"5U o# the 2ote"22M
*ollo-i!+ the popular appro2al o# the !e- co!$titutio!, the 098 $ched3 uled democratic electio!$ #or October 15, 1&K1"22& ,head o# the
electio!$, the 098 arra!+ed a meeti!+ -ith the leader$ o# the ma5or political partie$" ,#ter the meeti!+, the leader$ $i+!ed a 5oi!t declaratio! a+reei!+, amo!+ other thi!+$, to@ D1N protect ,tatuT r1$ re#orm$ a!d pri!ciple$F D2N re#rai! #rom u$i!+ %$lam a$ a political toolF D3N a2oid 7ue$tio!i!+ the le+itimac' o# the 0a' 2L, 1&K0 coupF a!d D(N re#rai! #rom critici i!+ the outcome o# the militar' tribu!al$ that -ould decide the #ate o# #ormer .re$ide!t Celal 9a'ar, #ormer .rime 0i!i$ter 0e!dere$, a!d $e2eral #ormer Cabi!et mem3 ber$"230 The$e o##icial$ -ere o! trial #or Ecrime$ a+ai!$t the Tur1i$h Co!$ti3 tutio!I duri!+ a decade o# D. rule"231 224. Id. at 21&" 225. See Sahi!, supra !ote 20&, at K5F 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK3" 226. See TuT r1i'e Cumhuri'eti ,!a'a$a$i GCo!$titutio!H 1&K1,
art$" 1( K2 DTur1"NF Tuli! Ca+da$, 1&2131&2(31&K131&M2 ,!a'a$alari!i! O elli1leri GThe Characteri$tic$ o# the Co!3 $titutio!$ o# 1&21, 1&2(, 1&K1, a!d 1&M2H 15 1K D200&NF see also ,drie! 8atheri!e 4i!+ P O a! O" Varol, Is Secularism Possible in A MaIority-Muslim CountryF) #he #ur$ish 5ample, (2 TeJ" %!tl 6":" 1, 2021 D200KN Ddi$cu$$i!+ the 1&K1 Co!$titutio!N" 227. See TuT r1i'e Cumhuri'eti ,!a'a$a$i GCo!$titutio!H 1&K1, art$" L0, &2 DTur1"N" 228. Sahi!, supra !ote 20&, at K( !"1" The !e- Co!$titutio! -ould +o2er! Tur1e' #or the !eJt t-o decade$, u!til a militar' coup o! September 12, 1&M0, a#ter -hich the Co!$titutio! -a$ $crapped a!d re3 dra#ted" 229. ,hmad, supra !ote 1M5, at 220"
46
tat
230. Id. The 2erdict$ o# the militar' tribu!al$ -ere a!!ou!ced o! September 15, 1&K0" *i#tee! #ormer D. leader$ -ere $e!te!ced to death, but the 098 commuted the $e!te!ce$ o# all but three o# the leader$ to a term o# impri$o!me!t" Sahi!, supra !ote 20&, at 220" The remai!i!+ three leader$ .rime 0i!i$ter
0e!dere$, *orei+! 0i!i$ter *ahit <u$tu Vorlu, a!d *i!a!ce 0i!i$ter /a$a! .olat1a!
ha!+i!+ o! the %$la!d o# %mrali" Id. 231. #ur$ey) Messa!e to a Son, Time, Sept" 2&, 1&K1, available at http@AA---"time"comAtimeAma+a i!eA
articleA0,&1L1,M&5L00,00"html"
-ere eJecuted b'
47
tat
Democratic electio!$ -ere held a$ $cheduled i! October 1&K1" C/. -o! the electio!$ -ith 3K"LU o# the popular 2ote"232 Three !e-l' #ormed partie$
$plit the remai!i!+ 2ote$, -ith the :u$tice .art' D Adalet PartisiN -i!!i!+ 3("MU, the <epublica! Natio!al .ea$a!t$ .art' DCumhuriyetci Eoylu Millet PartisiN obtai!i!+ #ourtee! perce!t, a!d the Ne- Tur1e' .art' DJeni #ur$iye PartisiN recei2i!+ 13"LU o# the popular 2ote"233 *ollo-i!+ the electio!$, the 098 promptl' ha!ded po-er to democraticall' the democraticall' elected .arliame!t 2oted to elected leader$"23( %! 1&K2, ma1e 0a' 2L, 1&K0 the date o# the militar' coup a !atio!al holida' called the 6ibert' a!d Co!$ti3 tutio! Da'"235
The Tur1i$h coup o# 1&K0 #it$ $7uarel' -ithi! the democratic coup #rame-or1" The Tur1i$h militar' $ta+ed a coup a+ai!$t the authoritaria! D. re+ime i! re$po!$e to popular oppo$itio! a+ai!$t that re+ime" ?po! a$$um3 i!+ co!trol, it $et a timetable #or democratic electio!$ a!d reli!7ui$hed it$ po-er to democraticall' elected leader$ -ithi! t-o 'ear$" ,$ -ith the other democratic coup$ a!al' ed i! thi$ ,rticle, ho-e2er, the militar' beha2ed a$ a $el#3i!tere$ted actor a!d e!+a+ed i! the i!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t o# it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$, the topic o# the !eJt $ectio!" 2" Institutional ntrenchment
The !e- co!$titutio!, dra#ted b' a pa!el o# la- pro#e$$or$ ha!d3pic1ed b' the 098, e$tabli$hed a !umber o# cou!ter3ma5oritaria! i!$titutio!$ a!d +a2e the$e i!$titutio!$ $i+!i#ica!t $uper2i$or' po-er o2er elected o##icial$"23K The$e cha!+e$ di2ided the eJerci$e o# political po-er
bet-ee! political i!$ti3 tutio!$ a!d i!depe!de!t cou!ter3ma5oritaria! i!$titutio!$ ali+!ed -ith the polic' 2ie-$ o# the militar', a!d 2irtuall' mar1ed the e!d o# the .arlia3 me!t$ $upremac'"23L %! e$tabli$hi!+
the$e i!$titutio!$, the militar' $ou+ht o# the <epublic primaril' $eculari$m a!d !atio!al u!it' -hich, accordi!+ to the militar', had pre$er2ed $tabil3 it' the #ace o# threat$ to re2ert to theocratic +o2er!a!ce $tructure$" 23M Speci#3 icall', the !eco!$titutio! e$tabli$hed t-o !e- i!$titutio!$ to perpetuate the militar'$ polic' pre#ere!ce$@ D1N the Tur1i$h Co!$titutio!al Court a!d D2N the Natio!al Securit' Cou!cil"23& % di$cu$$ each i! tur! belo-"
to protect the #ou!di!+ pri!ciple$
48
232. Sahi!, supra !ote 20&, at 220" 233. Id. 234. Id. 235. Id. at 22&" 236. 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK3" 237. /oota! Shamba'ati, Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 15(, at &&, 10001" 238. See O a! O" Varol, #he Ari!ins and Limits of Ari!inalism) A Comparative Study, (( Va!d" :" Tra!$3 !atl 6" 123&, 12M( D2011N" 239. The 1&K1 Co!$titutio! e$tabli$hed other cou!ter3ma5oritaria! i!$titutio!$ a$ -ell, but % #ocu$ o!
the t-o primar' i!$titutio!$ here" See 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK3"
tat
49 a. #he #ur$ish Constitutional Court

The Tur1i$h Co!$titutio!al Court DAnayasa Mah$emesiN -a$ o!e o# the cou!ter3ma5oritaria! i!$titutio!$ e$tabli$hed b' the militar' to perpetuate it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$" The co!$titutio! eJpre$$l' authori ed the !e-l' i!$ti3 tuted Court to Ere2ie- the co!$titutio!alit' o# la-$ a!d the 9'3la-$ o# the Tur1i$h ;ra!d Natio!al ,$$embl'"I2(0 The militar' leader$ belie2ed
that a! i!depe!de!t 5udiciar' -a$ !ece$$ar' to pre2e!t +o2er!me!t oppre$$io! a!d abu$e o# po-er b' elected o##icial$ a!d to protect the #ou!di!+ pri!ciple$ o# the <epublic, primaril' $eculari$m a!d !atio!al u!it', much cheri$hed b' the militar'"2(1 ,$ Ce!er 9el+e a!d /oota! Shamba'ati ha2e ob$er2ed, the #ormatio! o# the Tur1i$h Co!$titutio!al Court $upport$ <a! /ir$chl$ he+e3 mo!ic pre$er2atio! the$i$"2(2 The militar' leader$, #ore$eei!+ their i!e2itable lo$$ o# po-er throu+h democratic electio!$, created a!d empo-ered a $'m3 pathetic Co!$titutio!al Court to pre$er2e their 2alue$ a!d i!tere$t$"2(3
The !e-l' i!$tituted Court co!$i$ted o# #i#tee! perma!e!t a!d #i2e $ub$ti3 tute member$"2(( Ei+ht o# the #i#tee! perma!e!t member$ -ould be
$elected b' other appellate court$ DCou!cil o# State, /i+h Court, a!d Court o# ,c3 cou!t$N, three b' the .arliame!t, t-o b' the Se!ate, a!d t-o b' the .re$i3 de!t o# the <epublic"2(5 The po-er to $elect a ma5orit' o# the member$ o! the Co!$titutio!al Court -a$ thu$ +i2e! to the u!elected 5udiciar', -ho$e member$ -ere more li1el' to be ali+!ed -ith the militar'$ polic' pre#er3 e!ce$ tha! -ere elected political actor$"2(K ,$ /oota! Shamba'ati ha$ eJplai!ed@
G%H! Tur1e', -here the militar' ha$ !o direct co!trol o2er the 5udiciar', the militar' i$ li1el' to #i!d the court$ more $'mpa3 thetic tha! elected political i!$titutio!$ $uch a$ le+i$lature$ a!d cit' cou!cil$" ?!li1e le+i$lati2e bodie$, court$ are !ot directl' ac3 cou!table to 2oter$, a!d at lea$t i! theor', the' are !ot i!#lue!ced b' public opi!io!" *urthermore, the Emerit3ba$edI promotio! a!d $electio! proce$$ u$ed i! Tur1e' produce$ a 5udicial $'$tem that, at lea$t at it$ upper le2el$, -here mo$t politicall' $e!$iti2e ca$e$ are li1el' to e!d up, i$ $'mpathetic to the 2ie-$ o# the +uardia!$"2(L
240. See TuT r1i'e Cumhuri'eti ,!a'a$a$i GCo!$titutio!H 1&K1, art" 1(L DTur1"N" 241. See 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK2K3" 242. Id. at KK(F see also Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 15(, at 103" 243. See 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK( DEGThe Tur1i$h Co!$titutio!al CourtH -a$ !ot e$tabli$hed a$ a!
tat

impartial re#eree o# a co!tract bet-ee! <epublica!$ a!d Democrat$, but a$ the +uardia! o# a <epublica! co!$titutio! a+ai!$t Democrat$"INF Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 23L, at 103" 244. Sahi!, supra !ote 20&, at KM" 245. Id. at KMK&" 246. See 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK2K3" 247. /oota! Shamba'ati, A #ale of #/o Mayors) Courts and Politics in Iran and #ur$ey, 3K %!tl :" 0iddle Ea$t Stud" 253, 2L0 D200(N"
50 50
51
tat
?!der$cori!+ the importa!ce that the militar' placed o! the Court, the !eco!$titutio! al$o adopted a liberal de#i!itio! o# $ta!di!+"2(M ?!der ,r3 ticle
1(&, a -ide ra!+e o# per$o!$ a!d i!$titutio!$ could petitio! the Court #or ab$tract co!$titutio!al re2ie- o# le+i$latio!@ The .re$ide!t o# the <epub3 lic, political partie$ that -ere repre$e!ted i! the .arliame!t, political partie$ that had obtai!ed at lea$t te! perce!t o# the 2ote$ i! the la$t +e!eral elec3 tio!, a!d o!e3$iJth o# the member$ o# both the ;ra!d Natio!al ,$$embl' a!d the Se!ate"2(& ?!li1e mo$t other Europea! co!$titutio!$ that allo- ab3 appellate court$ i!$titu3 tio!$ ali+!ed at the time -ith the militar'$ pre#ere!ce$ could al$o petitio! the Court #or <epublica! polic' co!$titutio!al re2ie- Ei! ca$e$ co!cer!i!+ their dutie$ a!d -el#are"I250
Thi$ eJpa!$i2e de#i!itio! o# $ta!di!+ o!ce a+ai! hi+hli+ht$ the militar'$ di$tru$t o# +o2er!me!t actor$ a!d tru$t o# $'mpathetic u!elected +uardia!$" The u!elected +uardia!$ ali+!ed -ith the militar'$ $upport #or the <epub3 lic$ #ou!di!+ pri!ciple$ -ould thu$ be e!tru$ted -ith a liberal $ta!di!+ doctri!e to clea! up -hat the militar' 2ie-ed a$ the me$$ that $el#3$ee1i!+ politicia!$ -ould i!e2itabl' create" ,!d i! practice, the broad de#i!itio! o# $ta!di!+ i! the !e- co!$titutio! pro2ided the Co!$titutio!al Court -ith more opportu!itie$ to e!+a+e i! 5udicial re2ie-, $tri1e do-! more la-$ a!d re+ulatio!$ pa$$ed b' the political bra!che$, a!d e!#orce the polic' pre#er3 e!ce$ that it $hared -ith the militar'"251 The co!$titutio! al$o empo-ered the Co!$titutio!al Court -ith the pro#ou!d authorit' to perma!e!tl' di$$ol2e political partie$ -ho$e E$tatute$, pro+ram$, a!d acti2itie$I did !ot Eco!#orm to the pri!ciple$ o# a democratic a!d $ecular republic, ba$ed o! huma! ri+ht$ a!d libertie$, a!d to the #u!da3 me!tal pri!ciple o# the State$ territorial a!d !atio!al i!te+rit'"I252 *urther3 more, the authorit' to bri!+ a ca$e #or part' $tract 5udicial re2ie-, u!i2er$itie$ a!d the other
di$$olutio! -a$ pro2ided to the Chie# .ublic .ro$ecutor o# the <epublic, a democraticall' u!accou!table la-'er appoi!ted b' the .re$ide!t #rom a $hort li$t o# !omi!ee$ prepared b' other pro$ecutor$"253 The co!$titutio! al$o re7uired political partie$ to Eac3 cou!t #or their $ource$ o# i!come a!d eJpe!diture$I to the Co!$titutio!al Court a!d authori ed the Court to audit the #i!a!ce$ o# political partie$"25( 4ith the$e pro2i$io!$, political partie$ thu$ became accou!table a!d ar+ua3 bl' $ub$er2ie!t to a democraticall' u!accou!table cou!ter3ma5oritaria! i!3
52
militar' coup i! September 1&M0, the Court recei2ed a! a2era+e o# 1& applicatio!$ #or ab$tract re2ie- e2er' 'ear" %t #ou!d +rou!d$ #or u!co!$titutio!alit' i! 3L perce!t o# the ca$e$"IN" 252. See TuT r1i'e Cumhuri'eti ,!a'a$a$i GCo!$titutio!H 1&K1, art" 5L DTur1"N" 253. See id. at Sectio! Three@ The :udiciar'" 254. See id.
248. Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 15(, at 10K" 249. Id. 250. Id.F 9el+e, supra !ote 1LM, at KK2K3" 251. Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 15(, at 10K DE9et-ee! 1&K2 a!d the
tat
53
$titutio!, mo$t o# -ho$e member$ -ere appoi!ted b' other cou!ter3 ma5oritaria! i!$titutio!$"255 The Court ha$ eJerci$ed -ith eal it$ authorit' to $hut do-! political partie$"25K Si!ce it$ e$tabli$hme!t, it ha$ di$$ol2ed o2er t-e!t' political
par3 tie$"25L The Court ha$ -ielded it$ di$$olutio! po-er primaril' a+ai!$t %$3 lami$t partie$, $uch a$ the 4el#are .art' D"efah PartisiN25M a!d the Virtue .art' D>a<ilet PartisiN, a!d political partie$ that ha2e aimed to #orm a $epa3 rate 8urdi$h $tate -ithi! Tur1e', $uch a$ the .eople$ Democratic .art' D.al$in Demo$rasi Partisi or /,DE.N a!d the .eople$ 6abor .art' D.al$in me$ PartisiN"25& The Court$ tar+eti!+ li!e -ith the #ou!di!+ pri!ciple$ o# o# %$lami$t a!d $eparati$t partie$ i$ i! the <epublic i! particular, !atio!al u!it' a!d $eculari$m cheri$hed b' the militar' 5u!ta that created the Co!3 $titutio!al Court"2K0 Court i$ authori ed to tr', amo!+ other i!di2idual$, the .re$ide!t o# the <epublic, member$ o# the Cou!cil o# 0i!i$ter$, a!d the Chairma! a!d member$ o# the hi+he$t court$ o# appeal E#or o##e!$e$ co!!ected -ith their dutie$"I2K2 The Court$ authorit' to tr' hi+h3le2el politicia!$ #or crimi!al o##e!$e$ related to their dutie$ pro2ide$ the militar'3#rie!dl' Co!$titutio!al
*i!all', the co!$titutio! al$o empo-ered the Co!$titutio!al Court to act a$ a /i+h Cou!cil to co!duct crimi!al trial$ #or +o2er!me!t leader$" 2K1 The
255. The cha!+e$ brou+ht b' the 1&M2 Co!$titutio!, -hich -a$ dra#ted #ollo-i!+ the 1&M0 coup, #urther reduced the i!2ol2eme!t o# the political bra!che$ i! the appoi!tme!t$ proce$$" See Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 15(, at 10(" ?!der the 1&M2 Co!$titutio!, the .arliame!t pla'ed !o role i! appoi!ti!+ member$ to the Co!$titutio!al Court" Id. Ne2erthele$$, a re#ere!dum pac1a+e adopted i! September 2010 i!crea$ed the i!2ol2eme!t o# the political bra!che$ i! ma1i!+ appoi!tme!t$ to the Court" See O a! O" Varol, #ur$ey8s +e/ MaIoritarian Difficulty , Comparati2e Co!$titutio!$ DSept" 2&, 2010, M@2( .0N, http@AA---"comparati2eco!$titutio!$"or+A2010A0&Atur1e'$3!e-3ma5oritaria!3 di##icult'"html" 256. See Shamba'ati, A #ale of #/o Mayors, supra !ote 2(L, at 2K2" 257. Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 15(, at 113" 258. 4i!+ P Varol, supra !ote 22K, at 5 Ddi$cu$$i!+ the di$$olutio! o# the 4el#are .art'N" 259. Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 15(, at 11K1LF Dicle 8o+acio+lu, Dissolution of Political Parties by the Constitutional Court in #ur$ey) 0udicial Delimitation of the Political Domain , 1M %!tl Soc" 25M, 25& D2003N" The Court$ po-er to di$$ol2e political partie$ -a$ curbed b' co!$titutio!al ame!dme!t$ rati#ied i! October 2001 to ad2a!ce Tur1e'$ ca!didac' to the Europea! ?!io!" See Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 23L, at 11K1L" The ame!dme!t$ re7uire, inter alia, a three3#i#th$ ma5orit' rather tha! 5u$t a bare ma5orit' to $hut do-! a political part'" See TuT r1i'e Cumhuri'eti ,!a'a$a$i GCo!$titutio!H 2001, art" 1(& DTur1"N" *urther, a political part' ma' be clo$ed o!l' i# the actio!$ meriti!+ part' di$$olutio! are Ecarried out intensively b' the member$ o# that
part'"I Id. Dempha$i$ addedN" *i!all', the Court !o- ha$ the authorit' to impo$e mo!etar' $a!ctio!$
tat

