P age |1

KOLHAN UNIVERSITY

Organisational Effectiveness and Changes

Masters of Business Administration Sandeep Ghatuary

SEMIESTER 2
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Organisational Effectiveness and Changes Organization development or Organizational Effectiveness

Organization development (OD) is a conceptual, organization-wide effort to increase an organization's effectiveness and viability. OD as a response to change, a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of an organization so that it can better adapt to new technologies, markets, challenges, and the dizzying rate of change itself. OD is neither "anything done to better an organization" nor is it "the training function of the organization"; it is a particular kind of change process designed to bring about a particular kind of end result. OD can involve interventions in the organization's "processes," using behavioural science knowledge organizational reflection, system improvement, planning and self-analysis. Organization development is an ongoing, systematic process to implement effective change in an organization.

Organization development is a "contractual relationship between a change agent and a sponsoring organization
entered into for the purpose of using applied behavioral science and or other organizational change perspectives in a systems context to improve organizational performance and the capacity of the organization to improve itself"

Organization development, according to Richard Beck hard, is defined as:

1. A planned effort 2. Organization wide 3. Managed from the top 4. To increase organization effectiveness and health 5. Through planned interventions in the organizations processes, using behavioural science knowledge.

Assumptions of OD
1. Highest productivity can be achieved when the individual goals are integrated with the organizational goals. 2. Suppression of feelings adversely affects problem solving, personal growth and satisfaction with ones work. Accordingly, free expression of feelings is an important ingredient for commitment to work. 3. Growth of individuals is facilitated by relationships which are open, supportive, and trusting. According, the level of interpersonal trust, support and cooperation should be as high as possible. 4. The difference between commitment and agreement must be fully understood, agreeing to do something totally different from being committed to do something. Sense of commitment makes it easier when this commitment is based upon participation in the process. 5. Organization development must be reinforced by the organizations total human-resources system.

OD techniques
1. Sensitivity training -Sensitivity training is supplemented with self-administered instruments. It involves growth in effective membership. It helps to developing ability to learn. 2. Grid Training - Grid training is an outgrowth of the managerial grid approach to leadership .It is an instrumental approach to laboratory training. This technique is widely used and has proved effective. 3. Survey Feedback - Survey feedback is based on the study (survey) of the unit of analysis (such as work group, a department or a whole organization) by using questionnaires The resulting data are then used to identify and analyses problems and propose a suitable action plan to overcome them.

Approaches to OD
1. Group Dynamics - This is a historical and traditional method of OD based on the assumption. In this approach, an expert works at a small-group level, using group methods, sensitivity training and other related approaches. 2. The Behaviour Modification School Its attempts to rearrange the reward system in the organization so as to strengthen selected 'target' behaviour on the part of employees. 3. The Systems Approach - The system can some components and function that processes to perform relationship among components that make them a system. This approach aims at enhancing the overall effectiveness of the organization.

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This approach is based on the assumption: Technical system, Social system, administrative system, strategic system The systems approach has four sequential stages: assessment, problem solving, implementation and evaluation. 4. The Socio-Technical Approach - The social system uses tools, techniques, and knowledge. The technical system produces goods and services which are valued by customers in the external environment. 5. The Environment Approach - The environment is an agent of change. Environmental changes are the primary incitement and stimulus for organizational betterment. The environment can change in both predictable and unpredictable ways. The external environment can be relatively stable or rapidly changing.

The OD process
1. Process Analysis Activities, referring to applications of behaviourial science perspectives to fathom complete and dynamic situations 2. Skill-building Activities, involving various designs for eliciting behaviours in congruence with OD values. This includes giving and receiving feedback, listening, and settling conflicts 3. Diagnostic Activities, including process analysis to generate data through interviews, psychological instruments or opinion surveys 4. Coaching or Counseling Activities to help in resolving conflicts through third-party consultation 5. Team Building Activities, enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of task groups 6. Inter-group Activities, attempting to create effective and satisfying linkages between two or more task groups or departments in the organization 7. Techno-Structural Activities, aiming at building need-fulfilling roles, jobs and structures 8. System-Building or System-Renewal Activities, seeking exhaustive changes in a large organization's climate and values using combinations of the various OD interventions listed above.

Benefits of OD
1. Provides opportunities for people to function as human beings rather than mere resources in the productive process. 2. Gives each member of the organisation opportunities to develop to his full potential. 3. Seeks to make the organization more effective in meeting all its goals. 4. Tries to create an environment in which exciting and challenging work can be found. 5. Gives people in organization the chance to influence how they relate to work, the organization, and the work environment. 6. Treats each human being as a person with a complex set of needs, all of which are important in his or her work and life.

Limitations of Organization Development

1. OD can be no more powerful than the behaviour science concepts on which it is based. Behavioural science has many limitations which are applicable to organisation development also. 2. OD requires use of certain persons who can take initiative to bring about change. Complacement people cannot be helpful in implementing organisation development. 3. OD cannot be applied without giving due consideration to the local circumstances existing within the organisation. The local circumstances may pose a problem in adapting to change.

Organisational Effectiveness and Changes CHANGE AGENTS

The change agent may be in the form of a consultant who helps the client find solutions to the organisational problems. It could also be in the form a trainer who trains the client to achieve a set of skills that could be used in bringing about the change for optimum outcomes. This change agent must have certain characteristics which would identify it to be more effective than others. Effective change agent is, an extrovert, has considerable interpersonal skills, is creative and takes risks, and is good in organizing activities.

Traits and skills of effective change agents

1. Systems thinker. Seeing the relationships between moving parts. If you pull one lever, what cogs are likely to move? 2. Relational. Cultivating relationships at multiple levels of an organization. 3. Analytical. Using data and measurements to assess progress. 4. Influential. Using multiple forms of influence to get people to try new things and adopt different behaviors. 5. Resilience. Organizational change is rife with obstacles and resistance. Resilient individuals will keep going. 6. Facilitation. Most change projects I know involve some form of team facilitation. 7. Difficult conversations. For example giving feedback to executives. 8. Communication. Beyond conversations, speaking and writing are also important for change agents. 9. Energy. Drive. Conviction that the change must happen. 10. Observant. Having a knack for seeing opportunities for improvement and discrepancies that are hurting the initiative.

