II.

A SURVEY OF SANSKRIT KOSAS

There has been a long and ancient tradition to the curiosity to know
and to the systematic study of language in India. The aim of such studies,
though directed towards a common achievement, manifested into several
disciplines due to expansion of the extent of such studies. Thus, in order
to establish the sound system of the Vedas, Pratisakhyas were written
and on the same line the science of grammar was formulated to establish
the purity of words. Again for the interpretation of the meanings of
Vedic words lexica like the Nighantu were prepared. Later on, commetaries
like the Nirukta on such lexica came into existence. The grammar which
was born to protect the purity of vedic words extended to non-vedic period
also, i.e., the classical literature in Sanskrit. The lexica, the purpose
of which was to explain or amplify the meanings of vedic words, also
at a later stage, contained non-vedic words and came to be known as
kosas. The nature of the kosas is manifold dealing with different varieties
of subjects and their terminology varying from scientific or technical
terms down to terms of daily transactions.

Lexicon may be defined as a collection of words nighantu
1
. However,
according to Vogel
2
the commonest term for dictionary is kosa
3
, a short
form of abhidhanakosa "treasury of words" as met with, e.g., at Desinama-
malatika 1.3, Haravali 5, Kamasutra 1.3.16.54 and Kavyalankaravrtti 1.3.3
and 5. He also finds the synonym of kosa and nighantu as being current
in South India. Yadavaprakas'a in his Vaijayanti (1.3.6.31c) states that
nighantu is used in the sense of dictionary (namasastre nighanturna). Vogel


37
however assertains that "whether the word has ever been universally and
indiscriminately applicable to all lexica is doubtful", for, Sayana's statement
that
ekarthavacinam paryayasabdanam samgho yatra
prayenopadisyate tatra nighantusabdah prasiddhah|
tadrsesv amarasimha-vaijayanti-halayudhadisu dasa
nighantava iti vyavaharat|

it is confined to synonymic ones. Hence, mere collection of words denoting
synonymity or homonymity may not be accepted as nighantu in the light
of Sayana's above statement. A specific type of compilation of synonymic
word-list, i.e., either dealing with a particular grammatical category like
verbs, or indeclinables, etc., for purposes of imparting knowledge, as
a teaching aid may suitably be called a niqhantu. Kosa may therefore be
taken as a collection (lit. 'treasure') of words arranged in different ways,
whether synonymic or homonymic. Thus, one may find that several nomen-
clatures are given by the ancient lexicographers to their works keeping
in view the different purposes of their lexica, as differentiated from the
nature of nighantu. "The kosas were meant primarily to help poets in
composition, being an integral part of their education"
5
.

The striking characteristics of the Indian lexica are multifarious.
Not all the lexica are strictly classified into synonyms or homonyms.
Obviously most of the lexica represent synonyms with a section on homonyms
appended to it. However, out of 106 lexicons taken into consideration,
six are purely synonymic ones, 20 homonymous, 12 on particular subjects
like astronomy, astrology, medicine, mathematics, etc., 40 having both
synonyms and homonyms, three etymological and 25 others dealing with
grammatical, syllabic, etc.


38
2.1. The Domains
The semantic domains covered by these lexica are also of varied
types like profession, occupation, arts, crafts and so on. The semantic
domains of some of these lexica included physical objects like earth,
air, water, clouds, day, dawn, night, etc., human body parts, wealth, pro-
perty, anger, battle, heaviness, lightness and abstract qualities and so
on as may be found in the Nighantu.

The domains of plants and herbs, vegetable and mineral substances,
their medicinal properties and values are the major contents of Dhanvantari-
nighantu, Paryayaratnamala, Paryayamuktavali, Sabdacandrika, Sabdapradipa,
Nighantusega, Rajanighantu and Sivakosa. The domains of approved recipes,
acute and chronic diseases, medicinal properties of articles of diet, fruits
and vegetables, hygiene, animals, mountains, etc., are treated in the lexica
Hrdayadipika, Dravyagunasatasloki, Pathyapathyavibodhanighantu and
Kalpadrukosa. Different parts of human body, things related to woman
as well as attributes of women, inanimate objects, celestial objects are
dealt with in Sighrabodhininamamala
6
. Weapons and arms are treated in
Sastradhikara section of Sabdarnava of Sahajakirti. The domains covering
Indian astronomy, astrology, names of days, solar and lunar systems, the
constellations, zodiacs and the quarters are found in Parasiprakasa of
Vedangaraya. The celestial beings, the netherworld, earth, water, fire, air,
ether, the human beings, the rsis and caturvarnas are treated in Pancatattva-
prakasa of Venidatta and the Kalpadrukosa of Kesava. The Rajavyavahara
kosa of Raghunatha presents technical terms used in administration and
related areas, thus being a very early attempt towards language planning.
It also contains historical informations.


39
2.2. The Divisions
The lexica are divided into chapters or sections with specific nomencla-
tures. The word kanda (lit. 'branch') is frequently met with the division
or classification in the Nighantu, Amarakosa, Abhidhanaratnamata of
Halayudha, Vaijayantikosa of Yadavaprakasa, Sabdapradipa of Suresvara,
Trikandasesa of Purusottamadeva, Abhidhanacintamani, Anekarthasamgraha
and the Nighantusesa, all by Hemachandra, Nanartharnavasamksepa of
Kesava, Ekaksararatnamala of Madhava, Anekarthatilaka of Mahipa, Sabda-
ratnakara of Vamanabhattabana, Nanartharatnamala of Irugapa Dandadhinatha,
Abhidhanatantra of Jatadhara, Pancavargasatigrahanamamala and Unadi-
namamala of Subhasila, Saradiyakhyanamamala of Harsakirti, Sabdaratnakara
of Sadhusundaragani, Kosakalpataru of Visvanatha and Vaidikakosa of
Bhaskararaya.

The word varqa is used in Sabdacandrika of Cakrapanidatta, Hrdaya-
dipika of Vopadeva, Dravyagunasatasloki of Trimallabhatta, Rajanighantu of
Narahari, Bhuijprayoga of Padmanabhadatta, Abhidhanatantra of Jatadhara,
Srautasabdasamuccaya of Somesvara, Rupamanjarinamamala of Rupacandra,
Saradiyakhyanamamala of Harsakirti, Pathyapathyavibodhanighantu of Kaiya-
deva, Sabdaratnavali of Mathuresa, Rajavyavaharakosa of Raghunatha, Kosa-
kalpataru of Visvanatha
7
, Vaidikakosa of Bhaskararaya and Desinamamala
of Hemacandra.

The word nirupana is used for classification in Pramananamamala of
Dhananjaya, and Yavanaparipatianukrama of Dalapatiraya
8
.

The word adhyaya (lit. chapter) is used for classification in Nanartharn-
avasanksepa of Kesava
9
, Avyayasangrahanighantu of Sakalyamallabhatta
10
,
Sabdaratnakara of Vamanabhattabana
11
.

40
The word skandha is used for classification in Kalpadrukosa of Kesava
12
.
This work also uses the word prakanda for classification like desaprakanda,
naradiprakanda, etc.

The word adhikara is also used for the classification as may be seen
from Anekarthadhvanimanjari where sections bear names such as slokadhi-
kara, ardhaslokadhikara, padadhikara, and so on. The Sabdacandrika of
Vamanabhattabana has used svargadilokapaladhikara, antariksadhikara,
bhumyadhikara, etc., while Sabdarnava of Sahajakirti uses jainadhikara,
dyuradhikara, narakadhikara, and so on for classifications. The Anekartha-
namamala of Nandadasa also uses adhikara to the sections.

The word quccha (lit. 'bunch') is used for classification in Kosavatamsa
of Raghava Appa Khandekara, a later work.

