Physics For Teachers

physics for teachers
a modern review
Weber
1*
(D
Al su
T
(D
?A
crn
;qp7
WIGAN
PUBLIC LIBRARIES
Physics for Teachers:
A Modern Review
Physics for Teachers:
A Modern Review
Robert L. Weber
Associate Professor of Physics
The Pennsylvania State University
vV'
McGraw-Hill Book Company
New
York
Son Francisco
Toronto
London
to Marion, Robert, Karen,
Meredith, and Ruth
who were
patient
WIQAN
UBRARfES
WITHDRAWN FOR
PHYSICS FOR
EW
Copyright 1964 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America, This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers.
Library of Congress Catalog Card
Number 63-19320
68806
Preface
The
reader of this boob
is
assumed to be interested
in space
physics and atomic physics and to have had a full-year course in

general physics at the college level.
in
Capitalizing on his interest
rockets and satellites. Part
presents enough of the principles
mechanics and electricity to serve as a good basis for understanding nineteenth-century classical physics. In Part 2, with the atom as the central theme, the theories of relativity and
of
quantum physics which have characterized twentieth-century

such as wave properties and
calculus notation
is
modern physics are developed. In both parts important topics relativity, which are likely to be
used,-
less familiar to the reader, are
developed in greater but where feasible (e.g.,
detail.
Some
in Sec. 4.4),
noncalculus explanations are used, and several derivations involving integration are subordinated in an Appendix. An aim of
book is to encourage the reader, whether a student or a mature teacher, to appreciate the relatedness of the various fields of science and to be willing to venture into new areas with the ability he has gained from intensive study of a few selected
this
areas.
In the planning of this book I am indebted to the interest of students and colleagues in several science institutes sponsored by the National Science Foundation. For six years I served as
vii
Preface
and teacher of the physics part of programs at The Pennsylvania State University; Colorado State University, and Yale University. The present text evolved from
associate director, director,
the study guide used in the last-mentioned program. I express indebtedness to that scholarly textbook "Physics for Students of Science and Engineering," by David Halliday and Robert Resniek, for the manner of presentation used in the first part of
Chap.
13.
Contents
Robert L. Weber
Preface
vll
Part 1
Looking Out: Rockets,

3
of
Satellites,
Space Travel
What's Up?
Environment
Space 20
40
Rocket Propulsion Escape from Earth

Satellites
50
in
Motion of Bodies
Travel to
Space
Planets
60
68
Moon and
Part 2
8.
Looking In: Atomic and Nuclear Physics

Idea
91
75
The Atomic
Electric
77
116
9.
Wave Motion
The Electron
Ions
10.
and Magnetic Forces

136
11.
12.
and Isotopes
Classical
149
13.
Electromagnetic Radiation
I
Theory
Effects
156 167
II
Quantum
14.
15. 16. 17.
Wonderland 184 Hydrogen Atom Bohr Model Quantum Dynamics 216

Relativity
203
Radioactivity
238
252 260 272
18.
19.
Nuclear Reactions
Absorption of Radiation
20.
Unconventional Energy Sources
Appendices
A.
B.
289 Burnout Velocity and Range

Reaction Thrust
291
C.
Schrodinger
1.
Wave
for a
Equation
293
D.
Books
Physics Teacher's Reference Shelf
2. 3.
Some
Periodicals for a School Science Library
295 296
PART
Professional Organizations of Interest

to the Physics
Teacher
296
4. 5. 6.
7.
Some
Suppliers of Physics Apparatus for Teaching
297
Greek Alphabet 297 Symbols 298 Instruction on the Use
Looking Out: Rockets, Satellites,
of a Slide Rule
298
7A. Slide Rule Bibliography

8. 9.
300
301
Trigonometric Functions
Space Travel
304 305
Logarithms
to the
Base e
302
10. 11.
Values of Physical Constants
Conversion of Electrical Units
Index
307
What's Up?
In his millennia of looking at the stars,
man has never found

denly thrust upon
so exciting a
challenge as the year 1957 has sud-
him.
Fred
L.
Whipple
1.1
ASTRONAUTICS TODAY
Fictional accounts of space travel had been written before the lime of Jules Verne. In the second century a.i>., Lucian of Santos wrote of a visit to the moon. But the foundation for converting fantasy into an engineering possibility was the invention of lite
rocket.
Most current
progress
in
the science and technology of

efforts since
space
flight is
an outgrowth of the
World War
II
to
develop long-range military missiles. Popular concern aboul space technology was aroused when
the
first artificial
earth satellite was launched by the Soviet Union
in 1!J">7. In the
next 3 years, some 36 satellites carrying instruments were launched, 30 of them by the United States. Also dur-
moon shots and space probes sought information farther from the earth. Next came the spectacular manned orbital flights made l>y astronauts of the Soviet Union and the United States.
ing this period several
3
What's Up?
4
Satellites,
Space Travel
Table
1,1
In the "World Almanac" one may find a listing of the major space vehicles launched since 19">7. Table 1.1 gives the longer
perapective of the history of man's use of rockets.
Table
c.
Milestones
in
missilery (continued)
1954 1957
1.31.58
United States starts
ICBM program; USAF awards
contracts to
Convair, North American Aviation, and General Electric. Sputniks and II launched First artificial earth satellites
by
rocket (October
1.1
4 and November
"permanent"
3).
Milestones
in missilery
Explorer
States.
I,
first
I,
United States
satellite,
launched.
300
1200 1780 1792 1800 1812
Hero of Alexandria uses the reacting force of escaping steam propel an experimental device.
Chinese use gunpowder
lent to to
to
3.17.58
10,11.58
Vanguard
Pioneer
I,
first
satellite
launched by the United

States.
c.
propel "arrows of flying

in India.
fire,"
equiva-
first
lunar probe, launched
by the United
present-day skyrockets.
British
in
12.18.58
1.2.59
Project Score (Atlas) launched, broadcasting a
human
sun.
voice from
c.
Advanced type of rocket developed

second Mysore War. Sir William Congreve of Great
to
British
outer space for the
first
time.
satellite to orbit
Troops of Tipu, Sultan of Mysore, use rockets against

Britain
Russia launches Lunik,
first first
around
3.3.59
Pioneer IV launched,
Russia launches Russia launches
first
United States satellite to orbit sun.

to
c.
improves rocket propellant
9.12.59
10.4.59
provide considerable increase in range. use rockets in attack on Fort McHenry (Baltimore), commemorated in the line "... and the rockets' red glare" in our
National Anthem.
8.11.60
4.12.61
land on moon. moon. United Slates recovers first space vehicle from orbit. Manned orbital flight achieved in Soviet Vostok satellite,
space vehicle
first satellite
to orbit
2.20.62
stability of rockets
Pfoject
Mercury succeeds
in
manned
in
orbital flight,
1830 1846
William Hale, an American, increases

nozzle vanes.
by adding
7.10.62
8.13.62 8.27.62
Telstar satellite relays
first
transatlantic television, programs.
Two
Russian astronauts put

II
reloted orbits.
Mexican War sees first use of rocket weapons by United States in o war. Lifesaving rockets developed by English and German
inventors.
12,14.62
Mariner Mariner
II
launched to encounter Venus. passed within 22,000 mi of Venus, reporting data on
1913 1915
Ramjet proposed and patented in France. World War sees advent of guided missile to supplant aimed
I
temperature, cloud cover, magnetic field, particles and radiation dosage encountered throughout voyage.
rockets.
1.2
ASTRONAUTICS
feat
TOMORROW
1926
Dr.
Robert H. Goddard, professor of physics at Clark University,
fires first successful liquidfuel rocket.
What
used to power the Nazi V-1
c 1930
1931
Germans experiment with the pulse "bun bomb" of World War II. Germany uses liquid rocket fuel.
jet,
expected, perhaps in the next 2 or 3 years, from adaptations of the intercontinental ballistic missiles already
available?
may be
The
staff of the
RAND
Corporation has estimated
1932
1936
1941
Captain Walter Dornberger undertakes development of liquidfuel rocket weapons for the German Army. German Peenemunde Project is organized, to develop war rockets. United States starts work on controllable rocket weapons.
that
1.
we
shall
be able to do the following:

lb to 300 mi altitude payloads of 2,500 lb at 22,000 mi
Orhit satellite payloads of 10,000
2.
3.
Orbit
satellite
1942 1944
c.
1945
American Razon missile, controllable in both azimuth and range, is developed. United States government awards first contract for research and development of guided missile to General Electric Company. Germany uses V-1 buzz bomb, V-2, and other rocket missiles in
4.
Impact 3,000 lb on the moon Land, intact, more than 1,000

Venus, or Mars
lb of
instruments on the moon,
.").
World War
bombers.
II.
United States uses
"Weary
Willie"
unmanned
fi.
Probe the atmosphere of Jupiter with 1,000 lb of instruments Place a man, or men, in a satellite orbit around the earth for
recovery after a few days of flight
1946 1949
c
Work
missile
is
started
in
the United States on an intercontinental ballistic
program, the MX-774,

of a missile
First flight
beyond
earth's
atmosphere
is
made
at
1.3
WHO SHOULD
CARE?
White Sands, N. Mex.

.
By
1952
United States long-range missile program is stimulated by Atomic Energy Commission warhead developments.
pushed chiefly as a gunless
the military, the costly development of the rocket has been artillery device and for bombardment
Looking Out: Rockets, Satellites, Space Travel
What's Up?
over intercontinental distances with nuclear warheads. Rocketlaunched viewing satellites may make possible the inspection of foreign territory and thus discourage preparation for war. The difficulties that statesmen now have in reaching agreement on inspection and on disarmament will, however, probably increase
as military space technology expands. In addition to the military reasons, there are
The philosopher and the theologian are already adapting their thinking to the eventuality that man may encounter life elsewhere in the universe. It seems probable that just as the telescope profoundly altered seventeenth-century thought, the space vehicle will extend twentieth-century man's understanding of the
universe
and
his role in
it.
many
scientific
incentives for
making
satellites.
Some important problems
await1.4
CAREERS
IN
ASTRONAUTICS
ing investigation are:

1.
2.
Determination of density, pressure, and temperature in the upper layers of the atmosphere Exact measurement of the dimensions of the earth, the continental distances, and other geodetic measurements A detailed study of radiation from the sun
Astronautics touches almost

nology.
1
may
into the field
all fields of current science and techbe expected to lead to entirely new fields. Entrance of astronautics can be made by one who has acquired
:i.
4.
Observation of the intensity of cosmic rays and other radiation in the earth's
atmosphere
in one or more of these fields: mechanical, aeronautand electrical engineering; mathematics; physics; biophysics; and chemistry. Mathematics and physics are basic. With nuclear power a necessity for distant space travel, the field of
ical,
is of special importance. Information about careers in astronautics can be obtained from the corporations active in this field, and also from the agency
knowledge
f).
Correlation of the currents of nuclei, neutrons, and other particles flying toward the earth with sunspot activity
nuclear physics
(i.
7.
Kstimation of the distribution of mass in the earth's crust from the orbital planes of the artificial earth satellite Study of the propagation of radio waxes in the upper atmosphere and provision of radio communication, navigation beacons,
which coordinates the government's activities, NASA. The .National Aeronautics and Space Administration was created by an act of Congress signed by President Eisenhower on July 2H, I9">8.
8.
it.
10.
and television with the aid of satellites Improvement in weather forecasting Making feasible astro no mica investigations without atmospheric and other disturbances Study of biological specimens in environments different from
I
The
act declared that "it
activities in
is the policy of the United States that space should be devoted to peaceful purposes for the
benefit of
mankind."
FILMS ON ASTRONAUTICS
For a listing of some 9(1 films on rockets, missiles, and space science see It. Weber: Films for Students of Physics, Supplement I, American Jcwntd of I'h units, SO: 321 327 (192).
that on earth
Although we have these incentives for space exploration, it is likely that such exploration will enlighten us in fields even beyond our present speculations. Space flight obviously demands development of devices of great reliability 1o operate for long periods under extreme conditions of environment. Engineering advances depend on fundamental scientific knowledge, and in the past these advances have contributed tools for the obtaining of new knowledge. This interaction or feedback
is
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING IN ASTRONAUTICS

Hooks:
Adams, Carsbie
occurring
in
astronautics.
When
spaceships
can carry instruments, or man solar system, new information will surely become available for the physicist, biologist, and astronomer.
himself, into other parts of the
C: "Space Flight, " McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., York, I95S, 373 pp. Hcnson, t). 0., and H. Strugliold: "Physics and Medicine of the Atmosphere ami Space," .John Wiley A Sons, Inc., New Yolk. IWiO,
New
4f)
pp.
"uchheim.
It. W and Staff of HAND Corp.: "Space Handbook," House Document 80, U.S. Government Priming Office, Washing-

ton 25,
edition),
D.C,
1959. Also
Random House,
hit-.
(Modern Library
New
York.
The National Aeronautic* and Space Administration: "Space: The New Frontier," U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25,
D.C., 1962,48 pp. Ordway, Frederick I.: "Annotated Bibliography of Spaee Science and Technology," Arfbf Publications, P.O. Box 6285, Washing! on 15, D.C.,
Scifert,
1011-2.
Howard
New
S. (ed.): "Sparc Technology," .John Wiley & Sons, Int.. York, 1959. Text based on graduate-level lectures presented
in
by University Extension, University of California,

with Hamo-Wooldridgc Corp.
Periodicals:
cooperation
Environment of Space
Astronautics.
Inc.,
Published monthly by
The American Pocket
Society,
500 Fifth Ave,
New York W. NY.

The
most
incomprehensible
is
Aviation HVefc (Including Space Technology). McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company, Inc., 330 West 42 St., New York 36, N.Y. and Rockets. Published weekly by American Aviation Publications, 1001 Vermont Ave., NW, Washington 5, D.C. Sky and Telescope. Published monthly by Sky Publishing Co., 60 Garden St., Cambridge 38, Mass.
Missiles
thing
about the universe

hensible.
that
it
is
compre-
Albert Einstein
Space Aeronautics. Published monthly by Conover-Mast Publications. foe., 20.") East 42 St., New York 1 7, N.Y. Space Age. Published quarterly bv Quinn Publishing Co., Kingston, N.Y. Spaceflight. Published bimonthly hy British Interplanetary Society, 12 Bessborough Gardens, London, SW 1. England. Space Journal. Published quarterly by Space Enterprises, Inc., P. O. Box 94, Nashville, Tenn.
Publications of Sperial Interest
to
2.1
INTRODUCTION
sun, the 9 major planets, 31
Students:
Adams. Carsbie C, Wernher von Braun, and Frederick I. Ordway: "Careers in Astronautics ami Rocketry," McGraw-Hill Book ComYork. 1902, 248 pp. by 35 in.. General Electric Missile and Space Vehicle Department, Valley Forge Space Technology Center (Mail: P.O. Box 8555, Philadelphia 1. Pa.). Map of Outer Spaee, chart, 28 by 25 in., General Electric Missile and Space Vehicle Department. "Short Glossary of Space Terms," National Aeronautics and Spaee Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, pany,
Inc.,
New
Map
of the
Moon,
chart, 45
known moons, and thousands around the sun constitute the solar -v-ii'iii. The planets move around the sun in the same direction in elliptical orbits which are nearly circular (big. 2.1). All the orbits lie in nearly the ecliptic plane of the sun's apparent path
Our
of lesser bodies all revolving
among
the stars.
The
is
orbit
of Pluto deviates most, about
17.
from the
ecliptic plane.
the ecliptic plane

mi, a distance
The zone about 17 wide on each known as the zodiac.

is
side of
The average distance

which
"Space
1962, 57 pp. Primer: An Introduction to Astronautics," Convair-Asfronautics. Dcpl. 120, P.O. Box 112s, San Diego 12, Calif., 72 pp.
D.C,
The
of the earth from the sun is 92,900,000 defined as one astronomical unit (a.u.). diameter of the orbit of Pluto, the outermost member of the
is
solar system,
about 79
a.u.
The
are
9
four inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth,

terrestrial planets,
and Mars,
sometimes called the
They
are relatively
10
Environment
of
Space
11
small, dense bodies.
The next four outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are called the major planets or the giant planets. They are relatively large bodies with ice and rock cores
% >.
among
stars in size, in temperature,

Its
type C-2).
and in brightness (spectral nearness to the earth makes the sun appear to us
Meteors
Jupiter
very large and bright. The surface temperature of the sun has Keen measured as about ti000C, or I0,000r', The energy output of the sun as light and heat is remarkably constant. Solar energy
arrives at the surface of the earth at
an average rate of 1.35
kilo-
watts/ m-. This solar energy, resulting from a series of thermonuclear reactions, makes life possible on the earth.
Sunlight takes a
little
more than 8 min
to reach the earth.
Fig.
2.1
Solar
system;
orbits
of
Mercury, Venus, Eorth, Mars, and
is found to consist but with the colors crossed by many dark lines. The absorption lines are produced by gaseous materials in the atmosphere of the sun. From their lines, some 70 of the chemical elements occurring on earth have been identified as
When analyzed with a
spectrograph, sunlight
of a continuous spectrum,
Jupiter.
present in the sun.

visible
below their
atmospheres. Physical data on objects of principal interest in the solar system are given in Table 2.1.
2.1
Table
Body
Physical
data on some bodies
in
the solar system

Intensity
The radiating surface of the sun is called the photosphere. Above it is the chromosphere, visible to the unaided eye al times of total eclipses as a turbulent pinkish-violet layer. The pearly light of corona extends millions of miles beyond the chromosphere. Corona are related to the appearance of sunspots dark,
Mean
distance
Man,
times
earth's
Diameter,
mi
Gravitational force
Length
of
Length of year
irregular regions
which
of
sunlight,
rel. to
day
miles across
and
whicii
may extend several hundred thousand may last for a few weeks to several months.
from
tun,
a.u.
at solid
surface.
9'
mass
earth
waves ("static"), and charged particles (cosmic rays) from the sun is highly
of ultraviolet radiation, radio
variable.
The output
Sun
329,000
864,000
3,100
Mercury Venus
Earth
0.39 0.72
1
0.05 0.82
1
0.3
0.91
1
6.7
1.9
1
68 d
?
7,500 7,920
24 hr
Mars
Jupiter
1.52
0.11
Saturn
Uranus Neptune
Pluto
Moon
*
f
5.2 9.5 19.2 30 79 1.0
317 95
15 17
4,150 87,000
0.38
t t
t
0.43 0.037
0.01
1
24.6 hr
10 hr
88 d 225 d 365 d 1.9

12 yr
2.3
yr
THE PLANETS
71,500 32,000
31,000
?
10 hr
11 hr
0.0027
0.0011
29 yr 84 yr
165
yr
because of its nearness to the sun, Mercury is difficult to observe ami knowledge of its physical characteristics is not very accurate. Mercury has a mass about one-twentieth the mass of the earth. It
no moon. .Mercury has a rockysurl'ace. probably similarlof hat our moon. Mercury always keeps the same side turned toward the sun. This side probably has surface temperatures as high as
lias
t
|
16 hr
?
0.8 0.012
0.0006
1
248
yr
2,160
0.17
27 d
Hoi no
solid surface. location of solid surfoce not known (far below dense atmospheric gases).
b)()C, while
gases, with
the side in darkness is cold enough to retain frozen temperatures approaching absolute zero.
slightly smaller
Venus
2.2
is
THE SUN
sun,
than the earth, shrouded
in
a dense
The
whose gravitational attraction

is
chiefly controls the
mo-
tion of planets in the solar system,
classified as
about average
opaque to light of all wavelengths, Neither free oxyRen nor water vapor has been detected on Venus. Carbon dioxide s abundant in its atmosphere, with nitrogen and argon also
;
ilinospherc
12

is
Environment
of
Space
13
thought that die surface of Venus is hot {about 425C), dry, and dark beneath a continuous dust storm.
present. It
distance from the earth of 239,000 mi.
ciable atmosphere. Its surface, comprising
diameter ahoul half that of the earth, its rate of revolution is about the same as that of earth, and its axis, too, is inclined about 2;"> from the plane of its orbit. Mars takes <87 of our days to make one circuit of the sun. Although the orbit is nearly circular, it is not centered on the sun; Mars is more than
Mars
mountains,
on
its
is
lias u
probably dry,
The moon has no appremany craters and high dust-covered rack. The moon rotates
axis in a period of time equal to the period of its revolution about the earth, 27.3 days. The moon's elliptic orbit and its variation in altitude from season to season permit us to examine
about 00 per cent of
its surface,
over a period of time.
30 million mi farther from the sun at some parts of its year than at others. More than half of the surface of Mars is a desert of
rusty rock, sand, and
color changes
soil.
2.5
ASTEROIDS, COMETS,
AND METEORITES
The
rest of the sin-face
shows seasonal
planets, are of irregular shape.
which have been interpreted as due to vegetation. While noon summer temperature on Mars probably reaches 30C, night temperatures probably fall to 70C. The atmosphere {mostly nitrogen) on Mars has a pressure about 10 per cent of the earth's atmosphere. Oxygen has not been detected. The white polar caps are probably frost layers, which on melting furnish moisture for the summer growth of vegetation. Mars has two
small satellites about 5 and 10 mi in diameter. Each of the four giant planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, seems to have a dense rocky core surrounded by a thick
Asteroids are pieces of planetlike material which, unlike the They may be the shattered frag-
Fig.
2.2
Radiation
pressure
which
forces the tail of
a comet away from
the sun might propel a spaceship.
*
meats of one or more planets. Most measure
the largest, Ceres,
asieroids
lie
V
few miles across;
and covered by thousands of miles of compressed hydrogen and helium with smaller quantities of methane and ammonia. These planets receive relatively feeble radiation from the sun, so that the temperatures of their upper atmospheres range from -100 to -200C. These planets rotate rapidly and
layer of ice
orbits of most between the orbits of Mars am! Jupiter {Fig. 2.1). The time for one revolution varies greatly among the asteroids.
is
nearly f>00 mi across.
The
the same direction. Some of the satellites of these planets are larger than the earth's moon and may have physical characteristics less formidable for space-flight visits than the major planets
in
Comets are large, loose collections of material that penetrate the inner regions of the solar system from outer space. The most
famous one, named after Halley, has been sighted every 7(i.02 years since 240 h.c, but not all return periodically. Comets have a head and tail. The head is made up of heavy particles and is
attracted by the sun. The tail is made up of dust and gas forced away from the sun by radiation pressure as the
themselves. Jupiter has 12
satellites.
Four are bright enough to
be easily visible with binoculars, and their rapid motion causes interesting changes in position from night to night. Saturn is the farthest of the planets visible to the unaided eye. It has nine satellites. Saturn is surrounded by remarkable flat
rings in the plane of the equator. It has been suggested that the
rings are
and is comet
made up
of tiny particles of a shattered tenth satellite.
sweeps past the sun. The brightness of the comets is probably due to reflected sunlight. The earth has passed through the tails of many comets without effect.
Some
2,000 tons of material from outer space reaches the
Ruth's atmosphere each day

2.4
THE MOON
a mass about BV that of the earth, a diameter of about 2,l(iO mi, and an elliptic orbit which gives it an average
The moon has
in the form of meteorite particles, atmosphere with speeds of 10 to 50 mi/sec and are heated to incandescence, producing the light streaks called incteors. Reflection of radio waves from the ionized paths
1'hose enter the earth's
14

of sky
Satellites,
Space Travel
and observations
counting of meteors indicate
gk)W at twilight as well as direct visual tliat a large amount of material inadequate. How much meteoiare data but is received daily, vehicle might encounter is an important itie material a space
unknown.
|,
dust,
of zodiacal light can In the night sky a faint tapered band is evidence of cosmic It ..en and traced photoelectrically. plane of the solar mierometeorites, concentrated toward the
system.
2.6
RADIATION
x rays, ultravinl.t
Beyond the shelter of the earth's atmosphere, intensities which may have to be rays, and cosmic rays exist at vehicles. The WA considered in planning exploration by space
belt of high-energy radMr Explorer satellite detected an encircling of a few hundred miles, most tion extending upward from a height The earth's magnetic intense in the equatorial region (Fig. 2.3). electrons and protons, constituting field traps the particles, chiefly flares, the sun delivers as much solar During the radiation belt. as 1,000 times its normal radiation. is described in The nature of the radiation found in space astronaut* to radiation Table 2.2. In order to avoid subjecting
space
Charge Mass
Fig. 2.3
Space
radiation: cross section of the radiation pattern in longitude
75 west, from
Explorer
satellites.
(Adapted from
the
New
York Times,
October 27, 1958.)
Table 2.2
Radiation
in
Name
Nature of
radiation
Where found
Photon
Electronic gnetic
Electronic gnetic
Quantum
Radiation belts, solar radiation (produced by nuclear

reactions
electrons)
Xray
Electromagnetic
and by stopping
Gamma
Electron
ray
Electromagnetic
Particle
Particle
Proton
lm, 1,840m,
or
1
Radiation belt
Cosmic rays, inner rodiotion

belts, solar
omu
cosmic rays
Neutron
Porticle
1,841m,
Vicinity of
planets and sun
(produced in nuclear inter* decoys into proactions
ton
and
electron)
Alpha porticle
Particle
+ 2.
&+3e
E
'
4 6
amu amu
Cosmic
Heovy primaries
Porticle
roys (nucleus of helium atom) Cosmic rays (nuclei of heavier
otomsl
Pioneer V, o 95-1 b highly instrumented space planetoid, supply the first comprehensive data collected ,ary space.
'9-
2,4
was launched
in
March
11, 1960, to
interplane-
From
H.
E.
Newell and
J.
Naugle, Science, 132i 1*65 (1960).
15
Environment
of
Space
17
5
in
excess of tolerable dosages (Table 2.3),
it
may
be necessary
-n.
Dl
to plan flights from the earth along trajectories which avoid the regions of concentrated radiation (Fig, 2,">).
Table 2.3
* t
I
Maximum
exposure
permissible radiation dosages and

levels {in roentgens)
some
typical
o
t
1)
<
Item
Amount
Permissib/e exposures
Maximum
Maximum
permissible dosages
0.3*
r/'quarter
permissible
emergency exposure
Typical exposures
5.0 r/yr 25 r
3 o
i
a
y,
'
'" '. v /.: '
-. >.
'-,.
Normal radiation
level (sea level)
*-*/
Undisturbed interplanetary space (cosmic rays) Heart of inner belt (protons)
0.001 r day 5-12 r/yr 24 r/hr
c 5
Heart of outer belt

i
.
(soft x rays)
J!
~200
2-400
Under
this limit
r/hr
So!ar proton event (protons)

Total exposure
* Limit prescribed for radiation workers.
10-10" r/hr
r
S-5!
z o
I
i &
the yearly
u
u% in
1/1
maximum would be
From H.
E.
1.2
r. J. E.
Newell and
Naugle, Science, 132: 1465 (1960).
z
I
2.7
MORE DISTANT SPACE
The sun's nearest star neighbor is Alpha Centauri, which is more than 4 light-years away. (In contrast, the outermost planet of the solar system, Pluto, is only 0.000 light-year from the sun.) The
relative brightness of several stars and their distances from the sun are shown in Table 2.4.
Insofar as man knows, the universe is infinite. Scattered throughout this void is an apparently endless number of galaxies, each of which contains millions of stars. Some galaxies are themselves
grouped
of
in clusters.
The
I
constellation
made up
some 400
galaxies. In the observable region
Ei
16
us there are an estimated billion galaxies, tance between galaxies of about 2 million liglil -years. Galaxies usually have the shape of disks thousands of lightyears in diameter. The larger galaxies have spiral arms suggesting a pattern of rotation. Our own galaxy, the Milky Way, appears tn have this form. Our solar system is believed to be situated in
Corona Borealis is around with an average dis-
18
Space Travel Looking Out: Rockets, Satellites,
Environment
of
Space
19
Table 2.4
Star
Some
star distances
to
Park, Pa., 1982, 54 pp. A manual for adult discussion study groups which a Guide for the Discussion Leader is keyed,
Brightness, relative to sun
Distance from sun,

light-yeors
Duncan, John
Inc..
C: Astronomy,"
York, 1055.
5th ed., Harper
it'
Row, Publishers,
Library of
Now
Hoyie, Fred: "Frontiers of Astronomy." New American Win-id Literature, Inc., New York. 1955.
Alpha Centauri
Barnard's Star
Wolf 539
Sirius
A,B
60,000 23
Proeyon
Altair
6 8
5,200 6,600
13,000
Argo Deneb
Betelgeuse
4.3 6.0 7.7 8.7 11.3 16.5 180 640
James. .1. N.: The Voyage of Mariner 70-84 (1983).

Krogdfthl,
II,
Scientific
American, 209:
Wasley S.: "The Astronoinical [.'inverse," The Macmillan Company, New York, 1952. McLaughlin, Dean II.: "Introduction to Astronomy," Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1981.
Newell,
II.
!",..
and
J.
I
K,
Xaugle: Uadiulion Environment
in
Space.
Sririr. 1:12:1
if 15
172 (Mil ill).
650
one
of the spiral arm*,
The
it
manned
one circuit of the, galaxy. takes 200 million vears to complete may lead to techniques Ylthough presently envisioned not suffice for will they system, exploration in the solar
solar
system
is
about 30,000 light-years from the center. see, but moving at a speed of about 1-.0 mi
Shaw, John II.: The Radiation Environment of Interplanetarv Space, Applied Optics, I 87-95 (1902). Zim. Herbert, and Robert 1L linker: "Stars." Colder, Press. Xew York
-.
1950.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Would you expect Mercury to have an atmosphere, that is, a permanent gaseous envelope? 2. Estimate the fraction of the total mass of the solar system which
exploring (he vast distances beyond. stars less than 12 per cent of all If as has been estimated, our stars m billion some 200 have planetary systems, then nut of is led One systems. planetary galaxy, there are some billion with number there are probably some to speculate that out of this support life. Communisystems with earthlike planets that may galaxy is a matter ,t speculacation with distant planets of the other galaxies at least out only. And bevond our galaxy arc
tion
telescopes: to the limits accessible to present directions. all years in
i"
lie
sun.
Am.
(iO.fi
per cent
Does a physical environment of the sort needed to support plant and animal life such as we know exist elsewhere in the universe? Where? Can you conceive of a form of life not based on water chemistry? Might ammonia or fluorine compounds serve? Where in the universe would you expect lids differenl form of life to exist? If it docs exist in intelligent. r,, rmi ,[,, vnu tM n k Wl ou ( tHnmu i t at p ,vilh it? I. A point on the earth's equnlor is carried ahoul 1,090 uii.hr by
3.
, . j ( j |
,.
some
'2
billion light-
the rotation or the earth. Jupiter has an equatorial diameter II times thai of the earth and a day of 10 hr. Calculate (he speed of a point on the equator of Jupiter. _>2.i mi hr
.W
5.
Express the diameter of Pluto's orbil

In
in
mi.
A FILM INTRODUCTION TO SPACE
Ut*mB.28wto
(I960), National Contemporary Films. Inc., 287
Fiim^r,Ur Ca^la.
For vent from

I,
West 25 St, New York
N.Y.
Teachers' guide available,
Ami. 7,309 million mi what ways is it true that all our sources of energyplant life, "oal. oil, and water -arc derived from the radiant energy we receive uom the sun? T. Furnish some evidence for or against the statements: The climate "ii Mars is similar to that which one would encounter on a iO-mi-high -'i on earth. Granted transportation, a self-sustaining colon v might
6.
' '
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

e<L, I). Van Nostrum! Baker, Robert H.: "Astronomy," 7th 1989. ., Inc., Princeton, NJ. t Known to the Unknown, n Bauer Carl \ "The Universe bom fee Umvcrsitj Kdueation, Pennsylvania Stale University. Continuing
:
'"'
Company,
established on Mars. 8. The four outermost

i
1
npitei-
of Jupiter's 12 satellites revolve about rrom east to west, contrary to Ihe motion of most satellites in solar system and to the direction of revolution of Ihe planets around m. Can yon suggest a possible reason for this retrograde motion?
Rocket Propulsion
ally, for practical reasons,
21
confined to two dimensions. So the

is
theory of motion in one plane

cation,
adequate. In further simplififlight
we may begin by considering the
path to be a
straight line (one-dimensional theory).
We shall
weight ratio
consider in this chapter the basic principles of rocket

1
1
propulsion; the effects of mass ratio, specific impulse, and
mist/
on the
flight of
a single-stage rocket; and then the
performance of multistage rockets.
Rocket
Propulsion
3,1
MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES: NEWTON'S LAWS

in
Three laws formulated by Sir Isaac Newton century are fundamental to rocketry:
Necessity
tion;
its
is
the seventeenth
not the mother of inven-
1.
A body at
to
rest
remains at rest and a body

in
in
motion continues
knowledge and experiment are
move
at constant speed
a straight line unless acted upon
parents.
W.
R.
Whitney
2.
by an
in
externa}, unbalanced force.
An unbalanced
force acting on a body produces an acceleration the direction of the net force, an acceleration that is directly
proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
3.
All vehicles move !>y reaction with some other thing. Cars require traction on the road. Snip* and planes push or pull themselves through water or air. Only rockets carry their own "something
For every force that acts on one body, there is a force equal magnitude but opposite in direction that reacts upon a second hody.
in
Table
3.1
Consistent systems of units for Newton's second law
else" to push against. In the
words of J. X. Savage, "a rocket is any machine that propels itself by ejecting material brought
along for the purpose." A rocket is an internal-combustion engine that carries its own supply of oxygen (in any of several forms of "oxidizer")- Therefore, it
Name
of system
Unit of
mass
Unit of force
Unit of
acceleration
does not require air but can operate in a vacuum, as

description of a rocket in flight
is
in
Mks (absolute) Cgs absolute Cgs gravitational

British British
kilogram
gram No name assigned
newton* dyne*
meter, second -
centimeter second
gram
poundal* pound
centimeter, second 3
space.
m = W,
a particular application
It is
absolute
gravitational
The
pound
slug*
foot/second 2
foot /second 1 as that
dynamics of rigid bodies. venient to consider separately the motion of the center of mass and the motion of the body around its center of mass. The former
of the general theory of the
is
con-
Any system
W, g
Same
unit
Same
unit
as that
used for
In
used for g
the theory of flight performance, the
bility
and
control.
The
the theory of stapowered flight of a ballistic rocket is usulatter,
each
set the starred unit
is
the one usually defined from the second
law
so as to
make
in F
kma.
20
22
Looking Out
Rockets, Satellites, Space Travel

If this in
Rocket Propulsion
23
3.2
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

is
convenient to list and remember the equations which apply acceleration in a straight to a body which moves with constant met. The average speed often but one case, special line. This is a required, 5 = s/t, or time by the divided traveled v is the distance
It
,
mixture were ignited, there would result a high pressure the chamber exerting force equally in all directions. The pt sphere would remain at rest because there would be no net force acting on it. Consider a section to be removed from one side of the sphere
=U
M>
The sphere would now experience a net force. Since there would be no balancing force across area A\ (Fig. 3.1b), the force on area A-> would cause the sphere to
so that the gases could escape.
direction, the accelSince we have assumed motion in a constant a - (i Vi)/t, the time, by divided speed in eration is the change
to the left. The magnitude of this force or thrust F would be equal to the product of the pressure p c in the chamber and the area A t of the throat:
move
or
v,
- =
at
03)
f is
F = pAt A greater force

3.(>)
cm
speed Since the speed changes at n uniform rate, the average speeds: final and initial the of sum equal to half the
S
+
2
"
(3.3)
can be obtained under certain conditions (Sec. nozzle at the exit (Fig. 3.1c). The contribution of the nozzle is represented by a thrust coefficient Cp used as a multiplier in the previous thrust equation, so
by adding an expansion
By
combining these, two other useful equations can be obtained. Eliminating u s and v, we get
s
F =
PrAtCp
laws,
if
(3.7)
From Xewton's
A(mi>)
is
M + Jo*
6
<
3 4>
-
a system, the rate of change of
momentum
the net external force applied to of the system is
By
eliminating
and
from Eq.
(3,1) to (8.3),
we
get
_
(3.8)
is
When
3.3
a rocket
is
in free space,
the net external force acting upon

their rate of
REACTION PRINCIPLE
the rocket
zero. If
mass
particles are ejected

iv,
Xewton's third rocket engine develops thrust by employing sphere (Fig. stationary a Imagine manner. law in the following
with a constant exhaust velocity
from the rocket change of momen-
tum
'
gives the rocket
an accelerating
force
vapor 3.1) containing a combustible mixture of gasoline
and
air.
- "
A,
* F and
c,
(3.9)
The negative
directions.
sign expresses the fact that
are in opposite
a Ah-
P,
The exit pressure p of the gas from a rocket often may be either greater or lower than pressure of the racket's environment,
ambient pressure
p. Also, while p r remains constant, p will decrease as the missile gains altitude. If the difference between the
(a)
Fig. 3.1
(6) Reaction, the principle of

jet
M
propulsion.
two pressures
is multiplied by the exit area .4,.. we have the magnitude of the unbalanced force (p c pa )A e acting on the rocket.
24

is
Rocket Propulsion
25
This force
called the "pressure thrust," in contrast with the
3.4
EFFECTIVE EXHAUST VELOCITY
thrust" expressed in Eq. (8.9). The total thrust of a rocket engine can be expressed as the sum of the momentum thrust and the pressure thrust:
"momentum
velocity
V,n
In order to simplify the thrust equation, an effective exhaust >\. fi is defined as
F = -
-^T- V*
(}Je
F
V-) A
-
(3.10)
Am
A!
is
(3.11)
"Usually, the only
term on the right-hand

is p,
side of this equation
Then Eq.
_
(3.10)
written
in
simplified
form as
(3.11a)
that
will
vary with respect to time
the ambient pressure.
Am
v
66
64
/-"
f
Of course
is
variable with altitude, whereas
, is
o X
1
62
a particular rocket system.

sion of the gas,
if
Cnder optimum conditions
constant for for expane,. f r
when p, = p, the effective exhaust velocity equal to the theoretical exhaust velocity r,.
SPECIFIC IMPULSE
of a rocket engine
is
=e
60
/
58
-
X
3.5
/
i
The performance
its specific
impulse. This
is conveniently described by the thrust produced divided by the
56 54
il
40,000
Altitude,
ft
weight of propellant consumed per second

_! 80,000
20,000
60,000
100,000
Aw/At
Since
(3.12)
F and w
are expressible in the
same unit
If
Fig. 3.2
Decrease of
thrust with altitude,
V-2
missile.
unit for specific
impulse
is
the second.
(e.g., pounds), the other factors are held
Positive thrust
Negative
thrust
constant, the speed that a missile can attain is directly proportional to the specific impulse of its propellants.
The specific impulse varies with altitude, since thrust is variable with altitude. By combining Kqs. (3.11) and (3.12), the following useful relationship is obtained:
j
/' _ Vv it / At Air/ At " i) Am II
Am
r,.
'
fi
-t
Fig. 3.3
~f
(3.13)
To
Pressure thrust
in
a rocket motor.
avoid the difficulty of having /, become infinitely large as the gravitational acceleration g approaches zero at high altitudes, it is generally agreed that the value g u = 32.2 ft/sec- si mil be used
in K<). (3.13):
The resulting decrease in thrust as a missile gains altitude is shown in Fig. 3.2. If, as often at sea level, p e < P-, the pressure
thrust term will be negative (Fig. 3.3).
(3-14)
Rocket Propulsion
27
26
intended to summarize the facts that certain quantities, such as theoretical exhaust velocity u propcllant flow rate Am /At, gas pressure in chamber p and exit pressure p, are constant for the rocket system. Other quanti-
The
simplified
graph
(Kig. 8,4)
is
As the measure of over-all engine performance, specific impulse and expansion performance. From thermodynamics il may be shown that
related to both combustion performance
ties,
such as thrust F, effective exhaust velocity vMt and specific
<-
M
(3.15)
F> "'
where T is the combustion temperature and is the molecular mass of the exhaust gas. Thus a hot, lightweight gas gives a high specific impulse. Roth a large value for the heat of propellant combustion and low specific heat of the gas are desirable to produce the high temperature.
-*.ve ,Pe ,Pc
The requirement of low-molecular mass suggests that the products of combustion should be rich in hydrogen compounds.
3.6
FUEL COMBUSTION AND EXPANSION

basic principles
in
The
Sea level
Altitude
Fig.
150,000
ft
ments
p and
increase
design can be illustrated
engine using a liquid

(,
we have been discussing and some refineby considering a typical rocket fuel and oxidizer (Kig. 3.5). The engine conCombustion
3.4
Simplified representation of the fact that dm, dt, v
p t are independent of a rocket altitude, while F, v,ti, and with altitude since they depend on ambient pressure pa
.
De
Laval
chamber
nozzle
impulse
/,
vary with altitude since they depend upon the ambient

.
pressure p a
Table 3.2
Performance of typical
for expansion from
liquid propellant
lb
in.
1
combinations (calculated
300
to
otm)
Propellant combination
Mixture
ratio
Exhaust
velocity,
Specific
impulse,
sec
Fig, 3.5
(oxidizer/fuel)
ft/sec
Simplified liquid racket motor.
Liquid
oxygen and 75% ethyl alcohol, H 5 (V-2 propellant) Liquid oxygen and liquid H-,. Liquid oxygen and kerosene Fluorine and hydrazine H-.0;:(S7%) and H,.0 (13%) Red fuming nitric acid and aniline
25%
1.3 5.33 2,2 1.9
7700
10,800
7,970 9,610
239 335 248 299

126
221
verts the thermochemical potential energy of the propellants into the kinetic energy of the gas in the exhaust jet. The steps involved
3.0
Ni from ethane
4,060 7,090 7,010

&.
218
Sons,
Inc.,
From G,
P. Sutton,
"Rocket Propulsion Elements," John Wiley
and expanfrom their tanks into the injector by means of compressed gas or a turbopump. The injector distributes the fuel and oxidizer in a flow pattern that causes thorough mixing. Ignition is started by a device at the surface of the injector; thereafter heat from the combustion gases mainsion. Tin: liquid propellants arc forced
;nc propellant feed, injection, ignition, combustion,
New
York, 1949.
28
Satellites,
Space Travel
Rocket Propulsion
29
tains continuous ignition.
Combustion takes place throughout the combustion chamber with some residual burning in the exhaust
gas
jet.
wall before reaching the nozzle exit.
The
thrust coedieient
is
slightly higher during separation than for a full-flowing nozzle.
During combustion, the propellants change from liquid to new chemical gas, and by electron sharing they combine to make into thermal converted is energy compounds. Chemical potential The change temperature. high very energy, raising the gas to a of the temperature high plus the from the liquid to the gas state
forced gas results in a high chamber pressure. Gas particles are
to the rear.
It is
Optimum
expansion
Jet separation Jet separation
.
Underexpansion expansion
'
Pe
> Pa
Pe <Pa
6
the purpose of the nozzle to allow the gases to leave the

Expansion area ratio,
Fig.
t
rear rocket in smooth flow and also to accelerate these gases. The A area throat converges to a first of the combustion chamber the about have which may area A then expands to an exit
3.6
Jet separation.
and same diameter
m as the combustion chamber. The change from potential energy (nondireeted thermal motion of gas atoms) to steps. the kinetic energy of a high-velocity gas jet occurs in two nozzle, the of portion As the gas passes through the converging up. the decreasing cross-sectional area causes the flow to speed
speed corresponding to sonic speed (Mach 1)* at the nozzle throat provided the chamber surpressure exceeds a critical value, approximately twice the nozzle diverging rounding atmospheric pressure. The addition of a
3.7
BURNOUT VELOCITY AND RANGE

line inclined
Consider the case of a rocket moving in a straight
at
an angle
with respect to the direction of gravity, with thrust
paraDel to the path.
The equation
of
motion
will
be
(3.17)
The
gas flow reaches a
maximum
m
where
to
At
D +
mg
cos
is
the aerodynamic drag and g
is
the acceleration of
usually depends on
provides for even more acceleration of the gases. A typical throat speed may be 4,000 ft/sec and exit speed 7,000 ft/sec. The expansion area rat in
gravity at the location of the rocket. Since
A,
Cilo)
A
is
chosen for a particular engine to give the highest average thrust over the powered portion of the trajectory, For a given c a bell nozzle may be some 30 per cent shorter than a conical nozzle, and hence its use conserves rocket weight. An interesting phenomenon called jet separation may add additional thrust. When the exit pressure is very low in compari-
son with the ambient pressure, gas flow breaks away from the
Fig. 3,7
Forces on a rocket,
* Mach number M is defined as the ratio of Free stream speed v to = v/a\ it is the ratio of directed molecular the local speed of sound a, motion to random molecular motion.
the shape and speed of the rocket and the density of the snrroundng air, let us assume for this illustration that the rocket is at such
30
Satellites,
Space Travel
(3.17)
Rocket Propulsion
31
high altitude that
D=
0. If
we divide Eq.
by
m and
use
3.9
Eq. (3.13) to set

1
F = gJ.Am/At, we have
(3.18)
MULTIPLE-STAGE ROCKETS
empty mass
must be used to even after most of
Am
the rocket starts from rest,
v
In a single-stage rocket the propulsion energy

accelerate the entire
of the rocket
t'^'irsIf
that
we assume
tliat
0.
We
set
empty mass is no longer useful. This severely limits the velocity attainable. Tn fact, with present fuels, a single-stage
rocket cannot achieve velocities of the order of 25,000 ft/sec and higher required to place a satellite in orbit or to escape the earth's
tVi/ff
mass,
and let R he the ratio of initial R = m /m b Then E(|. (3.18) can be

u
.
mass
to final
burnout
solved (Appendix )
to find the velocity

vt
at burnout
(3.19)
gravitational
field.
is
= hu
In
gh cos
multiple-stage rocket
made up
of a
number
ent sections each equipped with a propulsion
of independsystem and a portion
where k is the duration of burning. The two averages iv and g are necessary since the values of both effective exhaust velocity and gravitational acceleration are dependent on altitude. Greater range and less time for interception of a rocket will
result
of the total propellant load. After the first (booster) stage has
its burnout velocity, its dropped from the rocket. A second (sustainer) stage carrying the payload is then fired and continues to accel-
lifted
the entire rocket and has reached

is
empty mass
erate the
(
from increasing the burnout velocity of the missile. This improvement, can he obtained, according to Eq. (3.19), by increasing the effective exhaust velocity and the mass ratio.
now
lightened missile to the appropriate
final velocity.
3.8
MASS RATIO
ratio
is
two stages can be used, but design and operational difficulties become more numerous as stages are added. If each of a series of stages has the same values of specific impulse, dead-weight fraction, payload fraction, and thrust/ weight fraction, each will contribute the same increase in velocity to the
)f
course more than
The mass
mass
defined as the quotient of the initial or total
final
payload. This design results in the lightest over-all rocket

simplified expression for the burnout velocity of a two-stage
is
of a rocket
and
its
burnout mass
h 4 :
to perform a given mission.
A
(3.20)
III:,
rocket
Vt
This
is
one
or several dimension less ratios useful in

lie
comparing
=
t
fvrln
(/r,/rs)
(3.22)
rocket designs. Others, whose- definitions should
apparent, arc
the thrust, full-weight ratio, the dead-weight fraction, and the payload fraction. The burnout mass is related to the initial mass
Here R is the initial mass of entire rocket divided by the burnout mass of the first stage plus the initial mass of the second stage, R = (wioi vus)/("'m + t 02) and R.< m hi,,., ,jj,,,. if the second
simply by
stage
Am
where
(3.21)
the propellant flow rate, From Eqs. (3.18) and (3.19) it is evident that to achieve the desirable high burnout velocity, a fuel with high specific impulse is needed. Further, for a given value of / larger mass ratios provide higher values of iv The mass ratio of the World War II
is
Am /At
small in relation to the first stage, the value of the logarithmic term in Eq. (3.22) will he greater than that in Eq. (3.19), predicting a greater final burnout velocity for the twostage rocket than that given by Eq. (3.19) for a single-stage
is
made
rocket in vertical flight, namely,
1%
i\.rr
In R.
3-10
NUCLEAR PROPULSION
Some advanced concepts

s1
German
V-2 rockets was about 3.2. For present rockets

.">.
R U
for rocket-propulsion systems have to do with development of recoverable boosters, restartable engines,
"nit>k'
as high as
propcilants.
and nozzles which allow
reduction in
32
Looking Out: Rockets.

size.
Satellites,
Space Travel
Rocket Propulsion
33
engine
But
efforts are also being
made
to find
new sources
of
should
rocket power, other than chemical reactions;. Figuratively, we like to be able to pack the power output of Hoover Dam 6 kilowatts) into a sports car. The development of (1.3 X 10 nuclear power sources promises to provide specific impulses significantly greater than the values,
fuels.
around 400
sec, for
chemical
Research on the use of a nuclear reactor as a rocket energy source has been carried out since 1955 in Project Rover, directed by the Atomic Energy Commission and the National Aeronautics
Pressure shell
Nozzle
Fig. 3.9
KiwI-A nuclear engine at Project Rover test
site in
Nevada.
Reactor core
space.
So one would expect
to be able to
nuclear energy into thrust.