Key Competencies of Change Agents

Objectives 1. Sensitivity to changes in key personnel, top management perceptions and market conditions, and to the way in which these impact the goals of the project. 2. Setting of clearly defined, realistic goals. 3. Flexibility in responding to changes without the control of the project manager, perhaps requiring major shifts in project goals and management style. Roles 4. Team-building abilities, to bring together key stakeholders and establish effective working groups, and to define and delegate respective responsibilities clearly. 5. Networking skills in establishing and maintaining appropriate contacts within and outside the organization. 6. Tolerance of ambiguity, to be able to function comfortably, patiently and effectively in an uncertain environment. Communication 7. Communication skills to transmit effectively to colleagues and subordinates the need for changes in the project goals and in individual tasks and responsibilities. 8. Interpersonal skills, across the range, including selection, listening, collecting appropriate information, identifying the concerns of others, and managing meetings. 9. Personal enthusiasm in expressing plans and ideas. 10. Stimulating motivation and commitment in others involved. Negotiation 11. Selling plans and ideas to others by creating a desirable and challenging vision of the future. 12. Negotiating with key players for resources, for changes in procedures, and to resolve conflict. Managing up 13. Political awareness in identifying potential coalitions, and in balancing conflicting goals and perceptions. 14. Influencing skills, to gain commitment to project plans and ideas from potential skeptics and resisters. 15. Helicopter perspectives, to stand back from the immediate project and take a broader view of priorities.

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TYPES OF CHANGE AGENTS

1. Provide specialized perspectives, skills, and knowledge that the organisation does not have available or is limited in use as a formal role. 2. Help the organization with the problem solving procedures: identify, define and clarify the problem; generate alternatives; anticipate consequences; and plan evaluation. 3. Provide training and skill building to people. 4. Assist groups to build team learning skills in order to facilitate team building and development. 5. Develop and conduct surveys of other assessments to gather data on important organisational processes. 6. Impart skills to the organisation so that it can carry on with the task after the consultant has left. 7. They generally do not do, implement plans, take responsibility for decision mailing (which the organisation can and should do for itself), or remain permanently with the organization

Advantages and Disadvantages of Internal Change Agents

Advantage of Internal Change Agent 1. Knows the environment, culture, people, issues and hidden agendas 2. Develops and keeps expertise and resources internal 3. Creates and maintains norms of organization renewal from within 4. Provides higher security and confidentiality 5. May have trust and respect of others 6. Has strong personal investment in success Disadvantage of Internal Change Agent 1. May be biased; has already taken sides, or may be disliked or mistrusted by some stockholders 2. Previous relationships may contribute to sub grouping or fragmentation 3. Takes CA away from other duties 4. May be en-culturated and is part of the problem or does not see it 5. Is subject to organisational sanctions and pressures as an employee

Advantages and Disadvantages of Internal Change Agents

Advantage of External Change Agent 1. Provides fresh, outside, objective perspective 2. Willing to assert, challenge, and question norms 3. May have more legitimacy to insiders not taking sides 4. Brings skills and techniques not available from within organization 5. Bring diverse organisational experience to bear; benchmark comparisons Disadvantage of External Change Agent 1. May or may not be available when needed by the organization; may split time and commitments with other clients. 2. High expense 3. Takes time to become familiar with system 4. May create co-dependency or may abandon the system.

Organizational Culture or values

Organisational culture describes all the unwritten rules, practices, attitudes and beliefs that affect the way in which business is done and underpins the interactions of staff and customers. It is the personality of the organization. Culture is comprised of the assumptions, values, norms and tangible signs (artifacts) of organization members and their behaviors. Members of an organization soon come to sense the particular culture of an organization. Culture is one of those terms that are difficult to express distinctly, but everyone knows it when they sense it. For example, you can tell the culture of an organization by looking at the arrangement of furniture, what they brag about, what members wear, etc. -- similar to what you can use to get a feeling about someone's personality.

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It has been defined as "the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization."

Features of Organization Culture

1. The degree of responsibility and freedom and opportunities of exercising initiative that individuals in the organization have. 2. The rules and regulations, and the amount of direct supervision that is used to oversee and control employee behaviour. 3. The degree of assistance and warmth provided by managers to their subordinates. 4. The degree to which members identify with the organization as a whole rather than with their particular workgroup or field of professional expertise. 5. The degree to which reward system in the organization (i.e., salary increases, promotions) is based on employee performance criteria. 6. The degree of conflict present in relationships between peers and workgroups as well as the willingness to be honest and open about differences. 7. The degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative and risk taking.

IMPACT OF CULTURE ON MODERN ORGANISATIONS

1. Equality: This value states that all people are equal, having equal rights.However, this value gives due recognition to different mental, emotionaland social differences and hence different rewards. Another associated idea is equity which states that there should be justice in rewarding performance. The rewards should be based on performance which should be measured objectively. 2. Security: People seek security of job and personal life. Some sort of mental tension prevails in the mind of an employee as long as he feels unsecure. 3. Freedom: It represents a basic cultural value that affects work in modern organisations. Freedom here refers to freedom from authority and freedom to do as one feels like, of course, subject to the constraints imposed by the society. That is to say, this freedom is within some prescribed limits. Freedom may mean different things to different people. For instance, for a employee freedom may be have a voice in the joint council meeting, for another it may mean right to work without restrictions etc. 4. Opportunity: Another value that affects people in organisations is the opportunity. People expect many opportunities to climb the ladder in organisation.

Organisational Effectiveness and Changes Organizational Climate

Organizational climate (sometimes known as Corporate Climate) is the process of quantifying the culture of an organization. It is a set of properties of the work environment, perceived directly or indirectly by the employees, that is assumed to be a major force in influencing employee behavior. How your employees feel about their jobs, their supervisors, their peers, top management, and many other factors affects their individual productivity, and collectively the ability of the organization to achieve its objectives. Organizational climate is a relatively ending quality of the internal environment that is experienced by the members, influences their behavior and can described in terms of values of a particular set of characteristics of the organization . Organizational climate is the set of characteristics that describe an organization and that (a) distinguish one organization from other organizations; (b) are relatively enduring over time and (c) influence the behavior of the people in the organization.

FEATURES OF ORGANISATIONAL CLIMATE

1. General Perception: Organisation climate is a general express of what the organisation is. It represents the summary perception which people have about an organisation. 2. Quantitative Concept: It is an abstract and intangible concept. It is difficult to explain the components of organisation climate in quantifiable units 3. Distinct Identity: It reflects how an organisational is different from other organisations. It gives a distinct identity to the organisation. 4. Enduring Quality: It is built up over a period of time. It represents a relatively enduring quality of the internal environment that is experienced by the organisational members. 5. Multi-dimensional concept: There are several dimensions of the concept of organisational climate such as individual autonomy, authority structure, leadership style, pattern of communication, degree of conflicts and cooperation, etc.