2.3. The Arrangement
Most of the lexica are of metrical compositions, usually slokas but
also Aryas, obviously to facilitate learning by heart and memorizing. While
doing so some of the poet/lexiciographers have also shown their poetic
skill as may be seen from Sabdacandrika of Vamanabhattabana, Padacandrika
of Mayura, Dvirupakosa of Sriharsa and others. However, there are lexica
in prose forms like the Varnadesana of Purusottamadeva and Kosakalpataru
of Visvanatha where, in the latter, certain portions are in prose form. There
are other lexica where the presentation is in full-verses, half-verses and
quarter-verses. Such an arrangement may be found in the Anekartha-
samuccaya of Sasvata, Anekarthadhvanimanjari of Mahaksapanaka, Par-
yayaratnamala of Madhavakara, Haravali of Purusottamadeva and Anekartha-
kosa of Ajayapala. When it comes to alphabetical arrangement, some of
the lexica are arranged according to the number of syllables in a word,


41
as may be seen from the Ekaksarakosa of Purusottamadeva, Visvaprakasa of
Mahesvara, Mankhakosa of Mankha, Abhidhanacintamani of Hemacandra,
Dharanikosa of Dharanidhara, Nanarthasabdakosa of Medinikara, Avyaya-
sangrahanighantu of Sakalyamallabhatta, Anekarthatilaka of Mahipa, Sivakosa
of Sivadatta and Sabdaratnasamanvaya of Sahaji, Kavidarpananighantu of
Ramabhadradiksita, Sabdamuktamaharnava of Taramani and Desinamamala of
Hemacandra. Some other lexica have an arrangement according to initial
syllable as found in the Anekarthakosa or Nanarthasamgraha of Ajayapala
and the Anekarthasarhgraha of Hemacandra. The arrangement is also
according to final syllables as may be seen in the Dharanikosa of Dharni-
dhara, Nanarthasabdakosa of Medinikara, Nanartharatnamala of Irugappa
Dandadhinatha, Sabdaratnasamanvaya of Sahaji and Kavidarpananighantu of
Ramabhadradiksita. The Visvaprakasa of Mahesvara and Mankhakosa of
Maiikha are arranged according to final consonants.

Single syllable arrangement may be found in the Ekaksararatnamala of
Madhava, Ekaksararatnamala of Irugappa Dandadhinatha and Ekaksaranama-
malika of Sudhakalasa.

One of the special types of lexica aims at giving accurate spellings
of words. In this regard, Varnadesana and Dvirupakosa of Purusottamadeva,
Sabdabhedaprakasa of Mahesvara, Varnaprakasa of Karnapura and Dvirupa-
dhvanisangraha of Bharatasena are useful lexica.

Nirukta is the only lexicon that gives derivation of words from original
roots of words, particularly Vedic. However, the etymological derivations
are given in several commentaries on the lexica. Mention may be made
here of the Amarakosodghatana, a commentary on Amarakosa or Nama-
linganusasana of Amarasimha, by Ksirasvamin, Vyakhyasudha, a commentary


42
on Amarakosa by Bhanujidiksita, Sabdabhedaprakasatika, a commentary on
Sabdabhedaprakasa of Jnanavimalagani and Anekarthasamgrahatika, a commen-
tary on Anekarthasarhgraha of Hemacandra by Mahendra.

A majority of the lexica deal with indeclinables and are given at
the end of a work. Anekarthakosa of Ajayapala gives the indeclinables
as a separate section. The Nanarthasabdakosa of Medinikara and Sabda-
ratnakara of Vamanabhattabana gives indeclinables at the end of the works,
while Avyayasamgrahanighantu of Sakalyamallabhatta deals with indeclin-
ables only.

Dvirupakosa of Sriharsa deals with two forms of words slightly different
form each other.

Lexica marking a development over the significance of the work
in standardizing or modernizing the terminology at later period attempted
the inclusion of words of common languages current in those days like
the Prakrit, Persian and so on. The Abhidhanacintamanitika of Deva-
sagaragani, Uktiratnakara of Sadhusundaragani and Desinamamala of Hema-
candra give Prakrit words with Sanskrit equivalents. The Desinamamala
is composed in Arya metre and gives meanings of Prakrit words in Prakrit.
The Parasiprakasa of Viharikrsnadasa gives Persian equivalents to Sanskrit
expressions, Yavanaparipatianukrama of Dalapatiraya gives Persian words
together with Sanskrit equivalents, Parasiprakasa of Vedangaraya gives
Persian and Arabic terms used in Indian astronomy and astrology and
Rajavyavaharakosa of Raghunatha gives Persian and Arabic terms with
Sanskrit equivalents. The Paiyalacchinamamala of Dhanapala gives Desi
words derived from Sanskrit.


43
Specimens of Royal communications and orders are included in the
Yavanaparipatianukrama of Dalapatiraya.

Lexicographers like Vyadi, Katya and Rabhasapala are known only
by their frequent references as authorities in many works on lexicography.
The works ascribed to them are not available to us. Some of the lexica
are known by their titles and authors only but are not available to us.
They are, for example, Amarakosamala, a commentary by Paramanandasarma
and Amarakosatika, also a commentary by Appayadiksita. There are manu-
scripts of lexica which are incomplete like Amarakosatika of Durlabha-
vallabha.

There are exhaustive commentaries
13
on the lexica, where the commen-
tators follow a specific school of grammar in the interpretation of the
structures of those lexica. Mention may be made of Padarthakaumudi, also
called Amarakosapanjika, a commentary on Amarakosa by Narayana-
cakravarti, who has followed the Kapala school of grammar
14
. While
deriving certain words, the Mugdhabodhini ascribed to Bharatasena
15
, the
Vopadeva's system of grammar is followed in giving etymologies of words.
Bhanujidiksita, a commentator on Amarakosa, in his Vyakhyasudha follows
the Panini school of grammar in giving etymological derivation of words.
Sarasundari is one more commentary on the Amarakosa where the commen-
tator Mathuresa Vidyalarhkara follows the Supadma school of grammar.
Narayanavidyavinoda, another commentator on the Amarakosa, in his
Sabdarthasamdipika has followed the Jaumara school of grammar founded
by Kramadis'vara.

The ancient lexica and the commentaries thereon bear one title for
identification of the work. However, a majority of them also bear


44
supplementary titles ranging from one to five or even more. Some of
such lexica and commentaries on lexica are as follows.

2.4. Types of Kosas
2.4.1. Supplemented by One Title
Dhanvantarinighantu has Dravyavalinighantu for the second title.
Anekarthasamuccaya of Sas'vata has Sasvatakosa for its second name.
Anekarthadhvanimanjari is also called Anekartha. Varnadesana of Puru-
sottamadeva has Desana for its second name. Namamala of Dhananjaya is
also known as Pramananamamala. Anekarthakosa of Ajayapala has Nanartha-
sangraha for a second name. Mankhakosa of Mankha is also known as
Anekarthakosa. Anekarthasara is another title for Dharanikosa of Dharani-
dhara. Nanarathasabdakosa of Medinikara is called after the author as
Medinikosa. Anekarthatilaka of Mahipa has Nanarthatilaka for its second
title. Dravyagunasatasloki of Trimallabhatta is also known as Pathyapathya-
nighantu. Madanavinodanighantu of Madanapala is shortened as Madanavinoda.
Nanarthadhvanimanijari is the second title for Anekarthadhvanimanjari of
Gadasimha. Saradiyakhyanamamala of Harsakirti is also called Saradiyabhi-
dhanamala. Sabdarnava of Sahajakirti also bears the title Siddhasabdarnava.
Sabdaratnakara of Sadhusundaragani is also known as Sabdaprabhedanama-
mala. Yavanaparipatianukrama of Dalapatiraya and Desinamamala of
Hemacandra are supplemented for the second titles Patraprasasti and
Rayanavali respectively.

As for the commentaries, Nighantutika of Devarajayajavan has Nighantu-
nirvacana for its second title. Padarthakaumudi of Narayanacakravartin
has Amarakosapanjika for the second name. Amarakosapadavrtti of Liiiga-
bhatta is called after the commentator as Litigabhattiya. Abhidhana-


45
cintamanitika of Hemacandra is also known as Namasaroddhara. Deva-
sagaraganis Abhidhanacintamanitika is also called Vyutpattiratnakara
and Mahendra's Anekarthasamgrahatika has Anekarthakairavakarakaumudi
for the second name. Dravyagunasataslokitika of Krisnadatta is also known
as Dravyapradipika.

2.4.2. Supplemented by Two Titles

Trikandasesa of Purusottamadeva has two supplementary titles, viz.,
Amarasesa and Amaraviveka. Rajavyavaharakosa of Raghunatha is supple-
mented by Rajakosa and Rajakosanighantu, while Rajanighantu of Narahari
has Abhidhanacudamani and Nighanturaja for the second and third titles.
Srautasabdasamuccaya of Somesvara is supplemented by Srautabodhasamuccaya
and Srautasabdarthanighantu. Abhidhanaratna and Linganusasana are the
two supplementary titles for Abhidhanatantra of Jatadhara.

2.4.3. Supplemented by Five Titles
Niruktabhasya of Skandasvamin and Mahesvara has five sub-titles, viz.,
Niruktabhasyatika, Niruktavrtti, Niruktatika, Vivaranasamuccaya and Nirukta-
vivaranasamuccaya.