Fig. 3.8
The
limiting factor
put almost all the is the energy denit
Scheme
for a nuclear-powered rocket engine.
sity one can
put into the propellant to eject
at sufficiently
high speed.
and Space Administration. The

Kiwi's, after a flightless bird.
test engines
have been named

in solid-fuel
Heat
is
generated
elements by nuclear fission (('hap. 20). Hydrogen gas flows through channels in the core. The heated gas is exhausted at high
speed through a nozzle (Fig- 3.8). The thermodynamic (Caniot) efficiency of any heat engine
is
\ssumc thai one has an ideal nozzle to recover directed energy from the thermal motion of the propellant molecules and that the propellant acts as a perfect gas. Then
kinetic
RT
(3.24)
given by
Efficiency
7',
T->
(3.23)
Ti
and the exhaust velocity v c is proportional to \/T/p or to \/T/M, where p is the density of the propellant, is its molecular mass, and Ft is the universal gas constant. For high velocities one wants
where 7'i is the temperature (absolute) of the source of energy and Ta is the temperature at which the working fluid is discharged.
maximum temperature and minimum
The
lieat -exchanger
nuclear engine exhausts into a

especially
relatively low temperature environment,
when
in
,J
molecular mass. Thus hydrogen heated to the highest feasible temperature gives the largest specific impulse of any material. Estimates range from 00 to 1,500 sec for the specific impulse of a heat -ex changer
34
Rocket Propulsion
35
nuclear rocket engine. Recalling the relation n, = 7 p ln (mo/m,), with nuclear proit is apparent that the larger l. p attainable or escape velocity orbital desired pulsion allows one to reach a
velocity with a
rocket
is
very large.
The weight
of the electric
using nuclear fission or solar radiation devices,

to
is
power plant, even a major obstacle
an
efficient ion rocket.
much
lower
initial fully
fueled weight (smaller
mass ratio )<>/') Under Project Sherwood, studies are being conducted to find ways of controlling and using the energy liberated in the fusing of
the lightest nuclei into heavier nuclei.
in
s
Electrons
Distributor plots and
El eel Electric generator
V-a f
Electrons
The phenomena involved
housing ot 40,000 volts
>.
thermonuclear (fusion) rockets, plasma rockets, and ion rockstudy ets fall under the general term magnôhydrodynamica: the and magelectric by upon acted of the behavior of ionized gases
netic fields.
Propel ont
I
Heated to a very maintain a high-speed would high temperature, the deuterium rated in impulses specific of plasma (hot, ionized gas) capable confining a in problem difficult millions of seconds. There is a million around :i">0 he to plasma at the temperatures estimated degrees. Perhaps the plasma could be kept from coming into contact with material walls in chamber and nozzle by suitably shaped
Deuterium
is
a likely fuel for a fusion rocket.
Heater coils Îonization gr
20,000 volts-''
10,000 volts-
5,000
Fig. 3.10
volts
Scheme
for
an
ion rocket engine.
Propellent injection
magnetic
fields.
3.11
ION PROPULSION
of one or
The removal
laut,
more
electrons from molecules of a propelgrids, proHigh- current

circuit
by passing the propelknt through heated metal
vides ions which can then be accelerated to high velocities through a nozzle by an electric field. Volt age takes the place of tempera-
Arc discharge
ture in producing acceleration. One such technique uses metallic rubidium or cesium prope.l-
Each time an atom of cesium comes in contact with the heated tungsten grids, an electron leaves the cesium atom and goes to the tungsten metal. The resulting cesium ions travel past decreasing potential levels and arc accelerated
lant
and tungsten
grids.
to their final exhaust velocity.
The
will
It ion rocket will always have relatively small thrust. in rockets) nuclear or chemical require assistance (from
Fig. 3.11
Scheme
for
plasma rocket engine.
ground takeolTs where strong gravitational force must be overcome. But the performance of an ion engine at high altitudes will be very good. Estimates of its specific impulse are as large as 20,000 sec. The amount of electric power required for an ion
3.12
PLASMA PROPULSION
Hie propcllant
electric arc in
may
be heated directly
by maintaining a powerful
But
this device,
it.
In this
way
high temperatures can be obtained,
leading to a specific impulse of perhaps 2,000 sec.
36
Looking Out
Rocket Propulsion
37
power, too, will require 8 great amount of electric thrust. watts for each pound of
about
(50
kilo-
solar rays
lie
would he used
to
heat hydrogen gas which would then

ion or a fusion system.
expelled through a nozzle. Kstimated values of the thrust are low
applied conIn plasma and ton propulsion the thrust can be these techby Hence time. period of tinuously over an extended on earth whose weight rockets space niques one can propel in propulsion. ion thrust of greatly exceeds the
hut are several
hundred times those of an
3.14
MODEL ROCKETRY
a youth has
felt
Many
the urge to become a backyard rocketeer.
3.13
SOLAR PROPULSION
pressure of solar In one scheme of solar propulsion, the radiation sphere, reflecting lightweight a perhaps rays (ailing on a "sail," scheme, the another In if. propel would attached to the spaceship
Sun's rays heat water
of Rocketry, founded in 15)57, seeks to advance model rocketry as a scientific hobby and as ati educational program. The NAR has developed rules and procedures for a safe, supervised, citizen-operated model-rocketry program
The National Association
for enthusiasts of all ages.
Model rocketry
rockets
is
concerned with small,

balsa,
plastic,
light,
inexpensive
noninetallic
made
of paper,
and other
circulating
at Focus of mirror,
producing steam
Steam-driven
turbogenerator
to
powered by commercially available rocket motors. Emphasis is placed upon design, performance, flight characteristics, instrumentation, and reliability. Competitions are sponmaterials,
sored
hy
local societies.
I'iiblicat ions
ami informal
ion
about the
XAR
can
lie
obtained
develop
from G. Harry Stine, President, National Association of Hockel rv, Stamford Museum it Nature ( "enter, Stamford. Connecticut.
Physics teachers
may
he interested
in
model rocketry as a
device for stimulating student interest in mathematics, mechanics,
aerodynamics,
meteorology, electronics, optics, and pho-
tography. Ideas based on the experience of the most active sections of the NAIl may be requested from Dr. Stine at the address
above.
MANUFACTURERS OF MODEL ROCKETS

American Telasco Limited, 135 New York Ave., IhUesitc, X.V. Centuri Knpncering Co.. 340 \V. Wilshirc Drive, Phoenix 3, Ariz.
Ci>aler Corporation, P.O.
Solar sail
Box 2S0, Hiiless. Tex. Bates Industries, Inc.. P.O. Box 227. Penrose, Colo. Model .Missiles, Inc., 2ti!<) Bast Cedar Ave., Denver 22, Colo. Propulsion Dynamics. Inc., P.O. Pox 2XXA. Ut. 1, Officii, Utah
Rocket Development Corp., Box 522, Rich mood, bid. Cnited Scientific Co., Inc.. P.O. Box S9, Waupaca, Wis.
FILM
Schemes for solar propulsion, (o) Steam generated by solar energy drives electric generator. {b\ Recoiling photons
Fig. 3.12
The
Itislor,/
impart momentum to
ami Development of the fiwkri. 10 min (1962). MeUruw-llill Text-Film Division, 330 West 42 St., New York 36, N.Y. Available in color or black and white.
sail.
38
Rocket Propulsion
39
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Hobbs. Marvin: "Fundamentals of Rockets, Missiles, and Spacecraft," John F. Rider, Publisher, Inc. New York, L962, 27ft pp. "An Introduction to Rocket Missile Propulsion," Rocketdync, Canoga
Park, Calif.. 1958,
12ft
7. Show that if one increases the exhaust temperature of a hc-alcNclianger nuclear rocket, the specific impulse and power requirements ! and the mass ratio will decrease as exp T. What will increase as J'
limits this favorable picture?
8. The Atlas 1CBM is called a '-stage rocket because of its unique application of the step principle. The Atlas has three main engines: two booster engines and one suslainer. Each engine receives propellant from a single very lightweight tank. The three engines are mounted parallel to one another. All three engines are ignited at takeofT. I/titer. at staging, the boosters ami housing slide backward on rails and drop to earth, leaving the suslainer engine to propel (he vehicle. Can you suggest some advantages of this type of staging over the convent iona! tandem staging? 9. How can rocket action be demonstrated with a toy balloon? 10. What is the fallacy in the following argument? "A horse pulls on u cart. By Xewton's third law, the cart pulls back on the horse with a force etjiuil to that exerted by the horse on the earl. Hence the sum of the forces is zero, from which it follows that it is not possible for the
I
pp,
"Model Kits," Revcll, Inc., 4223 Cileneoe, Venice, Calif. "The Next Ten Years in Space, 1959-1989," House Document 115, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington 2ft, DC., 1959,
221 pp.
,
"1959
Missiles
and Rockets Encyclopedia," Re veil,
Inc.,
Venice,
Calif., 32 pp. "Physical Data, Constants and Conversion Factors," General Electric Missile and Space Vehicle Department (Mail: P.O. Box Sftfto, Philadelphia 1, Pa.), 1959, 24 pp. Rocket Experiment Safety: Safety Suggestions for the Rocket Hobbyist/'
Atlantic Research Corp., Alexandria, Va., 1958, 19 pp.
Seiferl,
Howard
S..
Mark M.
Mills,
and Martin Summerlield: The
horse to accelerate the cart."

11. Comment on the remark, "Space stations will be obsolete when they are feasible." 12. A rocket whose thrust is 27,000 lb weighs initially 22,000 lb, of which SO per cent is fuel. Assuming constant thrust, find the initial acceleration and the acceleration just before burnout. Xeglect air
121-140, Physics of Rockets, American Journal of Physics, 15:1-21,
255-272 (1947). and "Space Facts: A Handbook of Basic and Advanced Space Might ElecGeneral Engineers," and Scientists for Data Environmental Forge Space tric Mis>ile and Space Vehicle Department, Valley Philadelphia Box 1, Pa.), 8555, P.O. Technology Center (Mail:
I9f>0. fil
resistance
13.
and variation
(3.19)
of g.
Arts. 39.2 ft/sec 2 , 190 ft/sec 2

for a rocket
pp.
launched horizontally and continuing in a path parallel to the earth, the burnout velocity is given by Vt = err In R. II. What is the minimum value of mass ratio R for which the
exceed the effective exhaust ve2.718 4 ns. R 15. Do you agree with Professor Fink's comment that Hie methods of achieving lift listed in order of increasing sophistication of the underlying physical principle are (1) satellite vehicles, (2) displacement of lighter-than-air craft, (3) hover craft or ground-cushion vehicles, (4) vertical flight rockets, (5) vertical takeoff and landing machines, (<>) conventional airplanes? If so, how do you account for the historical fact that the "simplest" methods were not the first to be suecessfullv Used?
n,
From Eq.
show that
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Verify the statement: "Near the surface of the earth, gravity each second, robs a vertically rising rocket of about 20 mi/hr in speed or about 2,400 mi/hr for each 2 iniu of acceleration." ^ angle ot 87 2. A projectile is Srcd with a speed of 300 ft/sec at an height of with the horizontal. Compute the speed when it first reaches a j4s. 83.5 ft, sec .jqq- fj._
1.
burnout velocity
locity iv?
of a rocket
will
>
dynes acts on a 20-gm mass for 8.0 sec. (a) What Bow Tar docs the mass move from rest in the acceleration is caused? 8.0 sec? () How fast is it going at the end of S.O see? Am. 24ft em/see, 8,140 cm, 1,900 era/see
3.
force of 4,900
(I>)
that the mass ratio tin/m,, for a multistage rocket is the product of the mass ratios of its individual stages. cesium, a prospec5. Would you consider an alkali metal, such as
4.
Show
tive propellant for an ion rocket?

6.
If
it
Why?
becomes possible to convert nuclear-fusion energy of a plasma
generdirectiv into electric energy, without the conventional rotating feasible? ator, would this make ion propulsion of rockets more
Escape from Earth

tioual field, a vehicle in space
of gravitational fields,
41
would encounter an endless mixture one superposed on another. The terms escape and capture refer to the transfer of the vehicle from one
field
to another.
4.1
GRAVITY
Escape from Earth
Newton formulated the law of universal gravitation: Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the two particles and inIn addition to the three laws of motion,
versely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers of
mass
(4.1)
No
thing
:
is
too high for the daring of
F =G
where
[
mortals
folly.
We storm heaven itself in our

Horace
in
F =
force of attraction
Every great advance

issued from a
nation.
science has
of imagi-
new audacity
m and mi = s = G =
In
masses of the two particles distance between them

gravitational
constant, whose value depends on
John Dewey
the system of units used
mks
units
(5.07
G=
10 " newton-mVkg s
traveling in space, a vehicle
Gravity acts as a brake on a vehicle leaving the earth. While is always subject to some gravity.
vehicle attracts
The
and
is
attracted by
all celestial
bodies.
But
Through the ages men have dreamed of the power of flight. In Creek mythology Daedalus and Icarus made a daring ascent into the air on wings made of birds' feathers and wax. In the notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci are found detailed drawings of a flying machine. With the success of the Wright brothers, man began to realize his long ambition of flight through the air. But now he turns his dreams to flight beyond the enveloping and
protective atmosphere into space. In designing a vehicle to escape the earth, one has to solve the problem of piercing the earth's atmosphere. A second, more
because gravitational force follows an inverse square law (/' <* 1 -), the mutual attractions of only the nearest bodies are usually
When a vehicle returns to earth, an increasing gravitational force.

significant.
4.2
it is
accelerated by
FREELY FALLING BODIES

starting from rest near the surface of the
first
An unsupported body
earth drops 10
iH'Xt
r, f
ft
during the
second, 04
ft
at the end of the
second, 144 at the end of the third, etc. It has an acceleration
troublesome, problem of escape is that of overcoming the force of gravity. Since each body in the universe has its own gravita40
"V2 ft per sec per sec, or 32 ft/sec-. The symbol g is used to represent the acceleration due to gravity. At sea level and 4:">
latitude, g
has a value of 32.17 ft/sec 2 or 9.806 m/sec 2 The value of g varies slightly over the earth owing to local
.
42
Escape from Earth
43
variations in
mass
distributions
and to the
fact that the earth
bulges slightly ai the equator. Surface gravity values vwy from planet to planet owing to differences in mass, radius, and rotational speed.
The small mass m is used only as a means of detecting and measuring the gravitation field, Whether m is large or small, the. force per unit mass placed at .4 has a definite value, J.
When
air resistance
for uniformly accelerated

t,
can be neglected, the equations in Sec. 3.2 motion apply to falling bodies.
By substituting Eq. (1.1) for F in Kq. (4.2), we get the expression for the gravitational field intensity / at a distance r from niitss .1/ in terms of the universal gravitational constant Gas
sec
v,
ft/sec
s, ft
m
When
r2
(4.3)
O O
32
16
one knows the field intensity, one can mass m as the product of m and /, any on
Fig,
find the force acting
64
64
4.1
Position
and speed of a body

rest after successive
falling freely
from
equal
96
144
time intervals.
Fig, 4.2
Gravitational forces of attraction.
\
4.3
128
256
GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS
force which one body exerts on another at a distance is conveniently described by the "force field" set up by one of the bodies, the source. Various kinds of forces can be treated in this way. Electric charges exert forces upon other electric charges.
The
tional force
Magnets exert forces on other magnets. Matter exerts gravitaupon other matter. The force exerted on a unit test particle (unit charge, unit mass, etc.) has a definite magnitude and direction for each possible location of the test particle.
Fig. 4.3
field.
Parabolic poth of a projectile
in
a uniform gravitational
The whole assemblage
of these
for08 vectors, or the mathematical function

position,
is
relating force to
For a freely falling body, Newton's second law of motion becomes F = mg. At the earth's surface, therefore, the gravitational field intensity
is
called a field of force.
Any path
is
that would be fol-
equal to
g,
the acceleration due to gravity

(4.4)
lowed by a free incrtialess test particle
called a line of force.
The
gravitational field intensity / at
any point
in the
'
= - =
space near a mass ,1/ is defined as the force per unit mass acting on any mass m placed at A
:
newton
kilogram
meter
second 2
(4.2)
111
mka
units, g
9.80 m/sec 2
44
Escape from Earth
45
field is pracIn a region of free space where the gravitational taken by a path the tically constant in direction and magnitude,
and
in
the third
projected mass
is
a parabola (Kig. 4.3).

If
Wt = GMjn (- - -)
we add these three expressions, the intermediate values r, and n cancel out. The work done in the first three intervals can be expressed in terms of the values of r at the ends: It and r 3 Thus
.
4.4
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

find the
To
work needed to get off the earth, let us calculate the earth, work done in moving a mass m from the surface of the Imagine earth. the radius R, to a distance r from the center of
W
is
GM m (it ~
-
'
(4.5)
the general expression for the work required to
Distance
against the earth's gravitational field out to a distance

definition this
is
move a mass in r. By
r*
_
measured
from
the gravitational potential energy of mass
in
the field of the earth.
4.5
Fig.
tial
AA
Calculation of gravitational poten-
VELOCITY OF ESCAPE, FROM CONSIDERATION OF ENERGY

estimate the
energy.
To
maximum
height attained
its
straight up,
we may equate
its
kinetic
it
by a rocket fired energy at burnout to the

height, t
x
gravitational potential energy
acquires thereafter in rising,
with decreasing speed, to
maximum
^mv 2 = mgR*
\lt
''i..:.
(4.0)
</
:it
Example.
roirkci
has an upward speed uf 5.0 mi/see

it
burnout. Find
small equal intervals so the distance from 5 tor to be divided into force F a will lie practically conthat over each the gravitational done in each interval work thr stant. Then we can easily calculate 1 surface, Fa = QMjm A' At the and add to get the total. At the Since these values are top of the first interval Fa is OMjm r,. force in the first average the nearly the same, we can use for
'.
the
maximum height From Eq. (4.6)
attains.
mf-n
V
mi
ft
(*ixm
..
3960- mi' \
r.n<
880/ 25 / miV
"* \ / 32 \
%\&) =Uoj
r n , ax
i(irin
o)
{ iniV
) ( 82 \ /39(i0= mi
tcj
-U/U.*W
in this
interval
(!M<w
Fair,
ltr u
The work done
in
the
first
interval
is
then
8,S(W mi
Bohition?)
Wt =
8)
Vg
fir.
*> =
is
W* (l "
(What amplifying assumptions have been made

,')
4 -6
VELOCITY OF ESCAPE, FROM CONSIDERATION OF FORCE

gun on a
cliff.
Likewise the work
in
the second interval
If
cliff
overlooking the ocean
fires
a bullet horizontally,
of
,.
9 h --.., (i-I)
the bullet will strike the water at
some distance from the base

is
he
If
the
initial
speed of the bullet
increased, the range
46
Looking Out
Escape from Earth

acts on the
47
is increased. For a particular speed, which depends on the distance of the gun from the center of the earth, the hullet would make a complete circuit of the earth, at a constant altitude, A (Fig. 4,">), If it- did not encounter resistance, it would continue
its path. But the condition of experienced because there is nothing to resist the body's motion in response to gravity. Human beings have experienced weightlessness for the first
body and determines

is
weightlessness
to
move in orbit about the earth. Prom Newton's second law, F = ma, and Eq.
(4.2),
the
few seconds after leaving a high diving board, or for somewhat longer periods in aircraft on "zero g" trajectories, and more
recently in
force needed to hold the bullet in a circular path at altitude
is
manned
rocket flights.
4.8
POTENTIAL-WELL MODEL
Using Eq.
energy
tances r
Kp
(4."), we may plot a graph showing the potential which a body of mass ni would have at various disfrom the center of the earth (Kig. 4.6). When the mass m
50,000
25.000
,,, 25,000
1
50, 000 mi
1
ennnn
S GrOVltOtlOnol ,
free spoc
:
Fig. 4.5
Range increase*
reached.
with horizontal firing
speed
until
circular (orbital
speed
is
inv-fQi
R). This force
is
provided by the gravitational attrac-
tion of the earth, so

/'
(/,'
CM ,i +
i-ni
/,)'
(4.7)
Example. At what speed would a projectile have to leave a platform, horizontally, 300 mi above the earth in order to enter a state of "continuous fall" around the earth?
From Kq.
ys
(4.7),
Fig.
4.6
Gravitational potential energy of mass m, showing "well" analogy for
= = =
-C.U e
6.67
IP"" newton-m* 5.983

kg'
(3,950
10" kg
mi
earth's field,
R+
58.1
+ 300)
mi 1,609
m
from earth, li p = 0. As mass m is brought closer work is done on m by the earth's field and the potential energy of m acquires a larger and larger negative value. Thus on the surface of the earth we live in a gravitational well thousands of miles deep. To reach the moon or another planet we must climb out of this well onto the plane marked
is
ICm'/sec*
sec
infinitely far
7,2() in
1,700 mi/hr
and
closer to the earth,
4.7
WEIGHTLESSNESS
A body
in orbit around the earth or following an unrestricted, un powered course in a gravitational field anywhere in space is
"gravitational free space" in Fig,
4.(i.
said to be in "free fall," also called a state of "zero gravity."
A
orbits
potcntial-energy-well
Actually, gravity
is
not absent.
The
force of gravity continually
may
model for demonstrating satellite be made from a suitably shaped wine glass to reprc-
48

(r
Escape from Earth
49
is
sent the surface (Fig. 4.7) obtained by rotating the graph of Fig. 4.6 ahout its vertical axis. A marble representing the satellite
150
10 e
km) with a speed
of
about 30
km
see.
What
the
may
be caused to travel a variety of orbits by varying
its initial
velocity.
acceleration of the earth toward the sun? 9. Show that to escape from the atmosphere of a planet, a molecule of gas must have a speed r such that ! > 2C.i//r, where .1/ is the mass of the planet and r is the distance of the molecule from the center of the
t
Fig.
(c)
4,7
Potential -well
elliptic
(e)
model
for demonstrating circular

J.
What hearing does this have on the composition of (lie atmosphere surrounding the earth and other planets? 10. A balloon which is ascending at the rate 12 m/sec is 80 m above the ground when a -lour is dropped from it. How long a time will be required for the stone to reach the ground? Ans. 5.4 sec 11. An elevator is ascending with an acceleration of 4.0 It sec 2 At the instant its upward speed is K.O Ft/see, a holt drops from the top of the cage 9.0 ft from its floor. Find the time until the holt strikes the floor and the distance it has fallen. Ans. 0.71 sec, 2.3 ft 12. A body hangs from a spring balance supported from the roof of an elevator, (a) If the elevator has an upward acceleration of 4.0 ft/ sir- and the balance reads 45 |b, what is the true weight of the body? (ft) In what circumstances will the balance read 35 lb? {<} What will the balance read if the elevator cable breaks? Ans. 40 lb, a = 4.0 ft/sec s downward, zero 13. If the mass of the moon is the mass of the earth and its diameter is -J- that of the earth, what is the acceleration due to gravity on the moon? How far will a 2.0 gm mass fall in 1.0 .-cc on the moon?
planet.
.
and
orbits.
({See
S.
Schooley, Satellite
Orbit Simulator, American Journal of Physks, 30: 531-532

(1962).]

1.
What
is
the largest gravitational force of attraction between
metal spheres cadi of 50.0 kg mass and 10.0 em radius? How does lllis force compare with the force of attraction of the earth on each sphere? Ans. 4.17 X 10" newton, weight is 120 million times larger 2. What would be the value of <j. the acceleration clue to gravity, if the earth had half its present diameter?
two
solid
Ans. I g, 3.2 ft standing on a diving hoard throws a ball with a horizontal velocity of 50 ft/sec to a man in the water. In doing so, she loses her balance, falls off the hoard, and strikes the water in 2.0 sec, (a) How far is the man from the base of the diving board? (b) How high is the diving hoard above the water? (e) What is the velocity of the ball at the end of its path? .bis. 100 ft, 64 ft, SI ft/scc, at 52 with the horizontal
14.
girl
3. If the mass of the moon were doubled hut the orbit remained the same, what would he the period of the moon? t. A 100-lb man starts sliding down a rope with a downward
acceleration of p/S. (a) What is his apparent weight? (b) What is the tension in the rope above the man? 5. Using the experimentally determined value of (7 and the distance
93
mi from carlh to sun. calculate the mas* of the sun. At what point in its trajectory does a projectile have its minimum speed? 7. If a rocket at tains a speed of (500 mi hr hy the time it reaches
10
6.
1,000
ft,
how many times g

earth
8.
The
is its acceleration? revolves about the sun in a nearlv circular orbit
Satellites
51
5.1
ELEMENTS OF AN ORBIT
define the position of an earth satellite in the solar system and its path, one needs to know the period of the satellite
To
to describe
Satellites
and the elements of its orbit, that is, the constants which fix its position and shape in space: The period is the time for a satellite to make one revolution around the earth.
The
perigee
is
of the earth.
Apogee
the position of closest approach to the center is the position of the satellite farthest from
the earth (Fig. 5.1a),
The
It is
eccentricity describes the flatness of the orbit as the ratio
no paradox to say that
in
our most
of e to a (Fig. 5.1/j).
Here
e is
the distance from the center of the
theoretical
to
moods we may be nearest

practical
our
most
applications,
Apogee
A. N.
Whitehead
Perigee
The launching
Sputniks
I
of the first artificial earth satellites, the

II, in
Russian
Fig. 5.1
Elliptical orbit.
and
1957, aroused worldwide interest in the

rockets.
power and control attainable with

investigations
The
special scientific
orbit to the focus at the center of the earth, while a
is
the semi-
made during
the International Geophysical Year
major
axis.
were significantly aided by data from instruments carried in satellites. From the orbit of a satellite one may better estimate the shape and dimensions of the earth. A permanent satellite can be useful as an aid in the navigation of ships, aircraft, and missiles. For a satellite which eventually returns to earth, measurements of the orbit may yield a more precise value of g. Atmospheric drag and the effectiveness of radio emission at various altitudes can be studied. Equipped with suitable instruments, a satellite can also measure solar and cosmic radiation, temperature and pressure variations, and the distribution of the earth's magnetic field. In short, satellites can tell us much that we want to know about our earth and much that we need know about space hazards before we venture into space ourselves.
50
The angle of inclination i of the orbit is the angle between the plane of the orbit and the plane through the equator (Fig. 5.2). The plane of the satellite orbit intersects the equator plane in a straight line called the line of nodes. This line intersects the
satellite orbit at
two points, called nodes. At one of these, the ascending node, the satellite crosses northward from "below" the equator plane to "above" the equator plane. At the other, the descending node, the satellite crosses southward from "above"
th f equator plane to
"below" the equator plane. The orbit

the longitude
V,
ele-
ment we now
"<>'
define
is
of the node, or the angle of
f
J
tiding node. This angle, P. in Fig. ,5.2, is measured in the plane the equator from the direction of the vernal equinox to the unction of the ascending node. (To describe the motion of a
Satellites
53
planet about the sun, one substitutes "ecliptic" for "equator" in the definitions above.)
The argument of perigee us is the angle measured in the orbit plane between the direction of the ascending node and the direction of the perigee.
To summarize, the elements of an orbit are period, perigee apogee, eccentricity, angle of inclination, angle of ascending node,
ami argument of perigee.
5.2
CIRCULAR ORBIT
of any body acted on only by an inverse square force a l/r ! ) due to a neighboring fixed body will ho an ellipse,
The path
(/-'
(i). To simplify our analysis, remainder of this chapter we shall examine an earth satellite in a circular orbit and consider only the interaction between the earth and the satellite. Although small perturbations may be produced by the atmosphere, the moon, other planets, and satellites, for the present these effects will be neglected.
circle,
parabola, or hyperliola (Chap.
for the
For a satellite in circular orbit, the gravitational force exerted on it by the earth has no component in the direction of motion which could either increase or decrease the speed of the satellite.
It
orbits at constant speed.
The
force
on the
satellite
is
given
by Xewton's law of
gravitation
F = G
-Q
Mm
(5.1)
where the mass of the earth and the mass of the satellite m are concentrated at the center of each, a distance r apart. The constant of gravitation G can In* determined in the laboraicffiirded as
Because the mass of the earth is so very large, the center of mass of the two bodies is practically at the center of mass of the earth. The motion may be described as a circular motion of the satellite about a fixed center of force.
tory.
The direction of the velocity of the satellite in circular orbit continually changing (Fig. 5.3). Gravitational force continually produces a "centripetal" acceleration a toward the center.
54

is
Satellites
55
For this uniform circular motion the acceleration

centripetal force
is
v-/r
and the
and since
mv*/r.
y-\A
v
canst.
\13\- const.
we obtain an
7'2
equation.
GM
(5.4)
which says that the square of the period of the satellite is proporcube of its distance from the center of the earth. This is Kepler's third law of motion, for the special case of a
tional to the circular orbit.
\a\ const.
5.4
ENERGY
Fig, 5.3
satellite in circular orbit is continually
accelerated toward center of
orbit.
The total energy remains constant in satellite motion. This can be shown very easily for our special case of a circular orbit.
Substitution for the speed of the satellite (Eq. 5.3) into the equation for kinetic energy E k gives
5.3
PERIOD
equate the gravitational force and the centripetal force
We may
-z
vk = \mv* i * = h
GMm
-
2r
Ey
of the satellite
(5.5)
,Mm f G
From
mv'1
Since the gravitational potential energy

(5.2)
is
~rr
B,
this equality
= -
GMm
(5.6)
is
we
find the speed that a satellite has to obtain

1
1
ie
total
to maintain a particular altitude
energy
= x
GM
-
Ek +
(5.3)
GMm
2r
(5.7)
The mass m of the satellite does not appear in the equation for speed. The closer the satellite is to the earth, the greater must be
the speed, because the gravitational attraction Since the angular speed tn is 2w/"period,
is
The total energy is negative for both circular and elliptical orbits. This means that the satellite is bound to the center of force and cannot escape unless sufficient positive energy is provided (see
*'ig. 4.7).
greater.
5.5
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
2x
JOM
Iho total angular momentum L of a satellite moving at constant speed in a circular orbit is the product of its linear momentum mv
56
Looking Out; Rockets, Satellites, Space Travel
Satellites
57
and the radius r. Vcctorially, the angular momentum is represented by a vector L drawn to scale to represent the scalar magnitude mvr and drawn along a line perpendicular to the plane of r and v in the direction indicated by tlie thumb of the right hand when the fingers are allowed to curt from the direction of r into the direction of v. Thus L results from a vector "cross product,"
the notation for winch
is
These observations are interpreted as proof that the earth bulges slightly around the equator, owing to the earth's rotation. The gravitational force tends to pull the satellite toward the
equator. Consider the gyroscopic property of the satellite.
The
gravitational force due to the bulge tends to tip the axis of the
L =
It
is
rX
(hit)
satellite in
is
obvious that for a
the total angular
momentum
constant. This
uniform circular motion is also true when a
Fig. 5.4
Angular momentum of mass

I.
is
re-
presented by vector
*S^
an elliptical orbit. The radius and speed vary, momentum remains constant. This is angular but the total law, that a line joining the focus second Kepler's equivalent to areas in equal periods of time equal out sweeps and the satellite
satellite
moves
in
(Fig. 5.5).
Fig. 5.5
The
satellite
sweeps out equal
areas
in
inequal periods of time.
Earth's rotation
Fig.
5.6
It
is
not feasible or even particularly desirable to launch a
different
Rotation of the earth and precession of the satellite orbit expose areas of the earth to the satellite, os shown in Fig. 5,7.
satellite into
a perfectly circular orbit. If such an orbit were attained, slight perturbations would soon make it elliptical. Observation of a satellite in orbit gives us information about irregularities in the shape of the earth. As the satellite orbits, the
plane of
its
orbit.
orbit rotates or regresses orbit turns in its
toward the west. At the

flattened.
The reaction causes the plane of the orbit to prccesK around the earth in a westerly direct ion, while the earth is rotating from "est to east. This precession may be an advantage in the case of
which thus
5.7).
same time the
own
plane, swinging the perigee
Certain types of observational satellites
may
"see"
around. Also, both ends of the orbit become somewhat
most of the earth's surface
(Kigs. 5.6
and
Satellites
59
QUESTIONS
I.
Why
is tin*
upper (dotted) path
in i)k>
accompanying sketch
not.
a possible satellite orbit about the earth?
Fig. 5.8
2.
it
will
Show ilial if frictional forms cause move into an orbit closer to (he
;i satellite to lose total energy, earth with an actual increase
speed. 3. After a certain satellite was put in orbit, it was stated thai the satellite would not return to earth but would burn up on its descent. low is this possible, since it did not burn up on ascent?
in
I
Motion
of
Bodies
in
Space
61
Law
Law
II.
The
line joining the
sun and a planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal periods of time.

III.
to the
The square of the period of a planet is proportional cube of its mean distance from the sun.
An
ellipse
may
of string to guide
a pencil
be constructed by using two pins and a loop (Kig, 0. 1). This method of construction
Motion of Bodies in Space

Fig. 6.1
Construction of an
ellipse.
If
have seen farther than ethers,
it
is
hy
standing on the shoulders of giants.

old saying quoted by
An
Newton
makes use
li.
of
the distances from

is
a geometrical property of the ellipse: The sum of any point on an ellipse to the two foci, A and
constant.
An
ellipse
with
its
center at the origin of coordiis
space vehicle when not under power is governed by the same laws which determine the motions of stars, planets, and comets. These laws are Newton's law of universal gravitation and Kepler's
nates
<>!'
and with the form

a2
foci
on the x axis
represented
by an equation
taws of planetary motion. Karly
in
the seventeenth century,
= + T b*
Kepler by inductive reasoning formulated his three laws to fit the astronomical observations and calculations made available
From
Kepler's second law,
if
the shaded areas in Kig.
(>,2
arc
him by his patron Tycho Brahc. Xewton in his "Principia Mathematica" (Ih'87) showed that the kind of planetary motion described by Kepler's laws can be deduced from the universal
1
1!
S3
x,
Fig, 6.2
f~~^
Law of areas.
law of gravitation.
6.1
KEPLER'S LAWS
Kepler's description of planetary motion
may
a " equal, a planet takes equal time intervals to travel the distances St, $ and s a
2l
.
be stated as follows;
Law
I.
The
planets
move
in ellipses
having a
common
focus
situated at the sun.