or de!' public aid to a political part' i! lieu o# di$$ol2i!+ it" See id. 260. See ,'di!li et al", supra !ote 5&, at M0 DEThe Gmilitar'H co!$ider$ Tur1e'$ reli+iou$, $ectaria!, a!d eth!ic #ra+me!tatio! pitti!+ %$lami$t$ a+ai!$t $eculari$t$, Su!!i$ a+ai!$t ,le2i$ D-ho are member$ o# a bra!ch o# %$lam related to Shii$mN, a!d Tur1$ a+ai!$t 8urd$
54 54
to be a da!+er that mu$t be 1ept at ba'"INF Shamba'ati, A #ale of #/o Mayors, supra !ote 2(L, at 2K3 DEThe Tur1i$h 5udiciar' $ee$ it$el# a$ the de#e!der o# $uch co!cept$ a$ republica!i$m, $eculari$m, the i!di2i$ible i!te+rit' o# the $tate, a!d democrac'"IN" 261. See TuT r1i'e Cumhuri'eti ,!a'a$a$i GCo!$titutio!H 1&K1, art" 1(L DTur1"N" 262. See id.
55
tat
Court -ith a!other a2e!ue #or e!$uri!+ that the politicia!$ political a+e!3 da$ do !ot di2er+e #rom the #ou!di!+ pri!ciple$ o# the <epublic"
b. #he +ational Security Council

%! additio! to the Co!$titutio!al Court, the 1&K1 Co!$titutio! al$o e$tab3 li$hed a Natio!al Securit' Cou!cil DMilli CuHvenli$ EuruluN" The cou!cil -ould co!$i$t o# Ethe 0i!i$ter$ a$ pro2ided b' la-, the Chie# o# the ;e!eral Sta##, a!d repre$e!tati2e$ o# the armed #orce$,I -ith the .re$ide!t o# the <epublic pre$idi!+ o2er the cou!cil"2K3 The cou!cil$ $tated purpo$e -a$ to
Ecommu!icate the re7ui$ite #u!dame!tal recomme!datio!$ to the cou!cil o# 0i!i$ter$ -ith the purpo$e o# a$$i$ti!+ i! the ma1i!+ o# deci$io!$ related to !atio!al $ecurit' a!d coordi!atio!"I 2K( %! other -ord$, the cou!cil -ould $er2e a$ a! ad2i$or' bod' a!d #acilitate the eJcha!+e o# 2ie-$ bet-ee! the militar' a!d the ci2ilia! leader$ o! !atio!al $ecurit' matter$"2K5
Not-ith$ta!di!+ it$ appare!tl' i!!ocuou$ ad2i$or' mi$$io!, the Natio!al Securit' Cou!cil became the primar' i!$titutio!al a2e!ue #or the Tur1i$h ,rmed *orce$ to i!#lue!ce the !atio!$ political a##air$" 2KK
,lthou+h the co!3 $titutio! limited the cou!cil$ role to ad2ice o! matter$ o# E!atio!al $ecurit' a!d coordi!atio!,I the militar' member$ o# the cou!cil i!terpreted that phra$e broadl' to e!compa$$ ma!' matter$ o# dome$tic a!d #orei+! polic' u!related to $ecurit'"2KL
The militar' belie2ed the cou!cil to be the mo$t e##ecti2e 2e!ue throu+h -hich to i!#lue!ce the !atio!$ political a##air$ a!d thu$ i!crea$ed it$ i!#lu3 e!ce o2er the cou!cil o2er time"2KM The !umber o# militar' repre$e!tati2e$
o! the cou!cil i!crea$ed $teadil'@ -ith the re2i$io!$ brou+ht b' the 1&M2 Co!$titutio!, dra#ted #ollo-i!+ a!other coup i! 1&M0, the cou!cil co!$i$ted o# #i2e militar' member$ a!d #i2e ci2ilia!$, -ith the cou!cil$ ci2ilia! .re$i3 de!t #re7ue!tl' 2oti!+ -ith the militar'"2K& The 1&M2 Co!$titutio! al$o re3 7uired the Cabi!et to +i2e Epriorit' co!$ideratio!I to the cou!cil$ 263. See TuT r1i'e Cumhuri'eti ,!a'a$a$i GCo!$titutio!H 1&K1, art" 111 DTur1"N" 264. See id. 265. Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 23L, at 101" 266. See id. at 102 DE4hile the Sdeci$io!$ o# the GNatio!al Securit' Cou!cilH are theoreticall' o!l'
ad2i$or', a!d the #i!al deci$io! #or their impleme!tatio! i$ le#t to the cou!cil o# mi!i$ter$ a!d the parliame!t, it i$ clear that the #ramer$ o# the co!$titutio! co!cei2ed o# Gthe Cou!cilH a$ a! importa!t actor i! the deci$io!3ma1i!+ proce$$"INF Shamba'ati, A #ale of #/o Mayors , supra !ote 2(L, at 25& DEG?!der the 1&M2 co!$titutio!H, #ar #rom retur!i!+ to the barrac1$, the militar' retai!ed co!$iderable i!#lue!ce o2er +o2er!me!tal polic' ma1i!+ throu+h " " " the Natio!al Securit' Cou!cil"IN" 2K&" Id.
56
267. Shamba'ati, A #ale of #/o Mayors, supra !ote 2(L, at 25&" The Cou!cil eJerted it$ i!#lue!ce o! the !atio!$ political a##air$ e$peciall' to protect the $eculari$t pri!ciple$ o# the <epublic, a darli!+ o# the Tur1i$h militar'" ;e!eral Ce2i1 9ir put it crudel'@ E%! Tur1e' -e ha2e a marria+e o# %$lam a!d democ3 rac' " " " " The child o# thi$ marria+e i$ $eculari$m" No-, thi$ child +et$ $ic1 #rom time to time" The Tur1i$h ,rmed *orce$ i$ the doctor -hich $a2e$ the child" Depe!di!+ o! ho- $ic1 the 1id i$, -e admi!3 i$ter the !ece$$ar' medici!e to ma1e $ure the child recuperate$"I ?+ur ,1i!ci, #ur$ey and the =S in %&&,) Different 2oices; Same Chord, /urri'et Dail' Ne-$, :a!" 1M, 1&&M, available at http@AA---"hurri'etdail' !e-$"comAh"phpB!e-$Ctur1e'3a!d3the3u$3i!31&&Ldi##ere!t3 2oice$3$ame3chord31&&M30131M" 268. See ,'di!li et al", supra !ote 5&, at M2"
2K&" Id.
57
tat
Edeci$io!$I D-hich !o lo!+er -ere mere Erecomme!datio!$IN" 2L0 4hat
-a$ ori+i!all' co!cei2ed a$ a! ad2i$or' bod' thu$ became a! i!$tructi!+ bod', -ho$e 2ie-$ -ere +i2e! priorit' o2er other +o2er!me!t a+e!cie$"2L1 0ilitar' repre$e!tati2e$ o! the cou!cil al$o +ai!ed co!trol o# the cou!cil$ Secretar'3 ;e!eral, +i2i!+ them the po-er to $et the cou!cil$ a+e!da"2L2
The i!$titutio!ali atio! o# the militar'$ i!#lue!ce o! Tur1i$h political a##air$ throu+h the cou!cil +a2e the militar' a E#irm ha!dI i! Tur1i$h polit3 ic$"2L3 The Natio!al Securit' Cou!cil $er2ed a$ a co!$titutio!al
a2e!ue #or the militar' to i!#lue!ce the political bra!che$"2L( ,t the $ame time, the Co!$titutio!al Court, created b' the militar' to perpetuate it$ i!$titutio!al pre#ere!ce$, ha$ co!ti!ued to pla' a #ormidable role i! Tur1i$h political a#3 #air$, $tri1i!+ do-! le+i$latio! a!d di$$ol2i!+ political partie$ -ho$e a+e!3 da$ are i!co!$i$te!t -ith the #ou!di!+ pri!ciple$ o# the <epublic" B. #he Portu!uese Coup of %&,-) Substantive ntrenchment
%! 1&L(, the .ortu+ue$e militar' o2erthre- the authoritaria! stada +ovo DNe- StateN re+ime i! a coup detat 1!o-! a$ the Car!atio! <e2olutio!"2L5 % #ir$t di$cu$$ the prelude a!d a#termath o# the coup
a!d the! a!al' e the dra$tic $ub$ta!ti2e po-er$ that the .ortu+ue$e militar' re$er2ed #or it$el# i! the !e- co!$titutio! dra#ted #ollo-i!+ the coup"
1" #he Prelude and Aftermath of the Coup
The authoritaria! stado +ovo re+ime -a$ created b' ,!to!io de Oli2eira Sala ar i! 1&30"2LK The re+ime repre$e!ted a cla$$ic eJample o#
authoritari3 a!i$m"2LL %t de!ied a political 2oice to all but a $mall part o# the populatio! a!d mai!tai!ed the eJi$ti!+ $ocioeco!omic $tructure$"2LM Stri1e$ -ere pro3 hibited, a!d .ortu+ue$e -or1er$ -ere the mo$t poorl' paid i! 4e$ter! Eu3 270. See Shamba'ati, A #ale of #/o Mayors, supra !ote 2(L, at 25&" 271. ,'di!li et al", supra !ote 5&, at M2M3" 272. Id. at M3" 273. Id. 274. E%! preparatio! #or Tur1e'$ e2e!tual e!tr' i!to the Europea!
?!io! the .arliame!t ha$ adopted a !umber o# co!$titutio!al ame!dme!t$ -ith the aim o# reduci!+ the militar'$ role i! politic$" ,ccord3 i!+l', i! 2001 the compo$itio! o# the GCou!cilH -a$ cha!+ed to i!crea$e the !umber o# ci2ilia! member$ a!d to empha$i$e the cou!cil$ ad2i$or' role" %! additio!, a ci2ilia! replaced the cou!cil$ militar' Secre3 tar'3;e!eral"I Shamba'ati, #he Cuardian of the "e!ime, supra !ote 23L, at 102 !"L" 275. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 11M, 12M"
58
tat
276. Thoma$ C" 9ru!eau, >rom "evolution to Democracy in Portu!al) #he "oles and Sta!es of the Provisional Covernments, in Shai! P 6i! , supra !ote 35, at 1((" 277. Id. at 1(((5F 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 11LF ,!to!io Co$ta .i!to, #he Le!acy of the Authoritarian Past in Portu!al8s Democrati<ation; %&,- ', & Totalitaria! 0o2eme!t$ a!d .ol" <eli3 +io!$ 2K5, 2KL D200MN DESala ari$m -a$ clo$e to 6i! $ ideal3t'pe o# authoritaria! re+ime@ it -a$ a re+ime that $ur2i2ed the #a$ci$t era, a!d -a$ !ot too di$$imilar i! !ature #rom the #i!al pha$e o# !ei+hbouri!+ Spai!$ *ra!co re+ime, de$pite it$ $i!+le part' bei!+ -ea1er, a!d it$ limited plurali$m +reater"I Di!ter!al #oot!ote a!d 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedNN" *or a de#i!itio! o# authoritaria!i$m, $ee supra !ote$ (0(2" 278. 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1(((5"
59
tat
rope"2L& .olitical partie$ -ere +e!erall' outla-ed a$ -ell, a!d e2e! -he!
the re+ime allo-ed political co!te$tatio!, it -a$ +ra!ted o!l' immediatel' be#ore the electio!$,2M0 lea2i!+ little opportu!it' #or the oppo$itio! to mou!t a! electio! campai+!" Voter re+i$tratio! -a$ di$coura+ed, $uch that o!l' #i#tee! perce!t o# the populatio! -a$ re+i$tered to 2ote i! the 1&L3 electio!$"2M1 ,!d, -he! !ece$$ar', the re+ime achie2ed de$ired political out3 come$ throu+h #raud"2M2 The periodic electio!$ held b' the re+ime thu$ had little $i+!i#ica!ce a!d !o co!$e7ue!ce"2M3 The re+ime$ political police, the .%DE DPolK9cia Internacional e de Defesa do stadoN, $uppre$$ed ci2il libertie$, #reedom o# $peech, a!d political oppo$itio! -ith E$adi$tic e##icie!c',I2M( b' ce!$ori!+, torturi!+, impri$o!i!+, a!d 1illi!+ di$$ide!t$"2M5 The re+ime al$o committed the !atio! to co$tl' colo!ial -ar$ i! ,!+ola, ;ui!ea3 9i$$au, a!d 0o ambi7ue"2MK
?!der the authoritaria! stado +ovo re+ime, .ortu+al remai!ed the mo$t u!derde2eloped !atio! i! 4e$ter! Europe"2ML Di$a##ectio! -ith the re+ime
-a$ -ide$pread, but the re+ime e!$ured that the oppo$itio! remai!ed too -ea1 to catal' e a!' $tructural cha!+e"2MM Sala ar remai!ed committed to $u$tai!i!+ the authoritaria! re+ime he had e$tabli$hed2M& a!d !o $i+!$ o# re#orm -ere i! $i+ht"2&0
O!e o# the o!l' re$pected +o2er!me!t i!$titutio!$ i! .ortu+al -a$ the militar'"2&1 The militar' came to repre$e!t the .ortu+ue$e populace
prima3 ril' becau$e o# the !atio!$ le!+th' colo!ial -ar$ a!d the !eed to $uppl' the militar' machi!e #rom o!l' a $mall populatio!" 2&2 %! co!tra$t to ma!' !a3 tio!$ -herei! the militar' i$ i$olated #rom $ociet' a!d i$ $ta##ed b' multi3 +e!eratio!al militar' #amilie$, .ortu+al$ co!ti!uou$ colo!ial -ar$ re!dered i$olatio! impo$$ible"2&3 O2er o!e millio! .ortu+ue$e had #ou+ht i! the colo3 !ial -ar$"2&( *urther, the lo- pa' le2el$ o# the militar' o##icer$ re7uired 279. Portu!al) Cheers; Carnations; and Problems, supra !ote 5(" 280. See 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 152" 281. See Da2id Cor1ill, #he Political System and the Consolidation of Democracy in Portu!al, (K .arlia3
me!tar' ,##air$ 51L, 51M D1&&3N" 282. See id. 283. See 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 152" 284. Portu!al) Cheers; Carnations; and Problems, supra !ote 5(" 285. See 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 12MF Cor1ill, supra !ote 2M1, at 51&" 286. Na!c' 9ermeo, Dar and Democrati<ation) Lessons from the Portu!uese 5perience, 1( Democrati a3 tio! 3MM, 3&1 D200LN" 287. See 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1(5" 288. Id. at 1(5F 8e!!eth 0aJ-ell, "e!ime Averthro/ and the Prospects for Democratic #ransition in Portu2&(" Id.