2.5. Lexicons of Homonyms

Anekarthasamuccaya is also popularly known as Sasvatakosa, named
after the compiler Sasvata (6th C.A.D.). This is an incomplete lexicon.
Though the words are arranged in full, half and guarter verses, they are
neither in alphabetical order nor according to the number of syllables
as is generally found in many lexicons. Hence the reference value of
this lexicon is comparatively less. The work is divided into six sections,
the last two dealing with the indeclinables ('athavyaya nibadhyante slokar-
dhena savistaram')- Sas'vata appears to have imitated Amara and borrowed


46
verses and half-verses from the 'nanarthavarga' of Amarakosa. However
he has been quoted by Ksirasvamin and others of the 12th C.A.D.

Anekarthadhvanimanjari is a homonymous dictionary having three
chapters. There are full, half and quarter verses devoted to the meanings
of words in the lexicon. The lexicon is authored by Mahaksapanaka (earlier
than 925 A.D.). Originally, the work appears to have three parts, viz.,
slokadhikara, ardhaslokadhikara and padadhikara. Some manuscripts add
one more part to these, viz., ekaksaradhikara. The lexicon also bears
different names in different manuscripts like Anekarthadhavanimanjari,
Anekarthamanjari, Anekarthapadamanjari and Kavisanjivaninighantu.

Ekaksarakosa contains words having single syllable, with different
meanings attached to it. For example may be cited the meanings attached
to the first four letters of Devanagari alphabet as follows:
a - vasudeva, a - pitambara, i - kama and i -laksmi.
Aufrecht informs
16
that this is the fifth lexicon written by Purusottamadeva
who flourished between the 11th and the 13th C.A.D.

Visvaprakasa is a dictionary of homonyms arranged according to the
final consonants. Based on the number of syllables the words are further
classified into sub-groups, like kaikam, kadvikam, katrikam and so on.
However there is no alphabetical order of arrangement. Hence ready refe-
rence to words is difficult. Mahesvara of the 12th C.A.D. is the author
of this lexicon which has been quoted by Sarvananda, Hemacandra, Raya-
mukuta and others, which testifies to the popularity of the lexicon. However
Medinlkara, a later lexicographer, has criticised the lexicon as 'faulty'.


47
Anekarthakosa is a small lexicon also known generally as Nanartha-
sangraha. The author of this lexicon is Ajayapala who lived earlier than
the 12th C.A.D. There are about 1730 words in this lexicon, arranged
according to the initial letters irrespective of the number of syllables.
The lexicon gives various meanings of single words. Most of the words
treated in this lexicon can be found in the Sasvatakosa. The division
of sections is based on the extent of meanings in full-verses, half-verses
and so on. The indeclinables appear at the end of each section. The
letter ksa_ is treated as a distinct one as in the case of Dharanikosa, thereby
underlying the conjunct nature of the consonant.

Mankhakosa is also known as Anekarthakosa written by Mankha or
Maiikhaka of the 12th C.A.D. This dictionary consists of about 1007 verses.
The words are arranged in alphabetical order of the final consonants. They
are further arranged on the basis of the number of syllables. Mankhakosa
also regards the letter ksa as a distinct one. The words ending with ha are
followed by these ending with ksa. The indeclinables, are given at the end.
The lexicon does not have half or quarter verses, nor division into sections
or vargas as may be seen in some other kosas. According to the author,
earlier lexicographers like Bhaguri, Halayudha, Katya, Durga, Sasvata
and Amara have been consulted in preparing the lexicon. He quotes from
literary works like Raghuvamsa for illustrating the use of words treated
in the lexicon.

Anekarthasangraha - this dictionary has about 1829 verses authored
by Hemacandra. There are six kandas or sections, viz., ekasvarakanda,
dvisvarakanda, trisvarakanda, catuhsvarakanda, pancasvarakanda, and
satsvarakanda. A supplementary section on indeclinables is added to these


48
48
kandas. The arrangement is in alphabetical order according to the initial
letters
17
. The genders have not been mentioned. The author says that
the genders have been treated in another work of his called Linganusasana
18
.

Anekarthasahgrahatika is a commentary by Mahendra of the 12th C.A.D.
on the lexicon Anekarthasangraha of Hemacandra. The commentary is
also called Anekarthakairavakarakaumudi. This gives the etymology of
the words from Hemacandra's grammatical works and is therefore deemed
as an important work in ancient Indian lexicography. The commentary also
refers to classification of words such as substantives, adjectives and their
genders. The commentator quotes from various sources in support of
the meanings. Visvaprakasa, Sasvata, Rabhasa, Amara, Maiikha, Durga,
Vyadi, Dhanapala, Bhaguri, Vacaspati, Yadavaprakasa and the Dhanvantari-
nighantu are cited in the work.

Dharanikosa of Dharanidhara (earlier than the 12th C.A.D.), is arranged
after the final letters of the words and also the number of syllables in
a word, as found in Medinikosa. The title of this lexicon is Anekarthasara
as recorded by the author. The work is based on the works of earlier
writers (-purvacaryabhidhanebhyah ...).

Nanartharnavasanksepa is one of the major lexicons of homonyms
written by Kesava who lived somewhere in the 12th or 13th C.A.D. The
lexicon contains about 5800 verses arranged in six kandas. The arrangement
is according to the number of syllables in a word. The kandas are further
divided into sections depending on the genders of the words, viz., stri-
lingadhyaya, pumilingadhyaya, napumsakalingadhyaya, vacyalingadhyaya and
nanalingadhyaya. The arrangement is according to alphabetical order.


49
The lexicon also deals with vedic words, not generally dealt in most of
the non-vedic lexicons. Authorities like Vaijayanti, Medini, Sakatayana
and others have been quoted in the text itself.

Nanarthasabdakosa is also known as Medinikosa written by Medinikara
(13th C.A.D.). In this lexicon the arrangement of the words is according
to the final letter and also the number of syllables in each word. As
in some other lexicons, the indeclinables are given at the end of the lexicon.
Later lexicographers and commentators have quoted this lexicon in their
works, which may testify to the merit of the lexicon. The author quotes
several authorities. However there are divergent opinions as to its merit.
While Aufrecht condemns the lexicon as faulty and records
19
that this
lexicon is nothing but a reproduction of Visvaprakasa, Sesagiri Sastri
20

observes that of all the works of the kind Nanarthasabdakosa is the best.

Anekarthatilaka is also called Nanarthatilaka compiled by Mahipa
(before 1434 A.D.). The lexicon has four kandas, each kanda having
45,362,290 and 213 verses respectively. The division of the kandas is
based on the number of syllables of words. The first kanda has words
having single syllable and therefore termed ekaksarakanda. The second is
dvyaksarakanda, the third is tryaksarakanda. The sankirnakanda deals with
miscellaneous words having four and rarely five syllables. The arrangement
of the words is generally in alphabetical order.

Nanartharatnamala is a lexicon ascribed to Irugappa Dandadhinatha who
belonged to latter half of the 14th C.A.D. There are six kandas in this
lexicon, viz., ekaksarakanda, dvyaksarakanda, tryaksarakanda, caturaksara-
kanda, sarhkirnakanda and avyayakanda . The lexicon has words of multiple
meanings arranged according to the number of syllables in each word


50
and also the final letters such as ending in ka, kha, ga, etc.

Anekarthadhvanimanjari is a lexicon giving different meanings of words.
The lexicon is written by Gadasimha (around 1431 A.D.). The author
states that his lexicon is based on Amara, Rudra, Gangadhara, Dharanikosa,
and Ratnakosa. He also names his lexicon as Nanarthadhvanimanjari
22
.

Srautasabdasamuccaya is a lexicon relating to vedic literature,
23
written by Somesvara who lived before 1550 A.D. The work is also called
Srautabodhasamuccaya and Srautasabdarthaniqhantu. The lexicon is divided
into sixteen sections called vargas, viz., varisthavarga, ranjanadivarga,
lokadivarga, amnayadivarga, urjadivarga, sayadivarga, akrtisamjnakaravarga,
kadivarga, cadivarga, tadivarga, tadivarga, padivarga, adbhutavarga, yadi-
varga, sadivarga and kamadivarga. According to the author the work is
a result of his consultation of various lexicons
24
.

Rupamanjarinamamala is a lexicon written by Rupacandra or Rupa-
narayana (16th C.A.D.). The lexicon has only 120 verses divided into nine
vargas, viz., svargavarga, vyomavarga, bhumivarga, manusyavarga, paksi-
varga, catuspadadivarga, dhatuvarga, patalavarga and samanyavarga. One
more section called anekarthavarga on homonymous words is given at
the end.