60
Kepler's third law, called the harmonic law, expresses the Proportionality of period squared, 7", and the cube of the scmiBoajor axis a of the ellipse.
62
Motion
of
Bodies
in
Space
63
Example. Calculate the height of a satellite in a 24-hr orbit about the if it has been observed that a satellite at a mean distance of 4,100 mi from the center of the earth has a period of 5,000 sec. From Kepler's third law
earth
The
circles,
orbits of all the planets (except Pluto) are very nearly with the sun at the common center. Kepler's third law
can be derived by equating the centripetal force to the gravitational force (Sec. u.3) to obtain
3Y
7V
we
a.*
T*
i* =
wish to find o 2 when T~
day
8.6
10
4 !
con8tant
see
a-i
= (I/V
[tf)l 4,100
mi =
27,000 mi
Kepler's second law, the law of equal areas, follows whenever the interaction between two particles is in the direction of the line joining them. The force need not follow an inverse square.
Kepler's lawn apply to the ideal ease of only two bodies moving under their mutual gravitational attraction. But in space travel, effects of other bodies have to he considered. consider the feasibility of certain proposals or devices, one starts by examining qualitative orbits. Such trajectories are predicted with the aid of simplifying assumptions: that the moon
To
around the earth, that the earth may be considered symmetrical, that any disturbing masses are in the orbit plane of the space vehicle, etc. The precision trajectories needed for actual space travel do not allow these approximations. Hence
moves
in
circle
Fig. 6.3
Derivation of Kepler's second law.
the calculations become enormously more complicated.*
Let Pi, P->, and P% be points along a planet's orbit marking the position of the planet at time intervals of 1 sec. Then the distance
6.2
NEWTON'S DERIVATION OF KEPLER'S LAWS
PiPz
As a test of his theory of universal gravitation, Newton desired to show that Kepler's laws could be derived from the law of gravitation and he desired to investigate the more general problem:
is numerically equal to the planet's velocity 1% and /VJ 3 is numerically the velocity r., in the next second. When the only
force acting
on the planet
is
in the direction of the sun, this force
has a
component zero perpendicular
to line / J 2 ,S'.
Hence the com-,.S'
What
necessary according to that law? In its basic statement, the law of universal gravitation applies only to particles ("point" masses). Newton needed first to show that the
kind of motion
is
ponent of the planet's velocity perpendicular to / J unchanged, according to Newton's first law of motion:
must be
r tL
u 2l .
attraction for an exterior particle exerted

(either
by a
spherical
homogeneous or somewhat like the earth, concentric homogeneous shells) was directly proportional to the total mass of the sphere and inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the particle from the sphere's center. Newton's
difficulty in establishing this principle to his satisfaction
mass made up of
second by the line joining the planet and the sun is &P1P1. The area swept in the next second is SP t P These triangles have the same base PS and equal alti3 tudes v hence they have equal areas.
first
. ;
The area swept during the
may have
been the cause of his delaying some twenty years in publishing

his conclusions.
* Precision
The derivation of Kepler's first law is more lengthy, and it involves differential equations.* The question is: Given an inverse-square law of attraction, what shape must a planet's (or comet's) orbit have? The answer turns out to be: The orbit will
be one of the conic sections with the attracting body (sun) one focus,
* A derivation without calculus is presented mental Physics," pp. 70-73, .John Wiley & Sons,
in
in
namies,"
I).
Van Xostrand Company,
rocket orbits are discussed in S. Herrick, "AstrodyInc., Princeton, N'..l., 1959.
Inc.,
Jay Orear, "FundaNew York, 19GI.
64
Looking Out: Rockets. Satellites, Space Travel
Motion of Bodies
in
Space
65
Conic sections are curves? obtained by taking plane slicas of a cone (Fig. G.4). The cone sliced parallel to its base (I) gives a circle. If the cut is slanted, the section is an ellipse (2). With greater slant, the section is a parabola (3). With still greater
solid circular
slant, the section is
The
significance of the various conic-section trajectories
may
be clarified by an example based on Newton's own suggestion for an earth satellite. About 1660 he predicted in a drawing (Fig, (5.o) that if a cannon ball could be fired with a muzzle velocity of
"i
a hyperbola
(4).
mi/sec,
it
would
circle the earth
as shown.
The Sputnik and
Explorer satellites did achieve this velocity, For a low-flying

earth satellite in a nearly circular orbit, equating the centripetal
acceleration r/r to g gives
v
\/gr
9.8
r
(>.' >
10 6 m/sec
8 km/sec or 5 mi /sec
Now alter Newton's drawing (Fig. (U>) by considering the mass of the earth to be concentrated at point E (Fig. (i.(i). Con-
Hyperbola
1. Circle
2. Ellipse 3. Parabola (parallel to lineaO)
4. Hyperbola
Fig. 6.4
Basic orbits related to conic sections.
Fig. 6,6
Conic orbits cotangent at
satellite
launching point p.
is to be launched at point p with a velocity Perpendicular to the line K v J-et the, circle represent the orbit of the satellite described in the preceding paragraph. The effect of the
.
îder that a satellite
Newton's proposal for an earth satellite, [(a) From Sir Isaac Newton, ," edited by F. Co/oW, University of California Press, Berkeley, Calif., 1934. (b) From E. M. Rogers, "Physics for the inquiring Mind," Princeton University Press, Princeton, N./., 1960.1
Fig. 6.5
earth's attraction
is
to cause the satellite to fall r
"Mafnemoficai Principles
Igl
4.9
toward the earth

tangent.
in
the
same second
it
travels 8
km
along the
The two displacements
bring the satellite back to the
66
Motion of Bodies
in
Space
67
same distance
falls
it had before. So, during each second, the satellite toward the earth but never gets any closer. Now suppose that the satellite's velocity is made less than S km/sec. The earth's effect of 4.0 m each second is unchanged. So the satellite will fall closer to the earth along the smaller
ellipse of Pig. 6.0. Since the earth
is
not a "point" as implied in the earth after traveling a
Fig. 0.0, the satellite actually will not he able to complete the
elliptical orbit
but rather
is
si
will strike
trajectory which
portion of an ellipse (Fig. 6.5). (The smaller
by equating the centripetal force required to keep a planet in its (circular) orbit to the gravitational force due to the sun's attraction. 5. What is the mass of a planet, .1/,., if it is observed to have a moon revolving about it at a distance /?, center to center, in period T? 6. If the earth, considered to be spherical, were to shrink to 0.9 of its present radius, what changes would occur (a) in the length of the solar day, (/>) in the value of g at the North Pole, (<) in the value of g at the equator? 7. The earth satellite Kxplorer III had a highly eccentric orbit witli perigee at a height of 109 mi. At this point the velocity was 27,600 ft/sec
in
ellipse of Fig. 0.0 could represent
the path of a comet or planet
Show
about the sun at
A'.)
If the satellite at
than 8 km/sec, the 4.9
p were given a velocity somewhat greater m by which it would fall to the earth each
a direction perpendicular to the radius to the center of the earth. that this speed is too great for a circular orbit at the radius (R, + h) of 4,109 mi. Hence the satellite described an elliptical orbit. Its apogee was at the height 1,630 mi. Show that the speed at apogee was too small for a circular orbit at radius 5,630 mi.
second would be insufficient to hold the distance constant. The satellite would climb away from the earth on the larger of the two
ellipses
(Fig.
0.0).
With decreasing speed the
satellite
would
It is
arrive at a point a opposite the start. There the centrifugal
overcome gravitational attraction, though the latter would also have decreased. Accordingly, the satellite would begin to fall back toward the earth, regaining speed along the elliptic path until it reached point j> with the same
reaction would be insufficient to
velocity as at the start.
at p still more would semi along the parabola shown in Fig. 6.6. Still greater velocities would carry the satellite away from the earth along a hyperbolic
the supreme art of the teacher to
awaken
joy in creative expression and
knowledge.
A. Einstein, motto for the
Astronomy Building, Pasadena Junior College
Increasing the satellite's velocity
Putting on the spectacles of science in expectation of finding the answer

to
it off
everything looked at signifies inner blindness.
J,
Frank Dobie
path. In either case the attraction of the earth would be insufficient to decrease the radial velocity of the satellite
enough to
Science
facts
is
is
built
up with facts, as a house
is
with stones. But a collection of

is
cause
it
to return.
no more a science than a heap of stones
a house.
H. Poincare

and Jupiter
(1
Science
is
organized knowledge.
Herbert Spencer
periods of revolution of the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, are, respectively. 0.241, 0.017, 1.88, and 11.9 years. Find Iheir mean distances from the sins, expressed in astronomical units
1.
The
Science
is
nothing but perception.
Plato
a.u.
2.
distance from sun 1o earth).
km. A satellite completes an orbit, about Jupiter every J 6.7 days. The radius of the orbil of the satellite is 27 times the radius of the planet. Compute the mass of Jupiter. 3. What docs Kepler's second law say about the duration of winter in the Southern Hemisphere (which occurs in .inly when the earth is farthest from the sun) compared with winter in the Northern Hemisphere? 4. Show the correctness of Kepler's third law of planetary motion
.Jupiter lias a radius of 74,000
Travel
to
Moon and
Planets
69
and other bodies in the solar system is almost a perfect vacuum. This is an ideal environment for a space vehicle to move at speeds
which make it practical to travel interplanetary distances. Since he earth is one of the smaller planets, it requires a comparatively low escape velocity. Its relatively thin atmosphere offers less resistance to rapidly ascending and descending objects. The fa el
I
Travel to Moon and Planets
that the planets

sense
lie
in nearly
the same plane and

in
move
in
the
same
makes
it
possible for an interplanetary traveler to apply the
orbital speed of
one planet
launching himself to another. The
fact that the elliptical orbits of the planets are nearly circular
means that the energy requirements to transfer a spaceship from one orbit to another do not vary greatly for different points of
We
first
throw a
little
something into
more, then a
then our-
the skies, then a shipload

selves.
little
same direction
departure along the orbit. Finally, most planets rotate in the in which they revolve about the sun. So a space-
of
.
instruments
ship launched at the surface of one of these planets can get an
Fritz
Zwicky
added push by taking

7.2
oil"
in
the direction of rotation.
LAUNCHING
it is
Before
launched, the space vehicle

is
is
at the earth's distance
from the sun, and it sun (about 100,000

solar system, consisting of 9 planets moving in elliptical paths around the sun, 31 known moons, and many other bodies all in motion, does not invite simple straight-line travel from the
moving with the

If
earth's speed
around the
The
launched at greater than the earth's escape velocity, the vehicle will take up an independent orbit around the sun, at a speed somewhat different from that of
ft/sec).
the earth.
To conserve both power and time, departure dates and trajectories must be chosen which utilize favorable positions and relative velocities. Conditions favorable for return passage may not occur until some time later.
earth to a selected destination.
Owing to the ever-changing distribution of bodies in the solar system, no two courses between even the same two bodies are
likely to
be the same.
The
calculations of desired trajectories

in flight are
and corrections of the course while for computing machines.
complex tasks
7.1
INVITATION TO INTERPLANETARY FLIGHT

difficulties of travel in
Despite obvious
the solar system, there are

Fig. 7.1
some
interesting favorable factors.
The space between the earth

Launching! to inner and to outer planets.
68
70
Travel to
Moon and
Planets
71
If it is launched in the same direction as the earth's orbital motion, the vehicle will have a speed greater than that of the earth (l'"ig. 7,1.1), and could reach the outer planets, Mai's,
S
>
'G
i.o
Scientific sotellire (100 mi)
1
Jupiter, etc.,
if
properly directed.
The minimum
transit times to
starting speeds
_o
required to reach these planets arc given in Table 7.1.

Table
7.1
>
Minimum launching speeds, with

reach the planets
o
1=
a,
I
S.
0.1
Plonet
Minimum launching
speed,
|
Transit time
.8
Impact on moon (+100

o.oi
ftsee
E
Around moon
return to
Mercury Venus
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto
44,000 38,000 38,000 46,000 49,000 51,000 52,000 53,000

R.
10
150 260 2.7 6 16

31
days days days

years
o>
braking eclipse
0.001 0.001
0.01
0.1 error, per cent
Speed
Fig.
years
yea rs
years years
7.2
Maximum
permissible errors for alignment of velocity vector and for
speed at power
cutoff.
(Genera'
Electric,
"Space
Facts.")
46
From
If
W.
Buchheim, "Space Handbook," 1958.
the vehicle
it
is
velocity,
will
move
in
launched "backward," against the earth's an orbit like H in Fig. 7.1, so it could reach
it
VettUS or Mercury. However,

to propel a vehicle in to
requires almost, as
to propel
it
much energy
Mercury as
out to Jupiter.
7.3
ROCKET GUIDANCE
In the flight of an unmanned probe, satellite, or missile, one or more boosters provide the initial impulse, but after burnout the
remainder of the flight is unpowered. The vehicle coasts in the complex gravitational field of interplanetary space. The accuracy of guidance is generally determined by the position and velocity at the instant free flight begins. Figure 7.2 gives an idea of the maximum allowable errors of angular alignment, and vehicle velocity at power cutoff for several kinds of moon-directed
mis-ions. Inertiul Isiyro) or radio-guidance techniques are adequate for such relatively simple missions. Interplanetary expeditious present complex problems of guidance. First, a launching site might be chosen at not more than
2:}
Initio!
ascent
-^ ^~v'/- Earth
^^
7.3
'
Fig.
Possible flight paths to Mars,
north or south latitude. This
is
the angle of inclination of the
ecliptic
plane to the earth's equator.
The
vehicle would
in
be
launched into a satellite orbit around the earth,
the ecliptic
|>'ig. 7.H. With the vehicle in orbit, an ion-propulsion system might be started to cause the vehicle to spiral out into a legion where the sun's gravitational field is stronger than the
plane,
72
Looking Out: Rackets, Satellites, Space Travel
Travel to
Moon and
Planets
73
earth's.
The
fer orbit
vehicle would then be guided into an elliptical transaround the sun, planned to intercept the orbit of the,
planet.
vehicle are used to obtain a very gradual penetration of the
destination
Where these
orbits intersect,
the vehicle
would be directed into an orbit around the destination planet. Radio or inertial guidance techniques could serve in the early stages of such an interplanetary flight, but would probably be inadequate for interplanetary missions of a year or more in duration, A three-dimensional form of present-day two-dimensional celestial navigation may be necessary. A useful instrument for establishing a reference direction is the horizon seeker which
senses the infrared radiation of the earth or
atmosphere. The path angle is generally small, a few tenths of a degree, and is adjusted to the forces acting on the vehicle. Deceleration increases gradually and can be limited to a relatively
small value.
The more gradual the descent, the longer is the time required and the longer is the range. Starting at a given altitude and velocity, a direct descent may traverse a distance of a few hundred miles and require about A min. An orbit, decay might cover a range of several thousand miles and require 5 to 10 min. A
Direct from space
Ballistic rocket
some other warm
body. Optical trackers and magnetometers
may
also
provide
data to establish the vehicle's position. To orient and stabilize a space vehicle, torque is produced, either by the ejection of mass (rocket exhaust) or by the rotation of a mass within the vehicle. The internal type of torque control serves to rotate the vehicle about its center of mass it does not
;
influence the flight path.
7.4
RETURN THROUGH THE ATMOSPHERE
To
return safely to earth, a space vehicle must overcome the problems of penetrating the earth's atmosphere. There are three general types of reentry path, each with its characteristic deceleration pattern: direct descent, orbit decay,
Fig.
tric,
7.4
Different types of atmospheric entry. (Generaf Elec-
and
is
lifting descent.
"Space Fads")
These are
phere, the
illustrated in Kig. 7.4. In direct descent into the
maximum
deceleration experienced
atmosindependent of
lifting
descent from the
same point might range over o,000

hi*.
to
the drag characteristics of the vehicle, but depends on the path

angle, initial velocity,
10,000 mi and require 2
The
altitude at which
maximum
and characteristics of the atmosphere. deceleration occurs does depend
When a vehicle penetrates the atmosphere, the reduction of the vehicle's energy is accompanied by an increase in the thermal
energy of the surrounding
air,
on the drag characteristics of the vehicle. For entry of the atmosphere in orbit decay, the vehicle executes many revolutions about the earth in a very gradual spiral that becomes more and more nearly circular. The rate of energy loss through aerodynamic drag is sufficiently small so that the vehicle's kinetic and potential energies adjust to a momentary "equilibrium" orbit, with potential energy decreasing and kinetic energy increasing. Thus the velocity of the vehicle actually increases in the start of orbit decay. The final phase of descent is similar to that of direct descent at a shallow angle. In a lifting descent, the aerodynamic characteristics of the
some
of
which
is
communicated to
the surface of the vehicle. At very high altitude, about one-half the energy loss appears as heat in the body. At lower altitudes, the heating is produced not directly at the vehicle's surface but
in
the air between the shock
wave and the
vehicle.
ferred
tion,
from the hot gases of
this region to the vehicle
Heat is transby conduc-
convection,
and
radiation.
7 -5
THE NEXT DECADE OF SPACE RESEARCH
Historically, man's attempts to predict the future of science and technology have shown a tendency to be overly optimistic about
74

will
Satellites,
Space Travel
what
bo accomplished in the immediate future and too con-
servative about the long-range future.

of outer space
been predicted that man's curiosity about the unknowns can be only partly satisfied by the placing of in meters outer space; eventually he will want to go there to see for himself. But it is probable that the extent and pace of space
It has
PART
research in the foreseeable future will be determined by

are regarded as our military requirements.
what
in
The
military advantage to be gained from putting
man
space is at least debatable, From the standpoint of psychological warfare, there may be better ways of demonstrating our scientific prowess. For man's future happiness, more important purescience experiments might be performed in other fields, such, as
medicine. Yet many dedicated scientists feel that man-in-space experiments are important to our chances of survival This viewpoint is stated by Dr. Simon Ramo in the following
terms. Suppose
for
two
rival nations base their security
wisdom
in the use of limited technical

first
Suppose, however, that the
on a race and physical resources. nation makes one decision in
man will never be needed in space. These two nations start to develop their weapons systems of the future. One group has maximum flexibility; the other has some prohibitions. "To achieve this maximum of flexibility, it is very clear to me that the United States must prepare for putting man in space," says Dr. Ramo. On the assumption, then, that we shall have militarysponsored programs in space technology, one can make some
contrast to that of the second: It decides that
predictions for the near future.
Many
projects involving
munications, weather prediction,
manned
satellite stations,
comand
exploration within the solar system will probably be
fulfilled.
Exploration beyond the solar system

chiefly
now seems
unattainable
from considerations of time and power. Man's life is short the time required to reach the nearest star, even in a vehicle traveling with a speed approaching that of light. The other problem, "Where is the energy In he obtained for long voyages or to lift large masses into space?" may find an answer in the achievement of a nuclear-fusion reactor. It is the thermonuclear bomb which threatens to make the earth a very unpleasant place. Ironically, the energy of a controlled thermonuclear reaction may provide us with the power resources for a migration
when compared with
into space.
8
The Atomic Idea
Science does not

nation,
R.
know its debt W. Emerson
to imagi-
Although Democritus had introduced the word "atom," it was the English school teacher John Dal ton (1803) who made fertile the assumption that matter is not divisible indefinitely but rather is composed of ultimate particles called atoms. Physics dealing with phenomena on a scale large enough to be visible to the unaided eye was well understood by the year 1890. Then a remarkable mutation occurred in science, caused by the series of discoveries made in the decade 1895-1905:
1895
18%
1897
Discovery of x rays by Roentgen Discovery of radioactivity by lleequerel

Identification of the electron
by Thomson
H'OO
Pi05
Statement of the basic postulate of quantum theory by Planck Formulation of the theory of relativity by Einstein
It became clear that the structure of matter was complicated than had previously been thought.
much more
scopic (atomic
77
The term "modern physics" is often used to designate microand nuclear) physics, investigated from the view-
78

tions of temperature
The Atomic
Idea
79 of
quantum theory and relativity, as distinct from the macroscopic or "classical" physics which was known before 1890.
point of
8.1
and pressure contain the same number
molecules. This hypothesis guided Bcrzelius and others in determining the ratio of combining weights (e.g., is water HO or H s O?).
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC CONCEPT OF MATTER
The
existence of atoms has been inferred from many experiments, the earliest of which were studies of simple chemical professes.
A molecule is the smallest particle of any substance (element compound) as it normally exists. or atom is the smallest portion of an element found in a moleAn compounds. An atom is the smallest portion of any of its cule of
an element that can enter into chemical combination. By measuring combining weights, it is possible to determine the relative masses of atoms of various elements. We may arrange
By
1800,
of chemical
some 30 elements had been identified and the formation compounds had been studied. Lavoisier showed that
in
mass appeared to be conserved

Proust, Dalton,
Berzelius,
chemical reactions.
and Richter discovered "laws"
them
which
1.
may
be summarized in the statements:
particular compound always contains the same elements chemically united in the same proportions by weight. (Law of
definite proportions.)
order of increasing mass, assigning a number to each to indicate its relative mass. Since only the ratios of the numbers are important, we may assign one number arbitrarily to a particular
in
2.
When two
elements A and B combine as constituents of more than one compound, the weights of B which unite with a fixed weight of A (and vice versa) aj-e related to each other as the ratios of whole numbers, which are usually small. (Law of
multiple proportions.)
atom and adjust the others accordingly. Conventionally, the number Hi (exactly) was assigned to an oxygen atom. Then by Avogadro's hypothesis, for any gaseous substance
.Molecular mass of substance
density of substance
density of oxygen (Os)

Since
of the
19(51,
32.000
(8.1)
Dalton showed that these chemical laws could be explained most directly in terms of an atomic theory of matter. Its assumptions arer
1.
clature in Physics has defined the atomic
the Commission on Symbols, Unite and Nomenmass unit as one-twelfth

1
matter is made up of elementary particles (atoms) retain their identity in chemical reactions.
All
which
2.
The atoms of any pure substance (element) are alike (on the average, at least) in mass and other physical properties,
Atoms combine, pounds.
in
:>.
simple numerical proportions, to form com-
first
Dalton's clear formulation of the atomic concept of matter is the important landmark in the development of modern atomic
physics.
8.2
AVOGADRO'S NUMBER
mass of an atom of the carbon- "2 nuclide. The number representing the mass of any atom on this scale is called its atomic mass. (The term "atomic weight" is also used.) On this scale, which differs only very slightly from the former one, the mass of the hydrogen atom is nearly 1 amu and the heaviest known atom has a mass of about 250 amu. We shall use the symbol .1* to represent, as needed, either atomic mass or molecular mass. A quantity of any substance whose mass, in grams, is numerically equal to its molecular mass is called a mole. In the mks system we define the "kilogram mole" as: kmole of a substance is that quantity whose mass in kilograms is numerically equal to its atomic (or molecular) mass. The mass of 1 kmole of any subI
stance
is
thus
.1 *
kg.
Joseph Gay-Lussac (1808) showed that, at a constant temperature and pressure, gases combine in simple ratios by volume. Amadeo Avogadro was led (181 1) to make the important assumption that equal volumes of different gases under the same coudi-
The volume occupied by a mole

molecular volume. It
is
of
22.4 liters for a gas at
any gas is called a gram 0C and 76 cm of

is
mercury pressure.
The numerical value
of
Avogadro's number
not easy to
80
The Atomic Idea
81
measure, and it was not known for some time after Avogadro's hypothesis was accepted. This constant can be determined independently from experiments in electrolysis, Brownian motion,
radioactivity, and x-ray diffraction in crystals. accepted value of Avogadro's number is
reduced sufficiently. For then the molecules occupy an insignificant fraction of the volume of the container and the widely separated molecules exert no attracting forces on each other.
It is
The
currently
from these considerations that Eq.
(8.3)
has importance as
the "ideal-gas" equation of state.

(8.2)
8.4
NA
(6.02486 -f-O.OOOHi)
10 2S
molcculcs/kmolc
Example. Compote the number of atoms in a 1.5-mg sample of lead, atomic mass 207. The mass of 207 atomic muss units (amu) may be thought of as 207 kg/mote. Then
KINETIC
THEORY OF GASES
Kinetic theory treats atomic and molecular processes and reaction
N=
I0~ 6
ksr
207ki7kmole
6 25
^" ^m./kmole
=
4.36
by applying elementary methods of mechanics and statisshall examine what the kinetic theory has to say about the observed properties of a gas: its pressure, volume, and
rates
tics.
We
I0 1S
atoms
temperature.
y\
8.3
THE IDEAL GAS LAW

state of matter
is
/\
i
The gaseous
forces
simplest to analyze, chiefly because the molecules of a gas arc far apart and do not exert appreciable
Fig. 8.1
Model
for kinetic theory of
West
i
i
on each other. The behavior of a gas is expressed by an equation of state, which relates pressure, temperature, and volume when the gas is in equilibrium. Numerous empirical equations have been suggested to describe the behavior of gases.
gas pressure.
We make
East
The
simplest
is
A
We
shall consider a gas confined at a fixed
/
temperature in a
the
fol-
pV - nRT
where p
(8.3)
= pressure of gas V = volume T = absolute temperature n = number of moles (or kilomoles)
cubical container with each side of length L.
lowing assumptions:
of gas present
is
I.
units the proportionality constant stant per kilomole, and from experiment,
In
mks
R
it
called the gas con-
has the value

(8.4)
(8.3),
R =
8.317
10 s joules/(kmole){K)
When other units are used for the variables in Eq. constant will be expressed differently; for example,
the gas
The molecules have negligible volume; they are "points." The molecules move in random directions, but every molecule has the same speed v (obviously an oversimplification, which we shall reconsider soon). The molecules exert forces only in collisions. The collisions with the walls are clastic. The number of molecules is very large, justifying use of
statistics.
R =
Xo
1.987 cat/ (mole) (K)
0.082();>
liter-atm/(mole)(K)
8.317
10' ergs/ (mole) (K)
The
pressure of the gas
may
be calculated as the force per
unit area at a wall. Let .V he the total
number
will
of molecules in a
actual gas obeys Eq. (8.3) precisely at any nonzero pressure. Hut this equation holds for all gases when the pressure is
cubical container (Tig. 8.1). Then the east wall and the west wall.
N/8
be bouncing lietween
in
Each molecule
this
group
82
The Atomic Idea
83 of
v/2L times per second. In each clastic impact the velocity of the molecule changes sign and the change in its momentum is mv ( me) = 2mv, where m is the mass of the
strikes the east wall
number of molecules moving at random, the average values iv, tv, and rr are all equal. Equation (8.6) then becomes
molecule.
is
From Newton's second
law, the force on the cast wall
pV =
ami the
velocity,
llVmi*
v of
the total
momentum change
per second at that wall
i>
,.
Nmu
locity," the
our earlier discussion is replaced by the "rms vesquare root of the mean value of the square of the
VP.
The
P
pressure
is
given by
8,5
DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS

and
pressure,
J_ l-
Nmjfi
_ 1 Nmv* "a v
(8.5)
In a gas at a given temperature
we expect that some
V = I* is the volume of the container. To compare this prediction with the ideal-gas may rewrite Eq. (8.5) as
where
equation
we
have speeds in excess of the root-mean-square value, and others will have smaller speeds. Clerk Maxwell applied the laws of probability to find the distribution of speeds in a large number of molecules in a kinetic- theory gas. He obtained the
molecules
will
result
pV = i(AW) = \8%m* - %NBt

where
(8.6)
Ek
is
the translational kinetic energy of one molecule.
X
where
\Ztt
Combining
Imjs. (8.3)
and
(8.0),
we have
(&f
number
v
-mT =/s*r
f}
(8.10)
nRT =
N =
total
of molecules
fJVA't
(87)
dv/N -
fraction of all molecules
whose speeds are between
suggesting that the absolute temperature of a gas is proportional to the kinetic energy of its molecules. Further, since N/n is the
and
fe
dv
number of molecules per kilomole, #,1, we have for the kinetic energy
h\
Avogadro's number of a molecule

that
is,
T = absolute temperature = Boltzmann constant m = mass of a molecule

in
R = T =
3
k,
'I:T
(8.8)
The constant
per molecule
called Boltzmann's constant, is the gas constant
For a gas at any given temperature, the number of molecules a speed interval A increases up to a maximum at the most probable speed v p of Fig. 8.2a and then decreases toward zero at high speeds. The distribution is not symmetrical about , for the lowest speed is zero, but the theory predicts no upper
limit for the speed a molecule can attain.
=
A',
8-317
1.38
6.025
X 10 oules/(kmole )(K') X M molecules/ kmole X 10" M joule/ (molecule) (IC)

a
j
1
average value v of all speeds root-mean-square value v rim is
is
somewhat
larger.
is
For this reason, the larger than . The
still
(8.9)
kinetic theory
all
be made in our simples) statement of the by removing the second assumption above, that molecules have the same speed. Instead we can say that for particular molecule v-
An improvement can
increased, the most probable speed of the molecules increases in accord with the meaning of temperature (Eq. 8.7). The range of speeds is greater (Fig. 8.2b);
As the temperature
of a gas
any
vt *
+ vf +
v?. If
we have a
large
* L. U. Loeb, "Kinetic Theory of Gases," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1934; Leigh Page, "Introduction to Theoretical Physics," chap. 9, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., Princeton, K.J., 1935.
84

rules in going a distance L. Its
The Atomic
Idea
85
No.
*-/Fs
/=m
~kT
/itr
mean
free
path X
is
the average
distance per collision:
=
r(2R)*Ln
4*Rhi
(8.11)
This equation is based on the picture of the single moving molecule hitting other molecules which are stationary. Actually the molecule hits moving targets. The collision frequency is
(a)
200
400
600
800
m/sec
m
Fig. 8.2
(b)
2R
Fig. 8.3
Path of a molecule.
(o) Maxwell distribution of molecular speeds at 0C. Maxwell speed distributions at three different temper-
increased as a result.
nieaii free
More complete
analysis shows that the
atures, T 3
>
T-i
>
T|.
path
is
reduced to
X
there
is
=
4tt
(8.12)
an increase
iti
(lie
number
of molecules
which have speeds
y/2
tr-n
greater than a given speed.

Example. I" helium gas at 0C and atm pressure, the mean free path one molecule (or atom, He) is 1.86 X 10 -7 m. Estimate the radius of 8 helium atom. The number of molecules per cubic meter under standard condiI
of
8.6
MEAN FREE PATH

mean
free patli
is
tions
m
.V,,
TIxe
defined as the average distance a molecule
travels between collisions with other molecules.
Assume that each

lilt-
n =
22.4
molecule
is
a sphere of radius R. Consider the motion of a par-
(m 3 bnole)
.
2.(59
10" molceulcs/m'
ticular molecule
among all
the other molecules of a gas. It will

lies
any molecule whose center
R =
{Aw
=
j
1.05
within a cylinder of radius 2J9
X I0-"m
y/2 Xh)
around its path (Fig. &.',t). In going a distance L, the molecule sweeps out a volume ir(2R)'1 L. If there are >i molecules per unit volume in the gas, the moving molecule will bitx(2R) iLn molc-
which agrees in order of magnitude with other methods of measurement. Note that the mean free path X is about 1.86 X 10 7 m/2
86
(1.05
Looking
In:
Atomic and Nuclear Physics

moleeuliir
The Atomic Idea
87
X
=
10
speed of the
u
u m) = 900 He atoms is =
diameters.
From Bq.
(S.8)
the
= 2
1,310 m/sec
So the frequency
v
of collision
is
In Lammert's method, two disks each with ")0 notches were mounted fi cm apart on a rotating axis (Fig. 8.46), in an arrangement similar to that used by I'izeau to measure the speed of light. For a particular constant speed of rotation of the disks, only those Hg atoms of a certain speed will be able to pass through
1,310 m/sec
1.86
10-'
m/(2
1.05
10
10
m)
lO'sec
-'
both notched wheels and reach the collector plate P. !3y varying the speed of rotation and by determining the number of atoms
received at
as a function of their speed, one obtains results in
or 7 billion collisions per Becond.
u.o
8.7
MEASUREMENT OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS

verification of the. distribution of molecular
l>y
N(v)
0,?0
'
-\ -
-1
An experimental
speeds predicted by kinetic theory was reported
Stern
in
0.15
1
(a)
m
(a)
0.10
^"1
0.05
G&rtn
(4)
^~=="
Fig. 8.5
90
140
190 240 290 Speed, m/sec
340
390
Speed
distribution of mercury
vapor molecules at 100C.

(1929).]
(6.
tammert,
Zeitschrift
her
Physik, 56(3-4):
244-253
Fig.
8.4
Apparatus for measuring molecular speeds,

(b)
Stem's rotating drum,
Lammert's slotted disks.
i926.
Atoms
(Fiji.
(Ilg)
through a
its wiill
slit <S
from an oven at known temperature pass and enter a cylinder C through a narrow slit, in
good agreement with Maxwell's predicted distribution (Fig. S..V). (The slight discrepancies with the predicted values, shown dotted, were attributed to difficulties of alignment.)
8.4a).
With
the cylinder stationary, the molecular

slit.
8.8
SPECIFIC HEATS
beam
If
reaches
diametrically opposite the entrance
Hut
if
is rotated rapidly, the molecular beam is interrupted. a point on (he cylinder wall rotates clockwise from O to () in the time it takes an Tig atom to cross the diameter d, then the trace left on the wall by IIg atoms will be displaced counter-
the cylinder
specific heat
Consider a gas confined at constant volume which is heated. The C? of the gas is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of a unit quantity of the gas one degree. This heat is stored in the form of increased kinetic energy of the gas
molecules.
1
clockwise a distance 00% (= 0\0) from the reference point. speed of the atoms can be calculated from
The
From Bq,
(8.8) the increase in the internal

in
energy of
mole divided by the increase
temperature
is
given by
Speed of atoms Speed of drum surface
diameter d
displacement
OaO
(8.13)
88
The Atomic
experimentally
(1) that, (2)
Idea
89
Thus our
that
all
basic kinetic theory makes the challenging prediction gases have the same value of specific heat
contrary to kinetic theory,
varies with
C\
[1.987 calV(moIe)(C)|
2.98 cal/(mole)(C)
The value
monatomic gases, but not of two or more atoms.

Toble
8.1
predicted checks well with experimental data for for gases whose molecules are made up
we need to devise empirical models that differ from gas to gas. We have come to the limit of validity of classical mechanics when we seek to
that for polyatomic molecules
describe the behavior of very small particles of matter (molecules
temperature, and
and atoms). Quantum theory is the extension of classical theory which we need for this {Chaps, I o and Hi). We shall reach another
Degrees of freedom
Specific heats (at 15C)
Type of gas
Gas
C,.
(experimental),
cal/{moleHC)
(a)
3:
trans!.
Monatomic
Diatomic
He
A
Hi
o,
N,
Polyatomic
CO C0 2
NH
C^Hg
2.98 3.00 4.80 4.96 4.94 4.95 6.74 6.78 9.50
3 tronsl,
(b)
2 rota
Degrees of freedom: independent modes of energy absorption.

Fig.
8.6
3 trans)
(c)
OmKD
2 rota
1
vibra.
To explain may result in

frnvf.
the data of Table 8.1,
we may ask whether heating

in
energy being stored
tional kinetic energy of molecules, expressible in
forms other than translaterms such as
(d)
a dumbbell-model diatomic molecule (Fig. 8.6b), there may be kinetic energy of rotation, expressible in terms such as ^/ur. If the two atoms can vibrate and have a force
In
constant
k,
there will be vibrational energy expressible as

of absorbing energy
is
\l.\r-.
Each independent mode

freedom,/.
called a degree of
limitation in
well, says that for
theorem of cquipartition of energy, stated by Maxa large number of particles which obey Newis
Newtonian mechanics when we deal with particles which are moving very fast ( * c). Relativity (Chap. 1-1) modifies Newtonian mechanics in this case.
tonian mechanics, the available energy

the degrees of freedom,
.]/.V for
equally divided
among
PROBLEMS
Copper which has a specific gravity S.9 has an atomic mass amu. What is the average volume per atom of copper? Ans. 1.2 X 10" cm 3 2. Compute the rms speed at 0C of the molecules of () CO,
1.
each.
Thus
modified, our kinetic theory eau be

for diatomic gases
made
to agree fairly
well with experimental data for
monatomic gases
(/
(/
8,
R3.8
35/2) and
*
5,
5B/2). One finds

(b)
The calorie originally defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water one centigrade degree In caloric = 4.1840 joules. The large calorie 1948 it was redefined as {kcal or Cal) used in nutritional measurements is 1,000 times as large.
was
1
H
3.
2,
(c)
If
Xo.
Aits.
H02
in
sec, 1X4
'.-ee.
!()2
'sec
the average distance between collisions of CO* molecules under I atm pressure and at QC is ft. 29 X 10 6 in, what, is the time between collisions? Ans. 1.6 X 10"" sec
90
Looking
In:
i. In a certain electron microscope, electrons travel 1.0 from electron gun to screen. To avoid scattering of electrons by residual molecules of nitrogen in lie vacuum chamber, below what pressure
I
would you recommend operating (lie microscope? The radius of a nitrogen atom is about 2 X 10 10 m. Ana. p < 8 X 10~ s atm 5. What pressure will 10 gin of helium exert if contained in a 50-cm* cylinder at 2lC-? Would a cylinder rated at 100 atm maximum safe pressure be safe to hold this helium? 4ns. p 1,000 atm
Wave Motion
Equipped with
calls the his five senses,
man
explores the universe around him and
adventure Science.
E. P.
Hubble To the mathematician the problems of wave motion offer a field for his
series of judgments, revised without ceasing, goes to
make up
the incon-
highest
physicist
power
they
all
of
analysis;
to
the
testable progress of science.
DuClaux
suggest
the
experiments
disposal
demanding
to
skill at his
the engineer and to those

to
who go
down The main

ages
is
the sea
in
ships these problife
difference of
modern
scientific research
from that of the middle
lems are matters of
and death,
lies in its collective
character, in the fact that every fruitful experiment
while to the poet and the artist they

are
published, every
is
new
discovery of relationship explained
Scientific
"the
sea dancing
to
its
research
a triumph over natural instinct, over that

to
mean
own
instinct
which
music "
Henry Crew
makes a man keep knowledge

tage
himself and use
it
slyly to his
own advan-
... To
science this
is
a crime.
H. G. Wells
In the study of
wave motion wc
arc concerned with the propaga-
tion of disturbances in physical systems.
A wave
is
a description
of a disturbance wliicli propagates
from one point in a medium to other points, without causing atiy permanent displacement in the medium as a whole. Tints sound is a type of wave motion; wind is not.
Wave motion
kinetic
91
occurs
in
medium
in
which energy can be

elastic material,
in
stored in both kinetic
energy results
and potential form. In an from inertia and is stored
the motion of
92
Wave Motion
93
the molecules, whereas potential energy results from the displacement of molecules against an elastic restoring force. In an electromagnetic wave, we may regard kinetic energy as stored in the
Elastic waves, of which acoustic or sound waves are a particular kind, require a
inertia. Elasticity of the
medium having two properties, elasticity and medium is needed to provide a force to
particle fo
its
and potential energy in the electric field. In a traveling wave, one part of the medium disturbs an adjacent part so that kinetic energy at one point is transferred into potential energy at an adjacent one, and that potential energy becomes kinetic energy at still another point, and so on.
magnetic
field
restore a displaced
original
position.
Inertia
is
needed to enable the displaced particle to transfer momentum to a neighboring particle. In an elastic medium one may have,
in addition to a longitudinal or a transverse wave, a shear wave. This is a rotational wave which causes an element of the medium to change its shape without a change of volume. Light waves, radio waves, and other electromagnetic waves
9.1
TYPES OF WAVES
is
are not elastic
waves and therefore can

In a
travel in free space as

all
a disturbance that moves through a medium in such a manner that at any point the displacement is a function of time, while at any instant the displacement at a point is a function of the position of the point. The medium as a whole does not pro-
A wave
well as in transparent media.
vacuum
electromagnetic
:j
waves travel with constant speed, approximately
10* m/sec.
gress in the direction of motion of the wave.
Waves
are usually
described mathematically
terms of their amplitude (maximum displacement from equilibrium) and how the displacement varies with both space and time. This requires solution of the wave
in
-km
Tvv
In material
equation consistent with the boundary conditions for the particular case being studied. In cases most often considered, the wave
equation
is
a second-order,
linear, partial differential
equation.
The
general solutions of the
wave equation
for a one-dimensional
space coordinate x are of the form
(a)
Fig. 9.1
(6)
* = F(x The
tions,
vt)
+ G(x +
(!
Wave
fronts; (a)
plane;
is less,
vt)
(0.1)
(b) spherical.
Arrows represent rays.
functions
P and
and the speed v term represents a wave traveling in the positive x direction; the second term represents a wave traveling in the negative x direction. These are usually sine or cosine waves, for the one-dimensional case.
boundary condiby the properties of the medium. The first

are determined by the
media the speed
and
its
value depends on the
medium.
Waves may be classified further in terms of time: the periodicity or lack of periodicity of the disturbance. If a long coil
spring ("Slinky")
is
stretched out on a table, a single sidewise
movement
spring.
A wave moving on a string is an example of a one-dimensional wave. Hippies on water are two-dimensional waves. Acoustic and
light
wave along the Kaeh particle remains at rest until the puke reaches it, then moves for a short time, and returns to rest, However, a
at one end will send a pulse or single
waves are three-dimensional.
Waves may be classified in accordance with the motion of individual particles. Transverse waves and longitudinal waves
are the most
as a
continuing to-and-fro motion applied to the end of the spring will produce a train of waves. If the motion is periodic, we shall have
common
is
types, but there are others. For example,
wave moves on
the surface of water, the path followed by

either a circle or an ellipse.
an
individual particle
a periodic train of waves. An important special case of periodic wave is a simple harmonic wave in which each particle is given an acceleration proportional to its displacement and directed toward the equilibrium position.
94
Wave Motion
95
(e.g.,
An
front
aid in visualizing waves

is
is
the idea of a
wave
front.
A wave
is
the
maximum
value attained by the variable of the wave

in space.
all
a surface drawn through points undergoing a similar disturbance at a given instant. The location of a disturbance (pulse) at successive e(|iial time intervals may be indicated by drawing successive wave fronts. A line perpendicular to a wave
the displacement) at a given point
The frequency
of a
wave remains constant under
circum-
stances except for a relative motion between the source of the wave and the observer (see Sec. 9.15, Doppler Effect). The speed
of propagation, however,
is
showing the direction of motion of the wave, is called a ray. fronts spreading from a point source in a homogeneous medium are spherical. Hut at large distance from the source a
front,
dependent on the properties of the
Wave
medium
(and, sometimes, also on the frequency).

will
Hence the
(9.2),
wavelength
as suggested
vary with speed in accordance with Eq.
section of the
wave
front
may
be treated as practically plane.
in Fig, 9.2.
9.2
FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS
is
9.3
WAVE FORM
is
A wave
\ or
its
commonly
identified
in
terms of either
its
wavelength
frequency J". In any kind of wave motion these two quantiby the simple ses are related to the velocity of propagation
>
A wave form
a wave
is
a pictorial representation of a wave obtained by
plotting the displacement with respect to lime or distance.
When
equation
traveling along a string in the

I
the string at some instant

v
is
shape of can be expressed by an equation

direction, the
(9,3)
is some function wave is moving to the the wave at some later time
:/
/A
(9.2)
/(#)
when
The
period
the reciprocal of the frequency.

Medium
t
The amplitude A
which states that the transverse displacement
>u,)
f(x) of the distance x along the string. If the
right with a speed
I
"-Pi -A*
Medium 2
(f 2
v,
the equation of
is
f{x
Bt)
(9.4)
This gives the same wave shape about the point x as we observed about point x = at time t = 0.
vl
at time
The
(a)
relative positioti (displacement) of
two points
in
a wave
is
-A
called the phase.
Two
points which have displacements of the

t=*t
=
a
\e
d(
<vt
Fig, 9.3
traveling
wave.
Wavelength
(6)
Fig. 9.2
m-
Wavelength \j
When
wave passes from one medium

frequency
is
to another, in which the
wave
same magnitude and sign (a and h in Fig. 9.3) arc said to have the same phase, or to be "in phase." Points c andrf do not have the same phase, for although both have zero displacement, the displacement
is
speed
is
different, (a) the
constant,
(fa)
the wavelength changes.
decreasing at
c,
increasing at d.
To
follow a particu-
96
lar
Looking
In:

t
Wave Motion
97
phase in an ongoing wave, wc ask how x changes with when vt has some particular constant phase value P. Differentiation of x vt = P gives dx/dl = v. So v is the phase velocity of the wave. A wave form of considerable importance is one defined by a
x
There are many wave forms of interest in physics. To specify a particular wave Form, one chooses the appropriate function /(.!) It is possible to represent any periodic wave form mathematically as a
Fourier scries of sine and cosine terms at har1,
monics (multiples) of the frequency

Fig. 9.4.
T.
Examples are shown
in
sine function
f/o
sin -r-
(*"
i>0
ij
si"
(x
t)
(9.5)
9.4
WAVES
IN
A LIQUID
often see arc those which occur on Ihe
The maximum displacement // is called the amplitude of the wave. The wavelength A represents the distance between two the displacement points which have the same phase, ['or a given is the same at x, at x + X, at x + 2X, etc. The period T is the time required for the wave to travel a distance of one wavelength X, so X = vT, From the second form of LCq. (9,5) it is apparent
(, //
The waves which we most

Their propagation
is
surface of a body of liquid.
Waves
also occur within
made
use of in marine
a liquid. equipment such as
the fathometer and Sofar.
that y has the same value at the times a given position x.
t,
T,
2T,
etc.,
at
T
2
Fig. 9.5
Liquid in a channel, showing
two positions of o
liquid
element being
considered.
Sine
wave
sin
Square wave
y=y
jr
=
1,3,5-
litt
A quantitative description of a wave motion often can be obtained by applying fundamental laws of physics to a particular situation. As an example, consider a channel of unit width and vertical walls which contains a layer of liquid whose initial depth
is
outlined by the solid line in Fig. 9.5.
Examine how
this
can
line.
is
move
to successive positions, as suggested by the dotted
We
of
Saw-tooth wave
J'0
shall
apply two physical laws:

2
(1)
No
liquid disappears or
<.n
created during the process.
The
rate of increase
momentum
applied to that element.

tint
J'
r->
it
= 1,2,3-
Fig. 9.4
Some wove
t
forms, defined in terms of sine functions of the

multiples, n/T.
clement must be equal to the net external force The force applied to a fluid element at a cross section such as .1.1 equals the area times the average pressure. Since we have assumed unit width for the channel, area = X It. The element considered will be the liquid which initially lies under the solid line of Fig. 9.5, between .4.1 and ('('. After time I,
liquid
I
any
frequency,
T,
and
its
this
same
liquid will be
under the dotted
line
between
.I'.l'
and
98
C'C.
Wave Motion
where
h,
is
99
The distance from
.1.1
to A' A'
is u^l,
the speed of
the liquid lying to
tfie left
of B.
To
(At
satisfy the first requirement
mentioned above
(9.6)
is
hi)x
kiUtt
where x
the distance the liquid originally at rest lias been accelJ.
erated during time interval
from a faucet into a basin. The flow can be adjusted so that in the basin there can be seen an inner zone consisting of a thin layer of water moving rapidly outward. Surrounding this is an outer zone which is a thicker, more slowly moving layer. The manner in which a continuing oscillatory wave is propagated may be examined from considerations similar to those just < ,' a suggested for a .-urge wave. In shallow water (say, h
,\
.
To
satisfy the second requirement
2(,
Fig.
(A, 2
A.')
= "*f -'
9.6
large-amplitude
(Fig. 9.5).
wove
(9.7)
steepens to form a bore
where ipgki is the average pressure (above atmospheric) in the liquid of depth Ai, \pgh-i is the average pressure at CC where the depth is As, and p is the mass per unit volume of liquid. The lefthand side of Eq. (9.7) is the net horizontal force on the element of liquid considered. The mass of liquid phx is accelerated from rest to speed a 5 in time t, so (phx/t)ui is the rate of change of
wave of small amplitude will be propagated without change of shape at a speed y/gh, which is consistent with Eq. (9.9), If, however, the wave height is an appreciable fraction of the liquid depth, the wave speed is significantly greater at positions
of greater depth.
momentum. The two requirements expressed by

give for the speed
,
The wave
front
becomes successively steeper
Eqs. (9.6) and (9.7)
now
(Fig.
9.(i),
and a bore
starts to form.
m,
of the particles of liquid
(Ai
deep-water waves, individual fluid particles move in approximately circular orbits (Fig. 9.7). At the surface, the radius
In
(9.8)
StiM-woter leve
A;) 2 (Ai
h*)g
2hih a
But the wave speed

advances
is
x/t at which the front of the deeper layer

*
given by
(At
"^
Shallow water
v=
+ A )flig
2
2A 3
v is greater
(9.9)
Bottom
The wave speed

particles.
than the speed u of the material
(b)
Fig. 9.7
In this simplified treatment,
we have
Orbital motion of fluid particles for surface waves
(a) in
deep water,
disregarded energy )o->i>.
and
(b) in
shallow water.
variation of speed with depth, and a detailed specification of the
shape of the wave
front.
Vet we have obtained a valid description
of the orbit of a particle

of almost zero particle of the
of the tidal bores which occur in certain rivers.
Such a surge
is equal to the amplitude of the wave. Hut the radius decreases exponentially with depth, and a region
wave
is sometimes employed as a means of dissipating flow energy at the bottom of a dam spillway. If the channel is so designed that = ~r then the velocity of the surge relative to
i/
t
motion
is
soon reached hence the behavior

;
wave
is
unaffected by the total depth of the liquid.
lu shallow
water there can
tie
im vortical motion of particles
This form of surge is known us a hydraulic jump. it can often lie viewed on a small scale by allowing water to flowearth
is
zero.
at the bottom.
vertical axis
The
orbits of the particles are ellipses in

(Fig. 9.76).
which the
becomes zero at the bottom
100
Looking in: Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Wave Motion
101
A wave
lias
equal amounts of potential energy, owing to
Since in a steady flow there can be no accumulation of the
above or below the still-water level, and kinetic energy, owing to the motion of the particles in their orbits. The speed at which energy is transmitted in the direction of wave travel is called the group velocity n. us distinct from the phase velocity v = x/l. In deep-water waves the group velocity is onehalf the phase velocity. In shallow-water waves u = e.
particle displacement
mass at the wave

Pi*'i
front,
= wis
the density of gas at the right of the
(9.10)
where
p is
wave
front
and
gas relative to the observer moving with the wave front. Also, an increase in gas momentum across the
h 2 is the velocity of this
wave front requires a drop

9.5
in
pressure from pi to p 2
SOUND WAVES
in
IN
A GAS
is
P2>1?
Pll
Pl
P'J
(9.11)
In sound waves usually encountered, the intensity
so small are a
that the changes
temperature and pressure
in
the
wave
very small fraction of the ambient temperature and pressure.

