Rainwater Harvesting in Kathmandu Valley

Kanchan Mani Dixit

Research Associate
Nepal Water Conservation Foundation

Email: kanchan@ntc.net.np

Abstract
Rainwater collection is catching rain as it falls. The idea of Rainwater collection however is not new, the
evidences have shown that it has been practised since pre-historic times. In Nepal, the first modern rainwa-
ter collection system were built during the 1960s. At that time the idea of collecting rainwater couldnot
gain popularity as there were abundant availability of water, however with the scarcity of water it is
heavily practised today in urban and suburban areas of Nepal. In this paper I have attempted to show the
scanario of water scarcity of Kathmandu Valley and discussed the alternatives to the municipal supply. My
attempt has been to show that in the Kathmandu Valley, rainwater harvesting is only the best way to fullfull
the need than any other available alternatives explained below.

Preamble
Rainwater harvesting is a system based on collecting rainwater that falls on an impermeable surface and
utilize later to meet the diverse requirement of people. It is the art of catching the water drops where they
fall before they drain away or escape. The idea of rainwater harvesting, however, is not new. There is an
evidence of water harvesting structures since pre historic times. During those times, rainwater was har-
vested to meet the irrigation water needs rather than for drinking. Ponds, lakes and other storage struc-
tures also had been built to capture falling rain and use it later. Greece and Palestine collect rainwater in
cisterns, made of rocks, from rooftops and paved spaces during the early periods (Agrawal and Narain,
1997). By the middle of first century, there is evidence that cistern with storage volume of up to 75000 m 3
had been used. In Nepal too, rainwater was collected and used since ancient times. In the hills, people
collect rainwater using bamboo slices to meet their drinking water need. In most cases, the water collected
has been used for cleaning, washing and irrigation. Similarly, community ponds have been built to collect
rainwater and used by a community for washing and cleaning. Rainwater is also collected for the recre-
ational purposes. Rainwater can be collected both at domestic and community level.

There were no such scientific structures for rainwater collection until 1960s when rainwater collection was
first scientifically tested at Pokhara Hospital (Dixit, 2002). Similarly, the mission hospital in Tansen, Palpa
constructed a Rain Water Harvesting System (RWHS) in 1960s, which is still functioning today (Sainju et
al., 2000). The concept, however, could not gain popularity at the time because of abundant availability of
water. With shortage of potable fresh water, people started to collect rainwater for their domestic and
industrial uses. In the rural Nepal, initial effort to collect rainwater at household level was done by FINNIDA
in Palpa and Gulmi districts. Since then Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS), Peace Corps
Nepal, Nepal Water For Health (NEWAH), International Center for Mountain Resource Development
(ICIMOD), Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), Nepal Water Conservation Foundation
(NWCF), and Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management (DSCWM) have been promot-
ing the system in different districts of Nepal.

The harvested rainwater is also used to recharge underground aquifer. People of Rajastan at Alwar collect
rainwater in a pond to recharge underground water and as well as meet their daily demand like washing
and cleaning. The stored rainwater maintains soil moisture as well as recharge underground water table.
In Nepal, there are numerous ponds, which served as a water storage tank. The stored water is used during
the dry periods. With the ongoing scarcity of both surface and groundwater, the popularity of community
ponds is increasing. The ponds dug in Southern Lalitpur by Department of Soil Conservation and Water-
shed Management is an example. Similarly, many of such ponds have been built in the catchment of
Bagmati River at the foothills of Shivapuri (Dixit, 2002). Nepal Water Conservation Foundation is also
building community ponds in Jhor, Dharmasthali, and Chunikhel in the Kathmandu Valley – to stabilized
and recharge underground aquifer – with support from local community. Many researches have confirmed
that storing rain water in a pond can provide soil with moisture, recharge underground table as well as
stabilizes slopes in the hills.

Water demand of Kathmandu Valley

A modern piped water supply system of the Kathmandu valley was introduced in 1891 in the form of the
Bir Dhara Works. Until 1891, the water supply needs of the city residents were met through springs, rivers,
and shallow dug wells. Stone spouts locally called dhunge dharas were common serving the three cities:
Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur. Water from these sources was used for daily household activities.