!al, in Tra!$itio!$ #rom ,uthoritaria! <ule@ Souther! Europe 10&, 115 D;uillermo ODo!!ell et al" ed$", 1&MKN DEGOHppo$itio! to the G.ortu+ue$eH dictator$hip had al-a'$ eJi$ted a!d pro2ided almo$t automaticall' a cadre o# ci2ilia! collaborator$ #or the militar' i! the 2acuum that had emer+ed"IN" 289. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 11L" 290. See 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 151" 291. 9ermeo, supra !ote 2MK, at 3&M" 292. Id. 293. See id.
60
2&(" Id.
61
tat
them to -or1 i! the ci2ilia! $ector to $uppleme!t their i!come -hile o## dut', -hich 1ept the o##icer$ i! #re7ue!t co!tact -ith .ortu+ue$e ci2ilia! $ociet'"2&5 %! $hort, the armed #orce$ became .ortu+ue$e $ociet'" 2&K Di$$ati$#actio! -ith the stado +ovo re+ime +re- rampa!t, a!d approJi3 matel' t-o hu!dred 5u!ior militar' o##icer$ -ho -ere part o# the ,rmed *orce$ 0o2eme!t DMovimento das >orLcas ArmadasN DE0*,IN $ta+ed a coup detat o! ,pril 25, 1&L("2&L The coup brou+ht a! e!d to the !earl' #i2e3
decade$3old stado +ovo re+ime, 4e$ter! Europe$ olde$t dictator$hip"2&M Thou$a!d$ immediatel' #loc1ed to the $treet$ to $upport the 5u!ior o##icer$ -ho had $ta+ed the coup2&& a!d to celebrate Ethe $udde!, $urpri$i!+ +i#t o# #reedom"I300 The coup came to be 1!o-! a$ the Car!atio! <e2olutio!, !amed a#ter the car!atio!$ DcravosN that the cro-d$ pic1ed up #rom the 6i$3 bo! #lo-er mar1et, a ce!tral +atheri!+ poi!t, a!d placed i! the +u! barrel$ o# the militar' o##icer$ a$ $'mbol$ o# $upport"301 %! the #ollo-i!+ -ee1$, red car!atio!$ became a ubi7uitou$ $'mbol acro$$ .ortu+al, E$proutGi!+ i!H but3 to!hole$ a!d blou$e$ e2er'-here"I302 %! 6i$bo!, car hor!$ ho!1ed the rh'thm o# ESp> !3Sp>!3Sp>!ola,I re#erri!+ to the head o# the militar' 5u!ta, ;e!eral ,!to!io de Sp>!ola"303 , promi!e!t commu!i$t leader, ,l2aro Cu!hal, !e-l' retur!ed #rom eJile, $po1e hi+hl' o# ;e!eral Sp>!ola@ E4hat i!tellectual $tature thi$ ma! ha$ " " " " /e accepted -hat -a$ thru$t upo! him b' the re2olutio!, a!d he ha$ do!e a +reat thi!+ #or hi$ people"I30( , ba!!er that read ET/,N8 =O?, ,<0ED *O<CESI -a$ u!#urled i! a $occer $tadium pac1ed -ith a cro-d o# 200,000 to hear $peeche$ b' le#ti$t leader$ -ho retur!ed #rom eJile #ollo-i!+ the coup"305
,#ter the celebratio!$, a t-o3'ear tra!$itio! period 1!o-! a$ the O!+oi!+ <e2olutio!ar' .roce$$ DProcesso "evolucionario m CursoN DE.E<CIN be+a!" The da' a#ter the coup, the militar' o##icer$ i$$ued a $hort commu!i7ue to 5u$ti#' a!d $tate the rea$o!$ #or the coup"30K %! the commu!i7ue, the mili3
tar' committed it$el# to the aboli$hme!t o# the authoritaria! re+ime a!d the i!$titutio! o# #u!dame!tal political a!d $ocioeco!omic re#orm$ i!te!ded to e$tabli$h a democratic re+ime"30L The militar' promi$ed to hold popular electio!$ -ithi! t-el2e mo!th$ #or a co!$titue!t a$$embl', -hich -ould 295. Id. 296. Id. 297. See 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1((" 298. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 11MF 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1((" 299. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 11M, 12M" 300. Portu!al) Cheers; Carnations; and Problems, supra !ote 5(" 301. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 11M"
62
tat
re#orm their +o2er!me!tal $'$temI a!d e$tabli$h Eco!$titutio!al democrac'"INF 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1(5"
302. Portu!al) Cheers; Carnations; and Problems, supra !ote 5(" 303. Id. 304. Id. 305. Id. 306. 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1(5" 307. 0urph', supra !ote 23, at 3L&M0 DEGTHhe 'ou!+ leader$ o# the .ortu+ue$e coup -a!ted to
63
tat
The militar' #urther committed it$el# to Eelectio!$ #or a parliame!t a!d a pre$ide!t, u!der a #rame-or1 to be determi!ed b' the co!$titue!t a$$embl' -ithi! a!other 'ear"I30& The com3 mu!i7ue al$o a!!ou!ced the militar'$ i!te!tio! to #i!d a political $olutio! to the debilitati!+ -ar$ i! the ,#rica! colo!ie$ o# ,!+ola, ;ui!ea39i$$au, a!d 0o ambi7ue, -hich had bee! dra++i!+ o! -ith !o $i+! o# 2ictor' $i!ce 1&K1"310 %! $hort, the militar' promi$ed E-hat came to be 1!o-! a$ the three D$ o# Decolo!i atio!, Democrati atio!, a!d De2elopme!t"I311 .olitical partie$ $tarted to #orm $hortl' a#ter the coup"312 4ithi! a #emo!th$, approJimatel' #i#t' political mo2eme!t$ be+a! competi!+ #or po-er i! the !e-l' ope!ed democratic mar1etplace" 313 Out o# the$e #i#t' +roup$ emer+ed Et-el2e o##iciall' reco+!i ed ma5or political partie$"I31( .artie$ that -ere a$$ociated -ith the stado +ovo re+ime -ere ba!!ed"315 The militar' al$o #reed political pri$o!er$ -ho -ere 5ailed duri!+ the stado +ovo re+ime"31K
the! dra#t a !e- democratic co!$titutio!" 30M ,lthou+h !e- political partie$ -ere #ormed, the militar' remai!ed deepl' i!2ol2ed i! the political proce$$ duri!+ the tra!$itio!" 31L ,#ter the coup,
Ethe :u!ta o# Natio!al Sal2atio!, headed b' $e2e! Gmilitar'H o##icer$, a$3 $umed $o2erei+! po-er, elected a !e- pre$ide!t #rom it$ member$, a!d ap3 poi!ted the +o2er!me!t"I31M The o##icer$ authori ed them$el2e$ to@ Earre$t,
" " " carr' out police i!7uirie$, " " " a!d $ubmit to militar' 5uri$dictio! a!' ci2ilia!$ the' deemed -ere i!2ol2ed i! o##e!$e$ co!cer!i!+ the militar'"I31& The militar'$ 5uri$dictio! al$o co2ered E Scou!ter3
re2olutio!ar' crime$, i!3 cludi!+ tho$e eJerci$ed b' the ma$$ media"I320 The :u!ta o# Natio!al Sal2a3 tio! -a$ e2e!tuall' replaced b' a bod' called the Cou!cil o# the <e2olutio!,321 compri$ed primaril' o# $e!ior militar' o##icer$"322
Electio!$ #or a co!$titue!t a$$embl' -ere held a$ $cheduled o! the #ir$t a!!i2er$ar' o# the coup, ,pril 25, 1&L5"323 The$e electio!$ -ere the #ir$t i!
.ortu+ue$e hi$tor' to #eature u!i2er$al $u##ra+e a!d a $ecret 2ote a!d the 308. 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1(K" 309. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 120" 310. 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1(5" 311. 9ermeo, supra !ote 2MK, at 3&1 DEG,H cea$e3#ire a!d the creatio! o# $ome #orm o# democrac'
-ere the coup3ma1er$ top prioritie$"INF .i!to, supra !ote 2LL, at 2KL DEThi$ -a$ a S!o!3hierarchical militar' coup, -hich had a political pro+ramme that promoted democrati$atio! a!d decolo!i atio!"INF 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1(5" 312. 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1(L"
64
313. Id. 314. Id. 315. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 11M" 316. Id. 317. Id. at 11&" 318. Id. 319. Id. 320. Id. 321. 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1(&" 322. Cor1ill, supra !ote 2M1, at 51&" 323. 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 1(&"
tat
65
#ir$t mea!i!+#ul electio!$ i! .ortu+al $i!ce the 1&20$" 32( The t-el2e
ma5or political partie$ participated i! the electio!$, -hich -ere #air a!d #ree b' all ob5ecti2e accou!t$"325 The tur!out -a$ a! impre$$i2e !i!et'3t-o perce!t"32K Se2e!t'3t-o perce!t o# the 2ote -e!t to a ce!ter3le#t part', a ce!ter3ri+ht
a+e!da$ -ere all dedicated to e$tab3
li$hi!+ 4e$ter!3$t'le democrac'"32L %! additio! to determi!i!+ the di$tri3 butio! o# $eat$ #or dra#ti!+ a !e- co!$titutio!, the electio!$ #or the co!$titue!t a$$embl', throu+h the $ta++eri!+ tur!out, Ele+itimated the idea o# popular participatio! a!d democrac'I i! .ortu+al" 32M
9ut the co!$titue!t a$$embl' -a$ u!able to dra#t the co!$titutio! it$ member$ de$ired"32& ,lthou+h democraticall' elected, the co!$titue!t a$3
part', a!d a co!$er2ati2e part' -ho$e
$embl' -a$ !ot i!depe!de!t becau$e the ma5or political partie$, accedi!+ to dema!d$ #rom the militar', $i+!ed a -ritte! pact a+reei!+ to a $uper2i$or' role #or the militar' duri!+ the co!$titutio! dra#ti!+ proce$$"330 The co!$tit3 ue!t a$$embl' completed it$ -or1 a#ter a 'ear a!d proclaimed the !e- co!3 $titutio! i! ,pril 1&LK"331 The co!$titutio! -a$ !ot put to a popular re#ere!dum"332
,$ $peci#ied i! the co!$titutio!, parliame!tar' electio!$ -ere held o! the $eco!d a!!i2er$ar' o# the coup, ,pril 25, 1&LK" 333 The $ame three
partie$ that obtai!ed a ma5orit' o# the popular 2ote i! the electio!$ #or the co!$titu3 e!t a$$embl' -o! EL5 perce!t o# the 2ote a!d 222 o# the 2K3 $eat$ i! the a$$embl'"I33( T-o mo!th$ a#ter the parliame!tar' electio!$, o! :u!e 2L, 1&LK, pre$ide!tial electio!$ -ere held"335 The ma5or political partie$ Ea+reed to $upport a militar' o##icer #or the pre$ide!c',I but -ere allo-ed to choo$e the $peci#ic ca!didate$"33K %! the pre$ide!tial electio!$, ;e!eral <amalho Ea!e$, the Comma!der3i!3Chie# o# the ,rmed *orce$ a!d the .re$ide!t o# the Cou!cil o# the <e2olutio!, -a$ elected .re$ide!t" 33L *ollo-i!+ parlia3 me!tar' a!d pre$ide!tial electio!$, the coup leader$, $ucce$$#ul i! di$ma!3 tli!+ the $tructure$ o# the pre2iou$ autocratic re+ime a!d e$tabli$hi!+ democrac', tur!ed po-er o2er to the democraticall' elected leader$"33M
,pril 25, the date o# the coup, became a !atio!al holida' i! .ortu+al to commemorate the o2erthro- o# the authoritaria! stado +ovo re+ime a!d the
324. Id. at 15253" 325. Id. at 1(&" 326. Id. at 153" 327. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 121" 328. 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 153"
tat
66 66
329. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 123" 330. Id. at 123" 331. 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 150" 332. Cor1ill, supra !ote 2M1, at 522" 333. 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 150" 334. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 121" 335. 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 151, 15L" 336. Id. at 150" 337. Id. at 151, 15L" .ortu+ue$e 2oter$ re3elected Ea!e$ #or a $eco!d term u!til 1&MK" Id. at 153" 338. Id. at 15M"
67
tat
achie2eme!t o# democrac'" Sala ar$ !ame -a$ remo2ed #rom all mo!u3 me!t$, $treet$, $7uare$, a$ -ell a$ #rom a! ico!ic brid+e i! 6i$bo! o2er the <i2er Ta+u$, -hich -a$ re!amed the ,pril 25 9rid+e D Ponte *3 de Abril Brid!eN"33& 0a!' other $treet$ a!d $7uare$ i! .ortu+al -ere al$o
re!amed to celebrate the coup"3(0 %! 1&&&, a! eJhibitio! to commemorate the t-e!t'3 #i#th a!!i2er$ar' o# the militar' coup a!d to celebrate the achie2eme!t o# democrac' allo-ed thou$a!d$ o# .ortu+ue$e to tra2el throu+h Ethe dar1 pa$$a+e$ o# Sala ari$m, throu+h the torture chamber$ o# the political police, a!d alo!+ corridor$ that -ere li!ed -ith photo+raph$ o# political pri$o!er$"I3(1
The .ortu+ue$e coup o# 1&L( #it$ -ithi! the democratic coup #rame-or1" The hi+hl' re$pected .ortu+ue$e militar' $ta+ed a coup a+ai!$t the authori3 taria! stado +ovo re+ime i! order to tra!$itio! the !atio! to a democrac'" ,lthou+h there -a$ !o ma$$i2e a!d per$i$te!t re+ime be#ore the coup primaril' becau$e popular upri$i!+ a+ai!$t the o# the re+ime$ repre$$i2e tac3 tic$ di$a##ectio! -ith a!d oppo$itio! to
tio!$ #or the co!$titue!t a$$embl' a!d the .arliame!t -ere held a$ $cheduled -ithi! t-o 'ear$ o# the coup, a!d the militar' promptl' reli!3 7ui$hed po-er to democraticall' elected leader$" 9ut the militar' e!$ured a! o!+oi!+ 2oice i! the !atio!$ political a##air$ b' re$er2i!+ $ub$ta!ti2e po-3 er$ #or it$el# i! the !e- co!$titutio!, the topic o# the !eJt $ectio!"
the re+ime -ere -ide$pread" Elec3 2" Substantive ntrenchment
The co!$titutio! that the co!$titue!t a$$embl' dra#ted i! 1&LK re#lect$ the militar'$ $uper2i$or' role i! the dra#ti!+ proce$$ a!d $ho-$ $ub$ta!ti2e e!tre!chme!t" The !e- co!$titutio! authori ed the Cou!cil o# the <e2olu3 tio!, compri$ed predomi!a!tl' o# the militar' 5u!ta, to pa$$ it$ o-! la-$, -hich -ould ha2e Ethe $ame 2alidit' a$ la-$ o# the ,$$embl' o# the <epub3 lic"I3(2
The co!$titutio! #urther authori ed the Cou!cil to 5ud+e the co!$ti3 tutio!alit' o# all la-$ pa$$ed b' the parliame!t" 3(3 ?!der the !eco!$titutio!, the Cou!cil al$o had the po-er, eJclu$i2e o# the other bra!che$, to Ema1e la-$ co!cer!i!+ the or+a!i atio!al #u!ctio!i!+, a!d di$3 cipli!e o# the ,rmed *orce$"I 3(( 4hat i$ more, the co!$titutio! prohibited it$ re2i$io! u!til 1&M2 a!d e2e! the!, re2i$io! re7uired a t-o3 third$ ma5or3 it' o# the .arliame!t"3(5
The !e- co!$titutio! thu$ di2ided po-er bet-ee! the Cou!cil o# the <e2olutio! a!d the democraticall' elected .arliame!t"3(K 9ut the bala!ce o#
67
Id.
68
339. .i!to, supra !ote 2LL, at 2M5" 340. Id. at 2M5" 341. Id. at 2M(" 342. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 123" 343. Id. 344. Id. 345. 0aJ-ell, supra !ote 2MM, at 132"
68
Id.
69
tat
po-er -a$ $1e-ed dra$ticall' i! #a2or o# the Cou!cil" <u!!i!+ rou+h$hod o2er a!' co!cept o# $eparatio! o# po-er$, the Cou!cil had the po-er, !ot o!l' to pa$$ la-$, but al$o to act a$ a de #acto co!$titutio!al court to $tri1e do-! u!co!$titutio!al la-$ pa$$ed b' the le+i$lature"3(L The $ub$ta!ti2e e!tre!chme!t #ou!d i! the po$t3coup co!$titutio! i! .ortu+al i$ the mo$t dra$tic eJample o# co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t" De3 $pite it$ dra$tic !ature, or perhap$ becau$e o# it, the e!tre!chme!t did !ot ha2e lo!+3la$ti!+ e##ect$" ?!der the co!$titutio!, the Cou!cil o# the <e2olu3 tio! -ould per#orm it$ #u!ctio!$ u!til at lea$t the e!d o# the #ir$t le+i$lati2e $e$$io! o# #i2e 'ear$"3(M %! 1&M2, it thu$ became po$$ible to
ame!d the co!3 $titutio! a!d elimi!ate the Cou!cil"3(& That 'ear, a coalitio! o# the eJi$ti!+ political partie$ +ar!ered the re7ui$ite t-o3 third$ ma5orit' to re2i$e the co!3 $titutio!"350 The ame!dme!t$ decrea$ed the po-er$ o# the .re$ide!t, tra!$3 #erred them to the .arliame!t or other i!$titutio!$, a!d mo$t importa!tl', aboli$hed the Cou!cil o# the <e2olutio!"351 The Cou!cil o# the <e2olutio! -a$ replaced -ith Ea ci2ilia! ad2i$or' bod', the Cou!cil o# State, a!d the Co!$titutio!al Court"I352 The ame!dme!t$ al$o e$tabli$hed a le+al #rame3 -or1 #or democratic ci2ilia! co!trol o# the militar'"353 *ollo-i!+ the ame!dme!t$, .ortu+al ha$ remai!ed E!ot $impl' a democrac', but a rela3 ti2el' hi+h37ualit' democrac'"I35( C. #he !yptian Coup of *(%%) Procedural ntrenchment
The E+'ptia! militar' coup o# 2011 $till i! pro+re$$ a$ thi$ ,rticle -a$
+oi!+ to pre$$ ha$ the be+i!!i!+$ o# a democratic coup detat a!d ha$
alread' eJhibited $i+!$ o# procedural e!tre!chme!t" The ruli!+ militar' ha$ tra!$#erred le+i$lati2e po-er to the lo-er hou$e o# the .arliame!t #ollo-i!+ parliame!tar' electio!$, -hich be+a! i! No2ember 2011, a!d ha$ 2o-ed to ha!d o2er eJecuti2e po-er #ollo-i!+ pre$ide!tial electio!$ i! 0a' 2012" 9ut the militar' al$o appear$ to be beha2i!+ a$ a $el#3i!tere$ted actor a!d $etti!+ up the tra!$itio! proce$$ $o that the re$ulti!+ co!$titutio! #a2or$ it$ polic' a!d i!$titutio!al pre#ere!ce$" Thi$ .art di$cu$$e$ the prelude a!d a#3 termath o# the 2011 coup, #ollo-ed b' a! a!al'$i$ o# the procedural e!3 tre!chme!t that ha$ ta1e! place thu$ #ar" 347. See 9ru!eau, supra !ote 2LK, at 15(" ?!li1e the Tur1i$h militar', -hich created a $eparate co!$titutio!al court -ith the po-er o# 5udicial re2ie-, the .ortu+ue$e militar' +a2e it$el# the $ub$ta!ti2e po-er to re2ie- the co!$titutio!alit' o# le+i$latio!" 348. Id. at 150"
70
tat
ideal -orld, all coup$ are li1e the .ortu+al 1&L( o!e@ the' e!d a! autocratic $pell, u$her i! a $-i#t tra!$itio! to democrac', a!d place the militar' u!der $tro!+ ci2ilia! co!trol"IN"
349. Id. at 15M" 350. Id. 351. Id. 352. Cor1ill, supra !ote 2M1, at 525" 353. 6i! P Stepa!, supra !ote 20, at 12(" 354. 9ermeo, supra !ote 2MK, at 3&1F see also 0ari!o2 P ;oema!$, supra !ote 12, at 22 DE%! $ome
71
tat
1"
#he Prelude and Aftermath of the Coup
%! October 1&M1, member$ o# the %$lamic :ihad a$$a$$i!ated .re$ide!t ,!-ar al3Sadat duri!+ a militar' parade i! Cairo" 355 ?po! al3Sadat$
a$$a$$i3 !atio!, hi$ Vice .re$ide!t, a #ormer Comma!der o# the ,ir *orce b' the !ame o# /o$!i 0ubara1, a$$umed the o##ice o# the .re$ide!c'"35K 0ubara1 -ould +o o! to become the lo!+e$t3$er2i!+ .re$ide!t i! E+'pt, completi!+ t-e!t'3!i!e 'ear$ i! o##ice u!til a coup detat remo2ed him #rom po-er i! *ebruar' 2011"
0ubara1$ term i! o##ice -a$ mar1ed b' authoritaria! practice$ a!d cor3 ruptio!" /i$ part', the Natio!al Democratic .art' D Al-.i<b al-Dataniy ad- DKMmuM6raMtiyN DEND.IN, domi!ated the +o2er!me!t throu+hout hi$ term i! o##ice, co!$i$te!tl' -i!!i!+ la!d$lide ma5oritie$ i! the .eople$ ,$$embl' DMaIlis Al-Sha8abN"35L The ND. e!$ured it$ perpetuatio! i!
o##ice b' pre2e!ti!+ the oppo$itio! #rom competi!+ o! e7ual #ooti!+ #or $eat$ i! the le+i$lature"35M *or eJample, the ND., u!der 0ubara1$ leader$hip, routi!el' de!ied the oppo$itio! acce$$ to broadca$t media a!d to other campai+! re3 $ource$, $hut do-! tele2i$io! $tatio!$, a!d #orced critical tal1 $ho-$ o## the air a!d oppo$itio! 5our!ali$t$ out o# their 5ob$, all o# -hich e##ecti2el' para3 l' ed the oppo$itio! partie$ e##ort$ to publici e their 2ie-$" 35& 4here cut3 ti!+ o## acce$$ to campai+! outlet$ did !ot $u##ice, the ND. 5ailed oppo$itio! leader$" *or eJample, immediatel' be#ore the 1&&5 electio!$, ei+ht'3o!e member$ o# the 0u$lim 9rotherhood -ere impri$o!ed o! trumped up char+e$ o# i!citi!+ 2iole!ce i! order to preclude their participa3 tio! a$ i!depe!de!t ca!didate$ i! the upcomi!+ electio!$"3K0 ,lle+atio!$ o# electoral #raud, alread' -ide$pread duri!+ 0ubara1$ rule, -ere bol$tered b' hi$ re5ectio! o# call$ b' oppo$itio! partie$ #or i!ter!atio!al electio! mo!itor$"3K1
, local %!depe!de!t Commi$$io! #or Electio! <e2ie- DE%CE<IN, e$tab3 li$hed a+ai!$t the -i$he$ o# 0ubara1, reported !umerou$ improprietie$ i! the parliame!tar' electio!$"3K2 *or eJample, duri!+ the 1&&5 electio!$,
%CE< #ou!d that the repre$e!tati2e$ o# oppo$itio! partie$ -ere EeJpelled or tur!ed a-a' #rom polli!+ $tatio!$, -here ballot boJe$ arri2ed $tu##ed -ith
355. 8ri$te! Stilt, 7Islam Is the Solution:) Constitutional 2isions of the !yptian Muslim Brotherhood, (K TeJ" %!tl 6":" L3, LLLM D2010N" 356. Id. at LM" 357. Charle$ <obert Da2id$o!, "eform and "epression and Mubara$8s !ypt, 2( *letcher *" 4orld ,##" L5, M2 D2000N" *or eJample, the ND. -o! ei+ht'3$iJ perce!t o# the $eat$ i! the ,$$embl' i! 1&&0, !i!et'3#our perce!t i! 1&&5, id., a!d ei+ht'3o!e perce!t i! 2010" !ypt Country =pdate, Eur" 71 Id.