Plane wave Front
Tiiis expression is obviously related to Bernoulli's theorem for the steady flow of on incompressible fluid (p = const). If we consider (he fluid flowing past two different cross sections of a pipe at different elevations A] and h~ and apply the principle of conservation of energy, we get
{As
2 Pi
Fig. 9.8
Ai)
+ \ (* -
,*)
p,
pj
(9.12)
1 Pi
Plane
wave
front
in
a gas.
theorem thus says (hal at any two points along a streamline an ideal fluid in steady flow, the sum of the pressure, he potential energy per unit volume, and the kinetic energy per unit volume have
Bernoulli's
in
I
the
same
value.
These waves
ravel at a speed which
depends only on the ambient
For a small disturbance where the fractional changes in gas and pressure are much smaller than unity, these changes across the wave front can be written as it* = u\ + du, Pz = p\ + dp, and p : = pi + dp. When we substitute these in Kqs. (9.10) and (t).ll) and neglect product terms of differential quantities, we have
velocity, density,
Pl
state of the fluid.
sound wave in three dimensions can be derived from fundamental physical principles starting in this way. Imagine, a small prism or a packet of gas enclosed by a weightless dcformable membrane. The mass within this packet remains constant. The elasticity is expressed by the ideal-gas law. The inertia appears in Newton's second law, from which the
of a
The propagation
du
tt
2p,u, du
+ urdp = -dp
r
dp
(9.10a)
(9.1 In)
By
eliminating du from these two equations,
we obtain an expres-
sion for the

u
wave speed
(9.13)
p F
equation for the wave propagation can be derived. A simpler procedure may be followed in describing the special case of a plane wave front moving from right to left at constant speed it, in a gas initially at rest and having density pi. To an
observer moving with this wave front there will appear to be a steady flow of gas from left to rigbl across the wave Ironi (Kg,
9.8),
Laplace assumed the compressions and expansions associated with sound waves should obey the adiabatic gas law, pp> = constant where y is the ratio of the specific heats, Cp /C r If this
.
Relationship for
p and
p is
assumed, the speed of sound becomes

(<ut)
tti
VyRT = J?l
102

result,
Wave Motion
103
This
for gases at
based on the adiabatic law, does not hold for liquids, extreme pressures and temperatures, or for acoustic
the pressure fluctua-
9.7
WAVES
IN
SOLIDS
waves
of very high frequencies.
tions in
justifies
However, sound waves range from about 10 9 to 10~ 3 atm, which the asumption of small disturbance in deriving
Different types of acoustic waves may occur in solids, depending on the way in which potential energy is stored in the solid. Transverse waves on flexible stretched strings are described
Bq. (9.14).
by an equation of the form

IN
9.6
SHOCK WAVES
wave
A GAS
3P"
6\r
(9. If))
In a
in
of
wave speed is higher than wi regions of condensation (p > pi) and lower than i in regions rarefaction. This causes the wave to distort as it propagates.
of large amplitude, the
where
;/
is
the displacement of the string at a point

is
of propagation v
,r. The speed equal to the square root of the ratio of the
Regions of higher condensation overtake those of lower condensation (Fig. 9.9).
tension to the mass per unit length of the string:
The
thin "characteristic lines"
are shown
for cor*
4In
in
(9.10)
Fig. 9.9
When wave speed

amplitude, the
distorted
1, I,,
Acoustic waves occur

increases
bars
is
when
due
the bar
i>
brm and
re-
with
wave
wave form
leased.
Here the restoring
force
to the
moment
of the forces
becomes
intervals,
at successive time
2f
i.
fD
responding points in the wave. The slope di/dx of these lines is inversely proportional to the speed. The net effect is to steepen compression regions and to flatten expansion regions. Before the
situation represented at
about the neutral plane in the bar and depends on the crosssectional dimensions and on Young's modulus. Seismic waves which travel through the ground originate from natural readjustment of the faults in the earth's crust or from explosions. Both body and surface waves result. The body waves, which travel through the interior of the earth, may be classified into dilationai (longitudinal) waves, which are similar to acoustic waves in compressible fluids, and shear (transverse) waves, which occur on account of the large shear modulus of most elastic
solids.
2d
is
reached, friction and heat-transfer
effects counteract the steepening tendency.
The compression
is
part
From known
relationships between propagation speeds
and
of the
wave propagates without
further distortion. It
then a
the mechanical properties of various substances, seismologists
shock wave.
obtain from seismograms valuable information about the strnci
Bomb
blasts start as shock waves, large-amplitude compres-
lire
of the earth.
Such information can be applied
to prospecting
sion waves. Planes traveling at speeds greater than the speed of
Tor
mines and
wells.
sound (Much niiniher = speed of body/ local speed of sound > 1) generate shock waves which are responsible for the sonic boom sometimes heard and felt on the ground. When an astronaut reenters the earth's atmosphere, the early motion of his vehicle is determined by its shock wave and can be estimated from the size and velocty of the vehicle and the known temperature, pressure, and density relations for the wave.
9.8
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
lames C. Maxwell recognized about 180-1 that the basic equations for electric and magnetic lields could be combined to give an equation which resembled the wave equation for mechanical waves in a fluid {see Sec. Fi.fi).
104
Looking In; Atomic and Nuclear Physics

particle in the
Wave Motion
105
9.9
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
medium transmitting a complex wave the form of equation of an

y
is
given by
For many kinds of waves, two or more waves ean pass through the same space independently of one another. One can distinguish the notes of a particular instrument while listening to a full orchestra. The displacement of a particle in the medium at any instant is just the sum of the displacements it would be given by each wave independently. The principle of superposition states that the net displacement of a particle is the vector sum of the displacements the individual waves alone would give it. This principle holds for an elastic medium whenever the restoring
force
is
= A
B
sin
co(
i
Ai
oil
sin 2ut
At
sin Swi
B,i
+
:io>t
+ if
cos
Bi cos
2U
cos
(9.17)
In Fig. 9.10, the
wave
(dotted) which has an approximately
square wave form is shown to be equivalent to three component waves with frequencies in the ratio :3:o and amplitudes in the ratio 1 :| g. The Fourier series representing the square wave is
1 :
= A
sin id
A
tt sin
JW
+ = sm out +
.
(9.18)
proportional to the deformation. Superposition holds for

9.10
INTENSITY OF A
is
WAVE
transmitted through the
travels.
In any wave, energy
direction in which the
wave
medium in the The amplitude of the wave,

Each
particle has energy
which
Fig. 9.10
is
the amplitude of vibration of the particles in the medium,
Analysis of a complex
is
related to the transmission of energy.
wave
form.
of vibration
which it passes on to the succeeding particles. In simple harmonic motion, where there is no damping, the energy of a vibrating particle changes from kinetic to potential and back, the total energy remaining constant. We may find this constant energy from an expression for the maximum kinetic energy
electromagnetic waves because of the linear relations between

electric
E k
lm(u ui:ix y
and magnetic
fields,
( r
')'
"
\m@rfv<>y
2ir
mf y^
2
The superposition principle does not hold in every ease. It fails when the equations describing the wave motions are not linear. An acoustic shock wave has a quadratic wave equation;
superposition does not hold. Hippies which can cross gentle ocean
swells cannot preserve their identity in breakers. Intermodulation
(9.19)
where
y<>
amplitude of vibration
period
T / =
frequency
mass
of the particle
when the system fails combine two tones linearly. An important consequence of the superposition principle is that it provides a means of analyzing a complicated wave motion as a combination of simple waves. Joseph Fourier showed that any smooth periodic function may be represented as the sum of a number of sine and cosine functions having frequencies which
distortion occurs in an electronic amplifier
to
The energy per unit volume in the medium is the energy per particle times the number n of particles per unit volume
~ - a2* 8*/W s
-iTr-pp-ih?
(9.20)
where
= mn
is
the density.
are multiples of a single basic frequency.
The displacement
of a
/ of a wave is defined as the energy transferred per unit time per unit area normal to the direction of motion of
The
intensity
106
Wave Motion
ence
is
107
the wave. The energy tluil travels through such an area per unit time is that contained in a volume which has unit cross section and a length equal numerically to the speed 8 of the wave. From Eq. (9.20)
/
constructive.
of the individual waves.
The amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes Where waves arrive 180 or X/2 out of
1
phase, the interference

of alternate maxim;!
is
destructive.
When two wave trains of different

and minima
is
2Teh>ppij,r
is
(9.21)
the vibration
(l-'ig.
i).ll).
frequency interfere, a series produced in the amplitude of The frequency of these "beats" is the
The
intensity
directly proportional to the square of the ampli-
difference of the
in
tude and to (he square of the frequency of the wave.
When u wave originates at a point source and travels outward through a uniform medium, at some instant the energy is passing through the surface of a sphere. A moment later the same energy is passing through a larger spherical surface. Since the total energy per unit time is the same at the two surfaces, the intensity
is
A familiar example occurs two tones of slightly different frequency are sounded together, one perceives that the loudness pulsates at the beat
two wave frequencies.
sound.
If
inversely proportional to the area 4?rr 2 of the surface:

/
wwvwm wwwvwm
Two waves
wave
=
lirr*
/.":
(9.22)
If
instead
is
energy
we have a line source (e.g., a fluorescent lamp), the spread over successively larger cylindrical surfaces.
is
The
intensity
inversely proportional to the area
27rr/
of the
Fig. 9.11
of different frequency combine to couse beats.

trains of frequencies
Two
cylindrical surface:
f
coincidences per unit time are shown for
10 and 12.
=
2jrrt
hi
r
(9.23)
Frequency.
Thus
if
the tones are middle
(2(i!/sec)
and
O sharp
(280.5/scc), there will be 16.5 beats sec.

is inversely proportional to the distance r. For a plane source (e.g., a skylight), which is large compared to the distance from the source, the energy passes through suc-
Here the intensity
9.12
DIFFRACTION
of a
cessive planes of equal area.
There is no divergence of the rays. independent of distance. As a wave passes through any medium, some energy is absorbed by the medium. Hence the energy |>;i-<iim through sucIn this case the intensity
is
The bending
Diffraction
is
wave around an
obstacle
is
called diffraction.
readily observed as ripples on water
bend around a
stick placed in their path.
The
the
grating.
principles of diffraction
of
cessive surfaces decreases faster than expected from the change

in area alone. The decrease in intensity due to absorption of energy is called damping, A wave whose amplitude decreases for
measurement
and interference are applied in light with an optical diffraction A transmission grating is a glass plate upon which is
wavelength of
lines,
ruled
many
equally spaced
usually several thousands per
this reason is called a
damped wave.
9.11
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
physical effect of superposing
The
two or more wave motions
is
called interference.
Where waves
arrive in phase, the interfer-
monochromatic light falling waves in all forward directions from each slit. Along certain definite directions waves from adjacent slits are in phase and reinforce each other. Consider parallel rays making an angle with OB, the normal to the grating, which are brought to focus at a point P by an
centimeter.
parallel
beam
of
normal to
this grating
(l-'ig.
9.12) sends
108
Wave Motion
109
achromatic Ions, If ray AP travels a distance X farther than ray CP, then waves from .1 and C will interfere constructively at /' for they differ in phase by a whole number of wavelength*. The wave front CD makes an angle 8 with the grating. From the smallest right triangle, the path difference X is seen to be CA sin 0. The distance ('A between corresponding points in the ruling is called the grating space />. The condition for reinforcement in
the direction 8
b sin
is
formed by a grating that has 5.000 lines/in., compute the separation of these two lines in the third-order spectrum
o
ttIsL o.OOO
cm =
5.791
5.08
X
r'
10"
cm
4^68 A =
=
5,791
sinfl
A = =
^=
b
10"
am
10-'
4.358
e
10
am
3(5^?1_X 10
5.08
<n.O
...
_
'
"
X
X
cm
2();r
(first
order)
(9.24)
sin
8i,
3(4,358
IP" 6 cm)
10- 4
5.08
X
~
cm
0.258
ft,
15.0
There are other directions on each side of OH for which waves from adjacent slits differ by 2X, 3X, -IX, etc., and for which the
Separation
'*
ft
5,3
9.13
Tf
STANDING WAVES
wave on reaching the boundary of a medium is totally the reflected wave proceeds in the opposite direction
reflected.,
Fig. 9.12
Diffraction grating.
fW
(a)
Fig.
(b)
9.13
directions; R
Standing waves from superposition of waves traveling in opposite is the resultant of A and S. The envelope of a standing wave is
corresponding bright images P>, /\,

order, third-order, etc.,
etc.,
are called the second-
shown
in
(M.
images.
The
grating equation in more
general form
b sin 6
is
= AT X
(9.2.-))
and with equal amplitude (big. 9.13.!. The incident and reflected waves add according to the principle of superposition. Two such waves, proceeding to the right and left, may be represented by
the equations
where
is
When
persion
is
the order of the spectrum and b is the grating space. white light fulls on the grating, it is dispersed into its
colors.
i/ x
yo sin
component
appear
in
Spectra are produced at Pi, r\ etc. The disgreater in the higher-order spectra. In each, the colors
the sequence violet (small X) to red (large X) with in-
MM)
:
y-i
!/ B
sin
creasing deviation. Example. A yellow line and a blue tine of the mercury-arc spectrum h;ivc wavelengths of 5,791 A and 4,358 A, respectively. In the spectrum
The
resultant
may
t/s
be written
tf
,'/t
si n
(9.26)
110
Wave Motion
til
We may
of
sin
use the trigonometric relation for the
sum
B)
of the sines
two angles A
sin
II
=
in
2 sin l(A
B) cos %{A
If a system which can oscillate is acted upon by periodic impulses having a frequency equal or nearly equal to the natural frequencies of the system, oscillations will occur with relatively
large amplitude. This vigorous response of a
system
to pulses
is
to
put Eq. (9.26)

y
the form
I
=-,
nearly synchronous with one of

resonance.
(9.27)
its
natural frequencies
called
=
is
2wx 2y sin -y- cos 2w
This
the equation for a standing (no n progressing) wave.
Let us determine the natural frequencies of a stretched string. standing waves are established in the string, the end points will be nodes. There may be other nodes in between. So the
When
harmonic motion. All particles vihrate with the same frequency. But the amplitude is not the same for all particles; the amplitude varies with the location x. The points x = X/2 (where n is an integer), at which sin (2tx, X) = 0, show no displacement and arc called nodes. The 2 + X amplitude has a maximum value 2i/ n at points .< = and
particle at a particular point % executes simple
I
wavelength of the standing waves can have

Since the distance between adjacent nodes
many
is
distinct values.
X/2, in a string of
2'
Vib rotor
such points are called autinodos, or loops (Fig. 9.136). In general, when a wave reaches a boundary, there
reflection
is
partial
Fig.
and
partial transmission.
Consider a stretched string

a
9.14
Standing waves
in
string driven at
attached to a second string.
When
wave
in
the
first
string
frequency nearly equal to a natural frequency,
reaches the boundary joining the strings,
the. reflected
smaller amplitude than that of the incident
second siring carries incident energy. If the second string has a smaller linear density than the first, reflection occurs without change of phase. If the second string has a greater linear density than the first, there is a
in the
transmitted
wave
wave has wave because the away some of the,
length
there must
2,
be exactly an integral
number n
of half
wavelengths, X
X
so
*
7i
n
Kqs. (9.1)
1,2,3,
(9.2ti),
phase shift of 180 on reflection.

relation X
From Eq.
(9.2fi), it is
evident
the
From
are
and
the natural frequencies of vibration
that the wave travels more slowly in the denser string.
From
in the denser string the wavea study of light waves we frequently observe this phenomenon of change of speed and wavelength as light passes from one; medium to another. v/f,
we conclude that
length
is
shorter. In
21 yitn/t
n=
1,2,3,
(9.28)
9.14
RESONANCE
Free or natural oscillation refers to the oscillation of a body or a system which has been given a displacement from equilibrium and then is not acted on by any external or driving force. The body or system will generally have several distinct frequencies of natural
oscillation.
These relations may be demonstrated in a string one end of which receives energy from a vibrator, such as an electrically driven tuning fork. The string passes over a pulley, I' in Fig. i>. 14, and is attached to a weight which maintains the string under tension I<\ The frequency / of the wave is that of the vibrator. The wavelength is
9
1
i
F_
in
I
/ V
112
Wave Motion
113
The wavelength may be varied by changing the tension F, which changes the wave speed v. Whenever the wavelength becomes
nearly equal to 2l/n, standing waves of large amplitude may be observed. The string is then vibrating in one of its natural modes
fi
Then the general equation relating the observed frequency and the source frequency fs is
h
u
f*
vL
9u
vs
(9.29)
I'M
and
is
in
resonance with the vibrator.

the optical Doppler effects.
Example, What forte must be exerted on the string, using the apparatus of Kg. 9.14, to produce resonance with the string vibrating in one loop? The vibration has a frequency 20/sec, the string has a length 18 ft and weighs o.O ok. From Eq. (9.28), with n = I,
There an; important differences between the acoustical and ( The optical frequency change does
I
F =
Ifm =
400 6.0 slug

4(18
ft)
sec 2 10
3-1
11)
32
9.15
DOPPLER EFFECT
is a change in the observed frequency of sound, light, or other waves caused by motion of the source or of the observer, \ ami liar example is the increase in pitch of a train whistle as the
There
train approaches
and a decrease
in pitch as the train passes.

is
In the radar system used for traffic control, the speed of a car
estimated from the Doppler frequency shift in the radar

reflected
beam
mo-
from the
car.
In acoustics the Doppler effect deals with cases of relative

tion
and source, plus the effect of any motion of the medium. If the source moves toward a stationary observer with speed vn, waves emitted with a frequency fs appear to have their wavelength shortened in the ratio (u Vn)/u, because of the crowding of the waves in the direction of motion of the source
between
listener
(big. 9.15), Theses
Fig, 9.15
Doppler effect due

1
to
motion of the source S toward observer O.

front 2
Wave
waves, however, arrive at the listener with the
was emitted when the source was at position 1; wave emitted when the source was at position 2, etc. The drawing shows Wave fronts when the source is at S.
front
Was
positions of
speed u characteristic of the medium. If, instead, the listener moves with speed u L toward a stationary source, the waves appear to him to arrive with speed m v,l- The wavelength in this case is the same as that measured
not depend on whether
it is
the source or the observer that
is
when both
listener
and source are at
rest in the
medium.
Xow
The
consider motion of the medium. Let Vm be the component
of its velocity taken positive in direction
from listener to source. components v f and vs are taken to be positive in the direction from listener to source.
velocity
,
moving with respect to the other. (2) An optical frequency change is observed when the source (or observer) moves at right angles to the line connecting source and observer. No acoustical frequency shift is observed in the corresponding case. (3) Motion of the medium through which light waves are propagated docs not
affect the
observed frequency.
Analysis of the Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves
114
Looking
In:
Wave Motion
6.
115
(light) requires use of
Lorcntz transformations and the relativity

c is
postulate that the

observers.
wave speed
the
same
as measured
is
by
all
density
lb/in.*. 7.
find the speed of a compressional wave in a steel rail whoso 3 6 is 490 lb/ ft and for which Young's modulus has a value 29 X 10
The
result for the observed frequency fa
Am.
the speed of sound waves in air at 0C.
is
5,200 ft/scc
Compute
The average
molecular weight of air
29,
j0
.
Js
1
Vl - WJ&)
. I ,
y =
1. 40.
and
R =
8.3
10 a joules/
(0.30)
(kmole)CK).
a person inhales hydrogen and then speaks, how will the changed? How would the situation be changed if carbon dioxide were used? 9. A student places a small sodium vapor lamp just in front of a blackboard. Standing 20.0 ft away, he views the light at right angle-; to (be blackboard while holding in front of his eye a transmission grating ruled with 14,500 lines, in. He has his assistant mark on the hoard the positions of the first -order diffracted images on each side of the lamp. The distance between these marks is found to he 14 ft, 2 in. Compute the wavelength of the light.
8.
If
(u/c) cos 6
COS do
cos B s
{V/C) COS Or
(v/c) + -;
characteristics of his voice be
(9.31)
where
0<, is
the angle measured in the observer frame and 9s

if it
is
the angle that would be measured in the source frame
were
moving with velocity v relative to the observer frame. The term transverse Dtrppler effect refers to the relativistic,
direction-independent
Is
of
\/l
(u'/c
)-
above, fo m This shows that the observed frequency will be

factor
in
the
equations
less
than the source frequency regardless of the apparent direction

effect is the direction-dependent factor
effect,
is
motion of the source. The radial Doppler
and, like the acoustical Doppler
understandable on the An ocean

traveler has
basis of classical physics, fo /s/[l if>/c) cos 0|. In MK-18 II. ]' Ives and (1. It. Stilwcll measured frequencies in
even more vividly the impression that the ocean

it is
is
made
of
waves than
that
made
of water.
A. S. Eddington
the spectrum emitted by moving hydrogen atoms and compared the frequency shifts with those predicted by the equations above
for the transverse
Doppler
14.!)).
effect.
This became an experimental
False facts are highly injurious
to the
progress of science, for they often
verification of the special theory of relativity
and of the "dilata-
endure long; but

for
false views,
if
supported by
in
some
evidence, do
little
harm,
tion of time" (Sec.
every one takes a salutary pleasure
proving their falseness.

C. R.
Darwin

Knergv can lie transferred by particles as well as by waves. How can you distinguish experimentally between these methods of energy
!.
What
art
was
to the ancient world, science is to the
modern.
Benjamin
Disraeli
transfer?
2. 3.
When waves
interfere, is there a loss of
energy? Kxplain.
Science and art belong to the whole world, and the barriers of nationality
vanish before them.
wo observe interference effects between the light beams omitted from two flashlights, or between the sound waves from violins in an orchestra?
don't
4. A line source (fluorescent lamp) emits a cylindrical expanding wave. Assuming the medium absorbs no energy, find how the amplitude and intensity of the wave depend on the distance from the source. 5. A cord 75 cm long has a mass of 0.252 gm. It is stretched by a load of 2.0 kg. What is the speed of a transverse wave in this cord? Am. 242 m/scc
Why
Goethe
-*
Electric
and Magnetic Forces
117
magnetism were initially developed as separate sciences has led to some inconveniences in concepts and units which the viewpoint
of the inks units (which
we
shall use) seeks to minimize.
10
Electric
10.1
CHARGE AND MATTER
anticipate experimental evidence described in later chapters summarize, some modern basic knowledge. Experiments on the electrification or charging of bodies show that there are two
to
Nucleons:
We
and Magnetic Forces
Nuclei
Atoms
Neutrons
Protons
O O *
:h()i
Electrons
cannot help thinking while
dwell upon them that

is
this
discovery of magnet-electricity (induction)
thB
greatest experimental result ever obtained by an investigator, J. Tyndall
Mo
ecu
'"(0)
Visible matter
Compounds
}p
Electric charges
in
and
electric
and magnetic
forces are important
**
le
Fig. 10.1
many
experiments? designed to reveal the structure and beComposition of matter.
havior of atoms. All visual information cornea to us in electromagnetic waves, and study of the ultimate structure of atomic nuclei depends on electromagnetic processes and detectors. We
shall outline here only the
main ideas
in electricity
and magne-
tism needed for our study of atomic and nuclear physics. The study of electricity dates from the observation ((500 ux.) that bits of straw and other materials arc attracted to rubbed amber. The study of magnetism dates back at least as far, to the observation that magnetite stones attract iron (but not other These two sciences were developed sepasubstances, lieneralh rately until 1820, when Hans Christian Oersted observed a relation between them: An electric current in a wire can affect a
,
A glass rod may be rubbed with silk, placed in a and suspended horizontally on a silk thread. If a second ulass rod is also rubbed with silk and then brought near the rubbed end of the first rod, the two rods will repel each other. Hut a hard-rubber rod electrified by rubbing with fur will attract the glass ra cJ. Two rubber rods rubbed with fur will repel each other. The charges on the glass and hard rubber must be different. We add the following details to the atomic picture of Chap. 8. An atom has most of its mass concentrated in a very tiny (10 -13 cm) nucleus. The simplest atom, hydrogen, has a nucleus which
kinds of charge.
stirrup,
magnetic compass needle. However, the fact that electricity and

116
comprises a single proton. All other nuclei contain, in addition to protons, one or more neutrons. Each atom has circulating
118

its
Electric
and Magnetic Forces
119
nucleus a number of electrons equal to the number of within the nucleus. The mass of the electron is about protons of a proton or neutron (Table 10.1). An arbimass the 1/1,840
around
object on another
x ,
is
proportional to the product of the charges,
the square of the distance q and q 2 and inversely proportional to are regarded as "point" objects them (where the between r
trary convention adopted
in
Franklin's time for the sign of the
masses)
two kinds of electric charge leads us to call the electron charge negative, the proton charge positive. A neutron lias zero charge.
Toble 10.1
Particle
F =
The
<?><7s
(10.1)
Properties of
some baste
particles
Symbol
Charge
Mass, kg
Electron
-e
P
n
(= -5.60
10-"coul]
Proton
Neutron
9.108 1.672 1.675
10- 31
X X
10""
10
proportionality constant k is a positive number whose value depends on the system of units. Tn the electrostatic system of units (esu), the unit of charge is defined conveniently to make k = 1 in Eq. (10.1): One statcoulomb is that quantity of charge which repels a like charge with a force of one dyne when the charges are spaced one centi-
An
element
may
be designated by symbols zEl- 1 such as Be*

,
for berillium.
The
atomic:
tons (or electrons) in the atom. Its

the
number Z represents the number of promass number A represents
number of nucleons (neutrons and protons) in the nucleus. The number of neutrons is .1 Z, The chemical properties of an atom are determined by its atomic number. Two atoms which have the same atomic number, but whose nuclei contain different numbers of neutrons, are said
to be isotopes of the given element.
meter apart in a vacuum (or practically, in air). However, the meter-kilogram-second (mks) system of units defines a unit for current (ampere) as a fundamental unit; the unit for charge (coulomb) becomes a derived unit. The ampere is defined in terms of an electromagnetic experiment. The ampere is the strength of that constant current which, maintained in two
Objects can be electrified, or charged, either positively or negatively by the removal or addition of electrons.
Charges of like sign repel unlike charges attract. In the atomic model proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913, electrons arc pictured as whirling about the nucleus in circular or elliptical orbits. The centripetal force needed To hold an elect nm in its orbit is provided by the force of attraction exerted by the positive nucleus on the negative electron. In addition to the electrostatic (coulomb) forces between charges, there are forces which depend on the relative motion of the charges. These forces determine the magnetic behavior of
;
and very long conductors of negligible cross vacuum at a distance of one meter from each "' other, produces between these conductors a force of 2 X 10 newtou per meter of their length. The coulomb is that charge transferred by an unvarying current of one ampere in one second. In principle, we have only to measure the force, in newtous, between two 1-coul charges separated by 1 m in vacuum to hud
parallel, straight,
section placed in a
k in
mks
units.
The experimental value

10
is
8.987
10* newton-m-'/coul 2
(10.2)
In the so-called rationalized
mks system
of units, a different
is
constant
called the permittivity of free space,
introduced in
the equation for Coulomb's law

/'
4ttc
(10.3)
r2
matter.
so that
10.2
COULOMB'S LAW
eo
=
4irfc
Coulomb's law (1785) expresses the experimental observation that the force of attraction (or repulsion) exerted by one charged
4tt(8.987
X
=
JO
11
newton-mVcoul 2
8.85
10
'-
coul7newton-m
(10.4)
120
Electric
and Magnetic Forces
121
The
Coulomb's fundamental law makes certain derived formulas more convenient. No it's then appear in formulas referring to plane surfaces, a factor 2tt appears in "cylindrical" formulas, and 4jt appears in formulas relating to spherical symmetry. For example, Table 10.2 gives expressions
arbitrary inclusion of the Factor
4ir in
diminishes the force between charges r/i and q*. Coulomb's law is then written F <7ifj a /4jrer s where is replaced by the larger
,
number
e,
the permittivity of the material in question.
10.3
If
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
for the
capacitance
(charge held per unit potential difference)

in
for capacitors of different
ized units
and
in
symmetry as expressed rationalized mks units.
unratioual-
there are several charges
Qu
Q->,
3,
in fixed positions,
The vehemence
argued
with which questions of units have long been
may
be inferred from Oliver Ileaviside's statement (1893)
and we bring up another charge 7, it will experience a force. We say that the fixed charges set up an electrostatic field about them and the charge q experiences a force when in this field. We define
the electric field intensity as the net force per unit
charge
Table 10.2
Comparison of expressions for capacitonce

Unrationalized
units
R
Rationalized
units
force
charge
+q
(10.3)
</
L
^
i
Plane capacitor
C=
Awd
C = iAJd
i|
Coaxial cylinders
2
In
ji (I
b;a
C=
2
In
is a vector quantity. Its mks units are newtons per coulomb (or volts per meter, from Sec. 10.4). We can often calculate the value of K at each point of a region of space; these values determine the force on (and hence the motion of) a charged particle in that region.
Electric field intensity
b/a
F = gE
Concentric spheres
(10.(>)
C=
Ah b -a
(4r)ab
b
The
electric field
near an isolated point charge

is
Q
r
is
easily
it
-a
calculated. If a test charge q
brought to a distance
from Q,
experiences a coulomb force
that "the unnatural suppression of Aw in the funrationalizedj
formula for central

out
all
force,
where
it
has the right to he, drives
it
F = ~
q (4x eo )r 2 of the field
(10.7)
into the blood, there to multiply
itself, and afterward to break over the body of electromagnetic theory." The mks units were adopted by international agreement for scientific and engineering use beginning in 1940, but actual acceptance of the mks system has progressed slowly. We shall use the rationalized mks system of units.
The magnitude
is
then
K - P +q
Q
(4areo)r*
(10.8)
The statement that Coulomb's law applies to "point" charges means, practically, that charges qy and q-> must be associated with bodies whose dimensions are negligibly small compared to r. The
evaluation of the constant k above holds only for the case where the two charged particles are in vacuum. If they are immersed in
This electric field intensity is represented by a vector which, at each point in space, points directly away from Q if Q is positive
or directly toward
if
is
negative.
10
-9
Example.
t'tiLil,
some medium,
say,
oil,
the polarization of
its
molecules greatly
are 8.0
Two charges, q, = 75 X cm apart in uir. Find
coul
and q t
field
+ 75 X
E
10
-9
he electric
intensity
at a
122

is 5.0 era from each charge (Fig. 10.2). The field intensity represented by the vector PA and is given by
Electric
and Magnetic Forces
123
point P, which
due to
2?,
171
Considering a field due solely to a fixed charge Q, we shah compute the work done by an external agent in bringing another
charge q from a great distance (infinity)
in to
_-L
4weor i
at a distance
=
=
The
but
field
its
75
X
X
10-'(9 .0
(0.05)*
10')
newton
i-oul
As q is moved an arbitrary path (Fig. 10. .'5), it

Q.
H from
infinitesimal distance ds along

will
an
be acted on by a practically
27
10*
newton/coul
q*
is
Ei due to charge
is
also 27
10*
newton/coul
in
magnitude,
direction
8
that represented by vector PC.

?,=>
The
resultant field
D
9 l =-75xT0"
+75xicr
Fig.
Fig.
10.3
Calculation of potential at a point
P.
10.2
represented by vector PR. Since triangles TKiP and one may write the following proportion:
is
PRC
cm cm
constant force
are similar,
F =
qQ/4irt D r s
The work done on the system
of
charges by the agent exerting force
is
PB = DG PC PG E = 43 X
10.4
or
_B
27
8.0
5.0
10*
newton/coul
dW = F cos
and q
it
6 ds
-7-^, dr
(10.10)
10* newton/coul, parallel to the tine joining t q
where the negative sign comes from the fact that

cos
fl
F and
ds
(=
dr)
are vector quantities in opposite directions.

in
The
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
total
work done
bringing q from
=o
to
is
then
(10.11)
In electrical phenomena the concept that is important in cases of energy transfer is that of potential difference. If we move a charge through an electric field, we exert a force through a distance, and so do work. The force exerted at each point is proportional to the
IK
lQ
R<
t=
s
flQ
4iro
J"
hrtjt
amount
b
of charge
moved, and thus the
total
in this charge.
The
electric potential difference
work is proportional between positions

in
Dividing by q in Eq. (10.1 1), we have the work per unit charge, which is the potential, given by
and a
is
the work done per unit
charge
carrying charge
v R - r =
Strictly,
from a to
Q 4aW
(10.12}
AV=
Potential
V
is
- Va =
^
in volts:
1
we have defined only

is
difference of potential. Jf arbi-
(10.9)
trarily the potential
measured
volt
joule/caul
the charges (l'
0),
taken to be zero at infinite separation of then the potential (sometimes called the
124
Looking En: Atomic and Nuclear Physics

r
Electric
and Magnetic Forces
125
"absolute" potential^ at a distance
from an isolated point charge

10.5
Qis
ELECTROSTATIC DEFLECTION
deflection of charged particles
in
V Tf q
Q
4xe r
(10.13)
The
and
by
electric
and magnetic
fields
has been important

positive (or both negative) charges, then
</
the identification of elementary particles
and Q are both
in the
the external agent bringing

tion of the
system.
tial
II"
toward Q exerts a force in the direcmotion and does a positive amount, of work on the k(ijQ '"). This work is stored in the system as poten-
oscilloscope
development of such useful devices as the cathode-ray and the mass spectrograph.
case,
As
special
consider a
parallel-plate?
capacitor (Fig.
10.4) with
charge
on the upper plate and
+Q
+
on the lower
energy
Fig.
10.4
AV,
for o uniform
P = qQ = qV
4vt
r
(10.14)
If
electric field.
I
between the plates
field
is is
z
Q
Tin's potential
energy can be recovered.
the charge q at a point
plate. If the distance s
small compared with
distant r from
is
released,
it
will fly off; its potential
energy
is
converted into kinetic energy.
and Q have different signs, then in the trip from ; to It, the agent will have to hold q back (to prevent acceleration).
If
uniform in the region from the upper between the plates. If we lake a small charge plate across to the lower, the work done is the product of the conthe other dimensions, the electric
</
stant force liq and the distance

difference, the
s.
From
the definition of potential
The IF
in
of Eq. (10.1
1)
will
be negative. Because energy
is
trans-
work
is
also the product" of the charge q

A'r/s
moved and
ferred from the electric field to the agent, the charges are placed
AV. By equating
these,
AV, we have
(10.15)
a configuration of lower potential. Energy would have to be put back into the system to separate the charges again to infinity. These ideas will be used in calculating the energy stored in an atom of hydrogen, where a positive nucleus attracts the negative
electron (('hap. lo).
lisniiifih-. Kleetrons which leave a healed filament with negligible energy arc accelerated to pass through an aperture in a metal plate maintained at. a potential of !)00 volts above thai of the filament. What is the final s))eod. of the electrons?
AV E A
for uniform field
sists of
device for studying the charge and mass of particles conan evacuated tube in which a narrow beam of particles,
slits c,
defined by
plate capacitor
it
and <. passes between the plates of a and then impinges on a fluorescent screen
parallel-
S'
where
Each electron has a charge

9.00
10" 11 kg.
it in
The
10"" coul and a mass of of 1 .130 electron gains kinetic energy equal to the work
produces a visible spot (Fig. 10.;">), The x component, of the velocity of a particle suffers no change as the particle passes
through the capacitor and goes to the screen. In the
electric field
dime on
falling
through potential difference V.
(l)w*
= Ve
Hence
">/?-(
The
1
1.6
lO"
'
coul 901)
9.11
10-" kg
*)'= M X
in falling
I0*m/sec
AV
+
TT
S'
kinetic energy attained

1
by an electron
given the
through a
potential difference of
volt
is
name
electron volt (ev).
ev
- (-e)(-AV) = 1.602 X = 1.002 X 10- ' joule
10-
,u
1
Fig.
k-L-4
10.5
Electrostatic deflection of a
coul (1.00 joule/conl)
beam of charged
particles.
126
Electric
and Magnetic Forces
127
of the capacitor,
tf
a positive
tlie force
particle will experience
acceleration n from
exerted by the
field
E on the
an upward charge
(I
Fv _ qE
proportional to the kinetic energy of the particle. Such deflection experiments are important in identifying, sorting, and utilizing charged particles.
Toble 10.3
m
The
particle
O.K.)
Charge-moss
ratios for
several particles
velocity
vx
emerges at the right components
side of the capacitor with

Particle
q/m, coul kg
v
Electron
I
1.75V
m
where
(
(10.17)
Proton
particle
9.579 4.822
X X X
I0 11
10 7 10 7
l/v,
the time required for the particle to pass through
the capacitor.
emerges from the capacitor at an angle original path, where

particle
The
with
its
10.6
ELECTRIC CURRENT
motion constitute an
electric
Electric charges in
(10.18)
current.
In
is,
ten b
"JL
' ?
vx
T.'
metallic conductors there are electrons not
many
"free" electrons, that
A C observed on the screen is the sum of the deflecwhich the particle incurs while in the capacitor and deflection BC brought about by the v velocity component while the particle travels distance D.
The
tion
deflection
AB
ir
(10.19)
bound strongly to particular atoms of the metal. Each electron moves in an irregular path, continually colliding with atoms of the metal. If a wire is connected across a battery, an electric field is set up within the metal. The electrons tend to drift from regions of low potential to regions of high potential. This electron "wind" is the current. The continual collisions are responsible for the resistance of the metal. The kinetic energy gained by the electrons from the field and given up in collisions is he power loss i-R which produces heating in any currentl
BC = Dt&n0 = Ê-,D
Thus the measured
deflected through
deflection
(10.20)
carrying conductor.
In electrolytic solutions, in
some types
of
vacuum
tubes,
and
an angle
q
AC is as if the beam were abruptly midway through the capacitor:

(>E
{
in certain solid-state devices, electric current
may
result
from the
Positive plate
+. Negative plate
|t
AC = AB + BC =
If
\ mv* 2
,+ moI,
- (d
\
find
-A tan 2/
6.
(10.21) v '
we measure AC, D, and

.
we can
tan
Measurement
Electron flow
,/) Ammeter
of
through Eq. (10.18), gives a value speed v of the particles, we can iind a value for q/m, or vice versa. The experiment does not determine q and m separately. The experiment is usually done in such a way that = (exis a very small angle, so that tan pressed in radians). Then, for a given instrument, is inversely
for
AV and $ determines E and,

q/mv 1
If
we know the
initial
High potential
Conventlal current
Fig.
Low
potential
10.6
Direction of electron flow
and of con-
ventional current.
128
Electric
and Magnetic Forces
129
motion of both positive and negative charges. Any currenl direction is a convention; the choice of sign is arbitrary. In this honk
perpendicular to both v and

of the right point in
B and directed so that, if the fingers hand are directed from the direction of v (around
than 180) to that of B, the right thumb the direction of F. The magnitude of F is given by
less
we
shall regard the direction of conventional current as that of
through an angle of
will
the flow of positive electricity.
The conventional
high potential to low potential ("from

circuit.
to
"}
current
in
is
from
the external
F^qvIixmB
(10.23)
If two parallel wires carrying current in the same direction are brought near each other, they attract each other. This effect is the basis for the definition of the ampere, the inks unit of current (Sec. 10.2). This attraction is not an electrostatic (coulomb) force between unbalanced charges. It is a magnetic force arising from the motion of charges. It is convenient to discuss these magnetic forces in terms of a field.
where 8 is the angle included between the positive directions of v and B, Xote that a vector cross product v x B is zero if v is parallel or antiparallcl to B, Notice also that A x B = B x A; that is, A X B is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction
to
B X
The
A.
unit for B, from Eq. (10.22)
is
second). This inks unit for
is
given the
newton/(coulomb meter/ name weber/meter 1
we her
10.7
MAGNETIC INDUCTION
basic vector for describing a magnetic field
is
m
called the
eoul
newton m/sec
still
newton
1
amp-m
is
The
mag-
An
earlier cgs unit for H,
often used,
the gauss.
netic induction, B. (Magnetic field strength
would be an appro1
priate
name
for B,
but historically this
name has been

fields.)
assigned
identi-
weber nv
10*
gauss
r/s is
to another vector
fied
connected with magnetic
We
and measured an
electrostatic field in terms of the force
The summation of B over a surface J'B flux *. The weber is the unit of flux.
called the
magnetic
exerted on a unit positive charge. Kxperimetitally
we
identify the
field
presence of a magnetic
is
field
from the fact that
if
a magnetic
present, a
moving
electric charge will experience a
sideways
a charged particle moves through a region in which both electric and magnetic fields are present, the resultant force on the particle is given by
When
magnetic force. The magnetic induction

fies
is
defined as the vector which satis-
F =
ryE
f/(v
B)
(10.24)
the relation
F =
q(v
It)
(10.22)
Only in the special case where E, v, and B are suitably oriented can we replace Eq. (10.24) by a scalar equation which suggests
straight, addition:
where force F, charge q, and velocity v are the measured quantities. This notation of a "vector cross product" means that F is
F = qE
qv
B sin
(10.25)
is the angle included between the positive directions of where v and B.
Fig.
t0.7
F =
q(v
B)
10.8
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT

electric current
An
be visualized as moving charges. Assume that in a conductor of length I there are n conduction electrons
may
per unit volume, each with charge q and each having an average drift speed i\ (The negative electrons drift in a direction opposite
130
Electric
and Magnetic Forces

in circular
131
to that of the current, Fig. 10.8.)
The
distance an electron
moves
JV con-
tripetal force
needed to keep the particle
motion
is
per second
tion
is v.
The volume
is
of charge passing a certain cross sec-
of the wire
Av. In this
volume there are nAv

is
supplied by the magnetic side thrust. Since the velocity of the in particle is always perpendicular to the induction, sin 8 =
1
duction electrons.
/
If this
conductor
in
a uniform magnetic
Representation of an
Eq. (10.25). Newton's law
F = ma
then can be expressed as
Fig.
10.8
U
induction B, the force q(v
electric current.
5
on each moving charge in the / which is
The momentum
of the particle
mv can be found
if
we know B
xB)
conductor produces a force on the conductor of length
F = Nq(v X
But the
velocity
B)
is 1//,
and Nq/t
is
the current
i,
so the equation
for the force hecomes
and q and measure r. If measurements of electrostatic deflection and magnetic deflection are carried out on the same beam of charged particles, one can determine both q/m and v for the particles. In this way Thomson measured the charge/ mass ratio for electrons in 1897 (Chap. 11). Similar deflection methods arc used today in some types of mass spectrometers to obtain accurate values of q/m for ions and isotopes.
F = Nq
or
(j
N X b) = (
f\
(1
B)
(|
B)
(10.26)
10.10
MAGNETIC INDUCTION OF A CURRENT
F=
10.9
Bil sin d
We
MAGNETIC DEFLECTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES

force
have just considered problems relating to the forces exerted by a magnetic induction on a moving charge or on a currentcarrying conductor. A second class of problems involving magnetic lields concerns the production of a magnetic induction by a
current-carrying conductor or by moving charges.
on a charged particle moving in a magnetic induction is at right angles to B and to v. The particle is accelerated, nit always perpendicular to its velocity. The magnetic force changes the velocity (vector) but not the speed (scalar). No work is done on the particle by the magnetic force, for cos 9 = in the expresI
The
The
is
relationship between current
and magnetic induction

a point
given by Ampere's law.
The magnetic induction at
B P
sion
W = /F cos da. When a charged particle
from a current i in a wire is the vector sum of contributions from every element of the wire. The induction at P due to the current in element d\ of the wire is
arising
d\\
enters a uniform held with

to
its
ve-
locity perpendicular to B, the particle experiences
an acceleration
velocity.
-_ til I\ Air r'
(10.27)
of constant magnitude
qvB/m perpendicular
its
The
particle describes a circular
path with constant speed. The cen-
have again used the notation of the vector cross product. The magnitude of rfB is given by
We
dB Fig. 10.9
u.,
idl
r2 sin 8
(10.28)
4w
Path of charged particle