Bir Dhara supplied water to some public standposts and some to Rana palaces. To augment the increasing
water needs, another system called the Tri Bhim Dhara was built in 1928, which was administrated by Pani
Goswara. Today NWSC is responsible for administrating drinking water service to the districts of Nepal.
The pipe networks covers a total area of about 50 km2 in Kathmandu and Patan and comprises around
100,000 taps today (Dixit, 2002). From the last two decades, the population of Kathmandu Valley is also
increasing at the average growth rate of 4.04. The current population of valley is 11,68,000 and if this
growth rate continues, the population of Kathmandu valley is expected to be 22,90,000 by 2020. With the
uncontrolled population growth, pressure is increasing on the drinking water. On one hand, the increasing
population is polluting the fresh water resources while on the other hand; rivers and streams are diverted
to meet the drinking and other household needs by the government and non-government agencies. Moench
et al., (2003) writes that in 1999, the demand of water in the Kathmandu valley exceeded 155 MLD while
the municipal supply system only delivered around 120 MLD in the wet and 60-70 MLD in the dry season.
Today in 2005, the water demand of Kathmandu Valley have reached 214.4 MLD while NWSC can deliver
only 150 MLD in the wet and 100 MLD in dry season.1 To compensate for shortage, the government is
investing in a major scheme ‘the Melamchi Project’2 to divert water from a stream outside the valley and
deliver it to Kathmandu through a 26.5 km long water transmission tunnel. However due to many techni-
cal problems and the ongoing Maoist Insurgency, the project is not moving forward as expected and the
cost of construction is rocketing every year. Hence it can be said that water supply to Kathmandu Valley
through the project is yet uncertain. One study conducted by Nepal Water Conservation Foundation shows
that if we do not find alternative source of water, by 2015 (even if the Melamchi comes) Kathmandu Valley
will continue to have water scarcity.
 TABLE 1
WATER USE IN URBAN HOUSEHOLDS

Use Amount (litres)

Washing hands/person 0.6

Brushing teeth/person 2.0
Toilet flush (one time) 15.0
Bucket bath/person 20.0
Shower bath/person 25.0
Tub bath/person 80.0
Washing machine/person 100.0
Drinking/person 3.0

Source: Dixit, 2002

The table 1 shows the minimum water requirements for different household activities in an urban area.
However, due to the intermit water supply and limited water availability the distribution of water is not
uniform in most places. Some places receives plenty water where as others do not receive any water at all.
The above table shows that most of the water in an urban area is spent in cleaning and washing, where as
only three litres is needed for an individual for a day. There are many places in Kathmandu Valley where
there is not that much supply of water also. On the contrary, industrial sectors consume much more water.
Even though, the supply is very limited, many household in Kathmandu Valley usually a toilet flush of 12-
15 liters capacity, which normally uses fresh water from the municipal supply or groundwater, extracted
with centrifugal pump. If the harvested rainwater can supply this much water, around 70-80 liters of fresh
water can be saved per day in a house of five family members. Also cost of electricity to run pump can be
saved. If the water collected is clean, it can be used for other household purposes besides flushing toilet
and water supplied from municipal supply can be used for drinking purposes only.

The fact is that the ‘State’ has been unable to provide even the minimum drinking water to its residents in
most part of Kathmandu Valley; on the other hand the lifestyle of people is changing affecting their water
consumption habit. The water demand of an individual household is increasing while water supplied is
decreasing. In parallel, the population is on increase and the question remains as to when the residents of
Kathmandu Valley will have sufficient drinking water? If not what are the alternatives?

Alternatives to Municipal Supply

Dhunge dharas
Stone spouts often called dhunge dharas are a popular source of water. The water collected is used for
washing clothes, drinking, bathing and for other household purposes. Few conduits are also believed to
have healing powers against certain diseases like arthritis, goiter catarrh (commonly called pinash). These
systems are still used in most of the parts of Lalitpur and Bhaktapur. Most of these dhunge dharas were
built during Lichhavi and Malla era.