Sabdaratnasamanvaya is a lxicon arranged almost like the Medinikosa,
where the arrangement is according to alphabetical order of the final
syllables, like ending in ka, kha, ga, etc. These words are further grouped
according to the number of syllables in each word. The lexicon is authored
by Sahaji of Tanjore (1684-1712 A.D.).

Kavidarpananighantu is a dictionary of homonyms authored by Rama or


51
Ramabhadradiksita (about the 18th C.A.D.). The arrangement of words
is in alphabetical order of the final letter of a word and also according
to the number of syllables in each word. The genders are generally not
mentioned. The author states that his dictionary is based on his consultation
with other lexical works.

Desinamamala is a lexicon of desi words. It is authored by Hemacandra,
who also gives another name to the lexicon as Rayanavali
25
. The lexicon
deals with Prakrit words giving the equivalents in Prakrit. There are
eight sections in this lexicon called vargas. They are: words beginning
with gutterals, words beginning with palatals, words beginning with linguals,
words beginning with dentals, words beginning with labials, words beginning
with liquids (ra and Ia) and words beginning with sa and ha
26
. There are
about 4000 Prakrit words with their Prakrit equivalents. Each section has a
supplementary section giving words having more than one meaning. The
arrangement of the lexicon is according to the meanings and also the
number of syllables in each word. Hemacandra has consulted many lexico-
graphers like Devaraja, Dhanapala and others and also works like abhiman-
acihna and avantisundari, in compiling the lexicon. The lexicon is an
important work towards systematic study on not only Prakrit languages
but also a valuable guide to the vocabulary of new Indo-Aryan languages.

2.5.1. Lexicons of Synonyms
Namamala
27
: This is said to have been written by Dhananjaya (about
1123 A.D.). It contains 205 verses pertaining to synonyms and about 50
verses of homonyms. There are a number of reconsions of this work,
of which Pramananamamala is one, which has three chapters, viz., sabda-
sankirtiarupana, sabdasankirnaprarupana and sabdavistirnarupana.


52
Sabdaratnakara : Vamanabhattabana (about 1400 A.D.) is the compiler
of this lexicon of synonyms. The work has three sections, called kandas.
The kandas have been further divided into different adhyayas, containing
around 1050 stanzas. The first kanda has nine adhyayas, viz., adidevadhyaya,
dikpaladhyaya, grahadhyaya, rsyadhyaya, meghadhyaya, sabdadhyaya, kala-
dhyaya, cittadhyaya and pataladhyaya. The second kanda has eight adhyayas,
viz., vasundaradhyaya, parvatadhyaya, vanadhyaya, catuspadadhyaya, sakunt-
adhyaya, puradhyaya, uktibhedadhyaya and natyadhyaya. The third kanda
has seven adhyayas, viz., manusyadhyaya, brahmadhyaya, ksatriyadhyaya,
vaisyadhyaya, visesyanighnadhyaya, sarhklrnadhyaya and uktasesadhyaya.
The last kanda treats with homonyms and indeclinables as well.

Sabdacandrika is a small lexicon ascribed to vamanabhattabana. It
has around 100 verses, divided into five sections called adhikaras, viz.,
svargadilokapaladhikara, antariksadhikara, bhumyadhikara, samudradhikara
and manusyadhikara
28
.

Saradiyakhyanamamala is a lexicon of synonyms divided into three
sections called kandas. Each kanda is further divided into vargas. The
first kanda has devavarga, vyomavarga, dharavarga; the second kanda
has arigavarga, sambhogadivarga, sangitavarga and panditavarga; the third
kanda has brahmavarga, ksatriyavarga, vitavarga, sudravarga and samkirna-
varga. The lexicon is also entitled Saradiyabhidhanamala, having 465
verses.

Sabdaratnavali, a synonymous lexicon, almost follows the Bhuriprayoga
in arrangement. The work is ascribed to Mathuresa (between 1600 and
1650 A.D.). The lexicon has fourteen sections called vargas, viz., svarga-
varga, patalavarga, bhumivarga, purvavarga, sailavarga, vanausadhivarga,


53
simhadivarga, manusyavarga, brahmavarga, ksatriyavarga, vaisyavarga,
sudravarga, visesavarnavarga and sarhkirnavarga.

Kalpadrukosa is one of the major lexicons in Sanskrit containing about
4000 verses divided into three main divisions called skandhas. The skandhas
are further divided into twentyseven sub-divisions
29
. The skandhas are:
bhumiskandha, bhuvahskandha and svargaskandha. The bhumiskandha has
seventeen sub-divisions called prakandas. They are desaprakanda, puhpra-
kanda, naradiprakanda, rsigotrabrahmaprakanda, ksatriyaprakanda, vaisyapra-
kanda, sudradiprakanda, vis'esyanighnaprakanda, sankirnakanda, vanausadhi-
prakanda, sarabhacdiprakanda, parvatadiprakanda, samudradiprakanda, pataladi-
prakanda, sarpadiprakanda, narakadyaprakanda, and jinaprakanda. The
bhuvahskandha has five prakandas, viz., sadharanaprakanda, bhusthadeva-
prakanda, nabhahsthadevaprakanda, kalaprakanda and natyaprakanda.
The svargaskandha has four divisions, suryadiskandha, brahmaprakanda,
avyayaprakanda and stryadilihgaprakanda.

Though the exhaustive divisions provide ample synonyms, the arrange-
ment does not seem to be systematic as it reguires little effort to find
a particular word from among the large stock of synonyms. An index
of words arranged alphabetically would ensure quick reference to reguired
word. The genders are indicated by abbreviations. The synonyms for
compound words are not given in original forms. The work is authored
by Kesava who lived in the 17th C.A.D. According to him the work is
based on the works of his predecessors
30
like Katya, Vacaspati, Vyadi,
Bhaguri, Amara and others.


54
2.5.2. Etymological Lexicons

Nirukta is a commentary on the Nighantu. It provides meanings for
the words occurring in the Nighantu and conveys the references to the
terms as they are used in the Vedic literature. Yaska who lived between
800 and 700 B.C., is the author of the Nirukta. He quotes vedic passages
and gives derivation of the words found in the Nighantu. The Nirukta is
not merely a commentary but also a good repository of some original
information in the form of discussion on etymology of words. He derives
all the words from original roots.

Niruktabhasya is a commentary on Yaskas Nirukta by Durga (earlier
than 14th C.A.D.), who is supposed to be the last commentator on the
Nirukta. The commentary is considered to be an important one. Durga
comments on each and every word dealt by Yaska, as if the work is a
total reproduction of Nirukta.

Niruktabhasya is another commentary on the Nirukta by Skandasvamin
and Mahesvara (between A.D. 1060-1350). It has several names like nirukta-
bhasyatika, niruktavrtti, niruktatika, vivaranasamuccaya, niruktavivarana-
samuccaya, niruktavivaranabhasya and niruktabhasyavivarana.

2.5.3. Subject Lexicons

Dhanvantarinighantu, a lexicon dealing with medical terms, may be
said to be the first dictionary of technical terms. Attributed to Dhanvantari
who lived before 500 A.D., the dictionary deals with the terminology in
respect of medical herbs and plants with their properties as may be useful
for curing various diseases. The work is also called Dravyavalinighantu.

Paryayaratnamala, a synonymous dictionary dealing with botanical


55
terms, mentions plants and herbs used by ancient physicians for medicinal
purposes. Authored by Mahdavakara of the 8th C.A.D., the dictionary is
not a pure medical dictionary, for the reason that non-medical terms
like parvata, jayanta, bhrtya, brahma, etc., are treated in the dictionary.
There is no systematic arrangement of words nor any particular division
into sections. The printed edition of Tarapad Chowdhary (Patna, 1946)
gives 1754 lines, arranged on the basis of classification into synonyms,
homonyms and mana or measures! Lines 13-1474 pertain to synonyms,
lines 1475-1641 to homonyms and lines 1642-1754 to mana or measures.
They are also further divided into full, half, quarter and half-quarter
stanzas. Homonyms are listed on the basis of the number of meanings
ascribed to each word, like the words having single additional meaning,
words having two meanings and words having more than two meanings.
Paryayaratnamala is frequently quoted in the works of later writers like
Sarvananda, Rayamukuta, Bhanujidiksita and others, which testifies to the
popularity of the dictionary in those days.

Paryayamuktavali is ascribed to Haricaranasena. This also gives medical
terminology compiled on the model of Paryayaratnamala of Madhavakara,.
from which Haricaranasena has frequently borrowed. There are twentythree
(23) sections called vargas in this dictionary.