COMPONENTS OF ORGANISATIONAL CLIMATE

1. Members Concern - The dominant orientation of an organisation is the main concern of its members, and this is an important determinant of climate. If the dominant orientation or concern is to adhere to established rules and regulations, the climate will be characterised by control; on the other hand, if the orientation is to produce excellence, the climate will be characterised by achievement. 2. Interpersonal relationships - An organisations interpersonal-relations are reflected in the ways informal groups are formed, and operate to satisfy the social needs of members. If informal relations supplement the formal procedures, the organisation will be benefited. But if some powerful groups develop who acquire power in the organisation, they may displace the goals of the organisation. Conflicts in the organisation might also be common. 3. Degree of Control - The control systems may be either rigid or flexible. If the control is rigidly followed, there will be impersonal or bureaucratic atmosphere in the organisation. The scope for self-regulation will be the minimum. 4. Individual Freedom - If the individuals are given sufficient freedom or autonomy to work and exercise authority, there will be efficiency in operations. Self-control will lighten the burden of the higher level executives. 5. Type of Structure - It clarifies who is to direct whom and who is responsible to whom. It serves as the basis of inter-personal relations between superiors and subordinates. If the authority is centralised at the top level, the scope for participation in decision-making by the subordinates will be low. Where authority is delegated to the subordinates, there will be an atmosphere of participative decision-making. 6. Management Orientation (Style) - The dominant style of managers and supervisors maybe task-oriented or relationsoriented. If the task-orientation is predominant, the leadership style will be autocratic. The employees will have to increase their productivity or face punishment. Their morale will be low in the long-run. 7. Reward System- The system of rewards and punishments is an important component of organisational climate. When the rewards are based on merit and productivity, there will be an atmosphere of competition among employees for higher performance. They will put more and more hard work to develop themselves and earn higher rewards such as increments and promotions.

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8. Risk-taking - How members respond to risks and whose help is sought in situations involving risk are important in any organisation. If individuals feel free to try out new ideas without any fear, they will not hesitate in taking risks. Such an atmosphere will be conducive to innovative ideas. 9. Conflict Management - Differences among people and groups in organisations are not uncommon. If they are managed effectively, there will be an atmosphere of cooperation in the organisation. If they are suppressed or not handled properly, people will be unhappy and there will be an atmosphere of distrust and non-cooperation. 10. Degree of Trust - The degree of trust or lack of trust among various members and groups in the organisation affects the climate. If there is Mutual trust between different individuals, groups and also between management and workers, there will be peace in the organisation. The members will cooperate with one another for the attainment of organisation objectives.

FACTORS INFLUENCING ORGANISATIONAL CLIMATE

1. Organisational Context - This philosophy of management is expressed by policies, rules, regulations and, of course, by the actions of mangers. The reaction of the employees and the degree to which they agree within managements philosophy is critical to the development of a favourable climate. If management is able to match employees goals to organisational goals, it is most likely to put a positive influence on climate. 2. Organisation Structure - The organisation structure followed by management is critical organisational climate. If the top management feels the need of giving greater importance to the subordinates, it will follow a decentralised structure. There will be fewer layers in the organisational hierarchy and participative decisionmaking will be encouraged. The organisational climate will be inducive to the development of the employees. But if the top management like to maintain a greater degree of consistency in decision-making, it would follow a centralized structure. This would enable greater control over decisions; and organisational climate will encourage centralised information management and decision-making. 3. Relationship between superior and subordinates - The relationship between superior and subordinate is not only of an interpersonal nature, but it also represents the primary interface between the organisation and the employee. All mangers must therefore be aware of the possible influence on climate when deciding the type of leadership (autocratic or participative to be provided to the subordinates. The effectiveness of a leadership style is determined mainly by the particular situation. In other words, the leadership style must suit the situation faced by the manger. If it is not so, the motivation level of the workers will be low, they will feel frustrated and dissatisfied and productivity may also go down. If the workers are not satisfied with the type of leadership provided, effective communication will be hindered and their morale will also be low. Therefore, every manager must consider the likely impact of this style of functioning on the organisational climate. 4. Physical environment - It has been observed that office decor, office size and the physical space allotted to a person at work (private office or general office) etc. have an important influence to the development of a favourable attitude towards the job. Noise has also been considered instrumental in influencing the climate of organisation. High level of noise may bring a bad feeling and lead to frustration, nergousness and aggression and thus have a negative effect upto organisational climate. 5. Values and Norms - Organisation culture is a system of shared values (what is important) and the beliefs (how things work) that interact with a companys people, organization structures, and control systems to produce behavioural norms (the way we do things).

POWER
Power is the ability that a person may use to get others to do what he/she wants to be done. The nature of power is control over other people. In the organization, power of a person can be derived from interpersonal, structural and situational bases. Basically, interpersonal power is vested in a person as prescribed by the organization (ie; legitimate, reward and coercive) and by the persons qualities (ie; expert and referent). While structural and situational powers (ie; resource, decision making and information powers) normally go by the hierarchy of the organizations structure, that is, the higher the position of a person as structured by the organization, the greater is his/her power in accessing to resources, making decisions and having access to important information. power in the organization is that people are having the need for it. The differences are in the degree and intention; whether someone is having a high or low need for power, and whether the need for power is directed towards personal or organizational purposes. Power is important

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to many people as it can be meant for status and prestige, and also for promotion, leading and ruling. Anyhow, such intentions if not properly associated with the organizational purposes and directed goals, will not benefit the organization. Thus, the reality of power should be wisely accepted that it is important to enable someone to contribute effectively to his/her organization. Wrongly application of power such as corruptions and other unethical actions are simply the problems generated by the attitude of people in using their power. Most of the problems of effectiveness faced by the organizations are created by improperly use of power by the managers. There are cases where the managers made in charge of businesses are lack in the required knowledge and skills. Without sufficient capabilities, these managers would not be able to utilize their powers professionally, thus contribute towards reducing the performance of the organization.for example power refers to As ability to influence B not As right to do so, no right Is implplied in the concept of power.A related concept is auhority. The manager has authority the right to request that the sawyer cut lumber to certain specification. One the other hand the manager would not have right to request that the sawyer to wash her car.

Classification of power
1. COERCIVE POWER : Involves forcing someone to comply with one's wishes. A prison would be an example of a coercive organization. 2. UTILITARIAN POWER: Is power based on a system of rewards or punishments. Businesses, which use pay raises, promotions, or threats of dismissal, are essentially utilitarian organizations. 3. NORMATIVE POWER : Is power which rests on the beliefs of the members that the organization has a right to govern their behavior. A religious order would be an example of a utilitarian organization.

ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS
Politics is a means of recognizing and, ultimately, reconciling competing interests within the organization. Competing interests can be reconciled by any number of means. For example, resorting to "rule by the manager" might be seen as an example of totalitarian rule. If we accept that power relations exist in organizations, then politics and politicking are an essential part of organizational life. On the other hand, politics may be a means of creating a noncoercive, or a democratic work environment. Systems of rule each represent a political orientation with respect to how power isdistributed throughout the organization. To help us understand organizations, we might consider them as political systems. The political metaphor helps us understand power relationships in day-to-day organizational relationships. Systems of rule within organizations range from autocratic to democratic at the extremes. Between these extremes we find bureaucratic and technocratic systems. Whatever the system, each represents a political orientation with respect to how power is applied and distributed throughout the organization. Each type of organizational "rule" simply draws on different principles of legitimacy. politics stems from a diversity of interests. To fully understand the politics of the organization, it is necessary to explore the processes by which people engage in politics.within the organization, all employees bring their own interests, wants, desires, and needs to the workplace. Organizational decision-making and problem- solving, while seemingly a rational process, is also a political process. Organizational actors seek to satisfy not only organizational interests, but also their own wants and needs; driven by self-interest. the successful practice of

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organizational politics is perceived to lead to a higher level of power, and once a higher level of power is attained, there is more opportunity to engage in political behavior For purposes of understanding organizational political behavior, proposed a three-dimensional typology. The dimensions are: where the political activity takes place inside or outside the organization, the direction of the attempted influence vertically or laterally in the organization, and the legitimacy of the political action. 1) Functional Vs Dysfunctional Conflict, 2) Sources And Types Of Conflict: Individual, Group, And Organisational; 3)The Process And Approaches To Conflict Resolution

The Process Of Empowerment

The act of delegating power and authority to a subordinate so as to facilitate him to achieve the goals of the manager. Empowerment is a process by which we increase the capacity of an individual or group in order to enable them to make choices and for them to transform their choices into the desired actions. Empowerment gives authority to an individual to take action and take control of his work by making decisions on his own. These actions help build collective and individual assets and improve and as a result the efficiency of use of these assets is improved. In an organisation empowerment is important in that it helps remove the feeling of powerlessness through enhancement of self efficiency of the individual. It therefore enables the individuals to coupe with problems that face them. Empowerment can be defined as the process, by which we can increase the capacity of an individual or a group in order for them to make their own choices which will lead to increased productivity in an organisation and also has to remove any barriers that limit the process of empowerment. Empowerment helps remove the conditions that cause powerlessness while enhancing employee feelings of self efficacy. It also authorizes employees to cope with situations and enables them to take control of problems as they arise. the process that provides greater autonomy to employees through the sharing of relevant information in the provision of control over factors affecting job performance. Empowerment unleashes an individuals potential and enhancing his abilities to nurture growth in the organisation, it gives authority to an individual to take action and take control of his work by making decisions on his own. The organisation should therefore make an enabling environment which helps the employee to undertake their tasks in an empowered manner by removing any barriers that limit the process of empowerment. Empowerment involves Valuing employees, Sharing information and visions of the organisation, giving Direction and goal sharing with workers, enhancing Trust, Involvement of workers in decision making, training workers, provision of emotional support to workers and proper communication channels in the organisation.

Five broad approaches to empowerment are:

1. Helping employees achieve job mastery giving proper training, coaching, and guided experience that will result in initial successes. 2. Allowing more control giving them discretion over job performance and then holding them accountable for outcomes. 3. Providing successful role models allowing them to observe peers who already perform successfully on-thejob. 4. Using social reinforcement in persuasion giving praise, encouragement, and verbal feedback designed to raise self-confidence. 5. Giving emotional support providing reduction of stress and anxiety through better role definition, task assistance, and honest caring.

Importance of empowerment: 1. Positive environment: Employee empowerment leads to the creation of a positive environment in the workplace; this will lead to increased productivity and efficiency in the workplace. 2. Creativity: Empowerment involves letting employees make decision on their own and also solve problems, this increases their creativity and also improve the working environment.

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3. Productivity: Empowerment ensures that the employees perform their tasks in the most effective way that saves time and energy, as a result the employees become more productive. 4. Motivation: Employee empowerment will motivate workers which will in turn increase employee productivity, increase commitment by employees and As a result the employee will more satisfied with work. 5. Team work: Empowerment will encourage team work and as a result there will increase motivation to undertake tasks 6. Conflicts: It will reduce conflicts between managers and workers; also reducing the cost of production in the organisation resulting to increased competitive advantage of the organisation over its competitors. 7. More skilled workers: the employees become more skilled through education and training offered by the organisation, this will lead to increased employee productivity and increase competence as a result of training offered.

Disadvantages of empowerment:
1. Increased costs: an organisation has to invest in the training and education of its workers and as a result there will be increased costs. 2. Abuse of power: Some of the organisation workers may abuse the power given to them, this include making decisions that may not be in line with the objectives of the organisation and may use the power to meet their own needs. 3. Time wastage: organisation where time may be spent in groups and committees that are important in the process of empowerment and this will reduce the total time the employees spend undertaking their tasks. 4. Conflicts: every worker may tend to acquire power on what should be done and how it should be done, for this reason therefore empowerment may result to conflicts among workers. 5. Decisions: The employees may not have the ability to make appropriate decisions that are important in the organisation, therefore the decisions made by the employees may be biased.

Organizational Learning
Organization-wide continuous process that enhances its collective ability to accept, make sense of, and respond to internal and external change. Organizational learning and is more than the sum of the information held by employees. It requires systematic integration and collective interpretation of new knowledge that leads to collective action and involves risk taking as experimentation. The process through which managers seek to improve organisation members capacity to understand and manage the organisation and its environment so that they can make decisions that continuously raise organisational effectiveness. Organizational learning is an area of knowledge within organizational theory that studies models and theories about the way an organization learns and adapts. The concept of a learning organization has become popular since organizations want to be more adaptable to change. Two of the most noteworthy contributors to the field of organizational learning theory have been Chris Argrys and Donald Schon. It is a product of organizational inquiry. This means that whenever expected outcome differs from actual outcome, an individual (or group) will engage in inquiry to understand and, if necessary, solve this inconsistency. In the process of organizational inquiry, the individual will interact with other members of the organization and learning will take place. Learning is a dynamic concept and it emphasizes the continually changing nature of organizations. The focus is gradually shifting from individual learning to organizational learning. Learning is essential for the growth of individuals; it is equally important for organizations. Since individuals form the bulk of the organization, they must establish the necessary forms and processes to enable organizational learning in order to facilitate change.