1i.
in
plane
normal to
The constant u,. is called mks system its value is

/in
the permeability of free space.
In the
4jr
10 -7 joule/amp*-m
132
Looking
In

is
Electric
and Magnetic Forces
133
The
dl
direction of r/B
r,
and such that if the (through an angle less than

will
and
perpendicular to the plane of the vectors fingers of the right hand arc turned
180)
from
dli.
dl to
r,
then the right
perpendicular to the plane of the current elements i dl and r, in the sense given by the cross product d\ x r, or out of the page. Since a radius to any point on the loop is perpendicular to the
thumb
point
in
the direction of
tangent to the circle at that point, sin = in Bq. (10.28). Writing r d<p for dl, the magnitude of B at the center of the loop is
1
B = toL-* r*"=
To
>,
0&>
it is
calculate the magnetic induction at a distance
infinitely long straight wire (Fig. 10.12),
R from an convenient to take
Fig.
10.10
Induction
i
dU
contributed by cur-
rent element
dl.
Fig.
10.12
Induction
near a Mroight conductor.
Ampere's law as expressed
in
the last two equations cannot

the z axis along (he wire in the direction of / and with the origin at the point of the wire closest to l\ The upper and lower halves
we cannot isolate an element i dl of an electric circuit. Actually Ampere's law was not deduced from any single experiment. Rather it summarizes many experiments dealing with magnetic effects of circuits of different geometry and witli magnetic forces exerted by currents on each
be subject to direct experimental check, for
other.
of the wire
make equal
sin
i
contributions so we
may compute B by
integration of the expression
To
illustrate the tise of
Ampere's law we
shall calculate the
B =
2 f-
magnetic induction (I) at the center of a circular loop, and (2) at a point near a long straight conductor. At the center of the loop (Fig. 10.11) the direction of the magnetic induction H is
4x
/-*. } -
'/:
(10.30)
For the section of wire below the origin
(z
<
0)
we have
-R
dz
tan 8
and
R
2
sin 6
Fig.
10.11
Induction
(out
of
page) at
de d(.^\=4 \tm 0} sin

in
center of a circular loop.
Equation (10.30) may be written
terms of one variable

noi
0:
R _
tint
[*ft
sin
d0
r*te
134
Looking
In:
Electric
and Magnetic Forces
135
giving
B =
li.nl
(10.32']
2-xii
(h) When a current-carrying wire is in a magnetic field, the magnetic force on the wire is directed from the region of stronger induction toward the region of weaker induction. Consider a wire perpendicular to the page carrying a current into the page (Fig. 10.14a). The local magnetic induction encir-
10,11
DIRECTION RULE
relative directions of the vector quantities in Eqs. (10.22)
cles the current in the clockwise sense. If
now
field
this current-carry-
The
and
ing conductor
is
placed in an external
B,
(Fig.
field
10.
4b),
(10.27) implicit in the vector cross products can be remembered conveniently from the following rules: (a) If, in imagination, the right hand grasps a current-
B and
B\ reinforce each other above the wire (strong
region)
and partly cancel each other below the wire (weak field region). The force F on the wire is down. A representation of the net field due to B and Bj is shown in Fig. 10.14c,
=^z^
(a)
Fig. 10.13
10.12
INDUCED CURRENTS
and
electric
further important relation between magnetic fields

is
current
the principle of induced emfs on which the design of
generators, transformers, and motors
(M B
i
current: {a} Side view,

j
Magnetic induction toward
right; (b)
near an electric end view,
out. It counterclockwise.
is based. Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry, at about the same time (1831), showed that an emf is induced in a conductor when there is any change of magnetic flux linked by the conductor. It is convenient to consider this single principle from two viewpoints, (i) An emf e is induced whenever a conductor moves across a magnetic field
Current "in"
Current "out"
=
I
IvB sin d
(10.33)
B,
(a)
Fig.
where
= =
length of wire
its
velocity
angle between and
B
is
When mks
in joules
(b)
(c)
units are used on the right of Eq. (10.33), e
given
per coulomb or in volts.

is
(2)
field region
An emf
induced whenever the flux ($
= BA) changes
through a circuit:
10,14
Force on a current-carrying conductor
field region.
is
from strong
toward weak
= d*
dt
is in
(10.34)
carrying conductor with the
thumb
pointing
in
the direction of
If
the conventional (+) current, the fingers encircle the wire in the same sense as the magnetic induction B. Thus in rig. 10.13a, B
the rate of change of flux
webers per second, the emf
e is
in volts.
out of the page above the wire (indicated bj dots) the page below the wire (indicated by crosses).
is
is
into
Lena's law states that whenever an
emf
is
induced, the induced

its
current
is in
such a direction as to oppose (by
magnetic
effects)
136
Looking
In:

is
Electric
and Magnetic Forces
137
the change inducing the current. Lena's law

of the conservation of energy principle.
really
an example

State some similarities and some differences between the pheof electric fields and gravitational fields. 2. A positively charged rod is brought near a ball suspended by a silk thread. The hall is attracted by the rod. Does this indicate that the ball has a negative charge? Justify your answer. Would an observed force of repulsion be a more conclusive proof of the nature of the charge on the ball? Why?
1.
As applied
to Fig. 10.
r
l. >,
Lea*
's
current induced in the
moving wire must he Mich as motion. This requires the magnetic force on the wire
a
law says that the direction of to oppose its

to
nomena
be toward
Fig. t0,!5 Emf induced in wire ob moving across a uniform magnetic

field.
II
3.
tions
AC
The circuit in the diagram consists of two concentric circular secand l)E and two radial sections CI) and HA. There is a cur-
the
left.
right)
From Sec. 10.1 b, the net induction ahead of the wire (at must be greater than that behind the wire (at left). To
1
Fig.
10.17
reinforce the external
li,
directed out, ahead of the wire, the

b,
induced current must be down, from a to

rule (Sec. 10.1 In).
from
tint
right-hand
rent i in the direction shown. Starting from Kq, (I0.2S). derive an expression for the flux density at O, the common center of the arcs. Show the limits of integration arid any special values of factors in die equation. Show clearly the contribution of each part of the circuit.
What
is
the direction of the (lux density at
0?
Ans. ?
ol(fii
~_îj
4. A 5.0-m straight wire ab (Fig. 10.18} is allowed to fall through a uniform magnetic induction of 2.0 XII) webcr/m* directed pcrpen5
Emf induced in a coil moving from a to b in nonuniform magnetic field.

Fig. 10,16 Fig. 10.18
dicular to the wire, (n) What is the emf induced in the wire at the instant its speed is 3.6 m/see? (6) What is lire direction of this emf in the wire? (c) Which end of the wire is at the higher potential?
Note that
potential)
in this
"generator" b
is
at a higher potential than
a.
Positive charge
is forced to flow from a (low potential) to b (high by the work an external agent does in moving the wire
ab against the magnetic force. In the external circuit bca, the
Am. 3.6 X I0-* volts; toward right: 1',. l' 100 ft in diameter. Ms axis of rotation i- on a north-south line, (a) If the horizontal component of the earth's field is 2.00 X 10 _i weber/m* and the wheel is rotating at 2.00 rev/rain, what i* the potential difference existing between the axle and the end of one
5.
>
Ferris wheel
is
apoke?
(}.
charge flows from high potential toward low potential ("from to "); it can do useful work, and it produces ,-/>' heating in the conductor.
(b) Which i^ at the higher potential? Ans. 488 pv Assume thai this mom has a uniform magnetic field directed vertically downward and of flux density B = 1.0 X 10-" weber/m*. (a) Determine the magnitude and direction of the force on an electron
138
room moving due east and at an angle of 30 above the 10* m/sec. What, will be the speed of horizontal with a speed of 3.0 see after if enters the room? (b) An east-west this electron 1.0 X 10 wire is stretched horizontally across the room. What will be the direction and magnitude of the force on (i.O-m section oT the wire when there is a current, of 12 amp westward in the wire?
thai enters the
''
:i
Am.
sou til
2.4
10-" newton, south;
3.0
10*
m/sec; 7.2
10" 1 newton,
11
The Electron
The
electron has conquered Physics,

idol rather
and many worship the new

blindly,
H. Poincare
The most important

physics
is
thing a young
man can
learn
from his
first
course
in
an appreciation of the need for precise ideas.
W.
S. Franklin
A new
principle
is
an inexhaustible source of new views.
Marquis de Vauvenargues
To succeed
in
science
it is
necessary to receive the tradition of those
who
It is the purpose of this chapter to discuss the experimental evidence of the existence of the electron, some of the measurements which have been made on it, and the limitations of the classical free-electron theory of the conduction of electricity in metals.
have gone before dead and the
us. In science,
more perhaps than

Charles Singer
in
any other study, the

11.1
living are one.
IDENTIFICATION OF THE ELECTRON
In a paper
"On Cathode Rays"
(1897), J. J.
Thomson
first
estab-
lished the existence of free electrons.
Thomson's investigation was
prompted by ihe divergent opinions people had at that time about the nature of cathode rays. Experimenters had shown that at
low pressures (about 0.01 conductor of electricity and
mm
of
mercury)
air
becomes a good
that,
the discharge of electricity
through a gas produces light whose color depends on the gas and in a pattern which depends on voltage and gas pressure (Kig. 11.1).
Some
139
people considered the rays charged particles; others

in the "aether."
thought of the display as a phenomenon
Thomson
140

2.
The
Deflection by an electric
in Fig.
It
Electron
Mi
working suggested that an explanation based on particles as hypothesis was more likely to he successful and could he more
:i
shown
3.
easily tested
hy known laws
(of
mechanics) than any explanation
oscilloscope.
field was investigated in the tube the precursor of our modern cathode-ray verified the negative charge of cathode rays.
11.3,
based on properties of the aether about which little was known. Mr therefore devised experiments "to test some of the conseCrooke's dork space
of the cathode rays was measured in a tube without deflection plates and provided with a screened electrode,
The energy
Cathode
Faraday dork spoce
Positive column
#-
! % -A
II
Anode
Cathode glow
Negative glow
Anode glow
To pump
Fig, 11.1
Discharge of electricity through a gas at reduced pressure.
Fig. 11,2
Discharge tube far demonthe
quences of the electrified particle theory." The objects of son's experiments were:
1.
Thom-
(negative! charge and magnetic deflection of cathode rays. The magnetic field is excited in space S by coils placed outside the tube.
strating
To
verify that cathode rays carry a charge, a charge which accompanies the rays when they are deflected by a magnetic
field
2.
To
in
:?.
investigate quantitatively the deflection of cathode rays an electric field, which deflection also indicates the presence oT charge To determine the energy of the cathode rays and, by using this value with data on the magnetic deflection, to deter-
as in
Fig.
11.2.
The
in
innermost, electrode contained a thermo-
couple. Its increase
temperature
in
mine the speed and the

"particles"
4.
ratio of charge to
mass
e/tn, for the
and simultaneous measurement was made

rays received at the thermocouple.
a given time was measured, of the charge from the
To determine
tric
speed and
<
hi
also
from a combination of
elec-
and magnetic
deflections
of these properties in
Thomson obtained information on each

the following ways:
1.
If, in the time considered, Ar particles strike the thermocouple each bearing a charge r, the total charge is Q = A>. From the ri.-e in temperature the total energy is known
Ek - S\mt:~
(i i.|)
In a tube such as shown in Fig. 11.2, cathode rays leave the cathode C, pass through an opening in the anode A, and reach a region B where they are deflected by a magnetic field, pass
through an opening
collecting conductor
in
in a
/'
grounded cylinder 6, and
finally reach
mounted
inside that cylinder.
An
increase
charge
when rays enter the opening

charge
it
is
by an electrometer connected to /' only in Q. The observations prove that a inseparably connected with the cathode rays and that
is
registered
is
a negative charge.
Fig. 11.3
Thomson's tube for electricol deflection of cathode rays.
142
The Electron
143
where
radius
is
the mass and
the speed of one particle. Next the
From
e
Eqs. (11.0) and

v
(1 1.7)
r is
measured
for the path described
by the
particle in a
Ei
rBJi-,
air,
magnetic
thrust
field.
The
centripetal force
is
equated to the magnetic
m
With
,B,
this
(11.8)
method, and using
C0
and
2,
Thomson obtained
cvB
of the
(11.2)
similar values for e/m. Again, the nature of the gas did not influence e/m.
For each
netic
two
flat circular coils
used to produce the mag11.2
field,
is
given by Eq. (10.29)

(11.8)
THE CATHODE -RAY TUBE
o _ B -
Mo/
"27
We
where J is the current and mu is the permeability of free space, 4w 10" 7 weber/amp-m. It follows from the preceding equations
thai
v
digress to point out the relationship between Thomson's apparatus and the modern cathode-ray tube. If the potential to be observed is applied to plates !\ (Fig. 11.4) and a potential
me*
erli
Nmv 1
NerB
2Ek
QnJ
(11.4)
and
-o
p.
(a)
2Ek
tB
Qho2P
,
(11.5)
With different gases (air, II 2 and CO.) in the tube, Thomson showed that e/m had the same value 2.2 X 10" coul/kg. Thus
cathode-ray particles are independent of the nature of the gas. 4. Values of e/m can be obtained by a different method for comparison with the foregoing results. In the tube of Fig. 11.3,
a magnetic
two
coils
plates.
field is established, into the plane of the paper, by whose diameters are etjual to the length of the capacitor The crossed electric and magnetic fields are adjusted to
give the cathode-ray zero deflection.

electric force
The
cancellation of the
is
(upward) and the magnetic force (downward)
expressed by
isV
Bicv
(11.0)
Fig. 11.4
(o)
Cathode ray tube,
(b)
Test
and sweep
potentials.
where A'i is the electric field intensity. Next the particles are deflected by a magnetic field only, directed perpendicular to their velocity, and the radius r of the path is determined from observed deflection on the screen. Here
that increases linearly with time

deflecting plates
/*.,
is
applied to the horizontally
Btfo
(11.7)
a wave form. If frequency as the alternating potential on Pt , the trace oi\ the screen is repeated each cycle and appeal's to be stationary.
beam (cathode ray) traces out a saw-tooth wave form is repeated at the same
the electron
144
The
11.4
Electron
145
11.3
ELECTROLYSIS AND THE ELECTRON
CHARGE OF AN ELECTRON, MtLLIKAN'S EXPERIMENT
It has l>een seen (Chap. 8) that the combining properties of the elements can l>o interpreted in terms of an atomic theory of matter. Faraday's study of the electrolysis of aqueous solutions of chemical compounds suggested thai electricity is also "atomic" in nature. Faraday's discoveries of fundamental importance may
be expressed thus:
1.
The mass The mass
of a substance separated in electrolysis
is
propor-
tional to the quantity

2.
Q of the
electricity that passes.
;!/ of a substance deposited is proportional to the chemical equivalent k of the ion, that is, to the atomic mass A of the ion divided by its valence t>,
M-kQ-^Q
where
/"'
(11.9)
Millikan, about 1909, devised a highly precise experiment based on the fact that electrically charged droplets of oil can be held stationary between the horizontal plates of a capacitor by adjusting the voltage between the plates so that the weight of the drop is balanced by the force due to the electric field. The "oil drop" experiment can be used (1) to show that electric charge occurs in multiples of a discrete amount and (2) to measure the value of the smallest charge, the electron. See Fig. 1.5, page 147. An oil drop will fall with accelerated motion until the drag due to air viscosity becomes great enough to balance the weight of the drop. For the small speeds which occur in this experiment, the frictioual drag is proportional to the speed of the drop. Setting the weight mg equal to the f fictional drag fct>) gives us an expression for the terminal speed vi reached by the drop falling
1
is
a constant of proportionality
known
mg =
as Faraday's
ij
h'i
(11.10)
constant.
Careful
electricity required to lilierate a
measurements have been made of the amount of mass of any substance numeri107.88 kg of silver,
is
cally equal to its chemical equivalent, say

1
.008 kg of hydrogen, or 05.38/2 kg of ainc. This value

is
9.052
X
in
take from hydrodynamics Stoke'slaw/.' = t'wnjr, where is the viscosity of air and r is the radius of the drop, assumed spherical. If the oil drop has a charge c/, due to an excess (or deficiency) of electrons, and if a uniform electric field is now established between the capacitor plates, the electric force on the drop is
To evaluate k, we
10 7 coul/kmole. It
called
faraday. It
is
represented by
Eq. (11.9).
F-ft-J,
When
the drop
it
(li.ll)
Faraday inferred from
his
experiments that the same definite

in
now
falls
amount
charge
under the influence of gravitational and
of electricity
is
associated
the process of electrolysis
electric fields,
with one atom of each of these substances.

is
He considered
attains a
O'o
new terminal
velocity v^:
(11.12)
that this
by the atom, or in some eases by a group of atoms, and he called the atom or group of atoms with its charge an ion. In 1874, Stoney stated the hypothesis that "nature presents us with a single definite quantity of electricity." He suggest ed the name electron for this quantity and calculated its value from the faraday and from Avogadro's number N*. In terms of
carried
F mg =
V
--,<}
ftj
up taken as positive)
Combining Kqs.
(11.11)
hit
and
(11.12) gives
(11.13)
mg =
Suppose now
change change
in
values
/.'
now
accepted,
the drop increases by an
owing to random ionization, the charge on amount q. There will be no significant mass, but a new terminal speed v 3 will result from the
that,
jy,e
ij,cjf)2
10'
coul/kmole
in electrical force:
9.052
e
0.0219
10' coul /kmole
_
,
'
molecules/kmoie
6021
X -
l
y
-j
(<1
C Ui
9)
mg =
Icv-s
(11.14)
146
The Electron
147
From
Eqs. (11.13) and (11.14), we have a measure of the change in charge in terms of observed speeds:
Qn
the properties of the material as a conductor of electricity (and

heat).
Xo
other property of solids has such an enormous range of
= y &(-> -
*>j)
(11.15)
values as does electrical conductivity (Fig. 11.6).

best insulators by a factor of 10".
The
best con-
ductors have electrical conductivities greater than that of the
whole-number multiples of a certain quantity.

this
Millikan observed that experimental values for q were always Pie inferred that
quantity
is
the basic unit of charge, the electron.
^=feo
Example. By timing its full through a known distance, an experimenter determines "the successive -prods y and c +1 of a single oil drop having successive different random charges. He computes the change in charge data indicate (q) from Kq. (11.15) as tabulated below. What do these
charge of an electron? inspection, one notes that the values for </ are, within experi10"". By dividmental uncertainty, whole-number multiples of 1.6 ing this number into the charges q, we find the values n in the second column. The experimental value for the electronic charge is (hen the
for the
By
Telescope
average of the values of
in the last
column.
Fig.
11.5
Millikan's
apparatus for determining the charge of an electron.
q,
X10-"
4.76
3.21
coul
1.6
10~"
qn
X 10 n
"coul
4.96 8.07
2.98 2.00 3.10 5.05
1.59
1.61
2 3
5
e
1.65
1.61
= 1.61
11.5
ELECTRONS
IN
METALS
is
The conduction
of electricity through metals
fundamentally
Conduction electrons have been compared to a gas which is move within the metal, under the influence of an applied electric field. The metal is visualized as consisting of an assembly of stationary positive ions permeated by an electron gas which makes the metal as a whole neutral. This qualitatively attractive picture proves to be inadequate in several important respects. first, on this basis we should expect the specific heat of a metal to consist of two parts: that of the ionized atoms considered as vibrators (3/2) and that of the electron gas (}!), or a total specific heat of f ft. This finding is in marked disagreement with
free to
different from electrolytic conduction.
When
a copper wire has

_
Ohm-cm
10 10"
10
carried an electric current, even for a long time, no chemical
io
10
i i
10'
i
to"
io
,:
10"
10*
=f
change can be detected in the copper. .More than a century ago it was first assumed that electricity is an agent that can flow
n
Cu Ni Ho
Si
Se
CU2O
r
Mica
Glass
Celluloid
Amber
Porcelain
Paraffin
and its direction of How were unknown, but the flow was assumed to be from the arbifreely in a metal.
The
sign of this charge
Ge
ZnO
Quortz Ceraml
trarily defined positive (high-potential) terminal to the negative
(low-potential) terminal.
At present we have evidence that
elec-
trons flowing in the opposite direction are responsible for the conduction of electricity in metals. These electrons are called free
electrons because they are temporarily detached from atoms. The number and freedom of motion of these electrons determine
-*-
Conductors
11,6
lO. 2 "
-Semiconductors
Insulators
Fig,
Resistivities
(ohm-centimeters) vary over
the
enormous range of
aboyt
148
Physics Looking In: Atomic and Nuclear
measured
5S
and
conductivity with temperature emishigh temperature (thermion.c through a metal surface at ct on e c classical a on quantitatively sion) cannot be explained conductivity. m the great variation gas theory, neither can satisfactory way out of theory (Chap. 16) provides a
by Du hmg 3/f a relation discern! e tec tncal of variations Second, the Petit as early as 1810. electrons of escape and the
cal
(
heat, of specific P
dements
.
in
the solid state, namely,
mole degree)
12
Ions
Quantum
and Isotopes
these difficulties.

electron which moves in a the kinetic enemy of at, magnetic mi uction of 9 .1 to a perpendicular oirce" of radius 5.2 em to potential difie^nce would be reqmred (6)
1
(a)
What
Ls
The most important trends

try
in
indus-
TlO^weWom*?
523
today spring from an increasing

of the properties of parts.
.top this electron after
l0 ' volts and charge B falls through a potential 2 Vn electron of mag1' right angles, a region of uniform at enters .hen and difference electron pa* the of radius 8. What is the
i,
^fctff'fi^ ,j X
X
10'
in
knowledge
and
their
atoms
component
mas
David Sarnoff
fiS*.
" L,t 3
m^mag-
by Thomson the apparatus f i,uha-tb plate capacitor The to them to return the beam to its mvoltage imiM be applied to the .ketch in a StioBl () J tnUuld fc.^ induction ft and the Uu maguel.c eleclrnu velocity r. the
Etetrom
traveling 2.00
m/see are subjected to a magnetic
K3> Snee/Ma)
wSt
1
0.0030 weber/m
^teJ
4.
SL
An
oil
droplet of mass 2.5

is
2 electron charges,
ft* *e JpSZnS what must

from
10
falling,
X 10"" gm. which em ate* 2 between two horizontal capacitor p by etectne foraefe droptef is entirely.snpported
holi be the potential ddTerenrc
^*~* <^"MH^d
of
'^J"J-
v^^Pjg
an
a circle of 12-cm radius
?i<WlutP
tho enemy of the electron (*) Calcdate *.,,,, { dthe in cm is 20 radius Hec.ron whose path J"""10-' 6 joule or 2.2 Mev, ^.U X iw /Ins. 3.6 with speed e along toe traveling electrons of 6 V narrow beam plates of a parallel-plate eapacrig pa s^s etwecn the horizontal x & the V. The separation of difference potential a lo ,3 Htamed F the beam capuclor the ( in distance a plan-s 111 Show that in traveling from J lie x axis, given by will experience a deflection the
rft *SKbbv
enemy
bjrfWo photograph, an ejeotron pato* O.OOsO weber/m^ a magnetic induction of
was foreshadowed by studies in radioThe possibility that two different radioelements might lie identical chemically was inferred by the failure to separate certain ones by any chemical means available. Also Thomson's study of positive rays (HJl.Tj in ion-deflection experiments yielded two lines for neon (atomic masses 20 and 22) yet no dilTereuees were observed in the optical spectrum of the Ne gas. Thomson recorded his suspicion that "the two gases, all hough of different atomic weights, may be indistinguishable in their chemical and .spectroscopic properties."
of isotopes
The discovery
activity (Chap. 17) about 1007.
12.1
MASS SPECTROMETERS
t V I = - T ~\
War I, Dempster, Aston, Bainhridge, and others devised instruments for determining both the masses of isotopes
Boon after World
149
150
Ions
and Isotopes
is
151
and their relative abundance. Although there are many types of mass spectrometers,* a brief consideration of their common elements should clarify the operation of any type. A moving particle might be characterized by its velocity v,
its
This equation can be rearranged to show that the device energy selector
an
&nv*
= %REq
(12.3)
momentum
mv, or
its
kinetic energy \rns-.
We may
consider
arrangements of electric and magnetic lie Ids designed to sort charged particles according to these properties. Two types of energy selector are suggested in Fig. 12.1. In the first, ions from a source 8 are accelerated through a potential
In the selector of Fig. 1 2.2, the beam of positive ions passes through a region where a magnetic induction B is directed out-
Fig.
12.2
0).
Momentum
selector
(B
is
directed out;
/V'.lJ
,'
bid
<
-A. v R
i.ri J""\
{a)
Fig. 12.1
ward from the page. By equating the centripetal force to the magnetic side thrust, we get
mi(6)
selectors.
:
and
qvB
tie vice is
li
(12.4)
Energy
it is
apparent that this
momentum
selector
(12,5)
difference V.
They acquire
is
kinetic energy
^mu 2 equal to Vq. The
mv = RBq
speed of an emerging ion
then
(12.1)
field li
Consider next a twain of positive ions acted on by an electric and a magnetic induction B at right angles to each other. In the situation of Fig. 12.3, the ions experience an upward force
B,
have tacitly assumed that the ions are at rest at s. Actually they may have small (I ev) energies of thermal motion. This is usually negligible compared with the energy {say, >100cv) ob'ained from the electric field. But for some purposes, the slight spread in the velocity values for emerging particles might have, to lx> considered. In Fig. 12.16, the ion beam passes between the plates of a curved capacitor. The ions are acted upon by an elecin the direction of O. The ions move in a circular arc. tric field
We
Fig.
12.3
Velocity selector.
*
1
I
fr.
I
qE due to the electric field. With B directed out from the

magnetic side thrust on the ions ions for which
qii
will
is
page,
he-
qvB,
downward. Only those
/-'
The
centripetal force
is
provided by the electric
field:
= qvB
(I2.fi;
mv* -
r. = Eq
pass through without any deviation. This
filter selects
(12.2)
ions
of a particular velocity
* in a
mass spectrometer, a meter measures an ion current;

is
in
a mass
E
= B
(12.7)
Spectrograph, the record
obtained on a photographic plate.
152
Ions
and Isotopes
153
inter-
I a Baiubridge mass .spectrograph (Fig. 12.4), positive ions from an ion source arc colli mated by slits s, and x* and then pass
into a region in which they experience an electric force to the left and a magnetic force to the right (supplied by Hi which is directed
into the page).
slit 3
the mass scale from

polation between
to
2">0.
Unknown masses are found by
known masses
(often using ions of molecules as
energy release
From
Etj. (12.7),
the only ions which pass through
are those of speed
atomic masses can be deduced from the (Chap. 18). A table of the "Ix-st" values of atomic masses obtained as averages of mass spectrometer and nuclear reaction data, adjusted
well as of atoms). Also,
in certain kinds of nuclear reactions
for self-consistency,
r
is
useful
in
many
calculations in
modern
= -
Bi
(12.8)
physics.
where /; has Iktu expressed as V only by a uniform induction B
".-,-.
Beyond
s the ion
;i
is
influenced
12.2
ISOTOPES
(into the page) which causes the
Fig. 12.4
Boinbridge moss speetro-
groph.
a circular arc of radius ft until it strikes the photowhere it makes a developable trace. By measuring the distance 2/1 from this trace to slit s a and using Eq. (12.4), we can find the charge mass ratio
ion to
move
in
graphic plate
/'
'/
''
BJl
B B#R
y
(12.9)
The charge on
the ion will he a multiple of the charge on the, or 2c), which the experimenter must find. electron (usually of the ion. lie may With q known, he can calculate the mass
then add the mass of the missing elect ron(s) to (hid the mass of
the atom.
7 For measurements of highest precision (a few parts in I0 }, a in region mass spectrometer is designed to cover only a limited
As the accuracy in measurement of atomic masses increased, it was established that not. all atoms of the same element have the same mass. Atoms of the same element (same Z) which have different masses are called isotopes. Many elements (Be, F, Xa, Al, P, Co, etc.) occur naturally with only one isotope. Many others (H, He, Li, B, etc.) have two, and tin, the most varied, has no less than 10 isotopes. It the mass of a carbon atom is taken to be exactly 12, then the masses of the other elements, determined by quantitative chemical analysis, come out to be nearly whole numbers. Historically this led to Front's hypothesis that all elements were built from hydrogen. This picture was spoiled by certain atomic masses determined chemically: 35.8 for CI, 63.54 for Cu, etc. But when measurement of isotope masses became possible, it was found that the mass of every isotope of every element was very close in an integer on the scale in which carbon is taken as 12 antra (or, originally, oxygen defined as 10 amu). Naturally occurring chlorine, for example, is a mixture of about 7o per cent of an isotope :S4.!)7!K) and 25 per cent of an isotope 38.9773. Its average mass, as found in chemical experiments, is then (35) + t($~) = 35.5. The whole-number rule may be retained in this form: The mass of every isotope of every element is well within per cent of a whole number when expressed in atomic mass units, defined by taking carbon as 12 amu, exactly. We thus retain the picture of all atoms built up of some unit of which there is in hydrogen, 4 in helium, Hi in oxygen, etc. We have yet to explain, however,
1
1
* Sec (.'. II, Blunt-hard, C. R. Burnett, H. G. Stoncr. and R. L Weber, "Introduction to Modern Physios," appendix fi, pp. 392 100, l'rciitireHall, liic, Engleivood Cliffs, X. J. 1958.
,
154
Ions and Isotopes
155
why
the atomic masses arc not exactly integers instead of being
very nearly integers.

1.
5. On the photographic plate of a ma>s spectrograph, a trace made by a singly charged ion is h.und jusf halfway between the line formed by 16 (+) and that formed by CH,(+). Find (he mass of this ion if the mass sped rennet er is (u) a Bainbridge type, when the mass of an ion is proportional In the radius m = kr, and (b) a Dempster type, where the
1
dispersion equation
is i
kr 1 .
The
values of
and
in
the velocity selector of a mass spec6.
Ans. 10.018148 amu; 1B.009074

In a
amu
trometer are MIDI) colts, n. and 0,050 weber/m*. (fl) Wluit will be the speed of ions passing through this selector? (b) By what radius will a singly riiarsnl ion of mass 50 amu be deflected by a magnetic field of
2.5
method devised by S. A. Goudsmit, masses of heavy ions are determined by timing (heir period of circulation in a known magnetic field. To get an idea of the timing requirements, calculate the
of a singly charged ion of iodine ail 127 (mass an induction of 0.045 weber/m 5 -4ns, about 1.8 X I0~* sec 7. Show why the mass spectograph gives data on the atomic masses of individual ions, while conventional chemical methods yield results only on average atomic, masses. 8. Silicon has an atomic number of II. Consider two isotopes of silicon having mass numbers 28 and 30, fill in ihe remaining spaces in
X
2.
10~ a
weber/m1
after leaving the velocity selector?

Arts. 1.6
period
of
revolution
in
10' m/aee;2.1
em
126.945
amu)
accelerated through a potential difference of 1,000 volts, li is then subjected to a magnetic field of 0.10 weber/m1 in which it is deflected into a circular path of radius
is
singly charged positive ion
18.2 cm. (a) of the ion?

3.
What
is
the mass of the ion? (h) Am. 2.05
What
is
the mass
kg. 15.9S
10
'
number amu: If.
dust particle has a mass of 3.0 X 10~ s kg and a charge of 10 10 coul. The particle is accelerated in an electric held until it has a speed of 4.0 m/sec. (a) Calculate its kinetic energy in joules, (b) What potential difference is required to give the particle this speed? (c) If the particle moves at right angles to a magnetic induction of 0.20 weber/m 2 what force will the particle experience? (</) What is the radius of the circular path in which the particle will move in this mag5.0
the table:
Mass number.
28
atom
in
30
netic field?
X 10"' joule; 480 volts; 4.0 X lO" 10 newtnn; 1.2 X 10 a m Dempster mass spectrometer, positive ions formed by heating a salt of an element are accelerated to a slit s, by a potential difference V (about 1,000 vol Is). A narrow bundle of ions then passes
Ans. 2.4
In
4.
Number of Number of Number of Number of
electrons in the
positive charges
the nucleus
protons
in in
the nucleus
the nucleus.
neutrons
Photo, plote or
electronic detector
Fig.
12.5
through the slit into a semicircular chamber where there is a magnetic induction II perpendicular to the ion velocity (Fig. 12.5). Ions having
i>
different values of e,'m will travel arcs or different radius.
Show
that the
charge/mass quotient of an ion can be computed from

e
2F
fi ! r 2
157
13
measuring the force between currents. This theory was experimentally verified by Hertz in 1888, and by 1901 Marconi succeeded in transmitting electromagnet ic signals across the Atlantic Ocean. The. electric generator, motor, betatron, television, and radar are based on principles included in Maxwell's equations. Home of the relations and experimental facts which Maxwell
synthesized carry the names of earlier investigators,*
13.T
GAUSS'
LAW FOR AN ELECTRIC FIELD
flux
Imagine a potatolike surface immersed in an electric field. The * of the electric field through this arbitrary surface is measured by the number of lines of electric force that cut through
Electricity,
carrier of
light
and power,
Fig.
devourer of time and space, bearer of
13.1
Electric
flux
through
human speech
over land and sea, greatest
surface.
servant of man.
Charles Eliot
the surface. Let the surface be divided into elementary squares An small enough so they may be considered to be plane. An clement of area can be represented by a vector As whose magnitude
I.
CLASSICAL THEORY
1
is
proportional to the area: the direction of
.is is
taken as the
outwarddrawn normal to the surface element.

of classi-
In
cal
8(14
James Clerk Maxwell completed the structure

and magnetic theory.
The
As; B
is
field
intensity
is
practically constant over

As.
an element-
electric
His summarizing equations
the angle between

scalar product A*
K and
The
stand with Newton's laws of motion and the- laws of thermodynamics as masterpieces of intellectual achievement. The four differential equations
up the
As cos
8 for all
found by adding elements into which the

flux is
the surface has been divided:
related to the charges

related to each other.
of physics
show how electric and magnetic fields are and currents present and how they are
-
*k
= 2E-As
(13.1)
They
correlated experiments in large areas
For a more precise definition we replace the sum by an integral:
and predicted important new results. Specifically, Maxwell showed that a changing current will radiate electromagnetic waves in which E and li are perpendicular to each other and
to the direction of the
* K - /E The
*
r/s
(13.2)
is
integration
to be taken over a closed surface.
wave motion.
all
electromagnetic waves of
theory predicted that frequencies should travel with tiie

Tlis
of
reader not familiar with calculus notation
speed of light
c,
whose numerical value can be determined by

156
Sees. 13.1 to 13.4
and resume
his
may wish (o skhn study immediately after the statement,
Maxwell's equations
in Sec. 13.5.
158
159
Gauss' law states that the net (outward) electric flux through any closed surface is equal to l/* times the net charge q enclosed
hy the surface
eu
$K =
or
,,/ ds
(13.3)
where a uniform magnetic paper and is increasing with induction B is directed out of the charge, revolution, per is the product time. The work done on the of the emf S and the charge q. The work is also the product of the
moves around the
circle in Fig. 13.3,
Gauss' law provides a convenient way of calculating E if the charge distribution is symmetrical enough so we can easily evaluate the integral in F.q. (13.3).
Fig.
13.3
CKorged
6.
particle
q moving
in
Example
unit length. earrics charge per unit length
charge of +q/l per A long copper tube of radius a has which It is surrounded by a coaxial copper tube of radius
;i
!>
magnetic Induction
tanee cable
ri
at,
from the axis where t distance r : from the axis, Fig.
q/l. Find the electric field outside 6 > r > a and

(l>)
(a) at a
di*
this coaxial
13.2.
force
qE
that acts on the charge and the distance
2irr.
Equating
these two expressions gives
or,
Fig. 13.2
2iffli
(13.4)
more
8
generally,
= 6E
dl
(13.5)
If this last equation is combined with law of induction can be written
= d$ B/dl,
Faraday's
(13.G)
in) Draw a gaussian surface which is a cylinder of radius r u coaxial with ihe cable. Since the electric field is radial, there will be no flux through the cutis of the cylinder. For a length I of cable Eq. (13.3)
13.3
GAUSS'
LAW FOR MAGNETIC FIELDS
becomes
*u/E
giving
da
E(2irri)l
Gauss' law for a magnetic field expresses the fact that in magnetism there is no counterpart to the free charge q in electricity. Isolated magnetic poles do not exist. Hence the magnetic flux
'l>; (
through any closed surface must be zero:
(6)
When
the gaussian surface

is
is
charge within it outer conductor.
(+q/l
q/l)
a cylinder of radius r-i, the net outside the 0, and hence E =

13.4
*b =
<f>
da
(13.7)
AMPERE'S LAW
13.2
FARADAY'S LAW OF INDUCTION
Ampere's law (Sec. 10.10) giving the relationship between current i and magnetic induction li can be written in circuital form as
changing magnetic field produces an electric field, as described which in Faraday's law (Sec. 10.12). Consider a test charge
Ho
(/
<6
dl
(13.8)
160
Looking
In:
161
The
can be applied to any closed path near the current; symmetry usually suggests the most convenient path.
line integral
Si al
Example. Find the magnetic induction Straight wire currying current i.
a distance
from a long
two ways of setting up a magnetic field, by a changing electric field dK dt and (2) by a current i, we have assumed that there is uo current in the space considered in (1) and that no changing electric fields are present in (2). But,
In considering the
(I)
Fig,
13.4
Magnetic induction S near a
long, straight wire.
(a)
(b)
13.5
Consider a
circle of radios r centered af

It is
integration. Since
tangent
i<>
he path of the circle al each point .4, vectors It

I
lie
wire for
Fig,
The charging of a capacitor

field
ami
It
(the element of are) poinl in (lie same direction. From symmetry, has tiie same magnitude at each point on the wire. Equation (138)
<l\
changing
dE
dt,
which
(b)
(a) produces a produces a magnetic field 8.
becomes
in general,
- 6(27rr)
winch
is
ir
B =
**2irr
sidered.
the contributions of both dE/dl and i must be conMaxwell generalized Ampere's law, writing it in the form
the result obtained in Sec. 10.10.
.The term
current
current
t,\{d$y.'dl)
i is
dt
(13.11)
Experiments show that just as a changing magnetic held induces an electric field (Faraday's law, Sec. 10.12), a changing electric field induces a magnetic field. Faraday's law for an induced emf G may be written
has
he dimensions of current and
is
often
called the diaplawmvtit mrri-nt. Tims, although the conduction
no charge
%
is
not continuous across the gap of a capacitor (because transported across the gap), there is a displacement
i.
D in the gap equal to the external
E
dt
(13.9)
13.5
The analogous
by a whanging
/"'
expression for the magnetic induction produced

electric field
is
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

four basic equations
We assemble here the

(13.10)
we have
just discussed
(1
<p II
(II
eg
fjl
3.3)
*/
=
d
(13.7) (13.9)
where the constants n and a, are required in the mks system of units we are using. The situation expressed in Fq. (13.10) can be visualized by considering the region between the plates of a capacitor (Fig. 13.">a) which is being charged with a steady current i. The accompanying dl'I/dt produces a magnetic field: B is
0E-rfl= ~
m<>
I [
<
di
t^-%?
dt
(i3.li) '
shown
For four arbitrary points in Fig. 13.56.
We have written
.Maxwell's equations in the form they have
when
162

is
163
no dielectric or magnetic material
present, since
we
are chiefly
magnetic flux * for the rectangle

this gives
is
B(tdx).
By
differentiation
interested in radiation in "free space."
Consider that the start of an electromagnetic wave occurs at the termination of a transmission line whicli is energized by an
oscillating electric circuit. Figure 13.fi suggests
d$n
how
the electric
W=
ldx
dB
-dl
field lines break away from an electric dipole as the charges +q and q first approach and then recede from each other in successive time intervals of one-eighth of a period 7. An observer at /' looking toward the antenna will "see" an instantaneous electromagnetic field pattern with E down and B toward his right
From Eq.
(13.9)
we have dE
= -Idx
(dB/dt), or
dE
dx
dB
dt
(13.14)
indicate that both
where we have changed to the d notation of partial derivatives to B and E are functions of x and ( but that in
N
E-r<fE
B+rfB
dx
t
r/a
r/4
3T/3
(c)
Fig.
13.6
Radiation from an oscillating electric dipole. [Adapted from

"Efecfric
S.
S.
A ft wood,
1949.)
and Magnetic
Fields,"
John Wiley
&
Sans, Inc.,
New
Fig. 13.7
to)
Section of a plane electromagnetic
wave
troveltng to the right

is
York,
E parallel to i axis, 6 parallel to y axis. The part

in
marked dx
viewed
in (b)
the xz plane,
and
in (c) in
the yx plane,
(into this page).
A moment
is
later, as
the wave advances, these
directions will reverse.