*" #or Democrac' P Solidarit', http@AA---"europea!#orum"!etAcou!tr'Ae+'pt Dla$t 2i$ited 0ar" 1M, 2012N" 358. See Da2id$o!, supra !ote 35L, at M2" 359. Id. at M3 Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedNF :ac1 She!1er, !yptian lections) Independents >i!ht for .earts and Minds in B>i5ed Ballot ,8 ;uardia! D?"8"N, No2" 22, 2010, http@AA---"+uardia!"co"u1A -orldA2010A!o2A22Ae+'pt3electio!$3mu$lim3brotherhood3!dp" 360. Da2id$o!, supra !ote 35L, at MK" 361. Id. at M3"
72
72
Id.
73
tat
2oti!+ paper$ or el$e di$appeared prior to the cou!t" Numerou$ polli!+ $ta3 tio!$ -ere ra!$ac1ed b' paid thu+$, a!d $e2eral oppo$itio! ca!didate$ -ere pre2e!ted #rom 2oti!+ " " " "I3K3 ,lthou+h E+'ptia!
admi!i$trati2e court$ ordered the i!2alidatio! o# the 1&&5 electio! re$ult$ i! 10& out o# the 222 electoral di$trict$ #or electoral improprietie$,3K( the ND.3domi!ated le+i$la3 ture re#u$ed to e!#orce the order$"3K5
The ND.$ repre$$i2e a!d #raudule!t electoral practice$ led to -ide$pread apath' to-ard parliame!tar' electio!$"3KK %! each electio!, 2oter$ 2ie-ed
ND.$ 2ictor' a$ a #ore+o!e co!clu$io!" 3KL ,$ 0o!a El3;hoba$h', a! E+'p3 tia! political $cie!ti$t, -rite$@ ENo o!e thi!1$ parliame!tar' electio!$ i! E+'pt are democratic or e2e! $emi3democratic " " " " Citi e!$ 1!o- that electio!$ are ri++ed, -ith polli!+ place$ o#te! bloc1ed o## b' bato!3-ieldi!+ police, $o #e- o# them 2ote"I3KM *or eJample, 2oter tur!out #or the 2010 parliame!tar' electio!$ $tood at a mea+er t-e!t'3$e2e! perce!t"3K&
%! additio! to parliame!tar' electio!$, the 0ubara1 re+ime al$o $ti#led the oppo$itio! i! pre$ide!tial electio!$" Electio!$ #or pre$ide!t too1 place b' re#ere!dum #or a $i!+le ca!didate, 0ubara1, u!til 2005, -he! multi3 ca!di3 date pre$ide!tial electio!$ -ere i!$tituted i! re$po!$e to i!crea$ed pre$$ure #rom E+'ptia!$ a!d #orei+! allie$"3L0 ,lthou+h oppo$itio! didate$ -ere permitted to ru! i! 2005, ,'ma! Nour
pre$ide!tial ca!3
-a$ co!2icted o# #al$i#'i!+ +o2er!me!t docume!t$ a!d $e!te!ced to #i2e 'ear$ impri$o!3 me!t"3L2 Nour$ $e!te!ce $e!t a loud a!d clear me$$a+e to oppo$itio! ca!di3 date$ to bac1 a-a' #rom challe!+i!+ 0ubara1$ $tro!+hold o! the pre$ide!tial $eat"
the di$ta!t $eco!d3 place #i!i$her a#ter 0ubara1 -ith L"3U o# the 2ote3L1 Throu+hout hi$ term i! o##ice, 0ubara1 al$o 1ept i! place a! emer+e!c' la- that had bee! i!$tituted #ollo-i!+ Sadat$ a$$a$$i!atio!" 3L3 The la- per3
mitted, amo!+ other thi!+$, arbitrar' arre$t$ a!d $earche$, i!de#i!ite dete!3 tio! -ithout trial, the le+ali atio! o# ce!$or$hip, a!d trial$ o# ci2ilia!$ b'
363. Id. 364. Id. 365. 0o!a 0a1ram3Ebeid, !ypt8s %&&3 lections) Ane Step >or/ard; #/o Steps Bac$F, ( 0iddle E" .ol' 11&, 131 D1&&KN" 366. See !ypt "eferendum Stron!ly Bac$s Constitution Chan!es, 99C Ne-$, 0ar" 20, 2011,
http@AA---" bbc"co"u1A!e-$A-orld3middle3ea$t312M01125 DE?!der #ormer .re$ide!t /o$!i 0ubara1, electio!$ -ere $ta+e3ma!a+ed a##air$ -ith pre3determi!ed re$ult$ a!d tur!out -a$ 2er' lo-"IN" 367. See id.
74
tat
368. She!1er, supra !ote 35&" 369. See 2oter #urnout Data for !ypt, %!tl %!$t" #or Democrac' P Electoral ,$$i$ta!ce, available at http@AA---"idea"i!tA2tAcou!tr'O2ie-"c#mBCou!tr'CodeCe+ Dla$t 2i$ited 0ar" 1M, 2012N" 370. Da!iel 4illiam$, !ypt 5tends *3-Jear-Ald mer!ency La/, 4a$h" .o$t, 0a' 1, 200K, http@AA ---"-a$hi!+to!po$t"comA-p3d'!Aco!te!tAarticleA200KA0(A30A,<200K0(300103&"html" 371. Protesters Demand "eform After lection, 6"," Time$, Sept" 11, 2005, http@AAarticle$"latime$"comA 2005A$epA11A-orldA#+3brie#$11"3" 372. 4illiam$, supra !ote 3L0" 373. ,la! 4" Clar1e, "endition to #orture) A Critical Le!al .istory, K2 <ut+er$ 6" <e2" 1, K& !"331
D200&N"
75
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militar' tribu!al$, i!#amou$ #or ha!di!+ out $-i#t, reliable, a!d $e2ere pu!3 i$hme!t$ -ith #e- procedural $a#e+uard$" 3L( The emer+e!c' la- al$o
prohib3 ited the +atheri!+ o# more tha! #i2e people, a! eJtraordi!ar' re$trictio! o! the #reedom o# a$$ociatio!"3L5 %! accorda!ce -ith the emer+e!c' la-, the 0ubara1 re+ime 5ailed thou$a!d$ o# oppo$itio! #i+ure$, di$$ide!t 5our!ali$t$, a!d ordi!ar' citi e!$"3LK
The 0ubara1 re+ime thu$ -a$ a #airl' t'pical authoritaria! +o2er!me!t" The re+ime tolerated little political plurali$m, emplo'i!+ the emer+e!c' la-, the $tate$ i!#amou$ police #orce$, a!d repre$$i2e a!d #raudule!t mea3 $ure$ to $ile!ce oppo$itio! 2oice$ a!d pre2e!t competitio! at the ballot boJ" 0a!' eJpected 0ubara1 to remai! i! o##ice i!de#i!itel' u!til he ha!ded o## po-er to hi$ heir3appare!t, ;amal 0ubara1, -hom he had bee! primi!+ to be the !eJt pharaoh o# E+'pt"3LL E2er'thi!+ cha!+ed i! earl' 2011" O! :a!uar' 25, 2011, i!$pired b' the re2olt$ that toppled .re$ide!t Vi!e el3,bidi!e 9e! ,li i! !earb' Tu!i$ia,3LM thou$a!d$ o# E+'ptia!$ decided to $ta+e a prote$t i! al3
Tahrir S7uare i! Cairo a!d other citie$ throu+hout E+'pt" 3L& The date, :a!uar' 25, -a$ delib3 eratel' cho$e! to coi!cide -ith E+'pt$ Natio!al .olice Da'"3M0 The police -a$ the #ace o# a! autocratic a!d repre$$i2e 0ubara1 re+ime that had ruled E+'pt #or three decade$" ,!d the prote$tor$ -ere clear i! their dema!d$@ EThe people -a!t to topple the re+imeI DEAl-Sha8b Jorid Is6at Al-+ithamIN -a$ the re2olutio!$ u!i#'i!+ $lo+a!"3M1
,$ the prote$tor$ +re- i! !umber a!d #er2or, the re+ime called i! the much3re2iled blac13clad riot police, !otoriou$ #or their brutal repre$$io! tac3 tic$" *ir$t came the tear +a$" Thi$ -eapo! had little e##ect o! the determi!ed prote$tor$, -ho had lear!ed #rom their Tu!i$ia! cou!terpart$ that +a$ ma$1$ a!d 2i!e+ar -ould molli#' it$ ad2er$e e##ect$" 3M2 Tear +a$
tur!ed i!to rubber bullet$,3M3 a!d rubber bullet$ tur!ed i!to real o!e$" The riot police e!tered al3Tahrir S7uare o! camel a!d hor$ebac1 a!d ope!ed #ire at the prote$tor$"3M( The bullet$ #rom the +rou!d -ere accompa!ied b' $!iper #ire atop !earb' buildi!+$"3M5 The +o2er!me!t $hut o## the %!ter!et a!d di$rupted mobile 374. Id.F Da2id$o!, supra !ote 35L, at MKMLF 4illiam$, supra !ote 3L0" 375. 4illiam$, supra !ote 3L0" 376. See Da2id$o!, supra !ote 35L, at &0" 377. ,mro /a$$a!, Mr. Mubara$ and Son !o to Dashin!ton, 6"," Time$, ,u+" 1L, 200&, http@AAlatime$ blo+$"latime$"comAbab'lo!be'o!dA200&A0MAe+'pt3pe$$imi$m3amid3mubara1$32i$it3to3-a$hi!+to!"html" 378. See 8ir1patric1, !ypt rupts in 0ubilation as Mubara$ Steps Do/n, supra !ote 1" 379. 8areem *ahim P 0o!a El3Na++ar, 2iolent Clashes Mar$ Protests A!ainst Mubara$8s "ule, N"=" Time$, :a!" 25, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A01A2KA-orldAmiddleea$tA2Ke+'pt"html" 380. Id.
76
381. /u$$ei! ,+rama et al", Anti-Authoritarian "evolution and La/ "eform in !ypt) A 0adaliyya - "oundtable, :adali''a, *eb" 2(, 2011, http@AA---"5adali''a"comApa+e$Aco!tributor$A105L3" 382. %!ter2ie- -ith 0a++ie 0or+a!, i! Cairo, E+'pt D,u+" 3, 2011N" 383. See *ahim P El3Na++ar, supra !ote 3L&" 384. Id. 385. <obert 0ac1e', =pdates on Day %( of !ypt Protests, N"=" Time$@ The 6ede D*eb" 3, 2011, M@5K ,0N, http@AAthelede"blo+$"!'time$"comA2011A02A03Alate$t3update$3o!3da'3103o#3e+'pt3prote$t$"
tat
77
$er2ice i! a! attempt to di$able the prote$tor$ primar' li!e$ o# commu!ica3 tio!@ *aceboo1, T-itter, a!d cellular pho!e$"3MK 9ut !o!e o# the$e brutal
mea$ure$ -ere $u##icie!t to di$per$e the de#ia!t prote$tor$" E6ea2e, lea2e,I the' co!ti!ued to cha!t, EDo-!, do-! -ith 0ubara1"I 3ML
?!able to co!#ro!t the hu!dred$ o# thou$a!d$ +athered i! al3Tahrir S7uare, 0ubara1 called o! the militar' to i!ter2e!e" 3MM 9ut, a$ ma!' o#
the prote$tor$ eJpected, the militar' did !othi!+ to 7ua$h the prote$t$"3M& ,$ o!e o# the leader$ o# the prote$t$ eJplai!ed to me, the $oldier$ +athered i! al3 Tahrir S7uare -ere -ell a-are that their #rie!d$ a!d relati2e$ -ere amo!+$t the prote$tor$ a!d -ould !ot #ire upo! them"3&0 %!deed, the militar' $eemed to be $idi!+ -ith the prote$tor$"3&1 The prote$tor$ appeared to +ai! co!#i3 de!ce #rom the militar'$ pre$e!ce a$ -ell, ru$hi!+ i! celebratio! to-ard the #ir$t militar' ta!1 that rolled i!to al3Tahrir S7uare"3&2
%! a $i+! o# $upport, #our militar' 2ehicle$ mo2ed a$ a $hield to the #ro!t o# thou$a!d$ o# prote$tor$ -ho -ere e!+a+ed i! a #i+ht -ith the E+'ptia! riot police"3&3 4ith the $oldier$ appro2al, prote$tor$ dre- a!ti3
0ubara1 +ra##iti o! militar' ta!1$" 3&( The prote$tor$ be+a! to eJpre$$ hope$ that the militar', ha2i!+ re#u$ed to tur! it$ arm$ o! the people, -ould i!$tead tur! it$ arm$ o! the 0ubara1 re+ime a!d $ta+e a coup detat"3&5 0ohamed El9aradei, #ormer head o# the %!ter!atio!al ,tomic E!er+' ,+e!c' a!d a -ell31!o-! oppo$itio! leader, eJpre$$l' called #or a militar' coup o! hi$ T-itter pa+e@ E% a$1 the arm' to i!ter2e!e immediatel' to $a2e E+'pt " " " " The credibilit' o# the arm' i$ bei!+ put to the te$t"I3&K 386. See Da2id D" 8ir1patric1, Mubara$ Arders Crac$do/n; /ith "evolt S/eepin! !ypt, N"=" Time$, :a!" 2M, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A01A2&A-orldAmiddleea$tA 2&u!re$t"html" 387. Id. 388. See Da2id D" 8ir1patric1, !yptians Defiant as Military Does Little to Nuash Protests, N"=" Time$, :a!" 2&, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A01A30A-orldAmiddleea$tA303e+'pt"html" 389. Id. 390. %!ter2ie- -ith /a'tham /ammad, i! Cairo, E+'pt D,u+" 1, 2011N" 391. 8ir1patric1, !yptians Defiant as Military Does Little to Nuash Protests, supra !ote 3MM DEGThe $oldier$H di$pla'$ o# $upport #or the prote$ter$ -ere co!$picuou$ throu+hout the capital"INF Neil 0ac*ar3 7uhar, !ypt8s Military Is Seen as Pivotal in +e5t Step , N"=" Time$, :a!" 2M, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$" comA2011A01A30A-orldAmiddleea$tA303e+'pt"html DE%# the militar' #ire$ o! ci2ilia!$ a#ter demo!$tratio!$ that are clearl' popular, that -ill imperil the $ta!di!+ o# the militar', it$ i!te+rit' " " " " Thi$ time the i!$titutio!$ #uture i$ at ri$1"I Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedN D7uoti!+ Samer Shehata, .ro#e$$or o# ,rab .olitic$ at ;eor+eto-! ?!i2er$it'NN" 392. See also 0ac*ar7uhar, !ypt8s Military Is Seen as Pivotal in +e5t Step, supra !ote 3&1 DEDemo!$tra3 tor$ cheered o! *rida' a$ ta!1$ deplo'ed i! #ro!t o# +o2er!me!t buildi!+$ li1e the *orei+! 0i!i$tr' a!d the mai! broadca$t ce!ter"IN" 393. 8ir1patric1, !yptians Defiant as Military Does Little to Nuash Protests, supra !ote 3MM" 394. Id.
tat
78 78
395. 8ir1patric1, !yptians Defiant as Military Does Little to Nuash Protests , supra !ote 3MMF 0ac*ar3 7uhar, !ypt8s Military Is Seen as Pivotal in +e5t Step, supra !ote 3&1 DEThe demo!$trator$ -ere partl' i!$pired b' the Tu!i$ia! eJample, a!al'$t$ $aid, a!d $ome hoped that the militar' mi+ht pla' a $imilar role i! E+'pt"IN" 396. ,!tho!' Shadid P Da2id D" 8ir1patric1, Mubara$ "efuses to Step Do/n; Sto$in! "evolt8s >ury and "esolve, N"=" Time$, *eb" 10, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A02A11A-orldAmiddleea$tA11e+'pt" html"
79
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Co!#ro!ted -ith +ro-i!+ !umber$ o# prote$tor$ a!d a de#ia!t militar', 0ubara1 #ired hi$ cabi!et a!d appoi!ted Omar Suleima!, the %!telli+e!ce Chie#, a$ hi$ Vice .re$ide!t" 3&L 9ut that did little to molli#' the
prote$tor$, -ho merel' added re$i+!atio! call$ #or Suleima! to their cha!t$"3&M 0ubara1 promi$ed to $tep do-! #ollo-i!+ pre$ide!tial electio!$ i! September a!d to appoi!t a committee to propo$e co!$titutio!al ame!dme!t$, but the prote$3 tor$, all too #amiliar -ith 0ubara1$ bro1e! 2o-$, re#u$ed to rele!t"3&&
4he! 0ubara1 a!!ou!ced that he -ould +i2e a tele2i$ed $peech o! Thur$da', *ebruar' 10, the cro-d$ -idel' eJpected him to re$i+!" (00 9ut a
de#ia!t 0ubara1 appeared o! tele2i$io! a!d 2o-ed to #i!i$h hi$ term a$ .re$ide!t, promi$i!+ to ha!d o!l' the #u!ctio!$, but !ot the title, o# the pre$ide!c' to Vice .re$ide!t Suleima!" (01 0ubara1$ $tubbor! $tro!+hold o! po-er e!ra+ed the cro-d$ at al3Tahrir S7uare, $e!di!+ Ea millio! E+'p3 tia!$ o!to the Cairo $treet$ o! *rida'"I(02
O! *rida', *ebruar' 11, the $i+! o# hope that the cro-d$ had bee! a-ait3 i!+ came i! the #orm o# a commu!i7ue #rom the militar'" The commu!i7ue declared that the militar' -a$ i!ter2e!i!+ to protect the cou!tr'(03 a!d Eto $po!$or the le+itimate dema!d$ o# the people"I (0( militar' Edeclared that GitH !ot 0r" 0ubara1,
%! the commu!i7ue, the
0r" Suleima! or a!' other ci2ilia! authorit' -ould e!$ure the ame!dme!t o# the Co!$titutio! to
Sco!duct #ree a!d #air electio!$" I (05 The militar' a!!ou!ced that democrac' -ould be e$tabli$hed E-ithi! de#i!ed time #rame$I a!d at the e!d o# the tra!$itio! proce$$, the militar' -ould ha!d o## it$ authorit' to a E#ree demo3 cratic commu!it'"I(0K The militar' a!!ou!ced it$ commitme!t, Ea$ $oo! a$ the curre!t circum$ta!ce$ are o2er,I to repeal the much3 de$pi$ed emer+e!c' la-"(0L The militar' al$o promi$ed immu!it' #or the prote$tor$, -hom it called Ethe ho!e$t people -ho re#u$ed the corruptio! a!d dema!ded re3 #orm$"I(0M /our$ a#ter the relea$e o# the commu!i7ue, 0ubara1$ Vice .re$i3 de!t, Omar Suleima!, a!!ou!ced that 0ubara1 had re$i+!ed hi$ po$t a!d the Supreme Cou!cil o# the ,rmed *orce$ had a$$umed po-er"(0& 0ubara1$ 397. 8ir1patric1, !yptians Defiant as Military Does Little to Nuash Protests, supra !ote 3MM" 398. Id. 399. Da2id D" 8ir1patric1, As !ypt Protest S/ells; =.S. Sends Specific Demands, N"=" Time$, *eb" M,
2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A02A0&A-orldAmiddleea$tA0&e+'pt"htmlF ,!tho!' Shadid, Abama =r!es >aster Shift of Po/er in !ypt, N"=" Time$, *eb" 1, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A02A02A