The three levels of learning which may be present in the organization:

1. Single loop learning: This occurs when errors are detected and corrected and firms continue with their present policies and goals. It has also been referred to as "Lower-Level Learning" "Adaptive Learning" and "Non Strategic Learning" E.g. when sales are down, marketing managers inquire into the cause, and tweak the strategy to try to bring sales back on track. 2. Double loop learning: Learning that results in a change in theory-in-use. The values, strategies, and assumptions that govern action are changed to create a more efficient environment. It is also called Higher-Level Learning,

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Generative Learning and Strategic Learning. In the above example, managers might rethink the entire marketing or sales process so that there will be no (or fewer) such fluctuations in the future. 3. Deuteron learning: Learning about improving the learning system itself. This is composed of structural and behavioral components which determine how learning takes place. Essentially deuteron learning is therefore "learning how to learn." The concept of the learning organization, particularly in regards to improving learning processes and understanding/modifying mental models Effective learning must therefore include all three; continuously improving the organization at all levels.

Organizational Innovation
The term innovation derives from the Latin innovatio, the noun of action from innovare.innovare "to renew or change," from in- "into" + novus "new" innovation generally refers to the creation or improvement of products, technologies, or ideas. Innovation is distinguished from renovation in that innovation generally signifies a substantial change or difference versus more incremental changes. The process by which organisations use their skills and resources to develop new goods and services or to develop new production and operating systems so that they can better respond to the needs of their customers. Organizational innovation refers to new ways work can be organized, and accomplished within an organization to encourage and promote competitive advantage. It encompasses how organizations, and individuals specifically, manage work processes in such areas as customer relationships, employee performance and retention, and knowledge management. At the core of organizational innovation is the need to improve or change a product, process or service. Organizational innovation encourages individuals to think independently and creatively in applying personal knowledge to organizational challenges. Therefore, organizational innovation requires a culture of innovation that supports new ideas, processes and generally new ways of "doing business". The road to organizational innovation lies in the ability to impart new knowledge to company employees and in the application of that knowledge. Knowledge should be used for new ways of thinking, and as a stepping stone to creativity and toward change and innovation.

The Benefit of an Innovative Organization

1. Cross functional team building while discouraging silo building 2. Independent, creative thinking to see things from a new perspective and putting oneself outside of the parameters of a job function 3. Risk taking by employees while lessening the status quo

Steps to Innovation
1. Is a climate of innovation supported by senior management? 2. Do managers routinely identify and bring together those individuals more oriented toward innovation those willing to think new ideas and act on them? 3. Is there a process in place monitoring innovation teams and identifying what has and hasn't worked as a result of them? 4. How can an organization be strategic and focused on it goals yet build and develop an innovative culture? 5. Is there a single most important variable or ingredient that fuels an organization toward an innovative culture?

OBSTACLES TO CORPORATE INNOVATION

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Very Large organizations foster resistance to change Innovation may threaten current successes Product/market boundary charters sometimes preclude innovation In a large organization, the separation of power constitutes a weakest link constraint on innovation The politics of large organizations can lead to compromises that decreases the effectiveness of attempts at innovation 6. Large firms have marketing departments that follow, rather than lead the market

Organisational Effectiveness and Changes Creativity

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Creativity is defined as the tendency to generate or recognize ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems, communicating with others, and entertaining ourselves and others. It is the application of a persons mental ability and curiosity to discover something new. It is also known as the generation of ideas that result in the improvement of the efficiency or effectiveness of a system. While a variety of methods have been used to stimulate group creativity, several methods are more useful in a business environment. The creative process begins with perceptual aspects instead of analytical. In the human aspects, creativity and present growth are interrelated and employees creativity is the result of planned management action. But creativity alone is not the kind of miraculous that leads to business growth. organizational effectiveness depends on the creativity of the workforce to a large extent. Creativity is any act, idea, or product that changes an existing domain, or that transforms an existing domain into a new one...What counts is whether the novelty he or she produces is accepted for inclusion in the domain

To enhance creativity in business, three components were needed:

1. Expertise (technical, procedural and intellectual knowledge), 2. Creative thinking skills (how flexibly and imaginatively people approach problems), 3. Motivation (especially intrinsic motivation).

There are mainly four factors that affect creativity

1. Problem sensitivity - This is basically the ability to recognize that a problem exists or to be able to cut through consider standing, false impression, lack of facts or other hurdles and recognize the fact problem. 2. Idea fluency - This term simply means that a person can pile up a large number of alternative solutions to a given problem in a given time. the fact that the more ideas you have, the greater are the chances of finding a usable one. 3. Originality originality required of the business executives is more likely to be that of finding new ways to very existing conditions, or new ways to adapt existing ideas to new conditions. 4. flexibility - Another name of creative flexibility is creative expectancy meaning the creative person just expects to solve the problem no matter how many failures temporarily delay the solution.

The methods of creativity:

1. 2. 3. 4. brainstorming circular approach value analysis checklist techniques.

These are the Techniques to Fostering creativity

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Establishing purpose and intention Building basic skills Encouraging acquisitions of domain-specific knowledge Stimulating and rewarding curiosity and exploration Building motivation, especially internal motivation Encouraging confidence and a willingness to take risks Focusing on mastery and self-competition Promoting supportable beliefs about creativity

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Organizational conflict
Organizational conflict is a state of discord caused by the actual or perceived opposition of needs, values and interests between people working together. Conflict takes many forms in organizations. There is the inevitable clash between formal authority and power and those individuals and groups affected. There are disputes over how revenues should be divided, how the work should be done, and how long and hard people should work. There are jurisdictional disagreements among individuals, departments, and between unions and management. There are subtler forms of conflict involving rivalries, jealousies, personality clashes, role definitions, and struggles for power and favor. There is also conflict within individuals between competing needs and demands to which individuals respond in different ways. Conflict sometimes has a destructive effect on the individuals and groups involved. At other times, however, conflict can increase the capacity of those affected to deal with problems, and therefore it can be used as a motivating force toward innovation and change. Conflict is encountered in two general forms. Personal conflict refers to an individual's inner workings and personality problems.

Sources of conflict - We can establish three basic sources as semantic, role, and values.
1. Semantic sources are those stemming from some failure in communication.We use semantics to point out a major source of conflict as the failure of two individuals to share fully the meaning of a communicative attempt. 2. Role sources are those that rise out of the varying perceptions of people about the expected behaviors of themselves and others. Many of these come from the status and position levels in organizations. Others come from the structures and processes devised by management to organize work, channel effort, and coordinate activity. 3. Value sources have their foundations in the individualistic value sets of people. These value sets readily contribute to differences between people because they are different. They cause each of us at times to respond or behave in an unexpected manner because we are behaving as dictated by a value set not fully shared by our associates; hence, a sense on their part of a difference between us.