If
an observer
at a relatively large distance from the source,
t is assumed constant (Fig. 13.7// is an instantaneous "snapshot"). Also, x is assumed constant in evaluating dB/dl at the particular strip in Fig. 13.7c. From Eqs. (13.12)
evaluating dE/dx,
the waves that
For the
move waves shown

B
sin (kx
sin (kx
past
hi in will
be practically plane waves.
and
(13.13),
in Fig. 13.7,
wt) at)
I
kE
(13.12) (13.13)
I
cos (kx
oil)
o>Bn cos (kx
o>t)
B = E =
Eo
and we have the
relation
dx to be fixed in space. Its trace in the z.r plane is shown in Fig. 13.86. As the wave passes over it, the magnetic flux <t?n through the rectangle will change, inducing electric fields around the rectangle. The line integral of Eq. (13.9) is dE h there is no contribution from the top or bottom
Consider the rectangular prism
;
E _
~
CD
&
_ ~
(13.15)
where
angular frequency speed c
u>
2ir/
wave number k = 2*/X
of the rectangular
path where dl and
are perpendicular.
The
f\
a>/k
164

ratio of the amplitudes of the electric
is
165
The
and magnetic com-
The magnetic part

netic induction B. For
of
an electromagnetic wave
//,
equal to the speed c of the electromagnetic wave. In considering the trace of our rectangular prism in the yx plane, Fig. 13.7r, we see that as the wave moves by, * changes with time and a magnetic field is induced at each point around
ponents
scribed by the magnetic field strength
is often derather than by the mag-
waves propagated
in free space,
the only
case
we
shall consider,
This induced H is the magnetic component of the electromagnetic wave; K and li each depend on the time rate of change of the other. Since there is no conduction current in the space
I
d.r.
H = -B
Since
ju
(13.19
4r
considered, the line integral of Bq. (13.10) hecomes iilli.

flux *s through the rectangular element Idx
is
The
dif-
(weber
space.
m'-'i
weber/amp-m. // has the dimensions = (amp-m/ weber), or amp/ in. The quantity
10 -7
EH
E{ld.t).
By
vVu/tu = 376.7 ohms
is
sometimes called the resistance of free
ferentiation this gives

et*a = M
tt, ,
ax
dE
-jt dt
13.6
ENERGY FLOW: INTENSITY OF A WAVE
From Eq.
(13.10)
expression of genera! validity for
an
dE
,0
aJ"**
"
(13.16)
Consideration of a parallel-plate capacitor can lead us to an the* energy stored in an electric field. To charge the capacitor to a potential difference A V requires
work
is
W equal to AC AV*,
is
where
a.s
is
the capacitance. This energy
where partial derivatives have been indicated for the same reasons as in Eq. (13.14). From Eqs. (13.12) and (13.13)
hllu COS {kx
stored in the capacitor
potential energy.
Between the plates
there
tion.
an
electric field
is
ut)
= enflqfi'o COS
(kx
The
capacitance
AV/s, where is the plate separagiven in terms of the area A of the plates
E=
<>)t)
and the permittivity

be expressed as
eu
as
C -
tA/s.
The
stored energy can then
and
since c
w/k,
we have
l
U
By
c
_L
e<ijuiiw
W=
(13.17)
C(AF) 2 = i*,is
EV
U E*As
field,
liu
tviinC
Since .4s
eliminating the fields between Eqs. (13,15) and (13.17),
the volume of the space between the plates of the

associate the energy with the
field
we get
(13.18)
capacitor,
we may
defining
the energy density of the electric
as the energy per unit
volume:
u,
(k) (u E*
(13.20)
Substitution of numerical values in this relation gives

Similarly, consideration of the
c
=
v/(8.!)
work required to establish a current in an inductive circuit suggests that the energy density for
field is
X
10"
10
l2
eoulViit-m ! )(4jrl0
'
weber,,'nt-m)
a magnetic
.
- 3.0
m/sec
;//*
- |B*
(13.21)
fields exist,
which is the speed of light in free space. Maxwell made this calculation before it was recognized that light was electromagnetic in nature and before Herts had detected
electromagnetic (radio) waves.
In a region where both electric and magnetic energy density is given by
the
= U
lt
E-
+ -^H*
(13.22)
166
167
The
rale at which energy

is
is
transported by a wave across unit

.S'
The wavelength
10 sec. (13.12) the electric
2.0
is
area per unit time
called the intensity
of the
wave. Since the
-7
If
X = c/f = 60 m. The period T = 1// = 2jt/ coordinates are chosen as in Fig. 13.8, from Eq.
wave speed
field is
is c,
B, =
B. B
S - c(iP
By
written
innH*)
(13.23)
Ev = E
the use of Eqs. (13.17) to (13.19), the energy density can be
sin 2jr
(H)"
0.060 volt/m
060
sin (irl0 7f
0.105s)
The amplitude
s/tofie
// of
the magnetic
field is
w =
EH =
EH
wave
intensity
(I3.1M)
//
Vjo
p Bo =
//
37 G./
field is
ohm
1.59
10
<
amp/m
and the equation
for the
becomes
(13.25)
Since the magnet ie

//,
confined to the east-west direction,

//.-
S = c- EH =
c
EH
and the velocity
of the
=0
is
1.59
10-* sin (jtIO'J
0.105s)
its
The Poynting
vector
S = E X
is in
the x (north) direction, and
The
directions of E, H,
if
wave
are properly
magnitude
related
we
define the intensity
as the vector cross product

(13.26)
5 =
#o//u sin s
2v
(*-*)- 54 X 10-sin=
over a cycle
is
.V,
(xlO'
O.lOox)
S= ExH
This vector
is
The average value of this wave is

S
of sin- o
so the average intensity
called Poynting's vector. In
mks
units,
it
gives the
intensity in watts per square meter. Although

this expression for the special case of
we have derived
it is
= hEoIh =
4.74
10- \vatt/m
a plane wave,
a general
properties of light
relation which can be derived from Maxwell's equations.
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory explained the then-known the experimentally measured speed of light in
;
Example. Consider a plane monochromatic plane-polarized electromagnetic wave (raveling horizontally northward, polarized vertically (eleeirie field intensity directed alternately up and down). The frc-
free space,
polarization, interference,
and
diffraction,
and the
dispersion that occurs
when
light,
passes through a
medium where
y (up)
wave speed depends on wavelength. Extended to x rays, the theory identified them as also electromagnetic radiation, the diffraction of x rays by a crystal lattice being similar to the diffraction of light
x (north)
Fig.
by a ruled grating.
Many
tions were
13.8
shown
to be related regions of
seemingly diverse radiaan electromagnetic
spectrum of grand extent some 80 "octaves," of which the visible spectrum comprises a little less than one octave.
II.
QUANTUM EFFECTS
(east)
quency
electric
is
5.0 megacycles/see. intensity
field
pression for this wave, (6)
The amplitude (maximum value) of the 0/160 volt/m. (a) Give an analytical exFind the average intensity of this wave.
is
Beginning in 1900, developments took place which indicated that Maxwell's theory does not predict accurately all aspects of electromagnetic radiation and absorption of energy. These develop-
ments
led to the
quantum
theory.
We
shall trace the
quantum
168
All materials exhibit characteristic differences in their
169
hypothesis from its origin in explaining blackbody radiation, its confirming success in explaining the photoelectric effect and Compton effect, and its striking hut limited success in the Bohr
absorp-
tion of radiation in different parts of the spectrum.
(The colors of
model of the atom (Chap. l;">) to its merging with other hypotheses in wave mechanics (Chap. 16).
things we view are due to such selective absorption.) Hence the emission spectrum for thermal radiation at a given
many
13.7
BLACKSODY RADIATION
Any object continually emits and absorbs radiation, exchanging energy with its surroundings. If the temperature of the object is high enough, the radiation may be seen- the material glows. There is a direct relation between absorption and emission. Kirchhoff's law stales that an object which absorbs radiation of a
temperature depends on the material of the emitter. We can imagine an ideal body which absorbs all radiation incident upon it. By KirehholV's law, this body would also be the most effective emitter of thermal radiation at all wavelengths. Such an ideal absorber-emitter is culled a blackbody.
Fortunately
it
is
possible
to
realize
blackbody conditions
experimentally to any degree of approximation requited. If we form our material to make a cavity with a small opening to the outside, the hole will behave as a blackbody. Radiation which
enters the hole will bounce around at the inner walls of the cavity,
Fig. 13,10 Fig. 13,9
Cavity radiation Is nearly
Good
absorbers are good
blackbody radiation.
radiators.
gradually being absorbed. Only a tiny fraction of the radiant energy will be reflected back through the hole. Viewed from the
outside, the hole
is
an excellent approximation to a blackbody.
is also a strong radiator at that platinum disk in a furnace (Kg. 13.9) at wavelength. Consider a that it receives one unit of energy thermal equilibrium. Suppose
particular wavelength strongly
the walls of a blackbody cavity are maintained at some temperature T, the interior is filled with radiation. A tiny fraction
When
leaks out of the hole.
ray leaving the hole has, in general,
per unit area per unit time and that the fraction p is reflected. Then p is the fraction absorbed, designated a. Hut if the temI
perature of the disk

as
is
to
remain constant, the disk must

it
lose
t
much energy
per second as
receives.
The
rate of emission
from the area considered must equal a. If a carbon disk is in thermal equilibrium in the same furnace, it receives the same energy per unit area per unit time as does the platinum, but it absorbs a larger fraction (1 - p') and hence must emit more, to keep T constant. Good absorbers of radiation are good emitters,
p, p',
undergone many reflections. At each, reflected energy is added to emitted energy until in the emerging (blackbody) radiation, the energy distribution depends only on the temperature of the cavity and not on the material of which its walls are made. The blackbody radiation can lie dispersed by a grating, and a bolometer or thermopile can be used to measure the energy radiated in each wavelength interval. A continuous spectrum is
found; that
Fig.
is,
radiation at
all
frequencies
is
observed.
is
The
disin
is
tribution of intensity per unit wavelength interval

13.11.
shown
is
as represented by the relative lengths of the arrows for

t,
When
the temperature
is
increased,
more energy
radiated at every frequency, and the relative increase
greater
and
'
in Fig.
13,9.
at the higher frequencies, shifting the
maximum
of the intensity
170
171
distribution to lower wavelengths (Fig.
13.11a) or higher fre"

f
quencies (Fig,
13, lib).
fn fact, it leads to an "ultraviolet catastrophe" by predicting that as X becomes smaller, R\ increases without limit; the total
XT',
The area under
the blackbody distribution curve
S(f) df,
whirl] represents the total
power radiated,
is
found
i" increase as
the fourth power of the absolute temperature:
power radiated by any body is infinitely large! Wilhelm Wien assumed that cavity radiation came from molecular oscillators among which energy was distributed with respect to frequency according to a Maxwell distribution (similar
to the distribution law successfully used for molecular speeds in the kinetic theory of gases). The resulting distribution law agrees
P-eAT*
where
(13.27)
is
the radiant flux from a blackbody of surface area

is
with experimental data in the short-wavelength region of the

Intensity
at absolute temperature T. This
known
as the Stefau-Boltz-
mann law
Intensity
the constant a has the value 5.7
10" 8 watt/ (m*) (K*).
Intensity
3000 K
Planck's law
2.0
4.0
(o)
Fig. 13.11
Wavelength, microns
(6)
Frequency
Blackbody radiation
distribution: (a) intensity vs.
wavelength, with
visible region dotted, (b) intensity vs. frequency, with
Ti
<
T.
<
12
Fig.
It.
\Wgvelength, microns
13.12
Agreement of radiation formulas

(circles).
with
13.8
PLANCK'S LAW
Coblentz's experimental data
of physicists advanced theories based on classical physics to explain the distribution of energy in the continuous spectrum from a blackbody. Lord Raylcigh and Sir James Jeans
in a cavity has degrees of freedom which correspond to the frequencies of standing waves that are possible in the cavity and that the energy is divided equally among these different degrees of freedom. The resulting distribution law is
A number
spectrum, but predicts values of
I{\
which arc too low
in
the region
where
th
X7'
is
large:
assumed that radiation
= cV-V '"
(Wien)
(13.29)
Max
l'lanck also started with the
assumption that the
wallt-
of a cavity radiator are
made up
of tiny electromagnetic oscilla-
tors or resonators of molecular dimensions. He, too, used a
Maxoscil-
(Rayleigh-Jeans)
(1.3.28)
well distribution, taking e~ HlkT as the probability that

lator has energy
/.'.
an
where K is the radiancy (power per unit area) at a wavelength X and ci and c a are empirical constants. The Rayleigh-Jeans law fits the experimental data (Fig. 13.12) only for large values of
accepted the Rayleigh-Jeans calculation for the number of oscillators per unit volume in the frequency
lie
range from / to /
df.
But Planck was
led to
make two
radical
assumptions:
172
1.
173
An
oscillator
can have only energies given by

(13.30)
the stopping potential V,

the collector.
is
found for which no electrons reach
E
where
c
nhv
The
chief features oT photoemissiou are

la<i
= frequency = Planck's constant (of "action") n = an integer (now called a quantum number)
k
asserts
able time
(>
10
'
sec'i
(1 ) There is no detectbetween irradiation of an emitter and

:
ejection of photoelectrons; (2) the
number
of electrons ejected
per second
is
proportions!
to the intensity of radiation, at a given
The equation
"quantized."
2.
that
the.
energy
frequency;
is
(3)
of
the
oscillator
the photoelectrons have energies ranging from
zero up to a definite
maximum, which
is
is
proportional to the freof its intensity; (4) for

vK
An
oscillator does nut radiate continuously (as expected
on
quency
of the radiation
and independent
.Maxwell's theory) but only in quanta of energy, emitted
when
each material there
a threshold frequency
below which no
an
states.
changes from one to a lower of its quantized energy (or photon) radiated has energy proportional to the frequency of the wave:
oscillator
photoelectrons are ejected.

*
Light source
The quantum
hv
K=
From
(13.31)
these assumptions, Planck derived the distribution law

2irAc
2
R*where
c
_CiX-
1
,,r,
X e*"*T
6
\r
(I'lanck)
(13.32)
= = =
speed of light
Boltzmaiui constant (Mi2" X 10" w joule/sec
Ci
Fig. 13.13
Apparatus for photoelectric
effect.
Planck's law has been written in the second form with empirical
These characteristics of photoemissiou cannot be explained
comparison with Eqs. (13.29) and (13.30). For a wide range of temperatures (300 to 2000 K) and a wide range of wavelengths (O.o to n2 ft), Planck's law represents the experimental data within per cent. It is interesting to note that
constants
and
c* for
by Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic radiation. Kinslein made the assumption that light of frequency
energy to the elections
Fit
If it is
v>
f
In
c
MM)">
can give
in he metal only in quanta of energy hv. her an electron absorbs one of these quanta, or it docs not.
despite
its initial
success the
quantum hypothesis was

in
resisted
by
Planck himself. Conservative

reconcile his
nature, he tried for years to
in
given energy hv, an electron may use an amount of energy escaping from the metal, where it has negative potential
it
"quantum
of action" (A) with classical theory.
energy, into the vacuum, where
has zero potential energy.

of the surface.
quantity
is
called the
work function
mum
13.9
kinetic energy which the electron

is
The The maxican have when it leaves
PHOTOELECTRICITY
the surface
/: *. NIEIJS
therefore
bight or other electromagnetic radiation falling on the surface of a metal (Fig. 13.13) can under certain circumstances liberate electrons from the metal. The number of electrons emitted pet
hv
w
E =
i:
(13.33)
This
is
called Ivinstein's photoelectric equation. It explains the
second can he determined hy measuring the photoelectric current. The energy distribution of the electrons can he determined by applying a retarding potential and increasing it gradually until
linear relationship
an
shown
in Fig. 13.1-1:
The
slope a
measured from the graph agrees with the value of Planck's constant A; the negative intercept b is identified with the work func-
174
lion
Looking
id
In:
175
of the metal.
The
intercept on the frequency axis
is
the
voltaic
cell.
Photovoltaic cells are used in photographic exposure

in solar batteries.
frequency of light that will liberate electrons from the particular metal. At this threshold frequency vt, the photon delivers just enough energy to enable the electron to get out of
the metal (with
hvo
minimum
meters and
Ek =
0):
= w
(13.33), #*.,*
is
(13.34)
From Eq.
independent of the intensity of illumi-
nation, in agreement with experiment.
There is also an internal photoelectric process, within an atom, called the Auger effect, or autoionization. An x-ray quantum may be absorbed within the same atom from which it originates, with the ejection of one of its electrons. The net effect is thai the atom adjusts from an excited level to a lower-energy level, with the emission of an electron. Finally, there is an inverse photoelectric effect in which an electron is absorbed by a solid and a photon emerges.
The term
photoelectricity includes several distinct
phenomena.
In the external photoelectric effect
(photoemission), electrons
The photoelectric effect gives strong support to Planck's hypothesis that light of frequency v can be emitted or absorbed only in packets of energy hv. The citation which accompanied the
award of the Xobel
Prize to Einstein stated that
it
*!,
was
for "his
dis-
M.
attainments in mathematical physics and especially for his covery of the law of the photoelectric effect."
13.10
THE CONTINUOUS
RAY SPECTRUM
a battery
rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength,

(Fig. 13.1"))
li
about 10"" to I0~" m. In an x-ray tube
Fig.
13.14
Dependence of maximum energy of
photoelectrom on frequency.
are ejected from a solid (or liquid) surface into a surrounding vacuum. Photomultiplier tubes use this effect.
Electrons and ions

tion.
The
ionization
may he produced in a gas by ptiotoionistachambers used to detect x rays utilize this
effect.
inside a solid
Conduction electrons and positive "holes" which remain may be responsible for either photoconduction or
is
Fig,
13.15
An x-roy
tube.
a photovoltaic effect. Photoconduction
a decrease in resistivity
heats a tungsten filament
under the influence of radiation. It is used in television camera tubes and in control devices where an external battery furnishes
the electric power.
layers in the
so that
it
emits electrons.
A potential
and target
are quickly
difference of several thousand volts between cathode
('
The
photovoltaic
cell is
a device for converting
accelerates the electrons.
The fast-moving electrons
radiation into electrical power. Kadiation acting on

cell
voltage
is
two dissimilar emf in much the same way a produced when Cu and Zn plates are dipped in acid in a
gives rise to an
when they strike the metal target. Most of their converted into heat by collisions with atoms of the target. But as the electrons are decelerated, they are expected to
decelerated
is
energy
176
177
according to Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. The Gorman term Itrrmxxtniltliniu is used for this "slowing-down radiation." The radiation is emitted in all directions. When one examines the beam of x rays emerging from the hole in a lead
radiate,
shield,
certain
one finds a continuous distribution of frequencies up to a maximum. This maximum frequency depends on the potential difference at which the tube is operated: v, x /AV = a
constant for a wide range of voltages. The high-frequency limit in the continuous x-ray spectrum photon is difficult to explain classically. It is easily clarified by the
hypothesis.
According to classical theory, scattered radiation should have same frequency as the incident radiation. Compton found such unmodified radiation, but in addition he found a scattered wavelength X' greater than that of the incident beam. The shift In wavelength X' - X was found to increase as the angle 8 at which the scattering was observed was increased (Fig. 13.17).
the
The
scattering of x rays with increase in wavelength
is
called the
An
electron
may
suffer
numerous decelerations as
it
encounters various atoms in the target. ICach time a photon is produced, whose energy hi> is equal to the decrease in kinetic energy A A'* of the electron. Clearly, the highest-frequency photon
that can be produced is that which results from the complete. conversion of the electron's kinetic energy into a single photon.
Since electrons arrive at the target with energy
Al".
hv mnx
AV
(13.35)
From this Duane and Hunt law, Eq. (13.35), r'h may be determined from the sharp cutoff of the x-ray intensity versus frequency curve at p k x There is good agreement with the ratio e/h
,
determined
in
other ways.
Fig.
13.17
Wavelength
shift
in
Compton
13.11
scattering of x rays.
THE COMPTON EFFECT

|<)23 in
Another even more direct confirmation of the photon hypothesis
came about
x rays to
A. H.
scattered x rays.
fall
Compton allowed a beam
Compton's explanation of properties of of monochromatic
The
on a hlock of scattering material such as carbon. in an x-ray spectrometer uses crystal and an ionization chamber instrument which (an to measure the wavelength of x rays incident on it J.
scattered radiation was examined
Spectrometer /-\
Fig.
13,16
Apparatus
for
observing
Compton
scattering of x roys.
Wavelength,
*"
178

effect.
179
Campion,
The. plioton hypothesis provides a straightforward

of a
Example. What
in
is
the change
(6
in
wavelength
180)?
3t
<>r
x rays
Com|ii on-scattered
explanation.
the
backward direction
We describe the Compton scattering as an elastic collision

photon with a free electron which
(Fig.
is
at rest before the collision
X'
-X
=
9.1
6.625
10
joule sec
10
3l
kg (3.0
(1
cos 180)
IIP in
sci")
13.18). We ascribe to the photon the "equivalent mass" (Chap. 14), and to this mass we attribute linear momentum hvfe* The conservation of momentum may be stated in two hv/c.
13.12
Photon
0.048
IO" 1 *
m =
0.0484
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY: PROBABILITY
*
Fig. 13.18
Before
After
Electron
Compton
scattering of a photon.
have discussed two theories of electromagnetic radiation. classical theory says iliat radiant energy flows continuously as a wave. The wave theory gives a satisfying explanation of interference, diffract ion. and polnrixa! ion experiments. The quantum theory says that radiant energy is exchanged in quanta of amount Ac, whose value depends on the frequency c of the light. This photon theory gives a satisfactory interpretation of many experiments in atomic physics (blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect, the frequency limit in a continuous x-ray spectrum,
We
The
the
equations, since
Compton
effect,
and the
line
spectra
characteristic
of
momentum
kv
is
a vector quantity and the law of
elements).
conservation applies to each of the components:
In some ways these two theories are mutually contradictory.
X component: y component:
=
=
hv
c
cos 8
.
+
,
me
cos
(13.30)
The wave theory says that the photoelectric effect should show a time lag when the light source has a very low intensity. The photon theory when used to explain a single-slit diffraction pattern
hv'
sin $
mv sin
4>
(13.37)
would have to assert that these

its
particles arriving at certain
points on the screen would "cancel" each other. (How?) Although
each theory works well for
own
experiments, something has
where
v'
is
the frequency of the scattered photon and

of the recoil electron.
me
is
the
to "give"
when we
try to put the
momentum
hv
A
(13.38)
resolution of this tlillieulty
two theories together. was suggested by a novel idea
Conservation of energy requires that
proposed by Louis de Broglie,

particles
in his 1'h.D. thesis in 1924.
From
all
hv' 4-
A*
final kinetic
consideration of relativity theory (Chap. 14), he deduced that
must have a wave
nature, just as light has a
wave
(or
energy of the electron. Solution of these three equations provides an expression for the wavelength
where
shift
X'
is
the
nature.
The
intensity of the particle
wave
at
any given point
the square of the

to
wave amplitude)
for the
is
interpreted as proportional
the probability of finding the particle at that point.
The
is
= -mr
(1
de Broglie relationship
cos 9)
(13.39)
wavelength X of a matter wave
*
(13.40)
which agrees with experimental data. The unmodified radiation is interpreted as due to photons scattered by electrons strongly
V
where p
is
the
momentum
(mv) of the particle and h
is
Planck's
bound
in
atoms.
constant.
rr *
1
180
181
exploration of wave-particle duality was continued in by Max Horn. as follows. Kuergy is not distributed continuM)28 ously throughout an electromagnetic wave: the energy is carried by the photons. The intensity of the wave (which the classical theory defines as energy flow) at a point in space is really a measure of the probability of finding a photon there. The classical wave has become a sort of guide for the individual quanta of energy. We have resolved the wave-particle dilemma, but at the cost of admitting that laws of chance govern the motion of micro-
The
by
classical
theory
is
shown by the dashed

is
line.
The
distribution
actually observed (solid line)

interference of the
tie
that
predicted by considering
Hroglie waves.
Now
consider one electron
shot at a time. According to this wave picture, each electron is represented by a single wave packet which divides equally be-
tween the two
slits.
Vet
if
whole particle or no particle. It is intriguing to try to devise an experiment that would reveal the slit used by individual electrons, without destroying the interference pattern. No one has succeeded. If a
half an electron:
find cither a
we never observe
we place a we
particle detector at
slii
.1,
detector
is
placed at A, the interference pattern smooths out; the
classical result is obtained.
13.13
THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

of
consequence
quantum theory
is
that one cannot determine

velocity
simultaneously the exact position and
(or
momentum)
Fig. 13.21
Supermicroscope.
CDBEAEBDC
Fig. 13.19
o/vw
slit.
Diffraction at a single
Fig. 13.20
Double-slit diffraction.
scopic particles. If
(Fig.
we photograph a
.4,
/.'.
single-slit diffraction
pattern
13,19), the relative intensities tell us that
struck the plate in the region
a fair
many photons number in li, some in C

t
Very few hit near I) or experiment with one photon.

etc.
probability of hitting near

little
.1.
Suppose, now, we perforin the We can predict that it has a high a fair chance for li. less for ('. very
i) or K, Hut prediel to we 08JQ which point the photon will actually go. Consider an experiment in which a beam of electrons falls on two slits (Fig. 13.20). The electron distribution at I 1 predicted
chance
of hitting near
particle. As an example, assume that the exact momentum a particle is known. Then it has a definite wavelength X = h/p and is a continuous plane wave of uniform "intensity." It is equally probable to find the particle anywhere in space. At the other extreme, assume that we have located the particle within a very small region of space. Then its wave function is a short packet that does not have any unique X. Hence the momentum is fuzzy. The uncertainty principle predicts that in general we cannot make a measurement on a system without disturbing it. for example, suppose we try to "view" an electron with an (imaginary) supermicroscope .1/ (Fig. 13.21) to determine its position x and momentum p. We may borrow an expression from optics which says that the smallest displacement A.v the instrument can
of of
any
182

183
defect depends on the wavelength of the light and the half-angle a subtended by the objective lens: Ax = X/(a sin a). We "view" the elect ion by light which (-liters the microscope anywhere within angle 'la. This radiation, scattered by the electron, makes a con-
tore of small particles, IT the

think, there
is
quantum theory
is
correct, as
we
no hope of understanding the elementary structure of matter (atomic and nuclear physics) from the viewpoint of
classical physics. In
tribution to the electron's
momentum which
is
unknown by
of
quantum
is
there
Apz
sin
the following chapters we shall use the ideas theory. It will be interesting to see, however, that a region between macroscopic and microscopic physics
classical
^ sin a
where the laws of
and quantum physics smoothly overlap
(correspondence principle).
we write Ax as the uncertainly in position of the electron and Ap* as the uncertainty in its momentum, combining the last two
If
equations gives
1
Ax Ap x =
/ X \ (k \sm a/ \\
I
-.
:-
sin
\
/
J
h a
(13.41]
The
secret of education lies in respecting the pupil.
R.
which shows that as we increase the precision of our measurement of 3% the value of p becomes subject to greater uncertainty. (The foregoing is offered merely to amplify the statement that wc cannot make a measurement on a system without disturbing it. The numerical value of a depends on the criterion used for resolving
power.)
W. Emerson
Werner Ileisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle in 1927 showing that from Sehrodinger's equation (Chap. Hi) /i/4ir is the lower limit of the product of simultaneously measured
value of a particle's position and
The most
essential characteristic of scientific technic
is
that
it
proceeds from
experiment, not from tradition.
Bertrand Russell
momentum:
(\:i.m
Ax Ap
>
-r-
Mere Ar and
A/; are defined as
vm- deviations. There
is
an uncerThe most brilliant discoveries in theoretical physics are not new laws, but of terms in which the law can be discovered.
discoveries of
tainty relation only between certain pairs of variables, those
which are "canonically conjugate variables."* There are uncertainty relations, for instance, between position and momentum (discussed above), angular momentum and angle, and energy
Michael Roberts and E. R,
Thomas
and
time.
We
from
have seen that quantum theory
is
significantly different
classical
theory in dealing with the interactions
and struccinq).
I>,
* See Condon and Odtshaw (wis.), "Handbook of Physics," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 19oX.
Relativity
Wonderland
185
tivistic
gives into the binding energy of our cbier nuclei and the liberation of nuclear energy will he simulabout says relativity We shall look, also, at what
mechanics.
The
insight
it
interest.
14
Relativity
voyagers in taneity of events, time dilatation, and the aging of

spaceships.
14.1
NEWTONIAN RELATIVITY
Wonderland
transIn elementary experiments in mechanics we recognize that other relative to motion as lator? motion can be measured only
Measurematerial bodies, such as the workbench or the earth. time. and distance both ment of a speed involves measurement of
S'
The supreme task
of the physicist is
to arrive at those universal
elemenvt
tary laws from which the
cosmos can
is
be built up by pure deduction. There
no
logical
path to these laws; only

resting
intuition,
on
sympathetic
understanding
reach them.
of
experience,
can
Fig.
in
A. Einstein
Reference system S' moves with constant velocity v 1 4.1 x direction relative to reference system S.
Up
to
now we have perhaps
intuitively regarded time as a unique
variable, quite distinct from, say, space, energy, or the* behavior

of material things. \Ye might agree with
true,
Relativity and quantum mechanics are two great theories of twentieth-century physics which have modified in remarkable ways our ideas of the physical universe. For bodies traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, Newtonian mechanics is replaced
and mathematical time, of itself, Hows uniformly on, without regard to anything external." It these is helpful to formulate the kind of relativity implied by ideas for later comparison with the new relativity. Consider a material reference body and some sort of timing
device (the rotating earth, or a crystal oscillator) to constitute
a space-time system of reference for making measurements to locate particles or to describe events. Now suppose a second
Newton that "Absolute, and by its own nature.
by rclativistic mechanics. The relativity theory of the physical meaning of space and time makes some simple predictions of great importance. (I) The mass of a particle is shown to be variable, depending on the speed of the particle; (2) it is impossible for any particle to have a speed greater than the speed of lighl (3) mass and energy are interconvertible. In this chapter we shall consider the evidence which leads to the formulation of rela184
system of reference S'

i
be in uniform motion with respect to the first reference system >S\ along the common line of heir x axes. Let the velocity of S' relative to S be v. Let us agree ito reckon time from the instant at which the two origins of coord
(Fig. 14.1) to
186

Relativity
Wonderland
187
momentarily coincide. At any later time, ordinates of 0' measured in system S will be x = vt, z = 0. An event which occurs at coordinates x,i/,z and in system A' will, according to Xcwlon, have coordinates in S' given by
nates
0'
and
the coy
0,
/
time
system
will arrive at E in phase and produce a bright field, by conby moving suuetive interference. As distance .1.1/ is increased X mirror .1/, the optical path for ray 1 is lengthened by X/2, and destructive interference of rays 1 and 2 at li gives a dark field.
and 2
X =
v*
(14.1)
t
3-w
14.2
THE AETHER
properties of light were, demonstrated by Young, and others during the first part of the nineteenth century and were explained in Maxwell's brilliant theory of electromagnetic radiation (Chap. 13), It was difficult for scientists of the nineteenth century, as for us, to conceive of a wave motion without a material medium to transmit its vibrations. So they
Fresnel,
The wave
c\ r
~G\
Source
Fig,
medium called the aether for the propagation of light. The aether was thought to pervade all space, as well as transparent material bodies. The assumed existence of the aether suginvented a
gested check,
(c
14,2
Michelson's nf erf ero meter.

i
two interesting consequences worthy of experimental (I) Light waves should travel with a definite speed
aether
rial
m see in "empty" space) with respect to the Then the apparent speed of light relative to a matebody moving through the aether should be different from c
3.0
10"
Mirrors
.1/
and
field
.1/'
are set nearly but not quite perpendicular to
itself.
produce a
crossed by alternate bright and dark interference
fringes (Fig. 14.8).
These are counted as they move past a
refer-
and should depend on the speed of the body. (2) An "absolute" velocity of the earth or any other body should be ascertainable from measurements on tight waves transmitted through the
aether.
ence mark R, For each fringe that passes the mark, the optical path has changed by one wavelength. This change might he pro-
duced by moving .1/ a half wavelength. However, the change might also he produced by a change in the speed of light in beam (on the substitution, for example, of a gas of different index of refraction for the air in that one beam).
I
14.3
MICHELSON'S INTERFEROMETER
to detect the motion of the earth relative would require very sensitive apparatus, for the orbiI
An experiment designed
to the aether
tal
speed of
he earth
is
only about
in
III
'
the speed of the light
signals that would be used
the measurement.
With
this probFig. 14.3
lem in mind, Miehelson devised an interferometer, an instrument in which interference patterns produced by two light beams are
used to reveal differences
in
Fringes and a reference mark.
the optical paths of the beams.
When
the optical paths (Fig. 14.2)
happen to he equal, beams
188
Relativity
Wonderland
189
14.4
THE MICHELSON -MORLEY EXPERIMENT
Assume that the earth travels through stationary aether with a and that light has a speed c in the aether. Consider a speed Mieheison interferometer arranged so that one of its two equal
i>
Waves which are in phase when they reach A from the monochromatic source will differ in phase when they return to .4 after reflection, because of the time difference:
Ai
ft
h=
si-
(14. o
arms
is
parallel to the earth's velocity {Fig. 14.4).
required for the light
AM' A
.1/
will
Then the. times beams to travel the distances A and be unequal. The speed of a beam traveling from .1 to
AM
If
the interferometer
is
rotated 90, paths
and 2
will
have
is c
their roles interchanged
and the
! total retardation will be 2sp
t"
relative to the interferometer.
On
the return from
.1/
The number
of fringes passing the reference
mark should be
(14.6)
M'
i
N=
path difference wavelength
_cA/ =
X
c2st>*
2siP
c
2
Xc*
A
i
4W
Fig.
M
n
HI
u
To estimate the magnitude of fringe shift to be expected, we may assume that the earth's velocity through the aether is the same as its orbital velocity, about HO km sec. By using multiple
reflections, .Mieheison
and Morley attained an

light of
effective path s of
10
(Fig. 14.5).
For
wavelength 5,000
A we
should then
estimate a
14.4
Light
maximum
2
fringe shift of
poths
in
moving interferometer and velocity
vector diagram.
N_ ~
beam
round
relative to the interferometer
trip
is
10m(3
lOWsec)'
OTX
10m/)(5.0
10- T m)
is
U *
f " lge lr
4 U4
(
' J ?)
to A, the speed of the

c
v.
The time
c
for the
AM A
is
thus
(14.2)
fringe shift of this
amount
readily detectable with the
2w
apparatus. It should then be possible to measure the fringe shift and from it compute the velocity of the earth relative to the
aether, that
is,
the absolute velocity of the earth.
Since
is
small compared
with
c,
we may use the binomial
theorem to obtain the approximation
Mieheison and Morley found no fringe shift when the interferometer was rotated in a pool of mercury. Itappeared that optical experiments cannot detect motion of the
Surprisingly.
rye
(1-U)
c
c*
earth relative to the aether.
A wave front leaving A toward mirror .1/' will be returned, according to Huygen's principle, but only after A has moved to a new position .]'. The component of the velocity of light in the direction perpendicular to the motion of the interferometer is 1 v i The time for the round trip AM' A is
Mieheison and Morley reported their results in 1887. No subsequent experimental evidence contradicts them. Some lingering doubts were laid to rest in a review article published in the
Reviews of Modern Physics (pages 107- 178) in 1955. Several attempted explanations for the apparent impossibility of measuring the earth's absolute motion failed to gain acceptance when they either did violence to established theory, disagreed
with
VV
2s
!n /; 2/
2* /
vV
v*
Vi
+ 1+3^ 2
ri
Iff*
)
(14,1)
known astronomical
data, or introduced too
many
special
hypotheses.
Relativity
Wonderland
191
14.5
POSTULATES OF THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Consider several physicists in a completely enclosed elevator or railroad car, moving with constant velocity relative to earth. Could these people detect and measure the velocity of their enclosure from observations made inside, with pendulum, spring
balance, etc?
Proceeding from considerations such as these, Henri Poincard it is in the period 1 SiM) to 1904 developed the hypothesis that impossible to determine absolute motions of a body or of a reference system by any dynamical, electromagnetic, or optical means. Measurement of the velocity of bodies relative to a stationary
net Iter
seemed to
Iks
for determination of "absolute" motion.
the best device classical physics could offer The negative result of
the Michelson-Morley experiment was interpreted by Einstein as indicating that only relative velocities can be measured. Consequently, the general laws of physics must be independent of the velocity of the particular reference system of coordinates used to
state them, otherwise
lute
it
would be possible to ascribe some abso-
meaning
to different velocities.
was limited at a constant moving systems to consideration of reference based his Einstein {Fig. 14.1). other velocity with respect to each
The
special or restricted relativity theory of 1905
theory on two postulates:

1.
The laws
of physical
phenomena are the same when
stated in
m
2.
Fig. 14,5
terms of either of two reference systems moving at constant velocity relative to each other {and can involve no reference to motion through an aether).
The
and
is
velocity of light in free space is the same for all observers independent of the velocity of the light source relative
Michelson interferometer designed to detect "absolute motion" of
to the observer,
the earth, (o) Interferometer

to
was mounted on a
(b)
damp vibrations and to permit rotation, an effective path length of 10 m.
ond floated in mercury Multiple reflection of beams gave

stone,
{The "general" theory of relativity, 9 Hi, is Einstein's theory of gravitation and will not be considered here.) Suppose person A. at rest in a laboratory, assigns to every event which he observes a position (j-.i/a) relative to a particular origin fixed in his laboratory and a time as indicated by a clock at rest in his laboratory. Now let person B move through A's
1
190
laboratory with speed u
in
A's positive x direction. Let person
192
Relativity
Wonderland
193
measure positions relative to an origin moving with him and
transport energy from one point to another with a speed exceeding

the speed of
li<iht.
times with a clock (just like A's clock) also moving with him. Then to each event B will assign a position (x',y',z') and a time I'. Assume that the clocks are synchronized to read I = (' = when the (x'y'z') axis momentarily coincides with the (xi/z) axis. The
Several relations of particular interest will now be discussed to illustrate the meaning of space and time variables.
which connect the distance and time intervals between two events as measured from the two inertial reference frames are
relations
14.6
VELOCITIES NEVER ADD TO
MORE THAN
x V
z
= =
x' +
y'
z'
lit'
==
X'
=
!J
ut
Suppose that our two observers in coordinate systems S and S' both observe an object which Hies past in the x direct ion. Observer
U'
Z' = _
B measures the speed of the object

If
relative to
him
as
v'
dx'/dt'.
we
express
v'
in terms of the coordinates of the laboratory
t_ (u/c*)x
observer A,
(14.8)
dt'
we
find
Vi -
1*
1/**
d[(x
d[[t
- mQ / V'1 - u */c*]
(*/c*)*]/Vl
dx
di
These transformation equations were developed by Voigt

(1887) and Lorentz (1904) in exploring the aether hypothesis. But Einstein showed that the transformations satisfied
tivity hypothesis that the speed of light will be the
his relain
Vc*l
-udl ~ (*/<&*
(l4!
-r^ws
same
each
coordinate system.
Example. Show that
systems.
at J = and moves in the positive x direction. It will arrive ill the point x = A' at the time X/e, time its speed through the laboratory is Person B will observe the light to arrive at the point
light starts
light
where in the last step numerator and denominator were divided hy dt and dx/dt = was written for the speed of the object in the laboratory. Thus we have
V
has speed
c in
both the
0,
8 and
S' coordinate
Suppose that the
from x
=
1
u
1
0, t
or
=
1
'
not, as
uv/c
+
v'
(14.10)
uv'/c*
is
The speed
relative to the laboratory
we might have
,-..
X - u(X/c) Vl - u7c*
X/e
expected, exactly equal to the speed u of B relative to the laboratory.
relative to
plus the speed
at the time
,
- (uM )X Vl - m*/c*
of light in the S' coordinate system
is
Example. While observer B is moving through the laboratory with speed u = 0.90c, a flying object passes him with a speed which he measures as v' = 0.90c. What is the speed of the flying object relative to the laboratory?
The speed V =
x' -7
I'
=
1
V'
+
w'/c*
1
0.90r
0.90c
! 1
I.SOc
thus
(0.90c) (0.90c)/c
0.994c
0.81
X/e
X - (u/c)X - (u/c*)X
In other words, if a car were traveling at speed 0.90c, you would have to drive at a speed of only 0.994c to pass it with a relative speed of 0.90r!
form under Lorentz transformations. The basic physical assumption of relativity is that no mechanical or electromagnetic influence can
In a mathematical sense, the principle of relativity equations of physical phenomena must be invariant in
is
that the
14.7
WHAT DOES "SIMULTANEOUS" MEAN?
Einstein pointed out by the following railroad story that man cannot assume that his sense of "now" applies to all parts of the
194

Relativity
Wonderland
195
pictured a straight section of track with an observe? seated on an embankment beside it. During a thunderstorm, two lightning bolts strike the track simultaneously, at points Xi and
.):.
universe.
He
The
special theory of relativity predicts the
same contraction
Kiustein asks:
What do we mean by "simultaneously"?
but ascribes it to the relative motion of the body and the observer. Consider a material object in coordinate system S' whose surface may be defined by the relation 4>{x' ,tf ,z') = 0. Then, by the Lorentz transformation, the form of the. surface as viewed in
coordinate system
is
xi
Fig. 14.6
A
My
time
is
not necessarily your time.
Assume that the observer is seated midway between r, and Assume that he has arranged mirrors so he can see x and z the same time without moving his eyes. Then If the reflections
t
described
.<-._>,
In particular, suppose that a spherical surface of radius a is 1 2 {*')" ' a" = <> Tbfe in system S' by (Y) Cv')
at
of
appears in system S to be a moving ellipsoid
the lightning flashes are seen in the mirrors at precisely the same instant, the flashes may be regarded as simultaneous, by observer A.
r*J + K + 3-1
(a
assume that a train speeds along the track and that observer B on the train sits in an observation dome, with an arrangement of mirrors for viewing points xx and x->. It happens
that observer
to
Now
whose semiaxes are
\/\
u- c-,a.a).
The
surface undergoes
contraction in the direction of
motion
in the ratio
y/\
u s /c 2
1.
B
if
finds himself directly opposite
strikes the rails at
and
x-,.
A when lightning Will the flashes appear simultaneous

moving from
x-,
14.9
TIME DILATATION: THE CLOCK PARADOX
B? No,
for
his train
is
toward
.c,,
then the
.10 will be reflected in his mirrors a fraction of a second than the flash in .r,. (In the limiting case with a train traveling at speed e, B would never see light from x.) Whatever the speed of the train, the observer B on it will always say that the
flash at
later
Consider now ihreflVel of relative motion on a flock. Two events occur at a point in coordinate system .S": one at time t\, the other T <> an observer in S these events take place at at a later time
different points in space,
(.ri,//,s)
and
Oj.(/,z), as well as at differ-
lightning Hash ahead of
ent times, such that {x transformations
xi)
u(t t
h).
Prom the Lorentz
In generalizing,
him has struck the track first. we are forced to admit that two events which
tt
occur at different places may be simultaneous for one observer and not simultaneous for another. We cannot assume that a single time scale (( = (') can be used with any and all coordinate systems.
h =
the same, but &t
Thus
the sequence in time of the two events
is
appears longer for the observer in S than for the observer in .S". This is interpreted as meaning that a moving clock appears to
14.8
THE FITZGERALD-LORENTZ CONTRACTION
run at a slower rate than does an identical clock at

ratio
rest, in
the
To
Vl -
7c-:l.
explain the null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment, Fitzgerald in 1893 arbitrarily assumed a contraction of the arm of
The imminence
of space travel has revived interest in the
"clock paradox" or "twin paradox."
One
of
two
identical twins
the interferometer in the direction of motion of the apparatus.
leaves his brother on earth and voyages at high speed into distant space. On his return, he finds that his brother has grown
196
Relativity
Wonderland
197
much
Also,
in
Superficially, this
it
older than he, because of time dilatation in the spaceship. is a paradox, for it challenges "common sense."
the
same
light signal travels the larger distance 2D'. If observer
describing physical events
seems to contradict the assertion of special relativity that all observers are equivalent; none
effect
has a preferred or absolute reference system. The aging or clock seems to provide a way of distinguishing among observers.
in
up a similar experiment in his coordinate system S', his light signals would complete their round trips in shorter times than noted by observer A. The discrepancies arise because the two observers do not agree on which of two distant events {completion of the nth round trip by either light signal) takes place
set
first.
But, relativity asserts the equivalence of observers
inertial
systems, and since one of the twins accelerated at the start of his space trip and again when he altered course to return, he did not
Now
is
let
observer
B suddenly
reverse his velocity (u[).
He
view
his brother
the trip. So there
from the same is no paradox.
inertial
system before and after

stay-at-home
The intriguing question remains: Did the brother grow older faster? Yes. In his 190") paper
trodynamics of Moving Bodies," Einstein wrote,
If
"On the
Elec-
(He accelerated.) His notions of simultaneity have changed. Observer A sees B coming toward him, with B's light signals arriving slower than his own. When they meet, A's signals have completed a larger number of LM L circuits than have B's signals. Observer A has aged more than B.
in
now
a different Lorentz frame.
at the points
A and B
there arc
ho stationary
clocks which,
viewed by a stationary observer, arc synchronous, and if the clock at A is moved with the velocity v along the line AB to B, then on its arrival at B the (.wo clocks no longer synchronize, but the clock moved from A to B lags behind the other which has remained at B by tv 3 /2c- (up to magnitudes of fourth and higher orders), ( being the time required for the journey from A to B. It is at once apparent that this result still holds if the clock moves from A to B in any polygonal line, and also when the points A and B
coincide.
Example. What, will he the difference in he rates of two identical one of which is on a spaceship moving at 300 mi sec relative u> the other?
I
clocks,
300 mi/sec
5.25
10
s
-
m/scc
3.0
10 a m/sec
Relative change
in rate
f.
u*
f,
SîTx
10"
10"
=
Bergman n has suggested
effect,
0.002 per cent, approx.
the following elucidation of the clock
tig.
1.7.
9"-^=
Fig. 14,7
Experimental detection of time dilatation was achieved by Ives and Stilwell (1938) on viewing the spectral lines of hydrogen atoms which were given a high speed directed away from the spec-
I"
An arrangement was used to distinguish relativity from Doppler effects. Light from the atoms fell on the spectrograph slit directly, and also after reflection in a mirror set
troscope.
effects
Clock paradox.
at some distance and normal to the velocity of the atoms. Owing to the Doppler effect, each spectrum line was split into two frequencies.
Then
light
from hydrogen atoms at rest was viewed
arranges for periodic light signals to go from .1/ and back (a kind of optical clock). Light travels a distance 2/) for each L circuit. Observer B is moving
Observer
lamp L to mirror
with the same spectrograph. This gave lines slightly displaced, in frequency, from the middle, of the Doppler pairs, in amount predicted by relativity,
LM
with constant speed u at right angles to the
line
LM. For
him,
.Measurements of the lifetimes of mesons have been used to cheek relativity predictions. The mean life of fi mesons (about
Relativity
Wonderland
199
198
'2
Table
I
14.1
Date on electrons
Energy, ev
ffl
10"* sec) has been found to depend on
heir speed roughly
fllfl
8R,
X10
weber/m
in (lie
way
predicted by relativity.
0.
14.10
MASS AND ENERGY

results of relativity theory
(1) tlie variation of the
Two
in
which are of especial importance mass of a particle with its speed and (2) the equivalence of mass and energy. Experiments have been performed, first by Bucherer in 1909, deflection by a magnetic field of electrons whose speeds the on
atomic physics are
are not small compared with the speed of light. The acceleration may be determined from the radius of curvature of the path
v*/R.
The
force producing this acceleration
side thrust on the electron /
Bev.
It is
is the magnetic found that for high-
0,0100 0.0200 0.0500 0.100 0.200 0.500 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.900 0.990
25.54 102.2 638.5