-orldAmiddleea$tA02e+'pt"html" 400. 8ir1patric1, !ypt rupts in 0ubilation as Mubara$ Steps Do/n, supra !ote 1" 401. .osni Mubara$ "esi!ns as President, supra !ote 52" 402. 8ir1patric1, !ypt rupts in 0ubilation as Mubara$ Steps Do/n, supra !ote 1" 403. Shadid P 8ir1patric1, supra !ote 3&K" 404. 8ir1patric1, !ypt rupts in 0ubilation as Mubara$ Steps Do/n, supra !ote 1" 405. Id. 406. Id. 407. Id. 408. Id. 409. See id. Suleima!$ a!!ou!ceme!t made a #eeble attempt to portra' 0ubara1$ deci$io! to re$i+! a$ a 2olu!tar' o!e@ ETa1i!+ i!to co!$ideratio! the di##icult circum$ta!ce$ the cou!tr' i$ +oi!+ throu+h,
80
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81
#all thu$ came at the ha!d$ o# a militar' that had #aith#ull' $er2ed him #or three decade$ a!d that o!ce cou!ted 0ubara1 amo!+ it$ ra!1$"(10 The i!itial reactio! to the militar' coup -a$ Eec$tatic"I(11 The cro-d$
Ehu++ed, 1i$$ed, a!d cheered the $oldier$, li#ti!+ childre! o! ta!1$ to +et their picture$ ta1e!"I(12 The $oldier$ li1e-i$e ho!ored the prote$tor$ b' at3 tachi!+ to their ta!1$ photo$ o# Emart'r$I 1illed duri!+ the re2olutio!"(13 Some $oldier$ reli!7ui$hed their po$t$ to 5oi! the cro-d$ i! celebratio!" (1( %! the -ord$ o# a popular cha!t i! al3Tahrir, the people a!d the arm' -ere Eo!e ha!d"I(15
The E+'ptia! coup o# 2011, $till i! pro+re$$ at the time o# thi$ -riti!+, thu$ #ar co!#orm$ to the attribute$ o# a democratic coup $et #orth i! .art %" The coup toppled the authoritaria! 0ubara1 re+ime i! re$po!$e to a per$i$3 te!t popular upri$i!+ a+ai!$t that re+ime" The militar' i!ter2e!ed a#ter 0ubara1 repeatedl' re#u$ed to $tep do-! a!d, upo! a$$umi!+ po-er, a!3 !ou!ced it$ i!te!tio! to tra!$itio! the !atio! to a democrac' a!d hold #ree a!d #air electio!$" ,lthou+h the tra!$itio! proce$$ i$ o!+oi!+, the militar' ha$ tra!$#erred le+i$lati2e authorit' to the lo-er hou$e o# the .arliame!t a!d ha$ promi$ed to tra!$#er eJecuti2e po-er to a democraticall' elected pre$i3 de!t a#ter pre$ide!tial electio!$ i! 0a' 2012" %# $uch a po-er tra!$#er i!3 deed occur$, the E+'ptia! militar' coup -ill co!$titute a democratic coup" ,$ -ith the other democratic coup$ di$cu$$ed $o #ar, ho-e2er, the militar' appear$ to be e!+a+i!+ i! the e!tre!chme!t o# it$ polic' pre#ere!ce$ i!to the !eco!$titutio!" The !eJt $ectio! a!al' e$ the procedural e!tre!chme!t that ha$ occurred to date" 2" Procedural ntrenchment
,t the time o# the *ebruar' 2011 re2olutio!, the militar' -a$ a E-idel' popularI(1K i!$titutio! i! E+'pt"(1L %t had built a $tellar reputatio! i! part
becau$e o# !atio!al co!$criptio! #or all me! a!d becau$e the 0ubara1 re3 +ime ordi!aril' did !ot u$e the militar' to police the populatio!"(1M ?!li1e
.re$ide!t 0ohammed /o$!i 0ubara1 ha$ decided to lea2e the po$t o# pre$ide!t o# the republic a!d ha$ a$1ed the Supreme Cou!cil o# the ,rmed *orce$ to ma!a+e the $tate$ a##air$"I Id. 410. See id. 411. Id. 412. Id. 413. Id. 414. Id. 415. See id. 416. 8ir1patric1, !yptians Defiant as Military Does Little to Nuash Protests, supra !ote 3MM" 417. De$pite the u!re$t a!d popular prote$t$ that ha2e occurred duri!+ the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$, the E+'ptia! militar' retai!$ Eco!$iderable re$pectI amo!+ E+'ptia!$, a$ the prote$t$ ha2e tar+eted primaril' the chairma! o# the ruli!+ Supreme Cou!cil o# the ,rmed *orce$ D;e!eral
tat

0ohamed /u$$ei! Ta!ta-iN, a!d !ot the i!$titutio! o# the militar' it$el#" ,!tho!' 9illi!+$le', Dritin! Constitutions in the Da$e of the Arab Sprin!, *orei+! ,##", No2" 30, 2011, available at http@AA---"#orei+!a##air$"comA pri!tA133&M1" 418. ;ar' C" ;ambill, Dhat is at Sta$e in !ypt8s "eferendum, :uri$t@ /otli!e D0ar" 1&, 2011, 3@30 .0N, http@AA5uri$t"or+Ahotli!eA2011A03A-hat$3at3$ta1e3i!3e+'pt$3re#ere!dum3+ar'3c3+ambill3 editor3
82 82
83
tat
mo$t militarie$, the E+'ptia! ,rmed *orce$ ha2e ama$$ed Ee!ormou$ politi3 cal a!d eco!omic pri2ile+e$I a!d o-! E2a$t commercial i!tere$t$"I(1& The militar' ha$ Eit$ o-! $ocial club$ a!d $hoppi!+
ce!ter$"I(20 %! the eco!omic realm, it #u!ctio!$ li1e a ci2ilia! bu$i!e$$, e!+a+i!+ i! real e$tate de2elop3 me!t a!d e!+i!eeri!+"(21 %! #act, militar' i!du$trie$ compri$e Ea! e$timated 5 to 15 perce!t o# the E+'ptia! eco!om'"I(22 The militar' e!5o'$ be!e#it$ $uch a$ o##icer$ club$ a!d a boat o! the Nile #or the air #orce, be!e#it$ that are be'o!d the reach o# mo$t E+'ptia! citi e!$" (23 4hat i$ more, the mili3 tar' recei2e$ W1"3 billio! i! a!!ual aid #rom the ?!ited State$ a$ a di2ide!d o# the Camp Da2id peace a+reeme!t -ith %$rael" (2( The $tatu$ 7uo thu$ ha$ treated the E+'ptia! militar' 2er' -ell"
The E+'ptia! militar' -ould there#ore be eJpected to beha2e a$ a $el#3 i!tere$ted actor duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$ to protect the be!e#it$ it ha$ reaped #rom the 0ubara13era political $tructure$" ,!d the democratic tra!3 $itio! proce$$ that the militar' ha$ a!!ou!ced, a!d thu$ #ar #ollo-ed, $ho-$ that it i$ acti!+ a$ a $el#3i!tere$ted a+e!t a!d attempti!+ to pre$er2e the $tatu$ 7uo a!d it$ pri2ile+e$ i! that $tatu$ 7uo"(25 The militar' be+a! to di$pla' the #ir$t $i+!$ o# $el#3i!tere$ted beha2ior #rom the mome!t it $ei ed po-er #rom 0ubara1" De$pite popular $upport, it re5ected propo$al$ #or a po-er3$hari!+ arra!+eme!t -ith ci2ilia!$ #or the tra!$itio! period"(2K <ather, it opted #or a ruli!+ cou!cil compri$ed
$olel' o# militar' o##icer$, called the Supreme Cou!cil o# ,rmed *orce$ DESC,*IN"(2L The ab$e!ce o# a!' ci2ilia! member$hip i! the Cou!cil i!crea$e$ the mili3 tar'$ abilit' to e!+a+e i! $el#3i!tere$ted beha2ior -ith little mo!itori!+ or i!put b' the citi e!r'"
midea$t3mo!itor"phpF 8ir1patric1, Mubara$ Arders Crac$do/n, supra !ote 3MK DEThe militar' remai!$ o!e o# E+'pt$ mo$t e$teemed i!$titutio!$, a $ource o# !atio!ali$t pride"IN" 419. 8ir1patric1, !ypt rupts in 0ubilation as Mubara$ Steps Do/n, supra !ote 1F see also ,+rama et al", supra !ote 3M1 DEThe Supreme Cou!cil o# the ,rmed *orce$ ha$ particular political a!d eco!omic co!!ec3 tio!$ that are #ar #rom !eutral"IN" 420. 0ac*ar7uhar, !ypt8s Military Is Seen as Pivotal in +e5t Step, supra !ote 3&1" 421. Id. 422. Scott Sha!e P Da2id D" 8ir1patric1, Military Cau!ht Bet/een Mubara$ and Protesters, N"=" Time$, *eb" 10, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A02A11A-orldAmiddleea$tA11militar'"html" 423. See id. 424. :ulia! 9or+er P :ame$ 9all, Di$iLea$s Cables) !yptian Military .ead is BAld and "esistant to Chan!e,8 ;uardia! D?"8"N, *eb" 1(, 2011, http@AA---"+uardia!"co"u1A-orldA2011A#ebA1(A-i1ilea1$3 cable$3 e+'ptia!3militar'3head" 425. See ,+rama et al", supra !ote 3M1 DEGTHhe arm' $eem$ to -a!t to put bac1 i! place, albeit i! a $ome-hat re$tructured #orm, eJi$ti!+ i!$titutio!$ o# the re+ime " " " "INF /amad, supra !ote 5M, at 535( D!oti!+ that the E+'ptia! militar' ha$ $ou+ht to i!#lue!ce the !e- co!$titutio! to Ee!$ure the i!$titu3 tio!al auto!om' o# the armed #orce$ a-a' #rom the elected o##icial$ a!d particularl' the parliame!tF mai!tai! the