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Effects of conflict - Conflict has both positive and negative effects. It can be positive when it encourages creativity, new looks at o1d conditions, the clarification of points of view, and the development of human capabilities to handle interpersonal differences. Conflict can be negative when it creates resistance to change, establishes turmoil in organization or interpersonal relations, fosters distrust, builds a feeling of defeat, or widens the chasm of misunderstanding. Types of Organizational Conflict
1. Interpersonal Conflict - Interpersonal conflict is the conflict between individuals of the organization. 2. Intragroup Conflict - Intragroup conflict is the conflict within an internal group, team or department. These are conflicts that typically involve more than one person within a group. 3. Intergroup Conflict - Intergroup conflict is the conflict between different groups, teams and departments. When different groups are pitted against each other, this is an example of an intergroup conflict. 4. Interorganizational Conflict - Interorganizational conflict is the conflict that arises across different organizations. When different businesses are competing against one another, this is an example of interorganizational conflict. 5. Sources of Conflict - Jones and George say sources of conflict are different goals and deadlines, two or more managers that claim authority, group members being dependent on another group member who is not working up to par, different standards or reward systems, scarce resources and status differences.

SOME PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF CONFLICT IDENTIFIED:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. communication failure personality conflict value differences goal differences methodological differences substandard performance lack of cooperation differences regarding authority differences regarding responsibility competition over resources non-compliance with rules

Negotiation
Negotiation is a dialogue between two or more people or parties, intended to reach an understanding, resolve point of difference, or gain advantage in outcome of dialogue, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests of two person/ parties involved in negotiation process. Negotiation is a process where each party involved in negotiating tries to gain an advantage for themselves by the end of the process. Negotiation is intended to aim at compromise. Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called negotiation theory. Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators, or may work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers.

Approaches to negotiation - There are two opposite types of negotiation: Integrative and Distributive.
1. Distributive Negotiation -The term distributive means; there is a giving out; or the scattering of things. A distributive negotiation usually involves people who have never had a previous interactive relationship, nor are they likely to do so again in the near future. 2. Integrative negotiation - The word integrative means to join several parts into a whole. Integrative negotiation process generally involves some form or combination of making value for value concessions, in conjunction with creative problem solving.

Organisational Effectiveness and Changes

TYPES OF NEGOTIATION IN ORGANIZATIONS

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1. Day-to-day / Managerial Negotiations - Such types of negotiations are done within the organization and are related to the internal problems in the organization. It is in regards to the working relationship between the groups of employees. Usually, the manager needs to interact with the members at different levels in the organization structure. For conducting the day-to-day business, internally, the superior needs to allot job responsibilities, maintain a flow of information, direct the record keeping and many more activities for smooth functioning. All this requires entering into negotiations with the parties internal to the organization. 2. Commercial Negotiations - Such types of negotiations are conducted with external parties. The driving forces behind such negotiations are usually financial gains. They are based on a give-and-take relationship. Commercial negotiations successfully end up into contracts. It relates to foregoing of one resource to get the other. 3. Legal Negotiations - These negotiations are usually formal and legally binding. Disputes over precedents can become as significant as the main issue. They are also contractual in nature and relate to gaining legal ground.

Other negotiation styles

1. Accommodating: Individuals who enjoy solving the other partys problems and preserving personal relationships. Accommodators are sensitive to the emotional states, body language, and verbal signals of the other parties. They can, however, feel taken advantage of in situations when the other party places little emphasis on the relationship. 2. Avoiding: Individuals who do not like to negotiate and dont do it unless warranted. When negotiating, avoiders tend to defer and dodge the confrontational aspects of negotiating; however, they may be perceived as tactful and diplomatic. 3. Collaborating: Individuals who enjoy negotiations that involve solving tough problems in creative ways. Collaborators are good at using negotiations to understand the concerns and interests of the other parties. They can, however, create problems by transforming simple situations into more complex ones. 4. Competing: Individuals who enjoy negotiations because they present an opportunity to win something. Competitive negotiators have strong instincts for all aspects of negotiating and are often strategic. Because their style can dominate the bargaining process, competitive negotiators often neglect the importance of relationships. 5. Compromising: Individuals who are eager to close the deal by doing what is fair and equal for all parties involved in the negotiation. Compromisers can be useful when there is limited time to complete the deal; however, compromisers often unnecessarily rush the negotiation process and make concessions too quickly.

Group behaviour
Group behavior in sociology refers to the situations where people interact in large or small groups. The field of group dynamics deals with small groups that may reach consensus and act in a coordinated way. Groups of a large number of people in a given area may act simultaneously to achieve a goal that differs from what individuals would do acting alone (herd behaviour). A large group (a crowd or mob) is likely to show examples of group behaviour when people gathered in a given place and time act in a similar wayfor example, joining a protest or march, participating in a fight or acting patriotically. Group behaviour differs from mass actions which refers to people behaving similarly on a more global scale (for example, shoppers in different shops), while group behaviour refers usually to people in one place. If the group behaviour is coordinated, then it is called group action. Swarm intelligence is a special case of group behaviour, referring to the interaction between a group of agents in order to fulfil a given task. This type of group dynamics has received much attention by the soft computing community in the form of the particle swarm optimization family of algorithms.

Why do people join groups

1. Companionship groups provide members to simply be in the company of other people. 2. Survival and security From a historic or evolutionary perspective our ancestors would partake in group experiences for hunting and defense.

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3. Affiliation and status membership into various groups can provide individuals with certain socials status or security. 4. Power and control with group membership comes the opportunity for leadership roles; individuals who feel they need to exert their power and opinions over others can have such experiences within group settings. 5. Achievement groups have the capability to achieve more than individuals acting alone.

Defining characteristics of groups

1. Interdependence: In order for an individual of the collective to accomplish their part in the assigned task they depend, to some degree, on the outputs of other members of the collective. 2. Social interaction: In order to accomplish the goal some form of verbal or nonverbal communication is required to take place amongst the members of the collective. 3. Perception of a group: All members of the collective must agree they are, in fact, part of a group. 4. Commonality of purpose: All the members of the collective come together to serve or attain a common goal.

Types of groups
1. Production groups consist of front line employees who produce some tangible output. Autonomous production groups are self-directed or self-managing while semi-autonomous production groups typically have a dedicated supervisor who oversees all operations. 2. Service groups consist of employees that work with customers on a repeated basis, such as airline teams, maintenance groups, sales groups, call centers, etc. 3. Management groups consist of an executive or senior manager along with managers that report directly to him/her. Management groups are often able to organize themselves towards goals such as policy making, budgeting, staffing, and planning. 4. Project groups are generally cross-function groups of individuals brought together for the duration of a specific, time-limited project. Project groups are usually disbanded once the project is complete. 5. Action and performing groups are groups that typically consist of expert specialists who conduct complex, timelimited performance events. Examples include musical bands, military crews, surgery teams, rescue units or professional music groups. 6. Advisory groups consist of employees that work outside of, but parallel with, production processes. Examples include quality circles, selection committees, or other advisory groups pulled together to make recommendations to an organization.