2,575 10,530
79,030 127,700
204,300 340,500 661,000 3,110,000
1.00000 1.00005 1.00020 1.00125 1 .00504 1 .02062 1.1547 1.25000 1.4002 1.6666 2.2941 7.0888
17.0
34.06 85.0
171.3
347.8 983.6
1,278 1,669
2,272 3,517
11,960
speed electrons Newton's law in the form/ = ma is not satisfied. But Newton's law written in the form / = d(mv)/dt is satisfied,
provided we assume
its
The kinetic energy of an object having speed energy required to accelerate it from rest to the
r is
equal to the
final
speed
v.
that the mass
of the particle depends on
Eh -
//-'(cos $)
ds
= jT dx
in
(14.13)
speed. It
has mass
mu
found necessary to assume that a particle which when at rest has a mass
is
But now we must use
place of/
ma
for
Xewtou's second law,
Fm=
y/\
m-o
d
dt
me
y/l
(14.11)
i.'Ve*
B */c
givmg
v.
when moving with speed

mass.
The quantity
is
wio is called
the rest
[* ft- J dt
This
g_
y/\
When
m
c,
dX
J3
= m
r*
f JO
vd(
VVl -
^=) W/
(14.14)
(14.ir>)
m-u.
accepted in relativity theory as requisite for the conservation of momentum, which remains a basic principle of mechanics. In order to have the total momentum of an isolated system remain constant, the momentum of a
Variation of mass with speed
may
be integrated by parts using the standard form
/ dv
to obtain
uv
$v
du
panicle
is
delined as
Met)
ft = ffloiM
(14.12)
7=
muc 2
p = mv =
ft =
ic 2
Vl 1
Ve*
for various ratios of v/c the kinetic
,
Table
4.
shows
energy of
an electron, the ratio vi/m
and the product BR, from which one
may get the radius R of the path in a magnetic induction B of given value. Looking at the table, one might say that in problem solving to slide-rule accuracy, one can neglect relativity variation he speed of light. of mass for bodies having speeds less than 0.
1
This expression replaces the classical formula hn^ for kinetic energy when v is comparable with c. The equation for kinetic energy, Kk = (m m.n}c' says that when we speed up a particle, the increase in energy is proportional to the increase in mass of the particle:
i
,
&S =
c-(Am)
(14.10)
200
Relativity
Wonderland
201
We
can identify
c-
times the relativist ie mass of the particle with

of the particle:
the total energy
K =
E = mc * = A*
Total energy
Kinstc.in's
Woc 2
(14.17)
which of course include electrons. We justify this procedure the following facts: (1) If a nuclear reaction is written in terms by symbols for the corresponding atoms, the number of elecof the
Mx..\
kinetic energy
relation
IC
rest
%
energy
states that
tells
famous
= mc
mass and
us
tiie
energy are different aspects of the same thing. It at which one may he converted into the other.
Example. Find the energy equivalent of
substance).
1
rate
gm
= =
number of The minute changes in mass which may accompany the formation of an atom from its ion and electron(s) is negligible. (3) The mass data from mass spectrograph experiments are always tabulated in terms of neutral atoms (e.g., Na) even though deflection measurements must be made on
trons on one side of the equation generally cancels the
electrons on the other side. (2)
of coal (or
any other
ions
(e.g.,
Na ++ ).
It
is
to avoid the trouble of specifying each time
the degree of ionization that the experimenter adds to his experi2
E = me =
Only a liny
of
I
0.001 kg (3.0
10* m/sec,} 1
9 X 10 13 joules 25,000 niogawutt-lir
mental value for the mass of the ion the proper number of electron masses and reports as the isotope mass the* computed mass of the
neutral atom.
Km
1
than takes place, but
fraction of this amount of energy is released in the burning of coal: tin- combustion products have a mass only sJightly less Kin. In nuclear reactors, a somewhat larger percentage conversion
it is still
The binding energy

Binding energy _ Xucleon
per nucleoli
is
defined as the binding
a small fraction.
energy divided by the number of nuclear particles:
Am
.1
<-
(14.19)
is
14.11
NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY

It
is
this value
which
significant in
comparing the
stability of
Mass spectrograph measurements show that the mass of any stable isotope is less than the sum of the masses of its constituent protons, neutrons, and electrons. Kinsfein's mass-energy relation
suggests thai the mass discrepancy might account for the energy
two
different isotopes.
14.12
RELATIVITY AND SPACE TRAVEL

for
needed to hold a nucleus together, against the dispersive forces exerted by the protons on each other owing to their positive
charges.
Rockets
space exploration require highly efficient sources of
thrust and large amounts of electric power. These requirements
suggest nuclear power sources. In this sense, the mass-energy

.elation of relativity
is
The mass of the constituent particles for nucleus zX. A is the sum of Z proton masses and (A-Z) neutron masses. The mass
defect Ant
is
important to space travel. But other pre-
dictions of relativity, such as time dilatation, are probably not

significant to space travel.
then calculated from
Am =
where
Zm.fi
(A
Z)m
z,A
(14.18)
If
the
initial
we could burn nuclear fuel so efficiently that one-tenth of mass of the spaceship were converted into kinetic
ma =
m
,
1.00814o amu, mass of the hydrogen atom

1.00898b'
energy, the
Mx
From
to
Oil
I
= =
amu, mass
of the neutron
A/i
mass of the neutral atom of atomic number Z and and atomic mass number .1 = (Awi)c 3 one can calculate that I amu is equivalent
(million electron volts).
is
final speed would be less than 0.5c. This would give a very small (0.14) time dilatation hardly enough to allow one generation of voyagers to reach destinations outside the solar system.
Mev
Binding energy
the equation above
primarily a property of the nucleus. Yet in

for neutral
PROBLEMS
1.
we have used data
atoms
>u
and
An atom moving
at a
speed of
1.0
10"
sec ejects an electron
in the forward direction with a relative speed of 2.0
10" m/scc. Find
202
the electron's speed as seen by an observer at rest (a) using a Newtonian transformation and (6) using a I.orentz transformation.
Arts, (o) 3.0 X 10* m/sec, (6) 2.7 X 10 s m/sec Find the length of a meter stick when it is moving at a speed 0.90c relative to the observer. Consider the cases when the stick is oriented () parallel and (6) perpendicular to its direction of motion. Arts. () 18.5 em, (b) 10(1 cm 3. What speed will an electron have to acquire for its relativity Ans. 2.5 X 10 K m/sec mass to be twice its resi mass? 1. What is (he energy equivalent of the mass of an electron? Ans. 0,51 Mot 5. What is the radius of curvature of the path of an electron whose kinetic energy is 20 Mev when moving perpendicular to a magnetic Attn. 0.6S m induction of 0. 10 weber/rn-? h. Imagine that you are moving with a speed |c past a man who picks up a watch and then sets it down. If you observe thai be held the wmIcIi for (>,0 sec, how long does he think be held it? {Hint: You want Ans. 4.0 sec It U when you know t' t l\.) 7. From the mass-energy relation, calculate the energy released in the reaction ,H= ,H* tHe*. (Data: ,H = 2.014743 amu, Mr* = 4.003874 amu) Ans. 24 Mev 8. A meson has a lifetime / = 1.0 X 10~*see before it decays. Find Ans. 300 m how far a meson with = 0.09c can travel. 9. Find the energy liberated when an electron and a positron Ans. 1.02 Mev annihilate. 10. If one uses the nonrehitivistic formula E,. = },m,r~. does one overestimate nr underestimate the kinetic energy of a particle of rest mass io and speed vl
2,
15
Hydrogen Atom Bohr Model
...
ing
for the
value of his study of the struc-
ture of
atoms and of the radiation emanatNobel

Prize citation
from them.
1922
for Niels Bohr,
t>
By
the
1011,
two
J.
rival pictures of the structure of
an atom had
of
evolved. J.
Thomson suggested a "currant pudding" model
which the positive charge was spread throughout a spherical volume of radius about 10 -ll> m, with electrons vibrating about fixed points within this sphere. Ernest Rutherford suggested a nuclear model of the atom in which the positive charge and almost the whole mass were concentrated in a very tiny nucleus; the electrons roamed through the rest of the atom, out to a radius of about 10~ 10 m. In crucial experiments, II. Geiger and E. Marsden probed the atoms in thin metallic foils with fast (" sV c) a particles and showed that the observed deflections could be explained by the intense electric field near the center of a nuclear atom. Building on Rutherford's nuclear picture and using Planck's quantum hypothesis, X. Bohr fashioned a model of the hydrogen atom which explained its characteristic line
iu
atom
203
204
Looking
In:

of
Hydrogen Atom Bohr Model
205
spectrum and correlated this with electrical measurements excitation potentials and the ionization energy.
deflection cannot result
from several successive

if
collisions with
electrons.
But, Rutherford reasoned,

of the
all
the positive charge
15.1
NUCLEAR ATOM REVEALED BY ALPHA SCATTERING
a particles are helium ions (He ++ ) and are emitted spontaneously by some radioactive substances. In the Geiger and Marsden apparatus (Fig. 15.1), a particles are directed against a thin
mass of an atom are concentrated in a very small a particle can come very close to a large amount of charge all at once, and it will experience a large deflecting force. Further, since the mass of the deflecting nucleus is greater than that of the a particle, backscattering is possible. Rutherford derived an equation for a scattering based on the assumptions that the nucleus and a particle behave as point
and most
nucleus, then the
Fig.
15.2
Deflection
of
particles
by
nuclear-made!
W^
Incident
atoms.
Fig.
15.1
Apparatus for investigating

fi,
rt
particle
scattering, showing:
a
positive charges, that sion
particles
Target
radioactive substance
the source of
particles, thin foil
and microscope M. a I, strike foil F, and ore scattered to screen S. The conical bearing allows rotation of microscope and screen about vertical axis FF. [H. Geiger and E. Marsden, The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 25. 604 (I913).l
material, zinc sulfide screen S,
F of scattering particles emerge from
a channel cut
in
the lead block
Coulomb's law applies to the mutual repuleven at small distances, and that ordinary Newtonian mechanical principles hold (conservation of energy and conservation of
momentum). The number

r
area of screen at distance
of a particles N reaching unit from the scattering foil was predicted
an evacuated chamber. The number of a parvarious angles with the original beam direction is found to decrease with increasing angle, but some a particles are scattered at angles greater than 90, up to 180. Rutherford
metallic
foil
in
to
depend on
ticles scattered at
r1
4VW
number
/
AV i
(15.1)
</2)
found this "almost as incredible as if you had fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you." For the IIe ++ ion is roughly 7,:i00 times the mass of an electron, and
therefore the large deflections of a particles cannot occur by single collisions with electrons. Also, the foil used is so thin that a large
where
A' a
(
initial kinetic
energy of a particle
N =
2e
Z = =
on foil of thickhaving n target nuclei per unit volume nuclear charge a's charge
of a's incident per unit time
ness
Hydrogen
206
Atom Bohr Model
207
We
shall consider the
much-studied spectrum of hydrogen,
In their precise and very readable report, Geigcr and Marsden neatly tabulated the results of counting thousands of a particles to show that .V was found to be proportional to (a) the thickness / of the scattering foil, (M the square of the nuclear charge
the simplest atom. Its spectrum comprises several well-defined groups of lines: the Lyman series in the ultraviolet, the Maimer series in the visible region, the I'aschen series in the infrared, and others
still
farther oul
in
the infrared, Fig. 15.3.
Ze (using foils of Au, Ag, Cu, etc.), (c) the reciprocal of sin (0/2), where B is the angle of deflection, and ((f) the reciprocal of the square of the initial energy K a of the a particles (using
different radioactive sources).
Balmer limit
Lymon
verified Rutherford's
.
limit
"
1
Visible
*-
pasc hen limit

j
The Geiger and Marsden experiments

meaning
nificant
of the
'
nuclear model of the structure of an atom.
They
it
clarified the
1
Some
units).
i
1
.1
-i_
j
20,000
in
4,000
Fig.
8,000
2,000
16,000
atomic number
in
Z and showed
limit of 10
IS
to be
more
sig15.3
series of lines in the spectrum of
than atomic mass
ordering elements in relation to
hydrogen (wavelengths
chemical properties.
An upper
was obtained
verified
Angstrom
for
the size of the nucleus, in terms of distance of closest approach of
particles.
The
validity of Coulomb's law
was
down
to
As a
spectra,
first
step in developing au acceptable theory of atomic

relation which allows one to calculate
about this distance of separation between charges. When Geigcr and Marsden used still more energetic a particles in their deflection experiments, some deviations from the scattering pattern predicted by Kq. (15.1) were observed. This was the
first
Rydberg found a
the
the wavelengths in
hydrogen spectrum from differences
between terms:
hint of the existence of a "nuclear force" of attraction in
= R
rtf
addition to gravitational force and the electrostatic (Coulomb)

force of repulsion.
w
=
I
}y
, is
Khvve
R =
Lm x 10
~3
A ~'
<
I5 2 >
'
When
and
1
the differences of the terms

15.2
DATA FROM SPECTROSCOPY
wave numbers
and
it;
,/X
.",
:>.
!,
given successive values, 2, 3, 4, 5, in the Rydberg equation give the for the lines of the Lyman series. When nf = 2 .... the Rydberg equation gives the wave
.
A
its
grating spectrograph (Sec. 9.12) disperses the light incident on
and focuses on a photographic plate a line image of the slit for each different wavelength present. As fine diffraction gratings became available, owing largely to the skill of H. A. Rowland (1848 1901), spectroscopists diligently accumulated a vast number of measurements on the radiation emitted by atoms when excited in electrical discharge tubes, in ares, and otherwise. In general they found that (I) each element has its own characteristic line spectrum of wavelengths A or frequency v, (2) spectrum lines are generally sharp; elements producing the lines in a sped rum may differ sharpest Hues are very stable; in relative intensity and in degree of polarization; (4) to the spectrum of every element can be ascribed a series of "term values" such that the frequency of every observed spectrum line can be obtained by differences of these term values.
entrance
slit
('.',)
Halmer series, etc. Although this formula was obtained empirically, it turns out to be closely related with the way the spectrum originates.
for lines of the
numbers
15.3
BOHR'S THEORY
There is a similarity of the hydrogen atom and our planetary system, in that in each case there is an attractive force inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Bohr accepted Rutherford's concept of the nuclear atom and devised a model of the hydrogen atom in which orbital motion of
the election was used to predict wavelengths of radiation which agree very closely with the observed wavelengths of the spec-
trum
lines
(Table
15. 1),
208
Hydrogen Atom
hydrogen
Joules
Elec. volts
Bohr Model
209
Table 15.1
Some term values end energy
levels for
of attraction exerted
by the nucleus on the
electron has the
Wovenos. (1/cm)
magnitude
*
3,047 4,387
-6.0x10" 20
-8.7
-13.6
-0.38
F =
The
-0.54
-0.85
(l-,,.w-
(15.4)
ty
HH
t> N
r*>
6,855
12,184
central acceleration a e
O
nT
~
cm
-24.2
-1.51
moving with uniform circular motion, experiences a = r 2 /r and a centripetal force mr- r, from Newton's second law. We equate the Coulomb force and the
electron,
fo PI
in
CN
CM
O
27,419
-54.3 -3.39
centripetal force
rHi
2
-
<0
!.'
Batmer series
u
00 CM 00
ti
u ^
(4xe u )r
(15.5)
i 4 CM o 8 & d 3 s
109,677
The
ally,
kinetic energy of the electron
we take K p
/*.'
A* = mr*. If, conventionwhen the electron is far from the nucleus, the
is is
-217.3
13.58
potential energy
of the electron in orbit
man
series
Sol tier series
Ep =
15, 233c 20,264c 23,032c
(15.6)
(4irt)r
6562A
4861 4341
so
its
total
energy
is
4102
3646
(Limit)
24,373c
27,419c
E=
A*
- Smv !
(Smb>
(15.7)
from which Eq.
(15.5) gives
e
(-lvtn)r
1
The following assumptions are made in the Bohr theory of the hydrogen atom: (1) The electron moves around a stationary nucleus (a good approximation, since m, iue = 1,830m,.). (2) The electron is held in a stable circular orbit by the Coulomb attraction between the negative electron and the positive nucleus. (3) Only certain (quantised) orbits are possible for the electron, namely, those for which its angular momentum is a whole-number multiple of h/2-ir, where h is Planck's constant. (4) Radiation is
emitted (or absorbed) by the hydrogen atom only when the electron undergoes an energy change in a transition from one orbit to another. The energy of the photon emitted (or absorbed) is given
/;
s"
(15.H)
2 (4jre)r
2 (4Te )r
is
Of course, the
total
kinetic energy of the electron
positive, but its
bound to the and work equal to |/i'| must be supplied to remove the electron from the atom (process of ionization), Fig. 15.4.
energy
in a
stable orbit
is
negative since
it is
nucleus,
Bohr's third assumption says that the permitted values of

electron angular
momentum
n
are
3,
mm-
n rr
'
4/W
(15.9)
by
hv
K,
The
/:,
radii of
permitted orbits are obtained by solving Kqs. (15.5)

:
(15.3)
and
2 (15.9) for the quantity (mr)
Newton's laws of motion are assumed to lie applicable to the hydrogen atom, just as to bodies of larger dimensions. The force
(mv)i
- jEsp
and
(m )s
Hydrogen
210
Atom Bohr Model
211
Looking
In

Mini
and equating the

4jr*me
!
results to got
"
2* im <A
(A
\n/
L\
n, s /
n'
-l^me
1, 2, 3,
(15.10)
(15.13)
(4rco)%ê
from which the value of the Rydberg constant

li
R can
be verified as
From
Sn
Eq. (15.8), the total energy can he written
2xW
(iirtn)''/r'r
1.097
X
1
10
A->
= -
2 (4we D )r
(4jreo)W
n
The
orbit for which
n =
is
referred to as the lowest state,
1, 2, 3,
(15.11)
the ground state, or the normal state for the hydrogen atom. If an
electron in the lowest energy state receives 12.07 ev of energy by
it can be Table 15.1). The time interval before the electron spontaneously drops back to a lower energy level is called the lifetime of the excited energy state, and -s sec. The electron we. are considering is ordinarily about 10 might drop Brat from state n = 3 to 2, then from . = 2 to n - 1. It would thus be responsible for the emission of two photons. One would have the frequency of the first (H) line in the Balnier series; the other would contribute to the first line in
These are the only energy levels possible for the hydrogen atom in arc indicated to the Bohr theory. The energy values for levels
I
collision
with an electron or by absorption of a photon,

level
"kicked up" into energy
n = 3
(see
Totcl energy
UnquanHzed
__
O
f
Radius r
Tj
""""-s^Binding energy
r3
l\'
^^.
,
/y
Ionization
the
Lyman
The
series.
is
ionization potential
defined as the energy needed to
MM srgy
P=
-*\
in the lowest energy energy needed to promote an electron from one state to another of greater energy is called an excitation potential. Obviously the hydrogen atom lias only one ionization potential,
remove, from an atom an electron initially
state.
The
lesser
but several excitation potentials.

lias
An atom
with
many
electrons
a corresponding number of ionization potentials. Because of the Pauli exclusion principle (Chap. 10), only in II and He do all in the ground state. In other atoms, the the electrons have it =
I
ground state
is
taken as the state of lowest energy.
15.4
EXTENSION TO HYDROGENLIKE IONS
Fig. 15,4
Bohr's
model of the hydrogen otom.
only one electron, that

the
Bohr's model and theory apply successfully to ions which have + Li ++ Be s+ etc. The equation for is, I!e
, , ,
Coulomb
force
is
modified to read
F =
e(Ze) / (iwuijr* where
Table 15.1. The frequencies of radiation which the atom can emit or absorb are predicted from Eqs. (15.3) and (15.1 1) as
in
A',-
Ze is the charge on the nucleus. This leads to inclusion of Eq. (15.13), and thus
in
E,
2tt'-W /
(15.12)
-JL\ I-W-L \nr my

X
(15.14)
212
Looking In: Atomic and Nuclear Physios
Hydrogen
Atom Bohr Model
213
This relation predicts that He + (Z

iiiies hi
2) should radiate a series of
between electron and nucleus.

velocity
the visible region for transitions to /

series for
Balmer
4 similar to the (Fig. 15.5). This Pickering series for Hc + was

He*
w -
/r, [Kq. (15.5)1, for
If we introduce the angular the centripetal force
mi-
(4rtu )r
becomes
= mr*> nr t-Mreojr\
(18.15)
*t
4- 3-
8:
6-
The equation quantizing angular momentum, Eq.

mr,*a>
Fig.
(15.9),
becomes
(15.16)
.l/r 2 u
7r-
15.5
levels for
Comparison H and for He
of
1
energy
2ir
where
.1/ is
the mass of the nucleus.
From
the definition of center
of mass,
M
m+
n=
\
and
,1/
m+M
we
find
(15.17)
n=
By combining
observed
first in
Eqs. (15.15) and (15.17),
star spectra
and was subsequently
identified witii
a laboratory
helium light source.
(4^jH
and
= m ">* rwi
(15.18)
15.5
CORRECTION FOR CENTER-OF-MASS ROTATION
The frequencies in the Pickering series for He + are not precisely the same as those in the Maimer series for H, as Bq. (15.14) predicts.
w m irw
!'*,.<
= "fts2.TT
5. fit)
Also, the
shifted in
heavy isotope II* has spectrum lines slightly frequency from those which Kq. (la. t:i) predicts should
where the symbol

Wr,.i
i r ..,i is
used for the "reduced mass,"
m\!
;
m
1
m+
.1/
tn/M
<
5.
JO.
Since Fqs. (15.18) and (15.19) differ from Eqs, (15.15) and (15.16) for no nuclear motion only in the replacement of electron mass m
M
Fig.
CM
by reduced mass w, we
motion of the nucleus
Eq. (15.11) by
is
see that the energy
/.'.
corrected for
related to the uncorrected energy A' of
15,6
Rotation about center of mass (CM).
B.
since
If
m "" m
/:
(-)*
(15.21)
be identical for both H and TI-. These discrepancies suggest thai instead of simply considering that llic electron moves around a fixed nucleus, we should consider that both electron and nucleus move about their common center of mass (Fig. 15.6). Let r f and
1
m/M
we use the corrected expression for energy in Eq. the Bohr equation (15.13) for wave numbers becomes
1
u
(15.11),
be the distances from the center of mass to the electron and to r is the distance. the nucleus, respectively. Then r = r e
r
_2irV_
(47r e }
a
mM
m+M
\_
\
(15.22)
A 3c
\rf
nf)
214
Looking in: Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Hydrogen Atom
Bohr
Model
215
This correction shifts each energy level by ahout 0.055 per cent For the isotope II 1 the shift is less. Hence a frequency for H difference can be observed when two isotopes of an element are
1
. ,
where An becomes
Vln.lir
tii
n/ and
n?ij %. Then
the Bohr frequency
present in a light source.

of II
1
The
first (II a ) line hi
the Balmer series

2
~
4
me* 2 s A a3
An
(15.24)
(15.24)
has wavelength (in(>2.80 A; that for II lias wavelength The reduced mass correction also explains why the energy difference, and hence the frequency of radiation, is slightly
6561.01 A.
greater for the helium ion
for
Comparison
of Eqs.
and
(15.23)
shows that for large
from n = 6 to n = 4) than the corresponding transitions (n = 3 to n = 2) for hydrogen.
He +
(say,
and radiates the frequency 1 , expected from classical electromagnetic theory. For An > 1, we get harmonics. This is an example of a transition region between
orbits (large n) for Are
the
atom
macroscopic and microscopic physics where the laws of classical

physics and
15.6
quantum physics
overlap.
THE CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE

1. Which of the experimental observations mentioned in Sec. 15.2 are satisfactorily explained by the Bohr theory of the atom? Are any
Bohr's correspondence principle is the guiding idea that, in the limit, the laws of quantum theory must join and agree with classical theory (which does not involve It). This asymptotic approach is to be expected when we go from microscopic systems
to those of larger dimensions, or for large values of the
quantum
number
n.
not explained? 2. How can the fact that the spectrum lines of hydrogen are sharp be used to support the statement that all electrons have identically the
Bohr's theory for the hydrogen
ment. With the aid of Kqs. (15.5)
atom does show such agreeand (15. 10), we may express the
in
frequency of rotation of an electron
a Bohr orbit as
f'orb
tj-~
2Hr
C4ire u )mr
]'
me*
WllW
(15.23)
same charge ef 3. At what temperature will the mean kinetic energy of hydrogen atoms be just sufficient to excite the H a line? Am. 93,40GK 4. Selig Hecht showed experimentally that a dark-adapted human eye experiences the sensation of light when the retina is irradiated by as little as 10 X 10~ 12 erg. What is the minimum number of quanta of
yellow light (5,893 A) which the eye can detect? Arts, about 3 5. Assume that a free electron having kinetic energy 24.2 X I0 -so joule unites with a H + ion, goes to the lowest (n = 1) level, and gives up its energy in a single photon. What is the frequency of the photon radiated? Ans. 36 X 10'Vsec 6. How much energy is there in a quantum of violet light, wavelength 4,358 A? In a quantum of yellow light, wavelength 5,893 A? Ans. 2.84 ev, 2.10 ev
On
(Maxwell) theory we should expect this electron to and possibly its harmonics. But the theory which includes Bohr's quantum assumptions for the 11 atom gives for the frequency radiated
classical
radiate energy of this frequency,
me*
(I
_1_\
Now
nr
ii/
2
-nf
(n, 4- n,)(nj
nf)
,'
,-%/
If
rii
and
n; are both large
compared
to
and
if
An
is
small,
we
can write this approximation
2n Am nf1
n, s
2An
n8
Quantum Dynamics
able theory of atomic physics.
217
We
arrive at
logical
branching
point
in
our path.
Armed with a
successfully tested theory of the
16
Quantum
Dynamics
atom, we can now (I) try to understand and predict properties of atoms in intimate aggregation (solid-state physics) or (2) we can
turn to investigation of the internal structure of atoms. A goal of such nuclear studies might be ultimately to manipulate nuclear
particles to our use, as a chemist manipulates
atoms to create
molecules with desired proper! tee.
16.1
PARTICLES AND WAVES
In this
paper
am
going to attempt to
find the foundation for a
mechanics
of
is
quantum
based
theory. This mechanics
exclusively
on
relations
be-
tween quantities which are observable

in
principle (e.g., frequencies
and
in-
tensities of line spectra,
and not elec-
Planck's derivation of the law for the energy distribution of blackbody radiation (1900) first brought to light the particle (quantum) aspect of electromagnetic radiation. Einstein strikingly established this viewpoint with his explanation of the photoelectric emission of electrons from solids (1905). Photons were endowed with momentum {hv/c) by the Conipton effect (1924). Also in 1924, Louis de Broglie, proceeding from relativity theory and the observation that nature is symmetrical in many ways, suggested that whenever there are particles witli momentum p, their motion is associated with (or "guided by") a wave of wavelength
tron orbits),
...
W, Heisenberg,
1925
(16.1)
The square
of the
is
amplitude of the de Broglie (matlcr) wave
in
given region
interpreted as being proportional to the probability of finding the particle of momentum p in that region. In
Beginning with Bohr's initial formulation of the quantum theory of atomic structure in 1914. physicists recognized that the mechanics of systems of atomic dimensions must obey laws different- from the larger systems successfully described by the classical mechanics of Newton. By 11)24, a new method of treating atomic phenomena began to be developed. It is known as quantum mechanics, quantum dynamics, or wave mechanics. The names of L. de Broglie, K. Sell nidi tiger. W. Heisenberg, P. A. M. Dime, ami EL U. Condon arc chiefly associated with this development. The concepts discussed in this chapter bring us to an acecpt216
de Broglie's hypothesis about wave-particle duality, an electromagnetic wave tS the de Broglie wave for a photon, and proceeds with speed c. The de Broglie waves for electrons, protons, neuThat electromagnetic waves, but "matter waves," which travel with the speed of the particle. We shall now discuss (I) a verification of these de Broglie waves and (2) something about how their value at various
trons, etc., are
points in space
may
lie
calculated.
Since the de Broglie equation predicted that 100-ev electrons should have wavelengths of about I A, it was suggested that the
wave nature wave nature
of
mailer might be tested
in the
same way
that the
of x rays
was
first
tested.
A beam
of electrons of
218
Quantum Dynamics
electrons collide, with
219
appropriate energy could be directed onto a crystalline solid (Fig. Hi. In). The atoms of the crystal form a three-dimensional
and share
their kinetic
energy with some of
the electrons in the solid, with the result that
some
of these are
array of diffracting enters for the de Broglie wave guiding the electrons. There should be strong diffraction of electrons in certain directions just as for the Bragg diffraction of x rays.
emitted at random angles.) Experiments on electron diffraction confirms the hypothesis that their motion is directed by a wave of
some
kind,
and the wavelength agrees with that predicted by the
de Broglie relation, A
h/p.
16.2
DIFFRACTION OF PHOTONS AND NEUTRONS

Bro^lie's hypothesis suggests that particles of
De
any type may
O
(a)
exhibit diffraction effects.
The
diffraction of neutrons has been
useful in the investigation of the structure of solids.
Beams
of
neutrons whose wavelength is roughly equal to the spacing of atoms in a solid can be obtained from a nuclear reactor. These
beams are
diffracted
by layers
highest.
of atomic nuclei.
in
On
the other
hand, x rays are diffracted from planes

density of electrons
is
the solid where the
Thus
the two types of experiment
can give supplementary information about the structure of a solid. X-ray investigations reveal the location of the (bound)
electrons in a solid neutron diffraction reveals the arrangement of
;
the nuclei.
16.3
WAVE MECHANICS
expect that a de Broglie wave
will
We
(c)
Fig. 16.1
(o)
obey the same type of
second-order differentia] equation (Appendix C) used to represent other waves (Chaps. 9 and 12).
Davis son and Germer apparatus,
{fa)
Angular
distribution of secondary electrons, (c) Interpretation in terms of Bragg reflection of electrons (refraction of rays has been omitted).
This idea was tested by C. J. Davisson and L II. Germer using 54-ev electrons and a crystal of nickel (Kig. HUfe). The
emerge]
i (
Important applications of Schrodiugor's equation are to cases where the electron is subject to forces which hold it in a certain region, as in an atom or in the atomic lattice of a metal. The potential energy of the electron then varies from point to point. As the simplest case of this type, let us examine the wave function i>(x,i) for a particle of mass m which can move along a line between stops a distance L apart, like a bead on a stretched wire.
beam showed an
intensify
peak for
50.
The waveFig, 16.2
length calculated From the Bragg equation turns out to be just h/p for a 54-ev electron. (The fact that electrons are observed at
Particle confined to
linear motion within
range
L.
other angles
-o
is
attributed to secondary emission:
Some
incident
220

particle will never be outside the interval
Quantum Dynamics
221
The
^
is
<
<
L; so
f
zero for x
<
mid x >
tion has solutions for only certain values of the energy.
The
(Fig.
L. Inside the region considered
here
higher the energy the more nodes there are in the

16.46).
wave
are no forces on the particle;
it is a free, particle. So the wave equation has sine and cosine, solutions, hut these must he zero at the. ends of the allowed interval. The allowed wavelengths of the
The
solutions are sinusoidal inside the well

tails outside.
exponential
Thus
(here
is
and have some probability for lind-
de Broglie wave arc A

h nh P = \ = 2L
2L/n, which leads to
(lfi.2)
'1
showing that the linear

energy of the particle
is
momentum
is
quantized.
The
kinetic
a
I
ii'
h-
2m~
2m
4JS
8mP
0,
(18.3)
Fig. 16,3
Wave
functions for a
bead on
string, for states
1,2,3,4.
and
since
we have taken K v =
the total energy must have one
of flic values
(16-4)
The
particle
is
located
by the matter wave

n
iff
^D sin
cos
ait
2, 3,
(16.5)
x
The amplitudes
of the
*-
'.
X-
\L
standing waves for states of motion cor,
responding to n = 1, 2, 3, ... vary as shown in fig. 1(5.3. (There is a close analogy with standing waves in a vibrating string.) We see that the act of localizing or hounding a particle
leads to the requirements that (1) the energy of the system can
take on only certain values and

the kinetic energy.
(2) zero
is
not a possible value of
'>i
of prediction
>
Another important type
from wave mechanics

Fig.
(a)
16.4
1,2,3.
(a)
deals with the "leakage" of particles across an energy barrier.
Suppose we have a particle bound in a shallow potential energy "hole" (1'ig. Hi. 4). There are now two kinds of solutions for the wave equation. There are solutions for any K > 0. Particles in these states have enough energy to escape; ^ extends over all space for them. Hut for particles whose lit is less than #n (Tig. 1G.4), the total energy is negative, and for K < the wave equa-
A "square"
potential hole,
and
(b)
the
wave
function of
its
states
ing particles in a region where, according to classical theory, they do not have enough energy to be. Around a nucleus we may think of a potential harrier whose craterlike shape is determined by the Coulomb electrostatic force and a shorter-range force of nuclear
1
222
Looking In: Atomic and Nucfear Physics
Quantum Dynamics
gular
223
The wave viewpoint predicts that, charged particles which do not have enough energy to go over the top of this barrier have a small but not zero probability of occasionally tunneling through the barrier.
attraction.
coordinates
to
spherical
polar
coordinates,
using
the
relations
r
8
4>
=
= =
distance of point a from origin
= y/x 2 +
{z/r)
y*
+z
angle from z axis to
cos~
angle around z axis measured from x axis

of the coordinates
r, Q,
tan -1
(</
as)
16.4
If
BOHR ORBITS OR DE BROGLIE WAVES?

With the introduction
$,
Kq.
(Ifi.O)
can be
matter waves and the probability interpretation of Sehrodinger's equation to the hydrogen atom, we find that he features which the Bohr theory correctly preof
I
we apply the concept
separated into three ordinary differential equations, a fact

represent by
f(r,e,<t>)
we
dicted (only with the aid of arbitrary assumptions: = nh/'lir, etc.) follow as a natural outcome of the mathematics involved.
mr
= rt(r)0(0)*W
li
(lfi.7)
The quantum dynamical treatment provides additional information as well. The electron in a hydrogen atom has potential
energy -('
r
\irtr.
The function
describes
nucleus in a definite direction.
how f varies as we go out from the The functions 8 and <$ describe
posi-
If
we
z1
write for the radial distance
how ^ behaves from point to point on a sphere of radius r. The equation for the function K(r) has a solution for any
tive value of E.
- V-t
y*
Sehrodinger's relation |Appendix C, Kq.
(4}|
becomes
These solutions correspond to states in which the electron has enough energy to escape from the atom; there are no quantum restrictions on the energy of a free electron. But there are only certain negative values of E for which Kq. (16.7) has any continuous solution. When the electron is bound in the atom, an acceptable wave function ^ exists only if E has one of
(16.fi)
the particular values
a function which has a definite value at each point in the neighborhood of the nucleus. To discuss this equation, it is convenient to change from reetanis
The
solution of this equation, ^(r,ij,z),
4 = -me
-I3.fi
ev
for the
1,
2, 3,
(10.8)
These are the same values
energy states that the Bohr
theory predicted. The quantum number n is here related to the part R(r) of the wave function which describes the probability
per unit volume of finding the electron in a given volume element
at various distances from the nucleus. This
is
independent of
can compute the average distance of the electron from the nucleus by averaging over the probability distribution. The
and
Fig.
*.
We
16.5
Rectangular
and
spherical
co-
ordinates.
result
is
The energy
or
roughly the same as the radius of the first Bohr orbit. (Kq. 10.8) is in exact agreement with the Bohr theory.
n,
For each value of
the equation for 8(8)
is
found to have one

I.
by a second quantum number This quantum number takes on only the values more
solutions, described
/
0,
1,2,3,
(16.9)
224
Looking
In:

arc related to solutions of the
is
Quantum Dynamics
225
Solutions of the
* equation
tion such that the electron
less
R equalikely to he found near the

when
in a low-/ state of the
nucleus when
in
a high-/ state than
same energy.
/, the equation for *(<) is found to have one designated hy a third quantum number jtcj. or more solutions, on the values This takes only
For each value of
which has a magnetic moment passes through a uniform magnetic field, it experiences a torque, but no deflecting force. If, however, the field is nonuniform, the atom experiences a net deflecting force as well. Consider a beam of II atoms. The electron in the normal state has zero orbital angular momentum for n = 1, / = 0, mi = 0. There is no magnetic moment due to orbital motion. Vet the beam of II atoms is observed to split into two
parts, each associated with a restricted orientation of the clec-
m = -/,_(/,
i),
-(I -2),
10 12 (I - I),
(16.10)
Xo
solutions of Schrodinger's equation for the hydrogen
atom
exist for
any other values
of ,
/,
and m
16.5
THE QUANTUM-NUMBERS GAME

be completely described by the use of just four
for
An atom can
quantum numbers
already introduced.
each electron. Three of these we have

energy,
. . . .
The
E<|.
principal
(10.8). It
may have
The
orbital
quantum number determines the the integral values n = 1, 2, angular- momentum quantum number
:i,
deter-
mines the angular

the nucleus. It
momentum of the motion of the electron about may take on any integral value from to n 1. The corresponding value of the electron angular momentum i1)
VKI+
a
h/2n.
of the orbital
The component
axis
is
angular
momentum
along the
-jI
given by
null, 2x,
.
. .
where
,
m may
lake on any of the 2/
values: 0, 1, 2,
the
of
The quantum number mt is called magnetic quantum number because physically the presence,
1.
field is
Fig.
16.6
Possible orientations of
angular-momentum
an external magnetic
(z
necessary to establish a reference

field,
vectors.
direction
axis)
in
space. In a magnetic
is
the electron's
its
angular
momentum
2tt
said to be "space-quantized" because

>i
tron's spin angular
momentum. The two
possible values of the

in
component along the

to the values mji
di recti
the magnetic
field
is
restricted
component
magnetic
of the spin angular
momentum
the direction of the
(Fig.
l(i.(i).
spin
introduce a fourth quantum number 8, the electronangular-momentum quantum number. This quantum number defines the internal angular momentum {and associated magnetic moment) which an electron is found to have, independent of its orbital motion. An experiment to show this property of the electron was performed by Stern and Clerlach. If a neutral atom
We now
conclude that, unlike the other quantum numbers, which are integers, n can have only the value be either , The component of the spin angular momentum may we can So held. magnetic parallel or antiparallel with the applied
field
are %k/2*.
We
define a spin magnetic
quantum number m - \ and
write the
component
applied
of the spin angular
momentum
in the direction of the
field
as mji/2w.
Quantum Dynamics
227
16.6
(>
J
THE PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

W.
Traces on
receiving
Paul! suggested that a complete description of the include a unique description of each electron in the atom must in an atom may have identical values for electrons two atom. Xo
In 1925
set of four
To
see
quantum numbers. how this rule operates, consider

in
the
number
of elec-
trons permitted n = 1. Since n is
the
first
orbital
1, 1
and
in
m =
t
group (or shell) for which 0, But m, may be +1 or '..
So
in this first
group there
may
only by having their spins

tion of this assigning of
be two electrons, distinguished opposite directions. The continuato electrons in
quantum numbers
in
many-
electron
Table 16.1
atoms
is
shown
Table
16.1.
Numbers of
electrons in groups (or shells) as determined
by
Pauli's
exclusion principle
Orbital
No. elec.
in
group
subgroup
No. elec. in completed group
1 1
i
2s
Direction atoms
move 1
Magnetic field used in Stern-Gerloch experiWith no field there is a single beam, (b) With field, beam splits; some atoms are deflected toward N po!e, some toward S pole. Traces where beam strikes detecting plate are shown at top. (Adopted from R. 0. Rusk, "Afomk and Nuclear Physics," Applet on- Century -Crofts, Inc., New
Fig.
16.7
(a)
ment,
York, 1958.)
Iii the terminology of Table 16.1, we replace the term "orbit" by "group" or "shell" (determined by n). This emphasizes the
three-dimensional nature of the atom.
The
shells are often