arm'$ #i!a!cial i!depe!de!ce a!d the pri2ile+e$ o# $e!ior $ta## -ith mi!imal i!ter2e!tio! #rom the $tateF a!d $a#e+uard a 2oice i! the polic' ma1i!+ proce$$ throu+h the e$tabli$hme!t o# a !a3 tio!al $ecurit' cou!cil -ith $tro!+ militar' member$hipIN" 426. 8ir1patric1, !ypt rupts in 0ubilation as Mubara$ Steps Do/n, supra !ote 1" 427. Id.
84
tat
85
,#ter a$$umi!+ po-er, the SC,* $u$pe!ded the co!$titutio!, di$$ol2ed the .arliame!t, a!d a!!ou!ced that it -ould +o2er! the cou!tr' u!til dem3 ocratic electio!$ -ere held"(2M The Cou!cil al$o e$tabli$hed a
Co!$titutio!al ,me!dme!t Committee, -ho$e member$ -ere ha!dpic1ed b' the ruli!+ militar', !ot b' popular 2ote"(2& The SC,* the! authori ed the committee to dra#t propo$ed cha!+e$ to certai! pro2i$io!$ i! the E+'ptia! co!$titutio! -ithi! te! da'$ i! order to #acilitate democratic electio!$" (30
The member$hip o# the committee -a$ -idel' critici ed a$ u!repre$e!ta3 ti2e o# E+'ptia! $ociet'"(31 The chair o# the committee, :ud+e Tare1 al3
9i$hr', had bee! a$$ociated -ith ,l34a$$at, a! o##$hoot o# the 0u$lim 9rotherhood"(32 , 0u$lim 9rotherhood member, Sobhi Saleh, -a$ al$o o! the committee"(33 No -ome! $er2ed o! the committee, (3( a!d the 'outh mo2eme!t, the 2a!+uard o# the 2011 <e2olutio!, -a$ al$o eJcluded"(35 The committee$ deliberatio!$ -ere held i! $ecret a!d the public had little, i# a!', opportu!it' to comme!t o! the propo$ed ame!dme!t$, -hich -ere Epre$e!ted a$ i# the' -ere a $acred boo1 that $hould !ot be di$cu$$ed"I(3K The$e circum$ta!ce$ led to -ide$pread i+!ora!ce i! E+'pt about the co!te!t o# the ame!dme!t$ a!d their implicatio!$"(3L
The committee completed it$ -or1 o! $chedule a!d propo$ed ei+ht ame!dme!t$" ,mo!+ other thi!+$, the ame!dme!t$ $i+!i#ica!tl' lo-er the thre$hold to ru! #or pre$ide!c', creati!+ the po$$ibilit' #or competiti2e elec3
428. E2a! /ill, Scorecard) !ypt8s Army and #he "evolution, ,l :a eera, :u!" 30, 2011, http@AA---" al5a eera"comA!e-$Amiddleea$tA2011A0KA2011K2&12(M(M5K(&32"html" 429. =a$mi!e Saleh, "e/rite !ypt Constitution from Scratch; Say Critics, <euter$, *eb" 1K, 2011, available at http@AAa#"reuter$"comAarticleAtopNe-$Aid,*:OEL1*0NK2011021K" 430. ,drie! 8" 4i!+ P /i$ham ," 8a$$im, After the Last 0ud!ment) #he >uture of the !yptian Constitu- tion, 52 /ar2" %!tl 6":" O!li!e 302, 30( D2011N, http@AA---"har2ardil5"or+A2011A0(Ao!li!eO52O -i!+O1a$$im" 431. See; e.!., ,+rama et al", supra !ote 3M1 DEThi$ committee i$ $ta##ed mo$tl' b' 5uri$t$ -ith le+al eJperti$e, but ma1e$ almo$t !o attempt to repre$e!t 2ariou$ political tre!d$" Thi$ i$ ob2iou$l' ob5ectio!a3 ble #rom the $ta!dpoi!t o# democratic repre$e!tatio!, a!d it clearl' u!dermi!e$ the le+itimac' o# the proce$$"INF Na-al El Saada-i, Shortcomin!s of the +e/ Constitution Committee , ,hram O!li!e, *eb" 21, 2011, http@AAe!+li$h"ahram"or+"e+ANe-$Co!te!t.ri!tA(A0AK12&AOpi!io!A0AShortcomi!+$3o#3the3!e-3 Co!$titutio!3committee"a$pJF <ichard Spe!cer, !ypt) Islamist 0ud!e to .ead +e/ Constitution Committee , Tele+raph D?"8"N, *eb" 15, 2011, http@AA---"tele+raph"co"u1A!e-$A-orld!e-$Aa#ricaa!di!dia!ocea!A e+'ptAM32K(K&AE+'pt3%$lami$t35ud+e3to3head3!e-3co!$titutio!3committee"htmlF 4i!+ P 8a$$im, supra !ote (30, at 305" 432. Spe!cer, supra !ote (31" 433. Natha! :" 9ro-! P 0ichele Du!!e, !ypt8s Draft Constitutional Amendments Ans/er Some
tat

Nuestions and "aise Athers, Car!e+ie *ou!d" #or %!tl .eace, 0ar" 1, 2011, http@AA---"car!e+iee!do-me!t" or+Apublicatio!$Ai!deJ"c#mB#aC2ie-BidC(2M1L" 434. Spe!cer, supra !ote (31" 435. El Saada-i, supra !ote (31" 436. Noha El3/e!!a-', NGA Dith #ahani al-Cebali) Say 7+o: to Constitutional Amendments , ,l3 0a$r' ,l3=oum, 0ar" 10, 2011, http@AA---"alma$r'al'oum"comAe!Apri!tA3(LL&L" 437. 8ri$te! Stilt, Dispatch >rom Cairo) Dhat the !yptian Constitutional Amendment "eferendum is "eally About, Comp" Co!$t" .ro5ect D0ar" 1&, 2011, 11@03 ,0N, http@AA---"comparati2eco!$titutio!$"or+A 2011A03Adi$patch3#rom3cairo3-hat3e+'ptia!"html"
86 86
87
tat
tio!$F(3M limit the pre$ide!tial term to t-o term$ o# #our 'ear$F(3& aboli$h
the authorit' o# the .eople$ ,$$embl' to determi!e the 2alidit' o# the electio!
a!d o# it$ o-! member$ a po-er -hich had pre2iou$l' allo-ed the ,$$embl' to i+!ore court ruli!+$ i!2alidati!+ parliame!tar' electio! re$ult$
((0
+ra!t that authorit' to the Supreme Co!$titutio!al CourtF a!d re7uire a public re#ere!dum i! order #or a $tate o# emer+e!c' to la$t more tha! $iJ mo!th$"((1 Notabl', a!d de$pite the participatio! o# a 0u$lim 9rotherhood member o! the committee, the committee did !ot propo$e a!' re2i$io!$ to ,rticle 5 o# the co!$titutio!, -hich prohibited the 0u$lim 9rotherhood a!d other +roup$ -ith a reli+iou$ orie!tatio! #rom #ormi!+ political partie$" ((2 The committee 1ept i! place, ho-e2er, ,rticle 2, -hich e$tabli$he$ %$lam a$ the $tate reli+io! a!d Sharia laa$ the pri!cipal $ource o# le+i$latio!"((3
The propo$ed ame!dme!t$ al$o pa2ed the -a' #or the dra#ti!+ o# a !e- co!$titutio! a!d determi!ed the $e7ue!ce o# the electio!$ that -ould lead up to the !e- co!$titutio!" ?!der ,rticle 1M&, either the .re$ide!t D-ith the appro2al o# the Cabi!etN or hal# o# the member$ o# both hou$e$ o# .arlia3 me!t Dthe .eople$ ,$$embl' a!d Shura Cou!cilN ma' call #or the dra#ti!+ o# a !e- co!$titutio! b' a co!$titue!t a$$embl' o# 100 member$"((( The co!3 $titue!t a$$embl' -ill be elected i! a 5oi!t
$e$$io! o# the t-o hou$e$ o# .arliame!t a!d complete it$ -or1 -ithi! $iJ mo!th$"((5
The propo$ed ame!dme!t$ -ere $ubmitted to a popular re#ere!dum o! 0arch 20, 2011"((K The ame!dme!t$ -ere o##ered a$ a !o!3$e2erable
pac13 a+e" The people could !ot pic1 a!d choo$e amo!+ themF the ruli!+ militar' had alread' made that choice #or them"((L The tur!out #or the re#ere!dum -a$ a! u!precede!ted ei+htee! millio!, a!d a! o2er-helmi!+ LL"2U o# the 2oter$ appro2ed the ame!dme!t$"((M ,#ter the rati#icatio!, the SC,* -a$ 438. ?!der ,rticle LK, a ca!didate ma' appear o! the pre$ide!tial ballot i! o!e o# three -a'$@ D1N e!dor$eme!t b' Eat lea$t 30 elected member$ o# the .eople$ ,$$embl' or the Shura Cou!cil,I D2N e!3 dor$eme!t b' Eat lea$t 30,000 eli+ible 2oter$ i! at lea$t 15 +o2er!orate$I -ith at lea$t 1000 $i+!ature$ #rom each +o2er!orate, or D3N the !omi!atio! b' Ea!' political part' -ho$e member$ obtai!ed at lea$t o!e $eatI i! the .eople$ ,$$embl' or the Shura Cou!cil" See Co!$titutio! o# the ,rab <epublic o# E+'pt, 11 Sept" 1&L1, as amended, 0a' 22, 1&M0, 0a' 25, 2005, 0arch 2K, 200L, 0arch 30, 2011, art" LK, available at http@AA---"$i$"+o2"e+AE!AStor'"a$pJB$idC53&03 Gherei!a#ter E+'pt Co!$t"HF see also 9ro-! P Du!!e, supra !ote (33" 439. See E+'pt Co!$t" art" LL" 440. See id. art" &3F see also Tamir 0ou$ta#a, It8s +ot a "evolution Jet, *orei+! .ol' D*eb" 2M, 2011, 5@2( .0N, http@AAmidea$t"#orei+!polic'"comApo$t$A2011A02A2MAitO$O!otOaOre2olutio!O'et"

e!$ ha2e the ri+ht to e$tabli$h political partie$ accordi!+ to the la- a!d !o political acti2it' $hall be eJerci$ed, !or political partie$ e$tabli$hed, o! the ba$i$ o# reli+io! " " " "I E+'pt Co!$t" art" 5" 443. See E+'pt Co!$t" art" 2" 444. See id. art" 1M&" 445. See id. 446. 4i!+ P 8a$$im, supra !ote (30, at 305" 447. Id. 448. Slac1ma!, supra !ote 1(2"
88
441. See E+'pt Co!$t" art" 1(M" 442. 0ou$ta#a, supra !ote ((0" ,rticle 5 $tate$, i! rele2a!t part@ EGCHiti
tat
89
eJpected to a!!ou!ce a co!$titutio!al declaratio! that -ould 1eep the 1&L1 Co!$titutio! i! place, a$ ame!ded b' the popular re#ere!dum"((& 9ut t-o -ee1$ a#ter the re#ere!dum, $omethi!+ u!eJpected happe!ed" O! 0arch 30, 2011, the SC,* a!!ou!ced a co!$titutio!al declaratio! o! it$ *aceboo1 pa+e that completel' $crapped the 1&L1 Co!$titutio! a!d replaced it -ith a! i!terim co!$titutio! co!$i$ti!+ o# $iJt'3three pro2i$io!$"(50 The !e- pro2i$io!$ i!cluded the ei+ht pro2i$io!$ that
-ere ame!ded i! the pop3 ular re#ere!dum, but al$o $core$ o# other$ that the re#ere!dum did !ot i!3 clude"(51 The militar' adopted the !e- pro2i$io!$ primaril' #rom the 1&L1 Co!$titutio!, but altered them -ithout $ubmitti!+ them to a popular 2ote"(52 The SC,* al$o u!ilaterall' ame!ded the -ordi!+ o# o!e pro2i$io! that had alread' bee! appro2ed i! the re#ere!dum"(53 The militar' thu$ dra#ted a !e- co!$titutio! out$ide o# the proce$$ that it had implied -ould be re7uired -ith the popular re#ere!dum it had held t-o -ee1$ earlier"(5( *our pro2i$io!$ i! thi$ !e- co!$titutio!al declaratio! are !ote-orth'" *ir$t, the declaratio! ame!d$ ,rticle 5 D-hich addre$$e$ political partie$ a!d their #ormatio!N, e2e! thou+h the ame!dme!t -a$ !ot appro2ed i! the re#er3 e!dum"(55 The pre2iou$ ,rticle 5 prohibited the #ormatio! o# political par3 tie$ E-ith a reli+iou$ #rame o# re#ere!ce or o! a reli+iou$ ba$i$"I(5K The declaratio! ame!d$ ,rticle 5 to remo2e the Ereli+iou$ #rame o# re#ere!ceI re$trictio!, lea2i!+ o!l' the !arro-er prohibitio! o! political partie$ -ith a Ereli+iou$ ba$i$"I(5L 9ecau$e the 0u$lim 9rotherhood ha$ u$ed the term Ereli+iou$ #rame o# re#ere!ceI to de$cribe it$ political orie!tatio!, thi$ ame!dme!t allo-ed the 9rotherhood to e$tabli$h it$ o-! political part'@ the *reedom a!d :u$tice .art'"(5M Seco!d, the declaratio! adopt$ a re7uireme!t #rom the 1&L1 Co!$titutio! that hal# o# the member$ o# the .eople$ ,$$em3 bl' a!d the Shura Cou!cil be E-or1er$ a!d pea$a!t$,I a pro2i$io! remi!i$3 ce!t o# the cou!tr'$ $ocial pa$t"(5& Third, the co!$titutio!al declaratio! retai!$ the Natio!al Securit' Cou!cil"(K0 ,!d #ourth, the declaratio! eJ3 pre$$l' reco+!i e$ the $tatu$ o# the SC,* a$ a co!$titutio!al actor a!d autho3
449. Neil 0ac*ar7uhar, !yptians Approve Constitutional Chan!es, N"=" Time$, 0ar" 20, 2011, http@AA ---"!'time$"comA2011A03A21A-orldAmiddleea$tA21e+'pt"html" 450. Natha! :" 9ro-! P 8ri$te! Stilt, A .apha<ard Constitutional Compromise, Car!e+ie *ou!d" #or %!tl .eace, ,pr" 11, 2011, http@AAcar!e+iee!do-me!t"or+Apublicatio!$Ai!deJ"c#mB #aC2ie-PidC(3 533" The i!terim co!$titutio! +o2er!$ E+'pt duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$, be#ore a perma!e!t co!$titu3 tio! i$ dra#ted b' a co!$titue!t a$$embl' elected b' the parliame!t" 451. Id.
tat