Sabdacandrika gives a list of vegetable and mineral substances. Authored
by Cakrapanidatta (1060 C.A.D.), the dictionary also contains a section
on compounds both in medicine and dietetics. The dictionary is classified
into nine divisions called vargas. They are vrksadivarga, svarnadivarga,
ghrtadivarga, bhumyadivarga, manusyavarga, simhadivarga, madyadivarga,
pancaksyadivarga and triphaladivarga
31
.


56
Sabdapradipa is a dictionary of botanical terms ascribed to Suresvara
of the 11th C.A.D. This gives names of different plants and herbs, and their
medicinal properties. The work has two divisions, viz., svarakanda and
vyanjanakanda which deal with the names of plants beginning with con-
sonants. The work contributes towards knowledge of the history of plants
in India.

Hrdayadipika is a collection of recipes for treatment of acute and
chronic diseases. Authored by Vopadeva or Bopadeva of about the 13th
C.A.D., the dictionary also contains a glossary of technical terms related
to the area of medicine. The 176 verses in the dictionary are distributed
into eight vargas, viz., catuspadavarga, tripadavarga, dvipadavarga, ekapada-
varga, dvinamavarga, ekanamavarga, nanarthavarga and misrakavarga
32
.

Dravyagunasatasloki is a dictionary dealing with the medicinal properties
of articles of diet. Trimallabhatta (between 1383 and 1499 A.D.) is the
author of this work. The articles of diet have been classified into various
categories with their names. The work has 14 sections, viz., jalavarga,
dugdhavarga, dhanyavarga, mamsavarga, patrasakaphalasakakandasakavarga,
iksukhandadivarga, tailavarga, draksadivarga, sugradivarga, siddhannavarga,
madyavarga, abhangadivarga and tambuladivarga. The author has also
included the names of different fruits and vegetables in the work. The
lexicon is also called Pathyapathyanighantu.

Dravyagunasataslokitika is a commentary on Trimallabhatta's work
written by Krsnadatta who lived in about the end of the 17th C.A.D.
The commentary is also called Dravyapradipika where several authorities
have been quoted.


57
Madanavinodanighantu or Madanavinoda is a dictionary dealing with
drugs. King Madanapala (1375 A.D.) is the author of this dictionary.
This is one of the major vocabularies of medicine having 2250 verses
divided into 14 sections or vargas, viz., bhayadivarga, sugradivarga, karpura-
divarga, dhatuvarga, vanaspativarga, phalavarga, sakavarga, dravavarga,
madhuravarga, dhanyavarga, annavarga, mamsavarga, misrakavarga and
prasastivarga. The dictionary gives synonyms of drugs and their properties.

Rajanighantu is a medical lexicon ascribed to Narahari (later than
the 14th C.A.D.). The work is also called Abhidhanacudamani or Nighantu-
raja. Names of different varieties of herbs are given in the lexicon along
with their medicinal properties. The work is divided into 24 sections, viz.,
anupadivarga, bhumivarga, guducyadivarga, satavahadivarga, parpatadivarga,
pippalyadivarga, mulakadivarga, salmalyadivarga, prabhadradivarga, karavi-
tadivarga, amradivarga, candanadivarga, suvarnadivarga, paniyadivarga,
ksjradivarga, salyadivarga, mamsadivarga, manusyadivarga, simhadivarga,
rogadivarga, satvadivarga, misrakadivarga, ekarthadivarga and dvyarthadi-
varga. The last two sections deal with words with one meaning and words
with two meanings respectively. The author quotes several authorities
like Halayudha, Amara, Visvaprakasa, in addition to Caraka, Susruta and
Dhanvantari.

Pathyapathyavibodhanighantu of Kaiyadeva (earlier than 17th C.A.D.)
is a dictionary of terms relating to medicine and hygiene. A list of herbs,
plants, vegetables, articles of food, etc., is given in the dictionary along
with their medicinal properties, with a mention of substances suitable to
health. The lexicon is classified into eight sections, viz., ausadhivarga,
dhatuvarga, dhanyavarga, toyavarga, dravavarga, krtannavarga, mamsavarga


58
and dinacarya (vivaha) varga . There is also an additional section called
misrakavarga.

Sivakosa also deals with medical terms giving their homonyms. The
arrangement is according to the final syllable of the word and also on
the basis of the number of syllables in a word. Sivadatta (17th C.A.D.)
the author of the work, guotes a number of authorities like Sasvata, Amara,
Halayudha, and others.

2.5.4. Other Lexicons
Varnadesana is a treatise on the spelling of nouns with cognate con-
sonants like kha and ksa, ha and gha, ja and ;ya, etc. The lexicon gives
the MIA forms of the Sanskrit words. It indicates the phonological develop-
ment in the course of the history of the Indo-Aryan. The lexicon is in
prose emphasising the correctness of spelling. The author states that
"in experience people who take the word by the ear confuse kha with ksa
in words like khura and ksurapa, ha with gha in words like simha and
singhanaka, etc., owing to the similarity of the letters in characters like
Gauda. So to discuss them in the light of clean readings and explicit
statements in works like the dhatuparayana and commentaries on the
dhatus, etymological explanations, authoritative statements and slesas,
the varnadesana is being composed"
34


Dvirupakosa is a small lexicon having about 75 verses dealing with
words which are spelt in two different ways but are similar in sound. For
example, asadha and asadha, sasvara and sasvara, kusala and kusala, etc.
The lexicon is ascribed to Purusottamadeva.

Sabdabhedaprakasa is a dictionary of nouns ascribed to Mahesvara of


59
the 12th C.A.D. Nouns having identical meanings differ to some extent
in their orthography. The dictionary has four parts, viz., nirdesa, bakara-
bheda, usmabheda and lingabheda. The present work is a supplement to
the author's another work called Visvaprakasa.

Sabdabhedaprakasatika is a commentary on the Sabdabheaprakasa of
Mahesvara. The author of this commentary Jnanavimalagani (16th C.A.D.)
has attempted to give the derivation of each word occurring in the text,
along with its etymology wherever possible.

Dvirupakosa is a small lexicon dealing with words having two forms
slightly different from one another, in the syllables or gender
35
. Different
forms of words like amarsa and amarsa, ankurah and- ankurah, etc., have
been treated in the lexicon. It would be quite interesting to find if these
differences point to any regional variations. The lexicon is ascribed to
Sriharsa who flourished in the second half of the 12th C.A.D.

Avyayasangrahanighantu is a lexicon dealing with indeclinables (avyayas).
It has some 50 verses divided into four sections based on the number
of syllables in each word. The four sections are ekaksaradhyaya, dvyaksara-
dhyaya, tryaksaradhyaya and caturaksaradhyaya. The lexicon is authored
by Sakalyamallabhatta of the 14th C.A.D.

Ekaksararatnamala deals with the individual letters of the alphabet
and the meaning attached to each letter. The work is divided into three
sections, viz., svarakanda, dealing with vowels, vyanjanakanda, dealing with
consonants, such as ka, kha, ga, gha, etc., and the samyuktakanda, dealing
with conjunct consonants like ksma_, kva, etc. The lexicon is authored by
Madhava of the 14th C.A.D.


60
Ekaksararatnamala is a small lexicon dealing with monosyllabic words
in Sanskrit. The author of the lexicon is Irugappa Dandadhinatha.

Ekaksaranamamalika is a lexicon having about 50 verses ascribed
to Sduhakalasa of the 14th C.A.D. The lexicon gives various meanings
attached to monosyllables in Sanskrit, according to the letters of the
alphabet.

Varnaprakasa deals with the spelling of words. It gives words of
different spellings to ensure correct writing. The author of the lexicon is
Karnapura of the 16th C.A.D. He states that he has consulted the puranas,
yamakas, slesas, nineteen lexicons, dhatuvrttis and unadis
36
.

Pancavargasangrahanamamala is a small lexicon being almost an imita-
tion of Abhidhanacintamani of Hemacandra in so far as the division, style
and general form are concerned. The lexicon is ascribed to Subhasila
(between 1450 and 1500 A.D.). The work has six sections, viz., devadhideva-
sabdasangrahakanda, devasabdasarhgrahakanda, martyakanda, bhumikanda, narakakanda and
samanyakanda.

Unadinamamala is a collection of words having unadi suffixes presented
in metrical form. It has six sections or kandas. The author is Subhasila
(1450 - 1500 A.D.).

Parasiprakasa is a bilingual dictionary dealing with Sanskrit and Persian
words. It gives Persian equivalents to Sanskrit words. The author of
this dictionary, Viharikrsnadasa (between the 16th and the 17th C.A.D.)
states that he compiled the work under orders from Akbar
37
, to facilitate
a knowledge of Persian language.