Collaboration
Collaboration in business can be found both inter- and intra-organization and ranges from the simplicity of a partnership and crowd funding to the complexity of a multinational corporation. Collaboration between team members allows for better communication within the organization and throughout the supply chains. It is a way of coordinating different ideas from numerous people to generate a wide variety of knowledge. The recent improvement in technology has provided the world with high speed internet, wireless connection, and web-based collaboration tools like blogs, and wikis, and has as such created a "mass collaboration." People from all over the world are efficiently able to communicate and share ideas through the internet, or even conferences, without any geographical barriers. Collaboration is working together to achieve a goal, but in its negative sense it is working as a traitor. It is a recursive process where two or more people or organizations work together to realize shared goals for example, an intriguing endeavor that is creative in natureby sharing knowledge, learning and building consensus. Most collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be social within a decentralized and egalitarian group. In particular, teams that work collaboratively can obtain greater resources, recognition and reward when facing competition for finite resources.

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The complex intergoup relationship and group dynamics leads to conflicting situations which depends upon the degree of goal compatibility and importance of the interaction to goal attainment. Goal compatibility is the extent to which the goals of more than one person or group can be achieved at the same time. In other words, the goals are compatible if one group can meet its goals without preventing the other from meeting its goals.

It is clear from the diagram that avoidance occurs when the interacting parties goals are incompatible and the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the attainment of the goals. Accommodation occurs when the parties goals compatible but the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the goals attainment competition occurs when the goals are incompatible and the interaction between groups are importance to meeting goals. Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and communication. These methods specifically aim to increase the success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem solving. Forms, rubrics, charts and graphs are useful in these situations to objectively document personal traits with the goal of improving performance in current and future projects.

Corporate governance
Corporate governance is a term that refers broadly to the rules, processes, or laws by which businesses are operated, regulated, and controlled. The term can refer to internal factors defined by the officers, stockholders or constitution of a corporation, as well as to external forces such as consumer groups, clients, and government regulations.In contemporary business corporations, the main external stakeholder groups are shareholders, debtholders, trade creditors, suppliers, customers and communities affected by the corporation's activities. Internal stakeholders are the board of directors, executives, and other employees. Corporate governance is a multi-faceted subject. An important theme of corporate governance is the nature and extent of accountability of particular individuals in the organization, and mechanisms that try to reduce or eliminate the principal-agent problem. A related but separate thread of discussions focuses on the impact of a corporate governance system on economic efficiency, with a strong emphasis on shareholders' welfare; this aspect is particularly present in contemporary public debates and developments in regulatory policy. A well-defined and enforced corporate governance provides a structure that, at least in theory, works for the benefit of everyone concerned by ensuring that the enterprise adheres to accepted ethical standards and best practices as well as to formal laws. To that end, organizations have been formed at the regional, national, and global levels.In recent years, corporate governance has received increased attention because of high-profile scandals involving abuse of corporate power and, in some cases, alleged criminal activity by corporate officers. An integral part of an effective corporate governance regime includes provisions for civil or criminal prosecution of individuals who conduct unethical or illegal acts in the name of the enterprise.

Popularly espoused principles of corporate governance

1. Rights and equitable treatment of shareholders: Organizations can help shareholders exercise their rights by effectively communicating information that is understandable and accessible and encouraging shareholders to participate in general meetings.

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2. Interests of other stakeholders: Organizations should recognize that they have legal and other obligations to all legitimate stakeholders. 3. Role and responsibilities of the board: The board needs a range of skills and understanding to be able to deal with various business issues and have the ability to review and challenge management performance. 4. Integrity and ethical behavior: Organizations should develop a code of conduct for their directors and executives that promotes ethical and responsible decision making. It is important to understand, though, that reliance by a company on the integrity and ethics of individuals is bound to eventual failure. 5. Disclosure and transparency: Organizations should clarify and make publicly known the roles and responsibilities of board and management to provide shareholders with a level of accountability. They should also implement procedures to independently verify and safeguard the integrity of the company's financial reporting. Disclosure of material matters concerning the organization should be timely and balanced to ensure that all investors have access to clear, factual information.

Mechanisms and controls

1. Internal corporate governance controls Monitoring by the board of directors Internal control procedures and internal auditors Balance of power Remuneration 2. External corporate governance controls competition debt covenants government regulations managerial labour market media pressure takeovers demand for and assessment of performance information (especially financial statements)

Systemic problems of corporate governance

1. Demand for information: In order to influence the directors, the shareholders must combine with others to form a voting group which can pose a real threat of carrying resolutions or appointing directors at a general meeting. 2. Monitoring costs: A barrier to shareholders using good information is the cost of processing it, especially to a small shareholder. The traditional answer to this problem is the efficient market hypothesis , which suggests that the small shareholder will free ride on the judgments of larger professional investors. 3. Supply of accounting information: Financial accounts form a crucial link in enabling providers of finance to monitor directors. Imperfections in the financial reporting process will cause imperfections in the effectiveness of corporate governance. This should, ideally, be corrected by the working of the external auditing process.

Business ethics
Business ethics is the behavior that a business adheres to in its daily dealings with the world. The ethics of a particular business can be diverse. They apply not only to how the business interacts with the world at large, but also to their oneon-one dealings with a single customer.Many businesses have gained a bad reputation just by being in business. To some people, businesses are interested in making money, and that is the bottom line. It could be called capitalism in its purest form. Making money is not wrong in itself. It is the manner in which some businesses conduct themselves that brings up the question of ethical behavior. Good business ethics should be a part of every business. There are many factors to consider. When a company does business with another that is considered unethical, does this make the first company unethical by association? Some people would say yes, the first business has a responsibility and it is now a link in the chain of unethical businesses. Business ethics has both normative and descriptive dimensions. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. Academics attempting to understand business

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behavior employ descriptive methods. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the interaction of profitmaximizing behavior with non-economic concerns. Business ethics refer to the moral principles which should govern business activities Business ethics provide a code of conduct for the managers. The purpose of business ethics is to guide the managers and employees in performing their jobs. Ethics are concerned with what is right and what is wrong in human behaviour. They lay down norms of behaviour by the business. A few examples of ethics are: To charge fair prices from the customers To use fair weights for measurement of commodities. To pay taxes to the Government honestly. To earn reasonable Profits. To give fair treatment to the workers.