The cha!+e authori e$ the SC,* to i!$truct the le+i$lature to elect a co!$titue!t a$$embl' to dra#t a !e- co!$titutio!, -hich allo-$ the le+i$lature to be+i! the co!$titutio! dra#ti!+ proce$$ be#ore pre$ide!tial electio!$" Id. 454. Id. 455. Id. 456. Id. 457. Id. 458. See id. 459. Id. 460. Id.
90 90
452. Id. 453. Id.
91
tat
ri e$ it to e!act le+i$latio!, repre$e!t the $tate dome$ticall' a!d abroad, a!d appoi!t a!d di$mi$$ mi!i$ter$, i!cludi!+ the .rime 0i!i$ter" (K1 The
SC,*$ authoritie$ -ill la$t throu+h the parliame!tar' electio!$ a!d u!til a !e- pre$ide!t a$$ume$ o##ice"(K2
Electio!$ #or the lo-er hou$e o# the .arliame!t be+a! o! No2ember 2M, 2011 a!d co!ti!ued i! $ta++ered rou!d$ u!til :a!uar' 2012" The electio!$ -ere -idel' 2ie-ed a$ #ree a!d #air b' i!depe!de!t mo!itori!+ or+a!i a3 tio!$"(K3 O! :a!uar' 23, 2012, the SC,* #ormall' ha!ded
le+i$lati2e po-er to the !e-l' elected lo-er hou$e o# the .arliame!t, -hile it co!ti!ued to occup' the eJecuti2e bra!ch o# the +o2er!me!t"(K( The pre$ide!tial electio!$ are $cheduled #or 0a' 2012,(K5 a#ter -hich the militar' leader$ ha2e 2o-ed to $urre!der their eJecuti2e authorit' to the !e-l' elected .re$ide!t a!d to retur! to the barrac1$"(KK The electio!$ #or the upper hou$e o# the .arlia3 me!t, the Shura Cou!cil, are $cheduled to be+i! i! late :a!uar' 2012 a!d e!d i! *ebruar' 2012"(KL The t-o parliame!tar' chamber$ -ill the! elect a 1003member co!$titue!t a$$embl' to dra#t a !e- co!$titutio!"(KM
Throu+hout the tra!$itio! proce$$, the militar' ha$ appeared i!te!t to pre$er2e the 0ubara13era political $tructure$ a!d the be!e#it$ that the mili3 tar' ha$ reaped #rom tho$e $tructure$" E%t i$ a! ope! $ecretI that the E+'p3 tia! militar' ha$ aimed to pre$er2e it$ $tatu$ b' i!#lue!ci!+ the co!$titutio!3ma1i!+ proce$$, accordi!+ to /o$$am 9ah+at, EJecuti2e Direc3 tor o# the E+'ptia! %!itiati2e #or .er$o!al <i+ht$" (K& ,!d e2er $i!ce
it be3 came appare!t that the %$lami$t$ -ould domi!ate the E+'ptia! le+i$lature, at lea$t $ome $eculari$t$ i! E+'pt ha2e $upported the militar'$ co!$titu3 tio!al 7ue$t" %! #act, the$e $eculari$t$ ha2e ar+ued publicl' that the militar' $hould e!+a+e i! the t'pe o# e!tre!chme!t de$cribed i! thi$ ,rticle b' de3 #i!i!+ #or it$el# Eit$ o-! po-er$ a!d role u!der the !e- co!$titutio!, i!3
!ypt8s 2oters Be!in .istoric Ballot, 4all St" :", No2" 2&, 2011, at ,M DEThere doe$!t appear to be a!' i!te!tio! b' the +o2er!me!t to commit #raud a$ -e ha2e $ee! i! pre2iou$ electio!$"I Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedN D7uoti!+ 0ad+' 9elal, head o# a! i!depe!de!t E+'ptia! electio!3mo!itori!+ or+a!i atio!NNF id. DEThere$ a bi+ di##ere!ce compared to pa$t electio!$" There$ $ecurit' a!d there$ !o o!e me!aci!+ me"I Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedN D7uoti!+ :amal 8hami$ , ir, a #ort'3$iJ3'ear3old member o# E+'pt$ Coptic Chri$tia! mi!orit'NN" 464. :aila! Va'a!, !ypt Army .ands Le!islative Po/er to +e/ Parliament, ,*., :a!" 23, 2012, available at http@AA---"+oo+le"comAho$ted!e-$Aa#pAarticleA,6e705i/;1ca%K(#2 5hdL*cL?3
461. Id. 462. Id. 463. Charle$ 6e2i!$o! et al",

V4t4KJXBdoc%dC CN;"#2aa355&L2&L1Me5b(d##cd#e0bM(c2b"aa1" 465. !ypt to .old Presidential Poll Bin May ,8 ,l :a eera, *eb" 15, 2012, http@AA---"al5a eera"comA !e-$Amiddleea$tA2012A02A2012215100(K23&25("html" 466. Va'a!, supra !ote (K(" 467. Id. 468. Id. 469. Da2id D" 8ir1patric1, !ypt8s Military 5pands Po/er; "aisin! Alarms, N"=" Time$, Oct" 1(, 2011, http@AA---"!'time$"comA2011A10A15A-orldAmiddleea$tAe+'pt$3militar'3eJpa!d$3po-er3rai$i!+3 alarm$"htmlBOrC1 Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedN"
92
tat
93
cludi!+ the broad auto!om' a!d authorit' to i!ter2e!e to protect the $ecular character o# the $tate"I(L0 To date, the militar' ha$ i!#lue!ced the co!$titutio!3ma1i!+ proce$$ i! E+'pt throu+h procedural e!tre!chme!t, orche$trati!+ the tra!$itio! pro3 ce$$ $o that the !e- co!$titutio! that -ill e2e!tuall' be dra#ted -ill #a2or it$ i!$titutio!al a!d polic' pre#ere!ce$" The militar' ha$ attempted to achie2e that outcome i! #our primar' -a'$@ D1N b' holdi!+ electio!$ u!der a co!3 de!$ed time#rame, D2N b' holdi!+ parliame!tar' electio!$ be#ore the co!$ti3 tutio! dra#ti!+ proce$$ be+i!$, D3N b' i!#lue!ci!+ the political ma1eup o# the #ir$t .eople$ ,$$embl' a!d Shura Cou!cil, a!d D(N b' #a2ori!+ a pre$i3 de!tial $'$tem o2er a parliame!tar' $'$tem"(L1 >irst, the $-i#t timeli!e u!der -hich electio!$ occurred #a2ored the pre3 eJi$ti!+ political +roup$, primaril' the 0u$lim 9rotherhood, -ho ha2e the #i!a!cial a!d or+a!i atio!al capabilit' to 7uic1l' or+a!i e electio! cam3 pai+!$"(L2 ,lthou+h the militar' po$tpo!ed the i!itial :u!e date #or the
par3 liame!tar' electio!$, the parliame!tar' electio!$ too1 place i! $ta++ered rou!d$ be+i!!i!+ i! No2ember 2011, (L3 a relati2el' $hort timetable #or !e- political partie$ to #orm, or+a!i e, rai$e #u!d$, a!d campai+!" The militar' 7uic1 electio!$I i"e", the
a!ticipated that Ethe pri!cipal be!e#iciarie$ o#
470. See id.F see also !ypt8s lections) 2otin! Be!ins, Eco!omi$t DNo2" 2&, 2011, 2@12 .0N, http@AA---" eco!omi$t"comAblo+$A!e-$boo1A2011A11Ae+'pt$3electio!$30B#$rcC$c!A#bA-lAblA2oti!+be+i!$ DESome E+'ptia!$ do, ho-e2er, -elcome the militar'$ role, $eei!+ it a$ !ece$$ar' i! the co!teJt o# the $tar1 political polari$atio! bet-ee! %$lami$t$ a!d $eculari$t$, a!d bet-ee! older co!$er2ati2e$ a!d 'ou!+er pro+re$$i2e$, that i$ li1el' to be re#lected i! the outcome o# the electio!$"INF !ypt Military "ulers Say Parliament Don8t be "epresentative After Islamists Dominate lection, .haraoh$ Toda', Dec" M, 2011, http@AA ---"pharaoh$toda'"comAE!+A2011A12A0MAe+'pt3militar'3ruler$3$a'3parliame!t3 -o!UE2UM0U&&t3be3 repre$e!tati2e3a#ter3i$lami$t$3domi!ate3electio! DESome liberal$ ma' #i!d $olace i! the militar'$ attempt to protect the co!$titutio! #rom o2er ealou$ %$lami$t te!de!cie$"INF id. DE0a!' o# the liberal #orce$, -hich -ere be#ore a+ai!$t i!ter#ere!ce o# the militar', -ill !ot ob5ect -he!e2er there are attempt$ Db' %$lami$t$N to alter ba$ic ci2ic ri+ht$"I Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedN D7uoti!+ ,mmar ,li /a$$a!, a political a!al'$tNN" 471. The militar' al$o e!+a+ed i! t-o other u!$ucce$$#ul attempt$ to i!#lue!ce the !eco!$titutio!" *ir$t, it a!!ou!ced a $et o# $upra3co!$titutio!al pri!ciple$ that -ould bi!d the co!$titue!t a$$embl'" /amad, supra !ote 5M, at 5(" The %$lami$t partie$ a!d $ome liberal +roup$ re$i$ted the propo$al$ a$ i!tru$io!$ o! elected repre$e!tati2e$, cau$i!+ the +e!eral$ to rele!t a!d put the pri!ciple$ to re$t" Id. Seco!d, the militar' al$o attempted to i!#lue!ce the compo$itio! o# the co!$titue!t a$$embl'" Id. at 55" %t a!!ou!ced that it -ould !ame ei+ht' o# the 100 member$ o# the co!$titue!t a$$embl' to e!$ure that it -a$ repre$e!tati2e o# the E+'ptia! $ociet'" See id.F see also !ypt Military "ulers Say Parliament Don8t Be "epresentative After Islamists Dominate lection, supra !ote (L0" ,#ter per$i$te!t oppo$itio!, the militar' aba!do!ed that propo$al a$ -ell" /amad, supra !ote 5M, at 5K" 472. See ;ambill, supra !ote (1MF see also Slac1ma!, supra !ote 1(2 DE% -orr' about +oi!+ too #a$t to-ard$ electio!$, that the partie$ are $till -ea1"I Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedN D7uoti!+ Nabil ,hmed /elm', #ormer dea! o# the Va+a i+ la- $chool a!d a member o# the Natio!al Cou!cil #or /uma! <i+ht$NNF id. DE% 2oted S!o Gi! the re#ere!dumH to +i2e more time to the $ecular partie$" % do!t -a!t to ha2e the 0u$lim
tat

9rotherhood here ri+ht a-a'"I Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedN D7uoti!+ <i#aat ,bdul 0a$$ih, a Chri$tia! co!$tructio! -or1erNNF !ypt8s Presidential 2ote to be .eld by +ovember, 4a$h" .o$t, 0ar" 30, 2011, http@AA---"-a$hi!+to!po$t"comA-orldAe+'pt$3pre$ide!tial32ote3to3be3held3b'3 !o2emberA2011A03A30A,*5K0mK9O$tor'"htmlF !ypt "eferendum Stron!ly Bac$s Constitution Chan!es, supra !ote 3KK DE,cti2i$t$ ha2e ar+ued that the e$tabli$hed partie$ $ta!d to +ai! the mo$t #rom holdi!+ a! electio! 7uic1l'"IN" 473. 6e2i!$o!, supra !ote (K3"
94 94
95
tat
pre3eJi$ti!+ political +roup$ EG-ouldH oppo$e a ma5or co!$titutio!al o2er3
haulI(L( a!d protect the 0ubara13era political $tructure$ that had be!e#ited the militar'$ i!tere$t$"(L5 ,!d a$ eJpected, the e$tabli$hed partie$ $cored la!d$lide 2ictorie$ i! the parliame!tar' electio!$" The 0u$lim 9rother3 hood$ *reedom a!d :u$tice .art' emer+ed a$ the clear 2ictor o# the elec3 tio!$, obtai!i!+ (L"1MU o# the $eat$ i! the lo-er hou$e"(LK The more co!$er2ati2e Sala#i$t ,l3Nour part' came i! $eco!d, -ith 2("2&U o# the $eat$"(LL Collecti2el', E+'pt$ t-o mai! %$lami$t partie$ there#ore captured !earl' three37uarter$ o# the (&M $eat$ i! the lo-er hou$e o# the .arliame!t"(LM
%! co!tra$t, rapid electio!$ -or1ed to the detrime!t o# emer+i!+ oppo$i3 tio! partie$, i!cludi!+ 'outh +roup$, -hich had $pli!tered i!to !umerou$ #actio!$ -ith i!cohere!t a+e!da$ a!d !eeded more time to e$tabli$h a!d promote them$el2e$" *or eJample, the liberal Ne- 4a#d .art' a!d the $ecu3 lar E+'ptia! bloc, ma!' o# -ho$e member$ had $er2ed a$ the 2a!+uard o# the re2olutio!, came i! a di$ta!t third a!d #ourth i! the electio!$ #or the lo-er hou$e o# the .arliame!t, re$pecti2el' obtai!i!+ a mea+er L"KU a!d K"MU o# the $eat$"(L& ,!d u!li1e the e$tabli$hed
political partie$, the 'outh oppo$itio! +roup$ ma' ha2e bee! more -illi!+ to challe!+e pre2aili!+ orthodoJie$ a!d alter pre3eJi$ti!+ political $tructure$, -hich mi+ht ha2e -or1ed to the militar'$ detrime!t" Xuic1 electio!$ ha2e mar+i!ali ed the$e +roup$ a!d their 2i$io!$ #or co!$titutio!al cha!+e"
%! additio! to $upporti!+ the militar'$ +oal o# lar+el' pre$er2i!+ the co!$titutio!al $tatu$ 7uo, e$tabli$hed partie$ $uch a$ the 0u$lim 9rother3 hood al$o promi$ed $tabilit' a#ter a tumultuou$ re2olutio! a!d a me$$' tra!3 $itio! period"(M0 %t i$ i! the i!tere$t o# the militar' to e!d the
per$i$te!t prote$t$ a!d the re$ulti!+ eco!omic a!d $ocial i!$tabilit' $o that the mili3 tar' ca! retur! to the barrac1$"(M1 ,!d the 0u$lim 9rotherhood Ei$ o!e addre$$ -here 'ou ca! +o to +et 100,000 people o## the $treet"I(M2 ,lthou+h the E+'ptia! militar' ha$ traditio!all' 1ept %$lami$t$ out o# it$ ra!1$, (M3 the %$lami$t$ ha2e bee! E!atural part!er$ i! 1eepi!+ orderI duri!+ the tra!$i3 tio! to democrac' becau$e the %$lami$t partie$ are, b' their !ature, more 474. ;ambill, supra !ote (1M" 475. *ouad ,5ami, !ypt and the >ruits of the Pharaohs , 4all St" :", No2" 2&, 2011, at ,1& DETo the mi+ht' E+'ptia! o##icer corp$ the 9rotherhood o##er$ the promi$e o# li2e a!d let li2e the pri2ile+e$ a!d allotme!t$ o# the armed #orce$ -ould be le#t i!tact a!d opa7ue, -hile the 9rotherhood, #or the #ir$t time i! it$ M(3'ear hi$tor', come$ to
96
political po-er"IN" 476. Va'a!, supra !ote (K(" 477. Id. 478. Id. 479. Id.F !ypt8s Islamist Parties Din lections to Parliament, 99C Ne-$, :a!" 21, 2012, http@AA---" bbc"co"u1A!e-$A-orld3middle3ea$t31KKK5L(M" 480. ;ambill, supra !ote (1MF Slac1ma!, supra !ote 1(2" 481. Id. 482. Id. 483. !ypt Military "ulers Say Parliament Don8t be "epresentative After Islamists Dominate lection, supra
!ote (L0"
tat
97
Eco!$er2ati2e, Je!ophobic a!d more di$cipli!edI tha! the $eculari$t$"(M(
Throu+hout the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$, there ha2e bee! -ide$pread rumor$ i! E+'pt o# bac1room deal$ bet-ee! the militar' a!d the 0u$lim 9rotherhood"(M5
Second, the $e7ue!ce o# the electio!$ al$o $upport$ the militar'$ polic' a!d i!$titutio!al pre#ere!ce$" ?!der the co!$titutio!al ame!dme!t$ adopted b' re#ere!dum i! 0arch 2011, the co!$titutio! -ill be dra#ted b' a co!$titue!t a$$embl' elected b' the t-o hou$e$ o# .arliame!t"(MK %! other -ord$, the
ruler$ o# +o2er!me!t -ill choo$e the rule$ o# +o2er!me!t"(ML The militar' cho$e to #ore+o the electio! o# a co!$titue!t a$$embl', -hich -ould ha2e bee! char+ed -ith dra#ti!+ a !e- co!$titutio!, be#ore parliame!tar' elec3 .art %%%"9" %!$tead, it opted to dele+ate the ta$1 o# -riti!+ a !e- co!$titu3 tio! to a co!$titue!t a$$embl' that -ill be elected b' the !e- .arliame!t" (MM ,lthou+h the electio! o# a co!$titue!t a$$embl' a!d the dra#ti!+ o# a !e- co!$titutio! be#ore parliame!tar' electio!$ mi+ht ha2e prolo!+ed the tra!$i3 tio! period, a co!$titue!t a$$embl' elected be#ore parliame!tar' electio!$ -ould ha2e had more lee-a' to ma1e $tructural cha!+e$ to the political $'$tem tha! a! a$$embl' that -ill dra#t a co!$titutio! a#ter the le+i$lature i$ alread' i! place"
militar', a$ di$cu$$ed i! The parliame!tar' electio!$ there#ore carried particular -ei+ht" Due i! part to the $-i#t timetable #or the electio!$, E+'pt$ t-o %$lami$t partie$ captured three37uarter$ o# the $eat$ i! the lo-er hou$e o# the .arliame!t"(M& The co!$titue!t a$$embl' i! char+e o# dra#ti!+ the !etio!$ ta1e place a path ta1e! b' the .ortu+ue$e
co!$titutio! -ill thu$ re#lect i! lar+e part the pre#ere!ce$ o# tho$e t-o partie$"(&0 .erhap$ #or that rea$o!, the %$lami$t$, u!li1e the !e-l' #ormed partie$, lauded the mili3 tar'$ pla!$ to po$tpo!e the co!$titutio! dra#ti!+ proce$$ u!til a#ter the par3 484. !ypt) #orrid Post-"evolutionary #imes, supra !ote 12M" 485. Id. DEThere are e2e! -hi$per$ o# a 7uiet allia!ce
bet-ee! the arm' a!d %$lami$t partie$ " " " "INF Slac1ma!, supra !ote 1(2 DEThe 0u$lim 9rotherhood, a! %$lami$t +roup o!ce ba!!ed b' the $tate " " " tra!$#ormed i!to a tacit part!er -ith the militar' +o2er!me!t " " " "ENF id. DEThere i$ e2ide!ce the 9rotherhood $truc1 $ome 1i!d o# a deal -ith the militar' earl' o!"I Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedN D7uoti!+ Eli5ah Var-a!, a $e!ior a!al'$t -ith the %!ter!atio!al Cri$i$ ;roupNNF nd Impunity +o/, Eco!3 omi$t, :ul' 30, 2011, available at http@AA---"eco!omi$t"comA!odeA2152(ML5 DESome $u$pect Gthe mili3 tar' i$H 1ee! to $tri1e a clo$et bar+ai! -ith the %$lami$t$ to #e!d o## tho$e -ho $ee1 to rebuild E+'pt a$ a para+o! o# plurali$m a!d tolera!ce"INF Spe!cer, supra !ote (31 DEThe arm' $eem$ to ha2e made $ome $ort o# deal -ith the 0u$lim 9rotherhood"I Di!ter!al 7uotatio! mar1$ omittedN D7uoti!+ 4ael ,bba$, a -ell3 1!o-! huma! ri+ht$ blo++er i! E+'ptNN" 486. See Stilt, supra !ote (3L"
tat
98 98
9rotherhood$ *reedom a!d :u$tice .art' -ill collaborate -ith the Sala#i al3Nour part' i! the electio! o# a co!$titue!t a$$embl' a!d the dra#ti!+ o# a !e- co!$titutio!" To pro5ect a more tolera!t ima+e o# it$ a+e!da, the *reedom a!d :u$tice .art' ma' a2oid a!' perceptio! that it i$ colludi!+ -ith the more co!$er2ati2e Sala#i$t$" See 0att 9radle' P Tamer El3;hoba$h', !ypt Islamists8 Mandate Lac$s =nity, 4all St" :", Dec" 5, 2011, at ,K"
487. ;ambill, supra !ote (1M" 488. Id. 489. Va'a!, supra !ote (K(" 490. El3/e!!a-', supra !ote (3K" %t i$ u!clear, ho-e2er, to -hat eJte!t the 0u$lim
99
tat
liame!tar' $electio!$"(&1 Co!#ide!t that the electio!$ -ould produce a
lar+e bloc i! their #a2or, the %$lami$t$ eJpected that the' -ould the! be able to domi!ate the co!$titutio! dra#ti!+ proce$$ a$ -ell"(&2 ,!d #or the rea$o!$ di$cu$$ed abo2e, the militar' $ta!d$ to be!e#it #rom the co!$er2ati2e ap3 proach that the e$tabli$hed partie$, i!cludi!+ the %$lami$t$, -ill ta1e to dra#ti!+ the !e- E+'ptia! co!$titutio!" The militar' ha$ al$o re#u$ed to reli!7ui$h po-er be#ore the co!$titutio! i$ dra#ted, -hich mi+ht allo- the militar' to a$$ert direct i!#lue!ce o! the co!$titutio! dra#ti!+ proce$$"(&3
#hird, the militar' al$o ha$ attempted to i!#lue!ce the ma1eup o# the le+i$lature i! the i!terim co!$titutio!" ,$ !oted abo2e, the co!$titutio!al declaratio! co!tai!$ a pro2i$io! ab$e!t #rom the popular re#ere!dum
that pre$er2e$ a re7uireme!t that hal# o# the $eat$ i! the .eople$ ,$$embl' a!d Shura Cou!cil be held b' E-or1er$ a!d pea$a!t$,I term$ that are le#t to be de#i!ed b' le+i$latio!"(&( Thi$ pro2i$io! allo-$ partie$ -ho$e member$ #it -ithi! the$e de#i!itio!$ to ha2e a $i+!i#ica!t ed+e i! the parliame!tar' elec3 tio!$"(&5 ,lthou+h the term$ E-or1erI a!d Epea$a!tI ha2e bee! i!terpreted broadl' i! the pa$t, political acti2i$t$ belie2ed that member$ o# the !e-l' #ormed partie$, i!cludi!+ 'outh +roup$, -ould be le$$ li1el' to be co!$id3 ered E-or1er$I or Epea$a!t$I -ithi! the mea!i!+ o# that pro2i$io!"(&K The pro2i$io!, accordi!+ to the acti2i$t$, -ould there#ore rei!#orce the eJi$ti!+ po-er $tructure a!d boo$t the electoral pro$pect o# e$tabli$hed political +roup$ -ith a pre3 eJi$ti!+ electoral patro!a+e, i!cludi!+ the 0u$lim 9roth3 erhood"(&L .erhap$ #or that rea$o!, the 'outh partie$ $tro!+l' oppo$ed the i!clu$io! o# thi$ pro2i$io! i! the i!terim co!$titutio!" (&M
>ourth, the i!terim co!$titutio! -ill li1el' pre$er2e the pre$ide!tial $'$3 tem, -hich ha$, to date, #a2ored the militar'$ i!$titutio!al prero+ati2e$" The 1&L1 Co!$titutio! o# E+'pt e$tabli$he$ a pre$ide!tial $'$tem a!d +ra!t$ the .re$ide!t a !umber o# EeJtraordi!ar' po-er$"I(&& *or eJample,
the .re$3 ide!t ma' i$$ue decree la-$, u!ilaterall' di$mi$$ the .rime 0i!i$ter, a!d di$$ol2e the .arliame!t"500 ?!der thi$ $'$tem, atio! o# o!l' o!e ci2ilia! o##iceholder the militar' !eed$ the cooper3 the .re$ide!t, -ho ha$ al-a'$ bee! a #ormer militar' o##icer to eJert it$ i!#lue!ce o! the !atio!$ political a#3 501 #air$" The militar' -ould al$o be!e#it #rom the i!crea$ed auto!om' that 491. !ypt) #orrid Post-"evolutionary #imes, supra !ote 12M" 492. See id. 493. !ypt Sets May lection for President to "eplace .osni Mubara$; #a$e Aver from Military, 4a$h" .o$t,