61
Dvirupadhvanisangraha is a small lexicon with words having different
spellings. The lexicon is ascribed to Bharatasena, who is also one of the
commentators on the Amarakosa.

Sabdarnava is a lexicon divided into sections called adhikaras. The
work gives genders for all the terms dealt with. The nouns are divided
into seven categories, viz., masculine, non-masculine, feminine, non-feminine,
neuter, non-neuter, and nouns having three genders. Again the nouns
are further classified into three categories, viz., _rudha, yaugika and misra.
Sastradhikara is one of the classifications dealing with weapons, giving the
names of different arms and weapons used in those days. The lexicon
is authored by Sahajakirti of the 17th C.A.D.

Uktiratnakara contains Prakrit words with their Sanskrit equivalents.
The work is ascribed to Sadhusundaragani who lived somewhere between
1614 and 1618 A.D.

Sabdaratnakara has six sections called kandas, with special emphasis
on Jaina pantheon. The work is ascribed to Sadhusundaragani. It is also
known as Sabdaprabhodanamamala

Parasiprakasa is a bilingual dictionary giving Persian and Arabic terms
used in Indian astronomy and astrology. The names of sauramasa, candramasa
and names of days according to them, the names of zodiacs and quarters,
etc., are given in this work. The dictionary also gives equivalents of
Mohammedan dates to Hindu dates. The dictionary is ascribed to Vedanga-
raya of the 17th C.A.D.

Pancatattvaprakasa is a lexicon having 335 verses ascribed to Venidatta
of the 17th C.A.D. It contains the terms connected with prthvi (earth),


62
jala (water), tejas (fire), vayu (air) and akasa (ether). The work has six
sections and the terms are arranged according to respective categories.

Rajavyavaharakosa is a lexicon of Persian and Arabic terms with their
Sanskrit equivalents. The lexicon is divided into vargas, viz., rajavarga,
karyasthanavarga, bhogyavarga, sastravarga, caturangavarga, samantavarga,
durgavarga, lekhanavarga, janapadavarga and punyavarga. The introductory
part of other manuscripts gives an account of destruction of yavanas
and hails Sivaji as an incarnation of Siva. The purpose of this lexicon,
according to the author Raghunatha (17th C.A.D.), was to prevent foreign
words from being detrimental to the development of Sanskrit words
38
.

Unadinighantu is a small lexicon having about 700 verses ascribed to
Vehkatesvara of the 17th/18th C.A.D. It has five sections dealing with
all the terms coming under the unadisutras. The author says in the introduc-
tion that king Shahaji appointed him to compile the lexicon.

Yavanaparipatianukrama is also called Patraprasasti, being a small
lexicon dealing with the forms of royal letters and orders. It has seven
sections, viz., prasanganirupana, vyavaharapatranirupana, nanaprasastiniru-
pana, nidesapatranirupana, rajanitinirupana, abhidheyanirupana and sandesa-
patranirupana. This lexicon also contains a number of Persian words with
Sanskrit equivalents. The concluding section gives Sanskrit equivalents
to Mohammedan expressions relating to politics.

Sabdamuktamaharnava is a voluminous dictionary arranged in alphabeti-
cal order according to the number of syllables and also according to the
final letters of the words. There are five parts in the dictionary. The
India Office Catalogue (i, p.299) describes each part as follows:


63
The I Part (folios 214) contains to the end of , in addition to an index to this
portion on 16 leaves at the beginning.

The II Part (folios 513) contains to the end of , also with an index on 38 leaves.
The III Part (folios 575) contains to the end of ..
The IV Part (folios 645) contains to the end of .
The V Part (folios 850) contains to the end of .

The dictionary is authored by Taramani of 18th C.A.D.
Paiyalacchinamamala is a Prakrit lexicon ascribed to Dhanapala of
around 10th C.A.D. This lexicon gives desi words derived from Sanskrit
in addition to other words. The lexicon has 229 verses without any division
or classification like kanda or varqa. The verses are serially numbered
without any break.

2.5.5. Lexicons of Synonyms and Homonyms

Nighantu is the earliest lexicon generally ascribed to Sakalya
39
, contain-
ing a collection of vedic words arranged in several groups. Yaska gives
the derivation of the word nighantu as given by Upamanyu
40
. The lexicon
has five chapters. The first three comprise the nighantukakanda dealing
synonyms, the fourth is naigamakanda dealing with homonyms and the
fifth one is the daivatakanda, dealing with the names of deities. The
first chapter deals with physical objects like earth, air, water and natural
objects, like clouds, day, dawn, night, etc. The second chapter treats
of human beings, the parts of human body, such as arms, fingers, etc.,
as also objects and properties associated with human beings, like wealth,
prosperity, battle, etc. The third chapter deals with abstract qualities,
such as heaviness, lightness, etc.

Vyadi was a famous lexicographer quoted by Hemacandra and others
in their works. He flourished prior to the 5th C.A.D. No work of
Vyadi is traceable, and all information on his work is available only
from the quotations cited in the works of later lexicographers, like


64
Hemacandra, or in the commentaries of Rayamukuta and Mahesvara on
the Amarakosa. His lexicon was perhaps arranged in groups of synonyms
and homonyms, the major part devoted to the synonyms. The voluminous
nature of Vyadi's lexicon can be guessed from the lengthy quotations
found in Abhidhanacintamani of Hemacandra.

Katya is one of the ancient lexicographers quoted by Ksirasvamin in
his commentary on the Amarakosa. Hemacandra also quotes him in his
Abhidhanacintamanitika and Kesava in Kalpadrukosa. Rayamukuta and
Bhaguri also mention him in their commentaries on the Amarakosa. Though
Katya's lexicon is lost to us, the citations quoted from his lexicon which
is said to be entitled as namamala by the above lexicographers testifies
to the popularity of his lexicon in those days. It could be gathered from
those citations that Katya's work contained both synonyms and homonyms.
The arrangement seems to be same as that in Amarakosa in the sense
that the synonyms are not put together. He gives the meanings in the
form of paraphrases. This is one of the earliest attempts to provide mean-
ings in a monolingual dictionary.

Nighantutika also called Niqhantunirvacana, written by Devarajayajavan
of the 12th C.A.D. The commentator is supposed to have written the
work with a view to providing what was left out in Yaska's commentary.
He has consulted a number of manuscripts of the Nighantu before writing
his commentary. He quotes many writers in his work.

Amarakosa or Namalirtganusasana is on majority a synonymous dictionary
authored by Amarasimha of the 6th C.A.D. (or earlier). The dictionary is
divided into three sections called kandas and hence popularly known as


65
Trikanda. A major part of the lexicon deals with the synonyms and a
small section, viz., nanarthavarga is devoted to homonyms; where the
arrangement is according to the final consonants. The indeclinables are
treated in one section while the last section is devoted to general rules
for determining the genders. It is however difficult to trace a particular
word in the kosa as there is no index of words treated. It may also be
noticed that the genders of words are expressed by the inflexional endings.
At times the gender is indicated by labels like stri, pum, etc. Though
there have been many lexicons prior to it, the Amarakosa has been most
freguently referred to as an authority, in support of descriptions of words
used by them while commenting on any Sanskrit text. The Catalogus
Cataloqorum of Aufrecht mentions about forty commentaries on Amarakosa.
The author has consulted his predecessors in compiling the lexicon
as acknowledged by him in the introductory stanzas (cf. samahrtyanyatan-
trani ... etc., 1.1-2). Some of the commentaries on the Amarakosa may be
mentioned here. The Kamadhenu, supposed to be the earliest known com-
mentary on the Amarakosa by Subhuticandra (between 1062 and 1172 A.D.),
has been mentioned by Rayamukuta and others in their works.

The Amarakosodghatana is an earliest known and most popular commen-
tary on the Amarakosa by Ksirasvamin of the 11th A.D. The salient feature
of this work is that the commentator gives the etymology of the words
treated in the Amarakosa. A number of citations are given to support
his interpretations. The style is lucid and simple and the work has been
acclaimed as a work of outstanding merit.

The Tikasarvasva is another commentary on the Amarakosa by Sarva-
nanda of the 12th C.A.D. He has included a number of bhasa words current


66
at his time, thus enhancing the value of the work. Sarvananda hails from
Bengal and has included many proto-modern Bengali forms in the commen-
tary. He states that he took the help of ten earlier commentaries, without
mentioning their names (cf. dasatikant karotyamarakose ...).

Amarakosatika is also a commentary on the Amarakosa authored
by Trilocanadasa of about the 12th C.A.D.

Amarakosamala is yet another commentary on the Amarakosa ascribed
to Paramanandasarma who lived between 1350 and 1500A.D. The manuscript
of this commentary is not available.