Scope of Corporate Ethics

1. Societal level: At this level, the ethical questions about the basic institutions in society are asked such as: Is capitalism a just system for allotting resources? Should the government intervene in business operations and, if yes, to what extent? Should we tolerate gross inequalities of wealth, status, and power? Such societal-level questions usually represent an ongoing debat among major competing institutions, including business. 2. Stockholders level: Stockholders in a business enterprise include employees, suppliers, customers, shareholders, creditors and the rest. Here we ask questions about how a company should deal with the external groups affected by its decisions, and how the stockholders should deal with the company. For example, should a company inform its customers about the potential dangers of its products? What obligations does the company have towards the other stockholders. How should the decisions on such matters be taken? All these questions deal with business policy and are the subject of managerial decisions. 3. Internal Policy Level: At this level, we ask questions about the nature of enterprise relations with its employees both mangers and workers. For instance, what kind of relations should be there between them? What rights should be employees have? What should be the mutual obligations of manages and workers? These questions, too, involve managerial decisions from the ethical viewpoint. So also, questions of motivation techniques, leadership, role, work rules, etc. are involved at this level. 4. Personal Level: At this level we ask questions concerning how individual persons should treat one another within the firm. Should we be honest with one another irrespective of the consequences? What should be our roles for satisfactory mutual relations? These questions deal with day-today issues of life in any enterprise.

Corporate Ethics and Stockholders

1. Customers: The customers of a business expect fair treatment. A business following social ethics will work in the interest of customers and will desist from undesirable practices such as hoarding, black marketing, adulteration etc. 2. Employees: The employees have their trade unions and can pressurise the business management to pursue those policies which are conductive to healthy industrial relations. It is unethical to deny the workers good working conditions, fair wages and other benefits of employment. 3. Industry: Business firms compete with each other for economic resources and for greater share of the market. Business ethics require them to follow fair trade practices resulting into healthy competition among the business units. 4. Managers: Business ethics serve as a clue to the business manager as to what type of response is expected in a given situation. He can adjust his actions accordingly and live harmoniously with various groups with whom the business has interaction. This will enhance the image of the business. 5. Society: Ethics are a part of the social environment of the country. If a business is careful about the ethical standards, the whole society is benefited.

Organisational Effectiveness and Changes GENDER ISSUES

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Management means the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims. Gender does neither mean 'women' nor 'feminine. Gender related issues are here to rock the world and its impacts are being felt in all organizations in terms of gender related biases, discrimination, sexual harassment, Organisational conflicts etc. These issues needs to be addressed properly otherwise can disturb the entire work culture smooth functioning of the organisation. Achieving gender equity needs restitution of employees towards gender differences through various workshops, lectures, conferences, role playing etc., so that these differences are perceived as strengths of organisation rather than an obstacle.

WORK AND GENDER - We cannot separate our social identify from our sex and gender. Gutex (1985) has identified
three significant influences of gender in the workplace. 1. Sex segregation of work: Most of the employed women in USA and elsewhere work in clinical work or less prestigious professions, and their work is less diverse than that of women 2. Differences in power, states and prestige: men typically hold jobs with more of these characteristics; 3. Work conditions wait person characteristics that emphasize the effect of gender: womens job usually have more pleasant working conditions and emphasize appearance more than mens.

THE CAUSES OF GENDER DIFFERENCES

1. As political and sociological reasons: Man being superior physically assigned itself the various role of decision making, supporting family and safeguarding it slowly emerged more powerful in every aspect and started dominating women and build a system more suited to its own interest and this has carried on since long. 2. As psychological reason: Chodorow, Horrigan; Kellov suggest that as children grow the male is able to objectify and control his environment, and to define himself as separate from the world around him. The female on the other hand defines herself in relation to world around her, or as part of a community, in a subjective environment. 3. Sex role behaviour has changed radically over the past few decades. Exposure of women as an outcome of education, media revolution and modernization of culture and society has remarkable changed perception of women about her from limiting herself to household chores to woman of substances, able to storm the world. This new outlook has created some conflict in society and organisation are also falling its victim. 4. As Economic Reason: Prior to industrial revolution, women in man societies enjoyed equal status performing as an equal economic entity performing valuable work in their homes and on their lands. Though the work of women was regregated by gender, but highly valued for its vital contribution to family. While women ran their home, bore children and worked in fields, their male counterparts would fann, hunt, trap animals and the like and thus dependent upon efforts of each other. But with the industrialization, it was largely men who moved into wage based economy.

CONFLICTS IN ORGANISATION AND ITS CAUSES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Communication Barriers between Women and Men Women as Weaker Sex Problem of Compatibility between business and family Sexual Harassment How to tackle the issue with professional resistance from both men and women in the organisation.

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MANAGING GENDER ISSUE

1. Building a Shared Vision - organisation must share their vision with every employee and their response and understanding of the vision must be taken onto consideration before putting vision onto action. 2. A Gender-Sensitive Working Environment - building an environment which is sensitive to the needs of all the members working in the organisation should be such that allow all persons to carry out their work. Satisfactorily and permit each members qualities to be recognized, encouraged and harnessed to the betterment of the organisation. 3. Achieving Gender Equality - Carry out employee surveys to obtain regular feedback from employees on policies to achieve gender equity and Implement gender awareness training programmes. 4. Ensuring gender sensitive and equitable recruitment and selection policy - Prepare gender-sensitive job descriptions and specifications. Ensure that all staff responsible for recruitment is committed to gender equity. 5. Equitable Remuneration - Adjust pay rates so that jobs of equal value to the organisation are paid equally 6. Performance Appraisal to be fair - Gender review of all management and procedural manuals, to ensure that gender biases in language and procedure are removed and gender issues are highlighted including those for performance appraisal and monitoring, to ensure that womens and mens different perceptions and priorities are reflected. 7. Helping women in ensuring balance in work and family life.

CROSS-CULTURAL DYNAMICS
Culture is the human made part of the environment. Collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another there is a diffuse range of elements involved in cultural programming. *language*economics *religion*politics*attitude*manners*customs* Nature of Friendship* Decisionmaking* Handling Emotions*Education*Status of Women*food e.tc WE SEE THEM AS WE ARE Perceptual thinking should be we dont see things the way they are... In essence, every aspect of management (planning, organizing, staffing, coordinating, and controlling), in one form or another, involves decision making. Decision making is thus the mangers most difficult task, and when managers cross National borders and cultures, the task becomes even more difficult. These are because people in different cultures view problems differently and apply unique decision-making processes. A decision or a decision-making process that works in one culture is often ineffective in another culture. Furthermore, different situations also require different decisionmaking styles Leadership and motivation are interrelated and interdependent. However the leadership style and the types of inducements to which individuals respond vary from one culture to another. Thus, the managerial behaviour that works welling one culture will not necessarily work welling another. For example, culturally, the French and the Swedish tend not to respond to the same leadership style.