Water quality of dhunge dharas: Even though the supply system of such spouts were systematic, the
population explosion and uncontrolled urbanization is creating stress on these structures often polluting
and damaging the recharging channels causing them to dry out. Similarly, wastes piling around the spouts
are blocking the drainage network and the stagnant water is becoming a breeding of vectors that transmit
water borne diseases. During the monsoon, nearly all dharas show high level of fecal coliform contamina-
tion (Moench et al., 2003). In one study conducted by ENPHO (1990), all 21 samples taken from Kathmandu
city was contaminated with fecal coliform. The lowest average faecal coliform densities were observed in
the taps of Bhatbhateni (8 col/100 ml), Balajutar (1 col/100 ml) and sundhara (19 col/100ml) whereas
the highest coliform densities were observed in Bhimsenthan (37602 col./100 ml) and Narayanhity (15,
198 col/100ml). 3 The study further concluded that overall 81% of the taps contained an average density
of more than 100 col/100ml. The contamination was high during the monsoon. The surface pollution is
the main cause of groundwater and stone spout pollution, In August 2000, a spout called Alko hitti was
discharging blood and decaying pieces of meat from its tap which was believed to be seeped into the water
network from a nearby bone factory. This incident caused many individuals to suffer from diarrhea who
consumed water from the spout. However, most resident still perceive water from dhunge dharas to be
good and safe to drink (Whittington et al., 2002; Cf. Whittington and Lauria, 2003). Many of such dharas
are still used for cooking and drinking in Kathmandu Valley. The Alko hitti mentioned above has been
highly exploited to meet the drinking water of people of ward no 22 at Lalitpur. The local authorities of
ward no 22 built a tank to catch nighttime water and have been supplying to individual houses through
pipes. People normally boil and filter the water received from spouts.
Groundwater
The insufficiency of the municipal supply creates environment of water scarcity and for the development
and use of an alternative water sources. The most probable ones are underground water, water vendors or
develop coping strategies. In this context, the scarcity of surface water sources to provide water to homes,
led the Nepal Government to the mining of groundwater resources during the sixties. In 1961, tube wells
were installed at Balaju and Bode to extract groundwater. They extracted around 1.7 million and 1.96
million litres of water per day (MLD) respectively.4 By the end of 1989, the estimated groundwater ab-
straction from 60 tubewells was 14 million m3. Of the 60 wells 28 belong to NWSC (HMG, 1990). Besides
NWSC, Private hotels, domestic households, government institutes, embassy, factories and industries have
exploited the groundwater resources extensively. At present the total extraction of groundwater in the
Kathmandu Valley has been estimated as 46.86 MLD.5 The extensive use of deep unpolluted aquifers under
the Kathmandu Valley is suffering from overdraft. The piezometric levels in wells of NWSC have shown a
lowering of 15-20 metres in the period between 1985-1995.6 According to JICA (1990) and CES (1992)7 ,
the abstraction (50 MLD) have exceeded the recharge (27 MLD) by about a factor by two, as a result
groundwater level are dropping at about 2.5 m /year. This is not only the case of Kathmandu valley, as
groundwater depletion has become a major problem all over the world. For example, during the last 30
years, in Coimbatore district, the number of wells has doubled but the net areas they irrigate have margin-
ally increased. Along with this, the number of wells abandoned in the districts increased from around 4,
000 in 1960 to about 16, 700 in 1990 (Palanasami and Balasubramanian, 1993 Cf. Moench et al., 1999).
This shows that the groundwater resources of the region are fully developed and new wells are in compe-
tition with existing ones for the limited available supplies of groundwater (Moench et al., 1999).

Groundwater quality: For the past few decades the over population and city encroachment have exten-
sively caused water pollution. Not only surface water but also groundwater has become polluted. CEDA
(1990) and ENPHO (1993) identifies that the groundwater in the urban areas is severely polluted by
human waste.8 Most of the studies have shown that there is high fecal coliform in the shallow ground
water. However, the full impact of groundwater pollution to public health has not fully been assessed.
BBWMSIP (1994) mentions that the water quality does not meet the WHO standards for drinking water
although it is an important source for many people since the municipal piped supply is inadequate to the
kathmanduities. Pedley and Howared (1997)9 observed that “the contribution made by groundwater to
the global incidence of water borne diseases cannot be assessed easily; for many countries the incidence of
waterborne disease is not accurately and the data for groundwater usage are not available, where the
public health statistics are available, the data are insufficient to determine the source of the water involved
in the transmission of the disease”. However, deep underground water is free from organic contamination
but being fossil water, they contain high amount of minerals (JICA, 1990; Cf. BBWMSIP, 1994).
Water Vendors
For the past few years, the private water markets have emerged as an alternative sources. On one hand, the
bottled waters are gaining popularity while on the other hand, private tanks have become major water
vendors in the urban areas of Kathmandu and Lalitpur where municipal supply have failed. Moench, Y.
(2001) mentions that both of these markets are completely unregulated, leaving the price to be deter-
mined by the competitive market and water quality discretion of the individual company. In another words,
the monopoly of vendors on price and quality exists. There are hundreds of private tankers supply water to
urban areas of Kathmandu and Lalitpur
Rainwater Harvesting
The above scenario shows that the only water available in Kathmandu Valley beside polluted river water, is
in the form of underground, which are extracted by all sectors, viz. individuals, hotels, commercials, and
government. These resources need to be recharged gradually so that it would supply water in a sustainable
way. With the current trend of migration, the only probable recharging area – in the northern part of
Kathmandu – is under heavy urbanization. The heavy engineering structures – which are increasing every
day – are preventing the water to percolate thorough this permeable soil. Similarly, the rising population
is also causing surface and groundwater pollution – in most cased undrinkable. On the other hand, with
the groundwater level decreasing (increasing cost of pumping); monopolizing water prices by water ven-
dors; and the intermit supply of NWSC, there is no other option for the residents other than tapping
rainwater. This method is very cost effective and guarantees relief. It is also evident from above that there
are no other possible water sources around the Kathmandu Valley, which could be tapped and supplied
beside Melamchi, whose faith is also uncertain. Therefore the only feasible way to fulfill water needs of the
Kathmanduties is by installing rainwater-harvesting systems. Rainwater-Harvesting Systems can be built
in individual houses, government offices, commercial buildings or public places.
Water Harvesting Systems
There are different types of rainwater harvesting systems depending on the land topography, the slopes
and the rock types. The systems can be of both household and community level depending on the nature of
collecting systems and volume of water collected. HMG/N (1998)10 has identified following systems, which
can be used to store water and use later or can be used to recharge underground aquifer. Among the listed
systems, the most popular and widely practiced systems are the surface and rooftop harvesting systems.