Padacandrika is one of the commentaries on the Amarakosa. The
commentator is Brhaspati, popularly known as Rayamukuta, who lived
in the 15th C.A.D. He has summarized sixteen earlier commentaries
on the Amarakosa and presented an exhaustive work which is regarded
as a great authority by later writers (cf. iyam sodasatikarthamadaya nir-
mita ...). It is considered to be one of the most important commentaries on
the Amarakosa.

The Amarakosatika, also a commentary on the Amarakosa, ascribed
to Durlabhavallabha who lived later than the 13th C.A.D. This is an in-
complete manuscript and has been discontinued after the Brahmavarga.
Available fragments of the manuscript show that the commentary is exhaus-
tive with a number of quotations included.

Amarakosatika is one more commentary on the Amarakosa ascribed
to Appayadiksita of about the 17th C.A.D. The manuscript of the commen-
tary is not available.


67
Padarthakaumudi is a commentary on the Amarakosa ascribed to
Narayanacakravartin of the 17th C.A.D. The commentary, also called
Amarkosapanjika, has been referred to by later writers. The commentator
belongs to Kapala School of Grammar as can be found from his derivation
of words. He has mentioned several authorities in the commentary.

Mugdhabodhini is one of the later commentaries on the Amarakosa.
The commentator is Bharatasena (17th C.A.D.). He belongs to the Bengal
School. The commentary is an authority on the Bengal School in which
the grammar of Vopadeva has been accepted. Since the commentary
discusses various readings according to different authorities, it is considered
to assume special importance. A special feature of the work is that the
etymological derivation of words strictly follow the Vopadeva School of
Grammar.

Vyakhyasudha or Subodhini by Bhanujidiksita of the 17th C.A.D. is one
of the most significant commentaries on the Amarakosa. The interpretations
in the commentary are supported by illustrations. The etymological deriva-
tions are according to the Panini School fo Grammar. The commentary is
an improvement over the earlier ones, especially that of Rayamukuta, and
records his differences of opinions. Rayamukuta and Ksirasvamin are
freguently quoted by the commentator. The work contains a number of
citations which testifies to the scholarship of the commentator.

Amarakosaviveka is a later commentary on the Amarakosa ascribed
to Mahesvara of the 17th C.A.D. The commentary has numerous Marathi
expressions for which equivalents in Sanskrit are given. Being an early
attempt on bilingual dictionary, it assumes a special significance. Marathi


68
forms with iti prasiddham, iti khyatam, iti laukikabhasayam, etc., have
been recorded in the commentary. Mahesvara quotes several earlier com-
mentators like Bhanujidiksita and refers to several authorities.

Amarakosapadavivrti, another commentary on the Amarakosa by Linga-
bhatta (18th C.A.D.) is also known as Lingabhattiya after the commentator's
name. He quotes several works in the commentary.

Sarasundari is a commentary on the Amarakosa by Mathuresa Vidya-
lankara of the 17th C.A.D. The commentary is a copious source of informa-
tion, abounding in quotations from various commentators on the Amarakosa,
particularly Rayamukuta's Padmanjari, for meanings and derivation of
words. It appears that the commentator has followed the Supadma School
of Grammar.

Sabdarthasandipika is ascribed to Narayanavidyavinoda of Jaumara
School of Grammar, founded by Kramadisvara. This is one of the commen-
taries on the Amarakosa.

Amarodyota of Purusottama Tarkalankara is a commentary on the
Amarakosa, which is in Bengali script. The commentary appears to be
exhaustive.

Sisubodhini is a commentary on the Amarakosa giving Marathi equiva-
lents to Sanskrit terms in several places. This is ascribed to Mahesvara
Sukthankara, a later commentator.

Rabhasapala (between 500 and 900 A.D.) wrote a commentary on the
Amarakosa. The title of his commentary is not known. He has been
quoted by Sarvananda and Ksirasvamin. He has also been quoted in the


69
works of Bharatasena in Bhattikavya, in Trikandaviveka and in Sarvacandra's
commentary on Vasavadatta. The wide range of citations from Rabhasapala's
work by later writers and lexicographers testifies to the popularity of his
work.

Abhidhanaratnamala is a lexicon of 900 verses authored by Halayudha
of the 10th C.A.D. The lexicon is divided into sections called kandas, viz.,
svarakanda, bhumikanda, patalakanda, samanyakanda and anekarthakanda.
The first four kandas deal with synonyms and the fifth one with homonyms
and indeclinables. Regarding the treatment of genders, the lexicon has
followed Amarakosa. The genders are indicated by giving the declensional
forms. The lexicon is composed in different metres. Halayudha mentions
various authorities like Bhaguri, Vararuci and others.

Vaijayantikosa is a voluminous lexicon by Yadavaprakas'a (earlier to
1100 A.D.). The lexicon has two broad divisions, viz., synonyms and homo-
nyms. The division on synonyms has five sections or kandas, viz., svarga-
kanda, antariksakanda, bhumikanda, patalakanda and samanyakanda. The
division on homonyms has three sections, viz., dvyaksarakanda, tryaksara-
kanda and sesakanda. All these kandas are further sub-divided into several
sub-sections. The genders are arranged in order of masculine, feminine,
neuter and mixed in the homonyms portion. The third section of homonyms
division, has four additional sections treating with synonyms, either single
or in compound of specific words applied to different objects, homonymous
indeclinables, synonymous indeclinables and general rules relating to the
genders, respectively. A special feature of the lexicon, which makes
it voluminous in nature, is the inclusion of vedic terms. Thus, the lexicon
often referred to as an authority on ancient lexicography.


70
Trikandasesa of Purusottamadeva (between 1050 and 1200 A.D.),
compiled as a supplement to Amarakosa, gives those words which are
left out in the Amarakosa. The lexicon is divided into the equal number
of varqas as found in the Amarakosa, corresponding to the three kandas.
According to the compiler, the purpose of the lexicon was merely to include
such terms as were left out by Amara but were found in common usage.
This lexicon adds 37 more names of the Buddha to the 17 given by Amara,
3 more on Gautama Buddha to the 17 of Amara
41
. The lexicon is also
known by the title Amarasesa or Amaraviveka. Purusottamadeva is also
the commentator on the Astadhyayi of Panini.

Haravali by Purusottamadeva, has around 270 verses treating exclusively
common words. The lexicon is divided into synonyms and homonyms.
The homonyms portion is further classified into three sections, each having
full-verses, half-verses and quarter-verses. It also gives different meanings
ascribed to the words. The author has consulted several lexicons in compil-
ing his lexicon.

Abhidhanacintamani is a major lexicon compiled by Hemacandra (1088 -
1175 A.D.), having 1542 verses in different metres. The first part of
the lexicon deals with the synonyms and the second with the homonyms.
The synonyms section is divided into six sub-sections called kandas, viz.,
devadhidevakanda, devakanda, martyakanda, bhumikanda, narakakanda
and samanyakanda. The lexicon gives a description of rudha, yauqika and
misra terms at the outset and a note on the component parts of compound
words also the commutable components of such words. The homonyms
part is arranged according to the number of syllables in each word, and
also according to the final syllables.


71
Abhidhanacintamanitika is an exhaustive commentary on Hemacandra's
lexicon Abhidhanacintamani with around 10,000 verses, written by himself.
The commentator gives grammatical references and many passages, the
sources of which are not known except expressions like -yadaha, ityahuh, etc.

Abhidhanacintamanitika is also a commentary on Hemacandra's work
by Srivallabhagani of the 17th C.A.D. The commentary also goes by the
name Namasaroddhara. The commentator mentions that the present work
is an abridgement of his large work called the Namanirnaya
42
. The commen-
tary is a storehouse of information and has a number of quotations from
the works of earlier lexicographers.

Abhidhanacintamanitika is yet another exhaustive commentary on
Hemacandra's work, written by Devasagaragani of the 15th or 17th C.A.D.
Vyutpattiratnakara is another name given to the commentary. Prakrit
expressions like pasevana iti lokabhasa prasiddhah, tivaraija iti bhasa, vava-
chata iti bhasa, etc., are given in the commentary. Numerous authorities
have been quoted in the work.

Nighantusesa is a supplement to Abhidhanacintamani by Hemacandra
himself giving synonyms in six additional kindas, viz., vrksakanda, gulma-
kanda, latakanda, sakakanda, trnakanda and dhanyakanda. Thus the work
may also be called a subject lexicon as it deals with plants and herbs.
The lexicon has around 400 verses.