*eb" 2&, 2012, http@AA---"-a$hi!+to!po$t"comA-orldAmiddleOea$tAe+'pt3$et$3ma'32332(3#or31$t3 pre$ide!tial3 electio!3$i!ce3ho$!i3mubara13ou$terA2012A02A2&A+%X,Kc5;i<O$tor'"html" 494. 4i!+ P 8a$$im, supra !ote (30, at 30M" 495. 9ro-! P Stilt, supra !ote (50" 496. See id. 497. Id. 498. !ypt8s Presidential 2ote to be .eld by +ovember, supra !ote (L2" 499. See ;ambill, supra !ote (1M" 500. Id. 501. Id.F /amad, supra !ote 5M, at K1 DE%t appear$ that the +e!eral$ i! the Supreme Cou!cil o# the ,rmed *orce$ are -ell di$po$ed to $ome #orm o# co!ti!uit' o# the pre$ide!tial $'$tem o# +o2er!me!t"
100
tat
101
mi+ht re$ult #rom the di2i$io! o# po-er bet-ee! the eJecuti2e a!d the le+i$3 lati2e bra!che$ created b' a pre$ide!tial $'$tem"502 The i!terim co!$titutio! a!!ou!ced b' the militar' pre$er2e$ the pre$i3 de!tial $'$tem" ,lthou+h the .arliame!t -ill $elect the co!$titue!t a$$em3 bl' that -ill dra#t the co!$titutio!, the curre!t tra!$itio! timeli!e ma1e$ a po$$ible tra!$itio! to a parliame!tar' $'$tem hi+hl' u!li1el'" ?!der the curre!t timeli!e, the parliame!tar' electio!$ #or both hou$e$ o# the .arlia3 me!t -ill be completed at the e!d o# *ebruar' 2012 a!d pre$ide!tial elec3 tio!$ -ill ta1e place i! 0a' 2012"503 Theoreticall', the .arliame!t ma'
u!ilaterall' call #or a !e- co!$titutio!, elect a co!$titue!t a$$embl', a!d be+i! the dra#ti!+ o# the co!$titutio! i! the i!terim, be#ore pre$ide!tial electio!$ ta1e place" ,!d -ithout a pre$ide!t i! place, the co!$titue!t a$3 $embl' ma' ha2e more lee-a' i! replaci!+ the eJta!t pre$ide!tial $'$tem -ith a parliame!tar' o!e"
9ut that theoretical $ce!ario i$ hi+hl' u!li1el'" The i!terim co!$titutio! eJpre$$l' #ore$ee$ a pre$ide!tial electio! b' !oti!+ that the authoritie$ o# SC,* -ill co!ti!ue u!til a !e- pre$ide!t i$ $-or! i!"50( ?!der the curre!t
timeli!e, the pre$ide!tial electio!$ -ill ta1e place -ithi! approJimatel' three mo!th$ #rom parliame!tar' electio!$" Thu$, e2e! i# the co!$titutio! dra#ti!+ be+i!$ be#ore the electio! o# the .re$ide!t, b' the time the com3
be i! place"505 mittee #i!i$he$ it$ -or1 -hich, u!der the i!terim co!$titutio!, ma' ta1e up to $iJ mo!th$ a pre$ide!t -ill li1el'
%# a .re$ide!t i$ i! place duri!+ the co!$titutio!3dra#ti!+ proce$$, the .re$ide!t -ill ha2e $tro!+ i!ce!ti2e$ to pre$er2e the pre$ide!tial $'$tem a!d the prero+ati2e$ o# the o##ice, -hich, at lea$t u!til !o-, ha$ #a2ored the militar'" ,lthou+h the co!$titutio! -ill be dra#ted b' a co!$titue!t a$$em3 bl' to be elected b' the .arliame!t, a $tro!+ .re$ide!t u!accou!table to the .arliame!t ma' $hape the dra#ti!+ proce$$ a!d i!#lue!ce the co!te!t o# the re$ulti!+ co!$titutio!"50K The .re$ide!t ma', #or eJample, eJert pre$$ure
o! the co!$titue!t a$$embl' to 1eep the pre$ide!tial $'$tem i! place" *urther, the 0u$lim 9rotherhood, -hich -o! approJimatel' #ort'3$e2e! perce!t o# the $eat$ i! the lo-er hou$e o# the .arliame!t, #a2or$ a $tro!+ pre$ide!c', a!d the member$ it elect$ to the co!$titue!t a$$embl' -ill li1el' $hare that pre#ere!ce"50L *or that rea$o!, ma!' political acti2i$t$ ob5ected to the elec3
Stateme!t$ b' SC,* member$ repeatedl' i!dicated, SE+'pt i$ a pre$ide!tial $'$tem" Some ar+ued that the +e!eral$ belie2e the' ha2e a better cha!ce i!#lue!ci!+ the choice #or the pre$ide!c' tha! the parlia3 me!t -hich %$lami$t +roup$ are li1el' to domi!ate" 0a!' i! E+'pt $u$pect that the SC,* -ill tr' to $-a' popular
tat

$e!time!t$ to-ard$ a ca!didate -ith a militar' bac1+rou!d or at lea$t $omeo!e -ho i$ #rie!dl' to the militar' e$tabli$hme!t"IN" 502. /amad, supra !ote 5M, at K1 DE,mo!+ thi$ camp al$o there are a !umber o# $ecular #orce$ that hope a $tro!+ pre$ide!c' could pro2ide a cou!terbala!ce to the %$lami$t ma5orit' i! the parliame!t"IN" 503. !ypt to .old Presidential Poll Bin May,8 supra !ote (K5" 504. 9ro-! P Stilt, supra !ote (50" 505. 9radle' P El3;hoba$h', supra !ote (&0" 506. 9ro-! P Stilt, supra !ote (50" 507. ;ambill, supra !ote (1M"
102 102
.arvard International La/ 0ournal 1 2ol. 34 tio! o# the .arliame!t a!d the .re$ide!t be#ore the dra#ti!+ o# the co!$titutio!"50M The E+'ptia! coup o# 2011, thou+h i!complete at the time o# thi$ -rit3 i!+, thu$ ha$ the ma1i!+$ o# a democratic coup" 6i1e the other democratic coup$ a!al' ed i! thi$ ,rticle, the E+'ptia! militar' appear$ to be beha2i!+ a$ a $el#3 i!tere$ted actor b' $etti!+ up the tra!$itio! proce$$ $o that the !eco!$titutio! -ill #a2or it$ polic' a!d i!$titutio!al pre#ere!ce$"
103
IV. Co!clu$io!
Thi$ ,rticle called atte!tio! to the lar+el' !e+lected phe!ome!o! o# a democratic coup detat" The academic literature, to date, ha$ a!al' ed all militar' coup$ u!der a! a!ti3democratic #rame-or1 a!d 2ie-ed them a$ a! a##ro!t to $tabilit' a!d democrac'" 9ut !ot all coup$ are e7uall' a!ti3 demo3 cratic" Some coup$ are di$ti!ctl' more democratic tha! other$ becau$e the' re$po!d to a popular upri$i!+ a+ai!$t a! authoritaria! or totalitaria! re+ime a!d topple that re+ime #or the limited purpo$e o# holdi!+ the #ree a!d #air electio!$ o# ci2ilia! leader$" The co!2e!tio!al 2ie-, -hich 2ie-$ all coup$ a$ a me!ace to democrac' a!d $tabilit', $hould be replaced -ith a more !ua!ced approach to e2aluati!+ their de$irabilit' that ta1e$ i!to accou!t coup$ that produce democratic re+ime$" %! thi$ ,rticle, % o##ered a #rame3 -or1 #or a democratic coup de tat b' eJami!i!+ it$ t'pical attribute$ a!d co!$titutio!al co!$e7ue!ce$" %! $o doi!+, the ,rticle laid the prelimi!ar' +rou!d-or1 #or #uture $cholar$hip o! democratic coup$" ,lthou+h po-er i$ tra!$#erred to democraticall' elected leader$ at the e!d o# a democratic coup, the !e- co!$titutio! dra#ted duri!+ the tra!$itio! proce$$ re#lect$ the militar'$ polic' a!d i!$titutio!al pre#ere!ce$" Duri!+ the democratic tra!$itio! proce$$, the militar' ta1e$ ad2a!ta+e o# it$ 2irtual mo!opol' o! po-er a!d e!tre!che$, or attempt$ to e!tre!ch, it$ pre#ere!ce$ i!to the !e- co!$titutio! throu+h $ub$ta!ti2e, i!$titutio!al, or procedural e!tre!chme!t" ,$ a re$ult o# co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t, the militar' emer+e$ out o# the tra!$itio! proce$$ a$ a de #acto, i# !ot de 5ure, #ourth bra!ch o# +o2er!me!t" Co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t ha$ importa!t !orma3 ti2e implicatio!$ #or democratic tra!$itio!$ a!d #or our 2ie-$ o! the role o# the militar' i! a co!$titutio!al order, -hich % pla! to eJplore i! #uture pro5ect$"
104
508. Id.

The Democratic Coup

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The Democratic Coup

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Volume 53, Number 2, Summer 2012

The Democratic Coup dE tat

.arvard International La/ 0ournal 1 2ol. 34

The Democratic Coup dE

*(%* 1 #he Democratic Coup d8

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o# the proce$$ o# re2olutio!"I& Other eJample$ o# thi$ academic 2ie-

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I. T'pical Characteri$tic$ o# a Democratic Coup dE tat

21. 22. 23.

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-hich, #or ea$e o# re#ere!ce, % call the E!o!3

29. 30. 31.

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37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.

*(%* 1 #he Democratic Coup d8 301

to re$ort to militar' i!ter2e!tio!"(3 , coup ma' be democratic o!l' -he!

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.arvard International La/ 0ournal 1 2ol. 34

*(%* 1 #he Democratic Coup d8

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i!$trume!t$ o# hi$ ambitio!"IKL , militar' compri$ed o# citi e!3$oldier$ i$

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A. Self-Interested Behavior in Democratic Politics

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actio!$, tha! pri2ate i!tere$t"I102 %! more rece!t $emi!al -or1$, <obert

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de!'i!+ them reelectio!"11K The politicia!$ de$ire to retai! o##ice thu$

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people$ dema!d$"I13& 9' i!2o1i!+ the po-er or the threat o# prote$t$,

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throu+h co!$titutio!al e!tre!chme!t"1(5 , democratic coup ma' $ho- a!'

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electoral campai+!"1K3 The militar' ma' ha2e a! i!ce!ti2e to protect

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36 Id. at 3&2" 1LL" Id. at (02" 36 Id. at 3&2"

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A. #he #ur$ish Coup of %&'() Institutional ntrenchment

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40 Id. at M2" 1&M" Id. at &3" 40 Id. at M2"

.arvard International La/ 0ournal 1 2ol. 34

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.arvard International La/ 0ournal 1 2ol. 34

223" Id. at 212"

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