1. Rooftop Harvesting

2. Surface Harvesting

3. Rock Catchment
Box

My Rainwater Harvesting System

The area where I live (Tahagalli, Dharahara) has been always a
water scarce area although in the heart of the Kathmandu Valley.
With the increase in use of centrifugal pump and unplanned ur-
banization, the area is heavily under water stress. It has been years
since we receive water at our taps. Those who could pump water
often complain about receiving contaminated water from their taps,
often-raw sewage. Today we heavily depend on water vendors to
meet household needs. It has been over six years that I have been
buying drinking water from vendors. To combat the water scarcity,
I built rainwater-collecting system. Now I collect rainwater from
my terrace, which has a catchment area of about 670 square feet.
For storing rainwater, I have also built underground Reinforced
Collection pipe
Cement Tank of 4000 liters capacity. To filter our large and heavy
materials (mostly, sand particles), I have used a settling tank of 4.5 cubic feet [1.5' x 1.5' x 2.0'] before
sending rainwater directly to the storage tank.

The collected rainwater has been used for all other household activity except drinking. That saves me
lots of fresh water, which I buy from water vendors.
Normally, in the monsoon it takes two-three days to fill
my storage tank depending on the rain intensity. While
during the non-monsoon period, I use groundwater for
the household activities. To compensate the used ground-
water, I have
built 7-8 feet
deep soak-pit,
which receives,
overflowed
from RC tank
and infiltrates
it into the
ground.

Underground collection tank

Settling tank
 4. Excavated Reservoirs

5. Earthen dams

6. Underground and sub-surface dams and

7. Sand dams

Surface-harvesting system: It catches rapid run-off from natural or man-made surfaces, then concen-
trates and stores it. This stores water which otherwise would have gone to river as a run-off, evaporated
back or percolated. Water collected by this method is comparatively non-drinkable, however, it can be
used for purposes other than drinking like, cleaning, washing, watering cattle, and irrigation. In Kathmandu
Valley there were numerous ponds, which collected rainwater from agricultural runoffs however, with the
human encroachment such ponds are being replaced with engineering structures. However, there are
examples where such water is treated and used for drinking. Singapore collects rainwater from the airport
and is supplied to the main system of drinking water after treatment.

Rooftop-harvesting system: Rooftop harvesting system is highly practiced in most of urban and sub-
urban areas where there shortage of municipal supply. The idea is to catch the rain falling on the roof and
store it for later use. This is gaining popularity in a water scare areas all over the world specially. In Nepal
this system has been installed in both urban and rural areas.

Usually, house roof made of cement and corrugated Galvanized Iron (CGI) sheet is used for the collection
of rainwater. Tile, slate and thatch roofs are also used. The quality of water collected depends on the
surface where it is collected. Water from cement roof and CGI is comparatively clean than collected from
other types. However, the surface of the roof must be cleaned and maintained regularly as there would be
lots of dust particles and food and debris brought by birds. First rainwater of monsoon should not be
allowed to flow in the collection chamber or tank. A simple mechanism called foul flushed can be installed
as point out by Ajay Dixit in his book Basic Water Science. The foul flush is placed in the inlet pipe in front
of the tank.