Amarakosakhandana is a criticism of Amarakosa by Sriharsa, on the use
of genders of nouns given by Amara, supported by various authorities. He
states: evan amara nibandhanasya asastra ayatvam iti
43
, ascribing unscientific
treatment of genders by Amara.


72
Bhuriprayoga is a lexicon of both synonyms and homonyms compiled
by Padmanabhadatta who flourished in the last quarter of the 14th C.A.D.
On the lines of the Amarakosa, the lexicon is divided into three sections.
The sections are further sub-divided into 14 vargas, viz., svarga, patala,
bhumi, pura, vanausadhi, simhadi, nr, brahma, ksatriyadi, vaisya, and lihgadi-
samgraha vargas. This can thus be called a supplement of Amarakosa.

Abhidhanatantra is a lexicon of synonyms and homonyms authored
by Jatadhara who lived before the 15th C.A.D. He has made certain
additions to Amarakosa. This lexicon is largely based on the Amarakosa
and has been divided into 18 vargas, viz., svarga, patala, bhumi, pura, saila,
vanausadhi, simhadi, nr, brahma, ksatriyadi, vaisya, prakirana, nanartha,
avyaya and lingadisamgraha vargas. All these vargas are put into three
kandas as in the Amarakosa. The lexicon appears to have not mentioned
any authority. Abhidhanaratna and Linqanusasana are two other names
given to this lexicon.

Sighrabodhininamamala is a voluminous lexicon having around 472 verses,
the author of which is not known. Aufrecht has reported the availability
of a single manuscript of this lexicon at the Royal Asiatic Society of
Bengal (Catalogus Catalogorum, i, 656.6). The lexicon has four parts.
The first part deals with the names of different parts of human body
and things related to women, the second part deals with inanimate objects,
the third part with the enumeration of celestial objects and the fourth
one with words having several meanings, synonyms, prepositions, names
of arts and sciences, etc.

Silonchanamamalatika is a commentary on Silonchanamamala which is


73
a supplement to Hemacandra's Abhidhanacintamani by Jinadevasuri (sam.
1433). The commentator, Vallabhagani (16th C.A.D.) gives the meanings
of words occurring in the text along with their derivations at several
places. The work is supported with various guotations and authorities like Durga, Ksirasvamin,
Bhaguri and others.
Kosakalpataru is an important lexicon having more than 5000 verses ascribed to
Vis'vanatha of the 17th C.A.D. The lexicon has divisions on synonyms and homonyms, the
former imitates the Amarakosa and is divided into sections and sub-sections like ]<andas_ and
varqas. The homonyms are arranged according to the number of syllables under kavarqa,
cavarga, tavarga and so on. Apart from these two main divisions, the lexicon has two parts, the
first dealing with svayakanda having six vargas, bhGkanda, having ten vargas, patalakanda
having five vargas. The second part deals with kavarga (ka to gha), cavarga (ca to rm), tavarqa
(ta_ to na), tavarga (ta to na), pavarga (pa to ma), antahasthavaya (ya to va) and usmantavarga
(sa to ha). The work contains prose portions also.
Vaidikakosa of Bhaskararaya (about the 19th C.A.D.) is a very small lexicon on some
vedic words. The lexicon is divided into seven sections, viz., nanapadatmakakanda, aikapadika,
bhumyadivarga, karmadivarga, bahvadivarga, jahadivarga and asusuksanyadivarga.
Kosavatamsa by Raghava Appa Khandekara (9th C.A.D.) is a small work having two parts
called qucchas. The lexicon appears to have been written for beginners, with selection of words
from different lexicons. The author admits that he has left out many difficult words that are not
in common usage. The second guccha deals with the homonyms (dvitiyastatra nanartha-kosaritya
prakirtitah).

74
NOTES
1. ekarthavacinam paryayasabdanam sanghah yatra prayena upadisyate tatra nighantu sabdah -
Sayana.

2. Claus Vogel. Indian Lexicography. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. p.303n.

3. The lexicons also 'bear the suffixes like nighantu, nirukta, kola (or kosa), anusasana, samu-
ccaya, dhvanimanjari, ratnamala, muktavali, candrika, pradipa, sesa, delana, prakas'a,
mala, cintamani, sangraha, samksepa, dipika, tilaka, sloki, ratnakara, namamalika,
prayoga, tantra, manjari, samuccaya, arnava, ratnavati, samanvaya, kalpataru, anukrama,
maharnava, avatamsa, etc.

4. op. cit.

5. Vogel. op. cit. p.304.

6. Author not known. Noticed by Aufrecht in Catalogus Catalogorum, i, 656
6
.

7. The homonymous section under vargas like kavarga, cavarga, tavarga, etc.

8. Like prasanganirupana, abhidheyanirupana, sandesapatranirupana, etc.

9. strilingidhyaya, purhlingadhyaya, etc.

10. ekaksaradhyaya, dvyaksaradhyaya, etc.

11. adidevadhyaya, dikpaladhyaya, grahadhyaya, etc.

12. bhumiskandha, bhuvahskandha, etc.

13. The titles of these commentaries are of various varieties having suffixes, such as bhasya,
tika, udghatana, mala, candrika, kaumudi, bodhini, sudha, viveka, vivrti, sandipika,
udyota, khandana and so on.

14. The Kapala School of Grammar is said to have attained high celebrity in those days in
Bengal, from where the commentator hails.

15. Also known as Bharatmallika.

16. Catalogus Catalogorum, i, 342
a
.

17. akaradikramenadavatra kadikramo'ntatah|

18. linganusasane'smabhih varnito linganirnayah | ato na grathitah sutre granthagauravabhi-
rubhih||

19. Catalogus Catalogorum, i, 585
b
.

20. Report for 1883-94, No.ii, p.43.

21. The India Office Catalogue No.5168 gives one more kanda, viz., pancaksarapadakanda. The
Tanjore manuscript No.4775 gives two more, viz., sadaksarakanda and spataksarakanda.

75
22. amararudragangadhara dharaniratnakosanalokya sanksepat nanarthadhvanimanjariyamabhihita
srigadasimhena paramayatnat|

23. vaidikavyavaharena namalingapramanatah arthaprakasadipabhaprabhapratyayavedanam|

24. sarvasabdanidhanagryakosakotinidarsanat vilodya sabdavadhyambho nirmito'yamupakramah |

25. cf.la rayanavalinamo desisaddana samgaho eso vayaranasesa leso raio siri hemacandramuni-
vaina| Desinamamala, 8.77.

26. Buhler. Indian Antiquary, 2.18.

27. India Office Catalogue No.1014 and 1015.

28. Vide Burnell. Tanjore Manuscripts Catalogue, p.49.

29. cf. asminkose trayah skandhah prakandah saptavimsatih slokascatuhsahasrani pancasatya
satadvayam| (Descriptive Catalogue of Manuscripts. Tanjore, No.4739).

30. katyavacaspatirvyadirbhaguryamara mangalah| sahasankamahesadyah vijayante jinantimah||

31. cf. Aufrecht. Oxford Catalogue No.453.

32. cf. Weber. Berlin Manuscripts Catalogue No.979.

33. The dinacaryavarga is given as vyavaharavarga in the Berlin manuscript. The India Office
manuscript No.2748 gives only six sections. Weber's Catalogue No.1740, the Buhler
manuscript as well as the Tanjore manuscript give eight sections as mentioned above.
(See, Descriptive Catalogue Nos.11074-6).

34. Kalpadrukosa. Introduction, pp.xxiii-xxv.

35. kvacin matrakrto bhedah kvacit vamakrto'tra ca | kvacit vibhaktibhedais ca sabd5nam
rudhitah kvacit|| etc.

36. puranayamakaslesan kosanekonavimsatim dhatuvrttirunadim ca ... etc.

37. iti srimahamahendra sriakbarjaha karite viharikrsnadasa misrakrte parasiprakase ... etc.

38. krte mlecchocchede bhuvi niravasesam ravikulanrpavyaharartham sa tu vibudhabhasam vita-
nitum niyukto'bhudvidvan nrpavara'sivacchatrapatina | Rajavyavaharakosa quoted in
Sivacaritapradipa (Marathi) noticed by Patkar. p.149.

39. P. C. Chakravarti. 1933. The Linguistic Speculation of the Hindus. Calcutta, p.324.

40. chandobhyah samahrtya samahrtya samamnatah te nighantavah eva santah nigamanat
nighantavah ucyante iti aupamanyavah - Nirukta.
41. Kalpadrukosa. Introduction, p.xiii.
42. svakiyakosasiddyartham srisrivallabhavacahah | saroddharamimam namna tanute namanir-
nayam ||
43. Descriptive Catalogue of Manuscripts. Madras, 3, 1113.