In a normal RHS system, a gutter, pipe, tap and a tank is needed. People use different kinds of storage tanks
to store rainwater. Some of which are polythene, Ferro cement or local bitumen drum. The tank is often
covered to prohibit entry of pollutants. Rainwater from the roofs is diverted by means of gutter and pipes
to bring into a tank. However, the design and the materials used differ with the houses. The amount of
water collected depends on the roofing area, size of tank and the amount of rainfall. Generally average
people prefer tank of capacity 100-500 liters to store water. However some household even uses a bigger
capacity tank as much as 2000-4000 liters. In the community system there may be of different capacities to
meet the need of many households. The amount of water collected depends on the amount or rainfall or
precipitation and the roof area. Dixit (2002) have provided a graph (Table 2), which can be used to
estimate the volume of water that will be collected from a particular area.
Potentiality for Groundwater Recharge in Kathmandu Valley
Kathmandu valley with the shape of circular basin has an area of 656 km2. The central part of the valley
consists of flat lands at elevation of 1300 m and high mountains on all sides surround the flat land. The
main river ‘the Bagmati’ runs from the center of the valley from north to south.
 TABLE 2
RAINFALL AREA AND VOLUME OF WATER COLLECTED (M3)
Area Effective rainfall (mm)
(m 2) 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000

40 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
80 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160
120 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 226 240
160 64 96 128 160 192 224 256 288 320
200 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
250 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
300 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600

Source: Dixit, 2002

Kathmandu valley is composed of two series of geological successions: Quaternary (overlies lower portion
of valley) and Precambrian to Devonian (surrounds the valley) (HMG, 1990). The ground surface of the
valley bottom is flat. The buried bedrock is estimated to be irregular in shape. The thick geological depos-
its of the flat part consist of lacustrine deposits and fluvial deposits (Ibid). The northern mountainous part
of the valley consists of arenaceous deposits, which are composed of coarse to medium grained sand with
rock fragments. This is the part where most of the underground recharge takes place. Most of the Nepal
Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) wells are located in this part of the valley because the area has best
aquifer condition for the groundwater development compared with other parts of the valley. Argillaceous
deposits composed of the clay materials underline the southern mountainous areas. Intermediate types are
found in the central part of the valley from west to east, between the areas composed of the arenaceous
and argillaceous deposits. Materials of these types are composed of clay or clayey silt with intercalations
of sandy layers and clayey layers, which are mostly impermeable. High potentiality for groundwater re-
charge is expected only in the northern part of the valley. This permeable layer is usually brought by
erosion of limestone and phyllites.

Dipak Gyawali points out in his book Water in Nepal that within the catchment area of 656 km2, the
average rainfall that Kathmandu Valley receives is 1500 mm every year. He further assumes that if half of
the available rain either evaporates or percolates into the ground, about 500 million m3 of rain will still be
available for capturing. If an individual requires 100 liters per capita per day (LCD), which is double of the
standard assumed for rural area, and if only six percent of the 500 million m3 were harvested, Kathmandu
could meet much of its water needs by allocating less than 1.5 % of its area for tanks, and other water
harvesting structures with an average depth of only two meters. With this assumption it can be said that if
the individual households could collect rainwater it will be enough to meet their domestic needs. The
collected water can be used for other purposes besides drinking like: washing clothes, bathing, using in
toilet flush, washing utensils etc, whereas the treated fresh water received from NWSC can be used for
drinking.
At the End
With the increasing demand of water both in industries and household, and on not receiving the supply,
the residents in most of the places have started to install rooftop-harvesting systems in their individual
houses. Which is a very efficient water management technique. Capturing and tapping rain has to be
mandatory in all urban houses as in the case of Gujarat where Urban Development Department’s has made
roof water harvesting mandatory for new building complexes of 1500 m2 and above. Beside, if we could
harvest rain in the airport and other government-owned and public buildings, much of water problem
would be solved. Collecting rainwater is not the only option to solve problem, water also should be use
efficiently. All the 3Rs i.e. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle should be applied for proper water management. If
this can be done, almost 90 percent water problem of Kathmandu valley would be solved.

Bibliography

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Notes
1 See Mathema, 2005

2 HMG/N is implementing the project with support from Asian Development Bank, NORAD, SIDA, OPEC
Fund, the Nordic Development Fund and the Japan Bank of international cooperation.

3 Today many of these taps have dried out. Sundhara, which stop functioning was believed to be sepa-
rated from its network during the construction of Karmachari Sanchaya Kosh building.

4 See Gorkhapatra 1961, June 6

5 HMG, 2001.

6 HMG, 2004: Arsenic Testing and Fianlization of Groundwater Legislation, Proceeding of the seminar on
Arsenic Study in Groundwater of Tarai and summary project Report, DoI., Kathmandu.

7 Cf. BBWMSIP, 1994

8 Cf. BBWMSIP, 1994

9 Cf. Bruke and Moench (2000)

10 HMG/N, 1998: Final Report for Study of Rain Water Harvesting in Tansen, Palpa, His Majesty’s Govern-
ment, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat, Kathmandu.