=
the K, L,
226
M,
,Q
shells,
corresponding ton
1,2,3,
named ... 7.
,
228

shell,
Quantum Dynamics
electrons in a complex
little.
229
Within a
electrons with a
s,
common
rl,
shell These arc designated
p,
or
value of / form a sub/ subshells according to
atom must disturb each
other's orbits very
whether
has the value
0,
1,2, or 3,
One
tioned.
sort of disturbance, called screening, should
An outer
electron
it
is
in
a weak electric
field
be menbecause inner
16.7
BUILDING THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic a periodicity in their chemical properties becomes
When
number,
apparent, as shown by Mendeleev. The structure of the periodic table is in agreement with the ideas of filled shells and subshells as predicted by the 1'auli principle. We may "build up" an atom
from the positive charge of the nucleus. Hence some probability of being found very near the nucleus will have lower energy (greater binding) than those states in which the electron tends to stay outside the screening inner electrons. Of the solutions of the Schrodinger equation for a given n, those with lower values of J will tend to
electrons screen
states in which the electron has
by putting each electron
in the shell of lowest energy until the quota of permitted states is filled. Any additional elections mustbe put. in the next shell as shown in Table lfi.2. The final column
/
2.1
Table 16.2
>,/-*
Electron configured ion for
ght atoms
16
1,0
2,0
(2s)
2,1
3,0
(3*)
3,1
(3 P )
3,2
(3d,
4,0
(4s)
Configuration
Element
(U)
(2P )
12
H He
Li
If
2
3
2
2
I
w
2*
2s*
1
Be
B
4 5 6
/ 8 9
10
11
2 2 2 2 2
2
2
2
4 -
2p
2p= 2p*
2 2 2 2 2 2
_i
2 3
!!
14
(J
...
I I i
10
Fig. 16.8
IS
in ev)
22
26
30
O
F
Ne No
2 2
4 5 6
6
T
2p 4
2p
Variation of ionization energy
with atomic
number
Z, sug-
gesting greater stability of certain electron configurations.
2p
3s
r>
penetrate the cloud of screening electrons most. Hence, for atoms containing more than one electron, penetration causes the energy
of Table KS.2
for the
is
a description of the electrons in the outside shell
of
normal (ground) state of the atom. The electron configuration of an atom is described by the abbreviated not at inn ui" he last column. For example, %- means there are two electrons in the n - .i, I = subshell.
t
I
picture, energy
size.)
an orbit to depend on I. as well as on ti. (In terms of the liohr depends on the shape of the orbit as well as on its
Klectrical
The quantum numbers we are using were originated for the case of one electron. J I is remarkable thai by assi nin occupied g g states in terms of these numbers we get ati accurate description of many of the properties of complex atoms. Kvidently the various
measurements which correlate well with electron shown in I'ig. Ili.8. The ionization energy is the work needed to remove the least tightly bound electron from an atom. The variation of ionization energy with atomic number 7. suggests that certain electron configurations have relatively great stability. The first is for helium, where the it = shell has
configurations are
I
230
its

ii""
<>f
Quantum Dynamics
to the
231
''
two
is
electrons.
The sharp drop
binding energy
for lithium
bi>
attributed to the fact that the third electron must ndded io l lie n - 2 shell and is therefore farther from the
is
the Bohr formula with allowance for screening by the inner electrons. From the relation
a trend toward increasing binding energy until another maximum is reached at neon, when the n = 2 shell is filled. Like He, Xe is an inert gas.
nucleus. Tor the elements after lithium, there
= Rc(z - ]y-(L- L\
(16.11)
This variation
gas, followed
size of
in
binding energy
is
repeated several times
in
the
periodic table, each time giving a
maximum
binding at an inert
Moseley was able to prove that early assignment of atomic numbers to cobalt and nickel was in error. The atomic mass of a natural mixture of the isotopes of Xi is 58.(i!) and for Co 58.94.
by a minimum
1
for the succeeding alkali metal.
The
They were
first
placed in the periodic table in the order of increas-
atoms
also oscillates from shell to shell, about a value
ing atomic mass. Hut the x-ray lines
showed that
this order
approximately
for the radius. In each shell, the alkali metal
should be reversed, for
ZCo =
27 and Zy,
28.
Moseley 's work
has the largest radius.
K
16.8
CHARACTERISTIC X-RAY SPECTRA

a target
is
K
(l>),
When
bombarded with electrons of high energy
x rays are produced which have a spectrum which is continuous up to the maximum frequency given by the relation fcjWx = I <
In addition, x-ray spectrum lines arc observed at frequencies which are characteristic of (determined by) the target material. Characteristic x-ray spectra can now be explained in terms of the shell structure of atoms. First, a vacancy must he created by the displacement of an inner electron from, say, the K or L shell. Since there are usually no near-lying vacant energy levels to which these electrons may be promoted, they must be removed altogether from the atom (ionization). This may he accomplished when atoms of the target are bombarded by electrons which have been accelerated through a potential difference of many thousand electron volts or by high-frequency photons. Transition of a nearlying electron then occurs to Jill the vacancy. If a vacancy in the K shell is filled by an electron from the h shell, an x-ray photon is radiated whose frequency depends on the difference in energy
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.0
E,
Wavelength,
(a)
La
EM
\
H
V
35
<Ma N
(b)
Fig.
(a)
16.9
Characteristic x-ray spectrum,
(a)
Molybdenum target
with
kv.
Simplified energy level diagram.
first accurate method for measuring atomic number, Z. The committee awarding the 1917 Xohel Prize to C. G. Barkla, for his work on characteristic x rays, stated that Moseley would have shared the award but for his death at
(1913) gave the
between the K and L shells. The vacancy left in the L shell is in turn tilled by an electron from a still higher energy state, with radiation of a photon of somewhat lower frequency, Fig. lfi.9.
Since the energy of the electron in the
Callipoli.
16.9
shell
is
chiefly
PHYSICS OF THE SOLID STATE

theory, based on the nuclear
tells
determined by the nuclear charge Z, Moseley found he could use the K a lines of the elements to identify the atoms in the target of the x-ray tube. lie found a linear relation between the square root of the frequency and (Z l), as would be expected from
Our
atom model and quantum
us that under ordinary circumstances of temperature and pressure the nuclei of atoms will never get very close
to one another.
mechanics,
The combination
of
atoms should therefore be
232
Quantum Dynamics
233
explainable through the exchange or sharing of electrons. In terms of tfic measured masses and charges it should be possible
to describe the formation of molecules and chemical reactions. One might also hope to describe crystal lattices and the mechan-
speed squared, the average kinetic energy depends on the average of the squares of the speeds. The square root of this average is called the root-niean-square (rms) speed. The distribution curve
becomes
flatter
and the maximum
shifts
8).
toward higher speeds as
thermal, electric, and magnetic properties of solids. Practically, the difficulty is the complexity of the computations. We
ical,
the temperature increases (Chap.
shall
examine some
of the successes of
quantum mechanics
in
explaining important electric and magnetic properties of solids. This comprises hut one segment of solid-state physics in which there is very active research.
16.10
CLASSICAL THEORY OF CONDUCTION IN METALS
rough predictions of the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals, if is in accord with the experimental observation that the best conductors of electricity are also the best conductors of heat. Wiedemann and Franz 850} showed that the electrical conductivity thermal conductivity ratio is a constant, for metals. The classical theory, using known values for e and k, predicts that the thermal conductivity/
classical theory gives
( 1
The
electrical conductivity ratio
li.ll
10 _B 'T cal
ohm
sec (K).
theory proposed by Drude and Lorentz, soon after the discovery of the election, assumed, as have later theories, that some
of the electrons are free to travel throughout the
whole volume of
Fig. 16.10
a crystalline material. In a "good" metal, it was assumed thai there is about one free electron per atom and that the number of conduction electrons is independent of temperature. These electrons dart around in
agitation. Hut
if
Hall effeel
D D'
all
directions ui) h the high speeds of thermal

is
an electric held
applied, the "electron atmosdrift,
This checks well with values measured for platinum and other
I
phere" experiences a relatively slow random thermal motions. The electron
superposed on the
the electric current.
mre metals.
But the
classical
drift
is
The transfer of any increase in the energy of random motion in any direction constitutes thermal conduction. To make quantitative predictions, is necessary to make some assumptions about
it
predicts that
the
free
theory meets with significant failures. It electrons should contribute |/f to the
specific heat of a crystal.

is
This considerable electronic specific heatis
not observed experimentally. Also, the theory
unable to
the distribution of electron speeds. Theories have differed these assumptions.
in
explain the
enormous range
of electrical resistivity for different
materials. Further, the theory suggests that since the free elec-
The classical theory assumed that the electron speeds followed the same distribution law as .Maxwell and Bollzmanii had used
for
molecular speeds
8).
in
developing a successful kinetic theory of

the frac-
gases (Chap.
tional
Among a large number N of electrons, number N,'N having speed r is given by
AT
vV \2fc27
plot this expression against
r,
(16.12)
o, the area under the curve and v-> equals the fraction of all the electrons whose speeds are between r, and r*. Since kinetic energy depends on the
Tf
we
between
trons have magnetic moments, even a weak magnetic field should produce a large paramagnetic magnetization (magnetic moment per unit volume) in a conductor. It does not. Finally, the theory has difficulty in predicting the sign of the Hall coefficient. For a current-carrying conductor (Fig. Hi. 10) one would expect that a potentiometer connected between Cand J), in a plane perpendicular to the current would indicate zero potential difference. If now an external field H is applied, the conduction electrons experience a magnetic thrust perpendicular both to H and their velocity v. The equipotential line CD is tilted through some angle to position CD'. The classical theory predicts that tan 4> (the Hall coefficient) should have the same sign for all metals. It docs not.
.
<j>
234
Quantum Dynamics
occupied up to a certain
235
maximum
to
still
(Fig.
16.12a).
At a higher
Btl1
16.11
FREE-ELECTRON QUANTUM THEORY OF CONDUCTION

free
Fermi introduced a radically different description of the

electrons
temperature some accept energy ami move
electrons in upper levels have been able to
higher [ovate (Kg. [6.126).

relatively
iii a metal. He incorporated the exclusion principle, assuming that the "free" electrons hi a metal are quantized and that no two can act exactly alike. Momenta are quantized; only two electrons (having opposite spins} can have a given momentum. As the temperature is lowered, electrons settle down hy quantised slops to lower momentum values. But as a consequence of the exclusion principle, some electrons wil! remain at momentum values considerably above zero: thai is, linn- will have appreciable energy, even at absolute zero temperature. When the
few electrons have owing to quantum Fermi rise. The theory predicts temperature participated in the contribute roughly per cent should conductor that electrons in a theory, in agreement Maxwell by the predicted of the amount
restrictions,
1
with experiments
in
calorimetry.
to
a certain maximum, are in a Thus traveling toward the left. all ion elect metal there is another relatively be the metal must due to the electrical conduction in few electrons near the top of the distribution (Fig. JO. 126) which
The fact that all energy levels, up filled means that for every electron
traveling to the right
J0K
i
300 K
Fig.
16.12
to
Fermi
distribution
of
energies, showing
(a) all
levels filled
up
\Very high temp.
electrons
levels at
K, (b) some a maximum of promoted to higher energy
a high temperature.
Rel, no
Rel
*
no
Fig.
16.11
Fermi
distribution
of
speeds
at
various
temperatures.
temperature
values.
rises,
only the electrons of highest
accept thermal energy and
move
is
to
still
momentum can higher momentum
can be excited easily to an unoccupied quantum level. One concludes that electricity must be conducted by only a small fraction of the free electrons (rather than by all, as assumed in classical theory). In turn, this implies that an electron must be able in
travel long distances without being
lattice.
The Fermi
distribution law
expressed by
The
is
free-electron
bumped by ions in the crystal quantum theory, like the classical
N
where
hl
E,
is
e m,"' i!_A
"-'*r
(16.13)
theory,
unable to account for the distinction between con-
ductors and insulators.

the
maximum
energy an electron can have at 0K. In
Fig. 16.11, the progressive rounding of the curve as temperature
increases represents the shift of
some
electrons to higher energies.
16.12
The Fermi
distribution curve should be
compared with the MaxIn the
BAND THEORY OF CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND INSULATORS
well distribution (Chap. 8).
The ['ermi theory successfully accounts for the slight participation of electrons in specific heats. In Fig. Hi. 12, the Fermi
distribution of energy
is
plotted.
At 0K
all
energy states are
theory of the electronic structure of solids, the effects of the lattice ions on the free electrons are considered to explain the occurrence of conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. The moving electrons are pictured in terms of
modem band
236

is
Quantum Dynamics
appreciably separated from other bands
(a),
237
is
do Broglie waves of wavelength \ - h/mr. The influence of the lattice ions arises from the variation of potential from atom to
the materia!
an
insulator.
To produce
a current
in
such a material, electrons have
atom
waves
used
in the crystal (Fig.

is
The passage of he do Broglie treated mathematically by methods similar to those

Hi. 13).
I
in investigating
the passage of light waves through a similar
to be advanced across an energy gap large compared to thermal energy /,'/'. In a conductor, however, the highest band containing electrons is not full (/*). Kven a small external electric field can
lattice.
Allowed
Yinnrvv
It
(Empty)
Allowed
[Partly full
Fig. 16,13
tial
Variations of poten-
along
one-dimensional
Forbidden
crystal lattice.
/
Forbidden
momentum,
which
of
it
turns out that the graph of electron kinetic energy versus instead of having the parabolic shape (Fig. Hi. 14a)
;
(Allowed
(Full)
would have
in a
conductor where there was no variation

for
i)
potential,
jumps discontiuuously
(Fig. 16.14/*).
particular
all
values of
de Broglie wavelengths
(a)
Not
electron
momenta
(6)
Allowed (empty)
-Forbidden
E9 , p 2skT
Allowed
(full)
(C)
Fig.
16.15
Distribution of electrons in
bands
in
(a)
an
insulator, (b)
a conductor, and
(c)
a semiconductor.
(a)
Fig.
(b)
vs.
16.14
Energy
momentum:
(b)
potential
between atoms;
Assuming no variation of assuming a variation of potential

(a)
produce an unbalanced momentum distribution {a current) by promoting electrons to energy states of small excitation. Semiconductors arc an intermediate case in which the highest occupied hand is full (c), but. the energy jump to the next band is comparable to kT. Increase in temperature would be expected to lower the resistance of a semiconductor.
similar to that of Fig. 16.13.
are possible.
is
From
this point of view, the effect of the ion lattice
to preclude certain values of electron
leave forbidden energy gaps at these
momentum and hence momentum values.
to
The properties of conductors, insulators, and semiconductors ran now be interpreted in terms of the conduction bands (Pig, Hi. 15). If the highest energy band containing electrons is full and
Radioactivity
239
The decay
of these artificial radioactive nuclides
is
in
accord with
the laws found earlier in the study of natural radioactivity.
17
Radioactivity
17.1
TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY
is
In the theory of the nucleus there

easily visualized mechanical of the
model employed
no counterpart of the simple, in the Bohr theory
atom. But the concept of energy levels, found so useful in studying the atom, is carried over to the description of the nucleus. Nuclear spectroscopy deals with the identification of these energy levels and is an important source of information
about the nucleus, since radioactive changes can be measured

with high precision.
The new
in
discoveries
made
in
physics
When
the electronic structure of an
atom acquires some extra
the last few years, and the ideas

potentialities
energy, the
and
suggested by them,
gets rid of this extra energy very the ground state in roughly 10 * sec. It does returning to quickly,
atom almost always
have had an
this
in
effect
upon the workers

to
in
subject
literature
J, J,
akin
that produced
by
the
in
Renaissance.
Thomson,
an address on
radioactivity, 1909
more photons or an electron if there is enough extra energy. Many nuclei, however, can exist for long periods of time in an unstable state, that is, in a state from which the nucleus can and eventually will decay to a stable state. A nucleus may go to a state of lower energy by emitting an a particle (a radioactivity), an electron or positron (fi radioactivity), or a photon {7 radioactivity). Most "natural radioactivity" is found among the very heavy elements (A > 210), which tend to be unstable to a decay. These nuclei decay so slowly thai there are still some of them left
so by emitting one or
from the time of formation of the elements. Radioactive isotopes not found in nature can lie prepared in nuclear reactions.
Radioactivity has provided us with
much
of the
knowledge we
ji
now have concerning
the nucleus. Emission of a and
particles
17.2
by certain atoms suggested the idea that atoms are built of smaller units. Measurements of the scattering of a particles by atoms confirmed Rutherford's idea of the nuclear atom. The discovery of isotopes can be traced to the analysis of the chemical
relationships
STATISTICAL
LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

is
The
activity of a radioactive sample
defined as the
number
of
among
the various radioactive elements.
The bom-
disintegrations per second. The activity decreases with time. Each radioactive isotope has its own characteristic rate of decrease, figure 17.1 is the plot of the decay of a radioisotope which
atoms with energetic a particles from radioactive su Instances was found to cause disintegration of some atomic nuclei; this led in turn to the discovery of the neutron and to the present theory of the make-up of the nucleus. The transmuted atoms resulting from such bombardment are often radioactive.
of
bardment
decreases in activity by 50 per cent every 4.0 hr. The form of Inexperimental decay curve suggests that the decay is a logat
rithmic process. This

activity versus time.
is
verified
by plotting the logarithm
of
straight line results.
We
can derive an exponential law of decay for a sample con-
238
240

Radioactivity
241
tabling a large
number
of radioactive atoms.
We
assume that
each undeeayed nucleus has a definite probability X of undergoing decay in the next second and that this probability is independent of time and is independent of whatever other atoms are
present.
to the
Then Iho number of decays in a time interval dt is equal number of undeeayed atoms present times the probability
a is the number of undeeayed atoms in the sample when (Note the mathematical similarity with the equation for the exponential ahsorption of a beam of radiation.) The activity of a sample, the number of decays per second, is given by
where
t
0.
Activity
or
-.:-
= XAV-W
(17.4)
Activity
g <
*m
= XN
(17.5.
c 3
^
activity depends on the number of atoms present and on their decay constant, X.
The
%
fc
">
KT
t
<
\ \ t=^L. "
i
17.3
HALF-LIFE
0.693
The
half-life T of a radioactive substance is the time interval in which the activity (and hence the number of undeeayed atoms) decreases by 50 per cent. For the activity of Fig. 17.1 this is
t
.i
20
4.0 hr. Itoiii the definition that

t,
- T when
= IN^
Eq. (17.3)
4
Fig,
12
16
24
hr
becomes
17,1
Decrease
in activity
of a radioisotope
hN a = AV"W
which gives
(17.6)
with
4.0-hr half-life.
X
in
(ll
that each one of them will decay.
Thus the change
(decrease)
the
(IN
number
T=
log, 2
0.3
(17.7)
of
undeeayed atoms
is
= -\N(U
is
(17.1)
The average
life
'/',
or
life
expectancy, of a radioactive nucleus

of all the nuclei
may
,
be calculated by
The decay constant X

radioactive isotope
the relative number

considering,
dX/N
of
atoms
dividing by the total

?
Rimming the lives number of nuclei

I
and
which decay per second. The value of X depends only on which
we are
fi/ot
dN
No
Jo
-57-
= tt / No Jo
'Wr M
,
..
.,
dt
(17.8)
Uy separating
variables in Kq. {17.1),
we obtain a simple
differential equation
The decay constant

(17.2)
X is the reciprocal of the average life, in accord with the interpretation of X as the probability of decay of
tlX
N
N=
Xdt
an atom per second.
whose solution
is
17.4
UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY was

historically defined as the
AV"*
A
(17.3)
unit of activity
(gas)
in equilibrium with
one gram
of radium.
amount of radon The National
242

tion energies (/) are
Radioactivity
243
Research Council in 1948 extended this definition to define one curie as that quantity of any radioactive substance which gives
3.70
photons
may
known. Hence the energy of the y-ray be determined by measuring the energies of the
10 10 disintegrations per second. Since the curie
is
a rela-
photoelectrons.
Positron-electron pairs (Chap. 19) can be created
tively large unit, the millicurie (I mc = 0.001 curie) microcurie (I ^c = 10 -s curie) are widely used. A
and the
particles
by 7 rays
counter near a
with hv
hv
> 2m
2m,e*
c'.
The photon energy

.
is
transformed thus:
(17.12.
radioactive source detects a certain
fraction
of the
emitted; the counting rate

source.
is
proportional to the activity of the
+ Ek+ + Ek ~ + Ek
tceoil
The
which
1
From
specific activity of
conservation of
momentum,
of the
the recoil velocity of the
a radioactive source
is
the rate at
nearby nucleus should be small.

neglected.
gin emits charged particles.
Measurements
positron in a magnetic
17.5
field
energy can generally be of the electron and then give information from which the
Its
momenta
GAMMA DECAY
energy of the X ray can he found.
A nucleus in an excited statc(z*Xi) may go to a state of lower energy by emitting the difference in energy as a photon:
zX*
17.6
ALPHA DECAY
particle
is
hv
CMv)
in
(1 7.!
When an a
ejected from the nucleus, the original

Its
Now y decay
nucleus loses two protons and two neutrons.
mass number
does not cause a change
the atomic
number
or
the mass number of the nucleus. The half-lives for y decay are seldom very long. Study of y radiation gives important information about the initial and final states of the nucleus undergoing a y transition. Like the spectra of atoms, the y spectra of nuclei are found to consist of sharp lines, showing that the nucleus has discrete energy levels. The observed energies of emitted photons give
consistent results for the nuclear energy levels
atomic number Z decreases by two. decay thus causes transmutation of the parent chemical element into a different chemical element
decreases by four units while
its
Z X* - _,**-*
-.He'
+ Q
(energy)
-17.1:;.
Now
a decay occurs spontaneously, without any external
forces,
hv
Ei
- E}
of y radiation
is
and it provides kinetic energy (#*,) for the ejected n part ideas well as some kinetic energy {E k d ) for the recoil ''daughter" nucleus. Hence a decay cannot occur unless the total rest mass decreases.
,
(17.10)
The decrease
in rest
energy
is
equal to the kinetic energy released,
The electromagnetic-wave nature
demon-
called the disintegration energy Q:
strated experimentally by diffraction. This is feasible only for those 7 rays of relatively low energy because ruled gratings or
crystals with effective spaeings about equal to very short
Q = Ek
To
,,i
+E
k ,
(m
- m - w Q )c
lt
(17.14)
wavelengths are not available. The energies of high-energy 7 rays may be measured in several ways. When a 7 ray ejects a photoelectron from the inner shell of ati atom,
hv
= Ek
a decay, we may commass with the sum of the masses of the product nuclei. Actually we can use the masses of atoms instead of those of the nuclei. The same number of electrons are associated with the initial and final nuclei, so the electron masses cancel in the
predict whether a nucleus will undergo
its rest
pare
(17.11)
calculation of Q.
From Eq,
(17.13),
the kinetic energy of the ejected electron and / is the binding energy of the shell from which it is removed. The ionizak is
where
Q = (m* - mr
trine)*?
(17.16)
Radioactivity
245
244

t t>N'l
Exampk, Find the Q value for the disintegration Prom tables of isotope mosses:
toX'!'*'
u * *
tlic* 4- S8 Ce I4l>.
n, t
He =
4
4.00387
Produeta
Ce l4 = 139.01977
143.95364
m
Q =
mc*
= =
[43.95550 143.95364
/
1
u" 8
Decay
V,
4.20
7.68 Mev
0.00192
1.79
Mev
Me>
1
Example. In a decay, what fraction of the disintegration energy appears as kinetic energy of (he a particle? Conservation of energy and conservation of momentum in a decay
require
Fig.
/
17.2
mava
From
(he
Q =
Et.4
+ E kia =
ive
lmj>S
= m&t momentum
have
fli a p a
energy
particle.
particle
Coulomb borrier: scattering of a highand tunneling of a low-energy
equation, v d
(ia/ij)e. Substituting this in the
energy equal ion.
or
Q "
^-'(S)
a
1
(17.16)
AY~ =
If .4 is the
m/m d
of the parent nucleus, then
(17.17)
mass number
m a /m a
=*
4/(A
4)
and
**
4-4
(17.1 7)
Thus
for large .4, the integration energy.
particle gets most, but not quite
all,
of the dis-
An interesting feature of a decay called the tunnel effect may be illustrated by data for a particular ease. One can perform an
experiment similar to the Kutlierford-Ceiger-Marsden scattering experiment (Chap. 15) using a thin foil of 94 U i!8 to scatter the 7.68- Mev a particles from mIV 4 (also called Ra C). One finds that the Rutherford scattering law is obeyed. Kvtdently the 4 a particles from do not have sufficient energy to get over
Fig. 17.3
Wave
mechanical description of tunnel effect.
energy curve of an a particle near a
Um
nucleus and a
IV
a a
particle being turned
away by
the potential barrier. Contrast

itself is
is
IV
the
Coulomb
barrier; they are scattered

is
away from
the
l"'
:,s
nucleus. This
suggested
in Fig. 17.2,
which shows the potential-
an a emitter, emitting We have a paradoxical situation The lower-energy U S39 a particle can cross a barrier which the higher-energy I'o 414 a particles appear unable
this with the following fact:
U 2,s
particles
whose kinetic energy

:
only 4.20 Mev.
246
Radioactivity
247
to cross.
An explanation on
the basis of classical physics
is
impossible.
The wave nature of the a particle must be taken into account. use wave mechanics to describe an a particle in the nucleus, we find that a little of the wave function will "leak"
When we
decay occur: ff~ decay, in which an emitted from the nucleus, and (3 + decay, in which a positron is emitted. If the nucleus consists of neutrons and protons only and if electric charge is conserved, then upon emission
different types of
is
Two
electron
of
an electron, a neutron must be converted to a proton,
hZ =
-f- 1.
through the barrier so that there is a small probability that the particle may be found outside (Fig. 17.8). According to wave mechanics, if the a particle has enough energy to be outside,
Similarly, positron emission involves the conversion of a proton

to a neutron,
AZ = 1.
(17.18)
some probability that it will be found there. This probability is very small for U 2M and accounts, roughly, for the U 23 half-life of 4,f> billion years. The tunnel effect works in either direction, so some of the IV" a particles used in the scattering experiment must have penetrated the nucleus, but the fraction which succeeded was negligible. The probability of tunneling depends strongly on the height and width of the potential barrier.
then there
" 1
is
(17.19)
For ~ decay to occur, the mass of the decaying nucleus must be

greater than the mass of the product nucleus plus the mass of an
electron.
An atom which
is
heavier than the

.1
unit greater but with the
same
will
atom with Z one decay into that atom by

more complicated.
(17.20)
0- emission.
The condition
17.7
for
+ decay
'2m r c 3
is
slightly
BETA DECAY
/3
Q
where
nix
wiy
hi.
from a radioactive source are shown by There are good reasons to believe that, these electrons do not exist in the nucleus but are created by a rearrangement of the nucleus into a state of lower energy. Any excess of energy over thai required to provide one electron rest mass (m.c-) appeal's as kinetic energy of
particles emitted
deflection experiments to be high-energy electrons.
The
m\ and
m\- are the masses of the initial

is
and
final
atoms,
is
the emitted electron.
An argument
prior to emission,
against the existence of electrons in a nucleus,
makes use
of the uncertainty principle. If
an
more than two electron masses heavier than the atom with the same .1 and one less Z. There is still a third ($ decay process whose over-all result is the same as /J + decay. A nucleus may absorb one of its orbital electrons. This process is called A" capture since the elect Tons ill the nearest (re = 1) shell are most likely to be absorbed. The energy rule is the same as that for 0- decay: If the resulting atom
ftf
respectively, and + unstable if it
the rest
mass
of an electron.
An atom
is
electron were confined in a region of dimensions no larger than _ about 2r = 1.4 10 " tn, the electron would have momenta as
is
lighter than the original
atom,
it is
unstable to
capture.
The changes
often
resulting from
various nuclear processes are

17.4)
in
its
high as
represented in a proton-neutron diagram (Fig.

is
Ap =
ttt &,v
3.8
10
-'
kg-m/sec
= Um<c
which each nucleus

of the processes
plotted
in
terms of the number (Z) of

Z) of
its
protons versus the number (A

isobars (nuclei
neutrons.
It is
result,
and hence
E*
It
kinetic energy as high as
we have just discussed that no two adjacent with same mass number) can both be stable.
decay have
\/{Ap')*c s
m<c*
m.c'1
14m,c s
7.2
Mev
The heavier will #-decay into the lighter. The energies of electrons and positrons from
seems unlikely that there are attractive forces in a nucleus which are sufficiently strong to bind an electron having this much
been determined with various types of /3-ray spectrometers. In principle, they measure the momentum of an electron by (hiding
the curvature of
its
path
in a
known magnetic
field. It is
found
energy.
that electrons
in
a given type of 8 decay
may have any
energy up
248
Radioactivity
249
it
but not observed! This particle shares the disintegration energy

&T,
is
called the neutrino. Since
with the electron, the continuous energy distribution observed for the ff particles (Fig. 17.5)
can be explained. The neutron

Orig.
~
nucleus
is
assumed to have zero

is
rest mass,
so the only change needed in our previous equations
to replace
reac-
Ek
K CQpt
It
by
is
Ek +
SfcneutrUo-
The neutrino
it
participates only in
tions. Since it
has no rest mass,
travels with the speed of light.
principle.
postulated to have spin $ and to obey Pauli's exclusion The neutrino lias no electric charge, and it is difficult to
detect! This remarkable particle has been
A-Z
Rg. 17.4
proton-neutron diagram.
assumed as necessary by physicists since about 1934. Its existence was first experimentally demonstrated in 1956, by detection of y rays produced in a planned sequence of events initiated by the neutrino.
to the calculated energy release Q (Fig. 17.5), Here is a difficult; with the hypothesis that & decay consists of the emission of an electron (or positron) and the conversion of a neutron to a proton (or proton to a neutron). Tor the nuclear change is from one state of definite energy to another state of definite energy. Yet the
electrons emitted carry varying
17.8
NATURAL RADIOACTIVE SERIES
In experiments which followed the discovery of radioactivity,
amounts
of energy,
up
to the
another difficulty. Consider the # decay of a nucleus containing an even number of nucleons. Its angular-momentum quantum number is an integer, since there is an even number of spin-i particles present. If a single electron is
available.
is
maximum
There
number of substances were found to show activity. It was found that certain of these substances were associated with each other in series, the successive members being formed by the disintegration of the preceding member, until a stable nucleus is
quite a
reached.
One can
classes,
predict that there should exist four separate decay
Fig.
17.5
continuous
spectrum.
series. A nucleus belongs to one of four depending on whether its mass number A has the form 4n, 4n -+- 1, 4 + 2, or 4n + 3, where n is an integer. Radioactive decay of a nucleus in one of these will result in the formation of daughter nuclei in the same class. This follows since there is no change in mass number in decay or in 7 decay, while
chains or radioactive
= 4. The four radioactive series are represented Each bears the name of its longest-lived element. The neptunium series is not observed naturally because gaNp ! " (T = 2.2 X 10 s year) has almost completely decayed
in
in
decay, A.l
17.6.
Fig.
since tin- formation of the elements (about
10'
years
tigo).
now
odd
created, there will be an

integer.
odd number
in
of spin- particles
will
and
is
the total angular-momentum
quantum number
be half an
But a spontaneous change

these difficulties,
angular
momentum
not possible.
end with stable isotopes of lead. A few radioactive isotopes which do not belong to the heavy-element chains are found in nature, Table 17.1. When the elements in a radioactive series are allowed to
of these four series
The decay schemes
To remove
we assume that along with

is
the
electron, another particle, also of spin4,
created and emitted,
accumulate, a steady state will be reached (if the parent atom has a long half-life) in which the number Nx\i of atoms of one isotope
250
Radioactivity
251
Thorium series
N-A-Z -z,
140
(A = 4n)
J >Th" -
?
N = A-Z
140
Lrv."* Th
Table 17,1
Isolated natural radioisotopes
Neptunium
series
I)
\
Isotope
Decay
(A-4H +
\
NpJ "
Half-life (years)
y\
iH
r
r ,K r r r
a
12.4
5,590 10" 1.2
Created continuously
>
1
Ra
Ht
VA
'Ho
.C"
nK
by cosmic radiation in atmosphere
Li'
^Rb"
.lo
Jf
r
,li
6.2 6
2
stLo""
'
14
130
r; Ph
Tl
130
J"V
/A Ml
Pc
s
M Sm 147
7ito 176
76 Re"<
"
r
r
1.5 2.4
X X X X X X X
10">
10 14
10" 10"
10'
10 12
Pb*"^. r"
Pb
!0S
Tl
1
80
84
Uranium
88
series
93
SO
84
Actinium
88
series
92
isotope whose half-life is too large or too small to make a particlecounting experiment convenient.
(A = An +
2)
yJM
N=A-Z
(A = 4n +
3)
PROBLEMS
1.
-6
u
Th
iJ
'
Radium
has a
; j
partiele to
become radium
-J
positive charge? (b)

131
days. Radium E emits a 0Which nucleus (E or F) has the greater Starting with 1.0 gm of radium E, how long would
half-life of 5.0
P. (a)
140
it
take for
2.
gm
to decay into radium

vertically
F?
earth's
Ac'V
* r itoJ
particles shot
field in
upward arc deflected by the

(7*
Th'
37
magnetic
which direction?
C
Rr,*"
15
111
130
Pb
1
,u
.
s"
I
Pc-
11
Hb
mc. Ans. 4.0!) X 10-" gm 4. Five mg of IV '" {T - 140 days) are allowed to decay for 1.0 year. What is the activity of the sample at Hie end of that time? Ahx. 1.35 X 10" disintegrations per second 5. A sample of radioactive sodium (XaT = 14.8 hr) is assayed at 95 mc. It is administered to a patient 48 hr later. What is the activity at that time? Ans. 10 mc
of
1
3. Calculate the
mass
Au l,s
2.7 days) in a source of 1.0
6.
What
I
is
80
Fig.
84
88
92
80
84
88
92
17.6
Decoy schemes of
the four families of natural radioactivity.
! Ans. fi.fi X 10~" 7. Suggest a method for using data on the uranium-decay series to estimate the age of the earth, Suggest B waj of using the radioactive isotope of carbon C u (T = 5,600 years) to substantiate the age of cotton fabrics found in an Egyptian tomb.
at 0C and
atm
the volume of 1.0 pressure?
mc
of radon.
M Hn
m (T - 3.82 days),
m
of the* next isotope

JV.Xi
which decay per unit time is equal to the number which decay per unit time, or
A/oX* of
atoms
N \2
2
iVaXa
=
is
(equilibrium}
(17.21)
This equilibrium equation
often used to calculate X for an
Nuclear Reactions
253
The
first artificial
nuclear transformation was achieved by
18
Nuclear Reactions
Rutherford in 1919, in bombarding nitrogen with a particles Because of the imporfrom a natural radioactive source, Ha we shall depart from reactions, nuclear tance of neutrons in of the neutron by discovery first the historic sequence to discuss
Chadwick
in 1932.
Among the achievements of
nuclear studies are the production
of scores of valuable isotopes, the discovery of the neutron and other particles, and the release of energy in the processes of
nuclear
lis.sion
and
fusion.
18.1
DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRON

particles
Bothe (1930) found that when a

No man
the
will
from polonium
fell
on
ever comprehend
the
a beryllium foil, a penetrating radiation was emitted. Irene and Frederic Joliot observed (1931) that the intensity of this radiation
real secret of the difference
between
ancient world
and our present
time, unless he has learned to see the difference
which
the
late
develophas
ment
of physical science
made
between the thought

the thought of that.
of this
day and
T.
H. Huxley
was apparently increased by passage through paraffin. They suggested that Bothe's radiation was y radiation which knocked out fast protons from paraffin and other hydrogen-rich substances. Chadwick (1932) applied the equations for the Compton effect to the head-on collision of the assumed y ray and proton (mass m) and showed that the maximum energy given to the proton by a photon (hv) would be 2hv/(2 +- mc*/hv). Experimentally the recoil protons from paraffin were found to have a
maximum
energy of 5.7 Mev, requiring thai the y ray from Be

").">
particle directed at a nucleus
may undergo
a collision (elastic
scattering) which leaves the struck nucleus unaffected. A second possibility is that a nuclear reaction takes place producing sonic
change
in the struck nucleus. The incident particle may be absorbed into the struck nucleus. A rearrangement may occur in which the incident particle remains in the nucleus and another particle emerges. The incident particle may emerge but leave the nucleus in a different energy state. There are other possibilities. Nuclear reactions may be caused by individual nucleons, photons,
Mev. Hut when aifcrogen was subotitvted have energy hv for paraffin as a target, the i.'2-Mev recoil nitrogen ions which were observed required that the same y ray have an energy of 90 Mev. Chadwick resolved this contradiction by suggesting that the "rays" from Be were actually neutrons, whose existence had been proposed by Rutherford in his mode! of the nuclear atom. The fact that atomic masses (beyond i\V) are roughly twice the atomic number suggests that the two types of particle neutron and proton which constitute a nucleus have approximately equal mass. Chadwick confirmed this expectation by
calculations
5
made on
IIe<->
,'
the reaction
B"
+ NM + Q
7
08.1)
deuterons, a particles, and heavier particles.

252
Three of the four masses were known. The energy of the incoming a particle (from Po) was known. The value of Q was determined

254
of tlic
Nuclear Reactions
255
from the observed increase in kinetic energy. The mass neutron was thus found to ho 1,00(57 amu.
proportional to the
number
of nucleons
added;
K H /A
does not
change appreciably.
protons
these
18.2
NUCLEAR FORCES; STABILITY OF NUCLEI
Present evidence indicates that the nuclear force between two is the same as the force between two neutrons and that
The hypothesis thai atomic nuclei sire composed of neutrons and protons is now well established, and the term "nucleons" is used to refer to these nuclear particles collectively. The size of the
nucleus
electrons
is
equal to the force between neutron and proton. property of nuclear forces which we shall mention is pairing. The stable nuclei usually have even numbers of protons
may be
last
The
estimated by bombarding atoms with high-enerLiy and counting Imw many of them score direct hits. The
.1
radius of a nucleus containing approximately
nucleons
is
found to
be
10
Iin, n
1.2
ID
,!'
(is. 2*
/
f-
An atom is stable because of the Coulomb force of attraction which binds the electrons to the nucleus. Within the nucleus, however, the Coulomb forces exerted by the protons are forces
repulsion which tend to
of
<>]'
make
the nucleus unstable.

fission
The
emission
particles
from nuclei and nuclear
(Chap. 20) are
evidence of
this. Somehow the repulsive Coulomb forces within a nucleus must be counterbalanced by strong attractive forces,
different from electrical
and gravitational
forces.
The nature
of
these nuclear forces
is
only partly understood.
We
shall discuss 20
some of the facts which arc known about nuclear forces. An important, distinctive property of unclear forces is (heir short range. The nuclear force between two nucleons becomes
negligible
if
40
60
80
00
20
40
60
80
200
220
240
they are separated by more than about
1,4
10 -16 m.
Fig. 18.1
Binding energy per nudeon as a function of mass number A.
In contrast, gravitational and electrical forces have no upper limit on the distances over which they may act. A second property of nucleus forces may lie deduced from a graph of the binding energy per nucleoli /;,, .1 against the number of nucleons A (Fig. IS. I). Kxccpt for the lightest nuclei. EB .1 is
and
Only the four light elements iH s sB ", and 7 X U have odd numbers of both neutrons and a Li, protons, and for these elements the numbers of neutrons and
of neutrons (Table 18.1),
1
protons are equal.

Table 18,1
Neutron
Evidence for pairing
Proton number
Z)
approximately constant, about 8

the number of nucleons
for a
Mev
per micleon. Thus the
total binding energy increases approximately in proportion to
Coulomb
force
in the nucleus: K a A. (The relation would be B = A 2 .) This relation implies
number (A
Even
Even
Odd
52
4
that a given nucleoli
is bound not to every other nucleoli present, but only to its nearest neighbors. Then the addition of more nucleons increases the total binding energy only by an amount
Odd
160 56
256
Nuclear Reactions
257
When
made
a plot of neutron
number versus proton number
is
one observes a gradual increase m the neutron/proton ratio with increasing Z. This is explained by the fact that the Coulomb (repulsion) force between protons increases more rapidly as the number of protons in the nucleus increases than does the effect of the nuclear force between protons. This difference in the behavior of the Coulomb pp force and the nuclear pp force accounts for the gradual decrease in E B/A from
for all nuclei (Fig. 18.2),
160
stand for the incoming and outgoing particles, respectively, and the symbol following the parentheses represents the residual nucleus. The reaction associated with Chadwick's discovery of the neutron, Eq. (18.1), may thus be abbreviated as Be 9 (a,n)C.
Before artificially accelerated particles became available, about
1932, only 10 nuclear reactions were
It
known,
all
of the (a,p) type.
seems probable that

first
in
the majority of artificially produced

is
unclear reactions the

nucleus.
step
the formation of a
The
projectile
and the target nucleus
coalesce.
compound The com-
pound nucleus
one
or,
ity.
is unstable, because of its excess energy. It emits sometimes, more particles of high energy to regain stabil-
140
emitted by
120
i
Rutherford bombarded nitrogen with a particles (li)li)), he initiated the first nuclear transmutation by artificial means. The equation describing it in terms of a
When
Ra
"*
compound nucleus
100
-t
is
l
a
E
/
80
/
s
Fig.
,He<
18.2
+ ,!?"- [F
*J-0"
,11'
(18.1)
flic
/ ^
p 60
Neutron -proton plot
for stoble nuclei.
The same compound nucleus (but
not in
same energy
state)
could be produced by other reactions
/
/*
40
20
The breakup
only on
its
duced
80 100
it.
of the unstable compound nucleus usually depends energy state, not directly upon the particle that proThere are often several possibilities; for example,
l
20
40
60
Proton number,
U*Zn 6i
-^
w&l
+ +
T ,H J
ill
2
,
about 8.8 Me? for A near 50 to approximately 7.0 A = 240 (Fig, 18.1).
Mev
for
-+, Cu"
The 3 o*Zn Si may
n',
also eject other particles;
iH*,
sHe or two
1
but the probabilities of these reactions are low. Present
18.3
NUCLEAR-REACTION EQUATIONS
shall consider
,r
nuclear theory does not permit prediction of the
way
a particular
We
?/
compound nucleus
some
possible
will
break up.
outcomes when a
particle or
nucleus
strikes a nucleus
bike chemical-reaction equations, nuclear-reaction equations
resulting ha the emission of particle

J":
and the obtaining of nucleus

z
}
is
+
symbols
in
(18.3)
first
The
notation
often abbreviated as X(.c,y)Y, where the
symbol stands
for the struck nucleus, the
parentheses
must be balanced. The total electric charge (the number of protons) must be the same before and after the reaction. The total number of nucleons (neutrons and protons) must be the same, before and after the reaction. Together, these requirements mean that the number of neutrons must be the same before and after the reaction, likewise the number of protons. (There are two
258
Looking
In:
Nuclear Reactions
259
If we regard ft* decay as a "reaction," then since there no incoming particle, the number of neutrons changes by and the number of protons changes by + I. At extremely high energies, greater than 2 Hcv, it becomes possible to create micleou pairs. In such reactions, which we shall not discuss, the number of nucleoli* docs not remain constant.)
exceptions:
is
minimum
value of A"*.., which makes the reaction possible is called the threshold energy. The minimum value of /;**. z which satisfies
the equations for both conservation of energy and conservation of momentum is found to be
Threshold
(*.,)
ni n
(l
(18.0)
18.4
THRESHOLD ENERGY
4- .Y
Example. Find the threshold energy
for the reaction
In a nuclear reaction .r >j, the net increase in kinetic energy is called the disintegration energy Q. This Q is the net
1"
4-
,|jm
)H _*
i
,()!*
i
p
(q
= _3.4 S
1
m,. v )
decrease
in rest
mass, expressed as
Threshold
its
equivalent energy:
Q =
".v/
Mev = + ^1)3.48 14.00//
3.72
Mev
Q =
Q =
Since
H+m
initial
x ) - (m v + Tn.u )]c l rest energy final rest energy
(18.5)
PROBLEMS
1.
State the
,[,i*
number
fi
of protons
1S
and neutrons
in
each of the following
Q is the amount of rest energy eon veiled into kinetic energy, Q is often called the energy release of the nuclear reaction. For an encounter which results in elastic scattering, Q = 0, If
the
nuclei:
2.
,l.i
6 I!e",
C 13
S 3B and
,
n Ui tm
The nuclear read ion
,II->2-.Hc*
+Q
value of a reaction
is
positive, the reaction
is
called exo-
thermic.
Such a reaction can occur
for incident particles of

is
any
kinetic energy. If
has a negative value, the reaction
called
emlolhermic.
Example. Calculate Hie
value for the read ion

15.011)512
X +
14
n'
- 7 ,V l * 4-
,V
n'
liberates 22.4 Mev. Calculate the mas-, of JLa* in amu. (I)eutcron = 2.014180 amu, a particle = 4.00:3873 amu.) 3. Imagine that a free neutron gives off an electron and changes into a proton. Calculate the energy Q which is consumed or liberated in this process. What does your answer suggest about the stability of free Ins, Q = 6.79 Mev neutrons? 4. When neutrons :ire produced by bombarding deuterons with
i.odt.vji;
dcutcrons, the reaction
is
represented by
o"
1
= m = 16.016512 Q = 931(0.01 KM) Mev =

1.00898(5
X' 6
i;-).illMs7s
amu -H0.K Mev

O.OlKiS-i
,H*+
energy?
,II i
-.
! lle
Q
have at
least
The neutrons produced
in
this reaction will
how uiurh
imposes a condition on induced other collisions. This condition is particularly important for reactions with negative Q value. Prom energy considerations alone, one would think that ir the incident particle x approached the target nucleus (at rest) with a kinetic energy A'*.* = Q, then the reaction would occur. But then the momentum would not be conserved. The initial momentum is greater than zero, but the final kinetic energy, and thus the
nuclear reactions, as
it
Conservation of
momentum
does on
all
bombarding deuteron. he energy radiated by stars, it has been suggested that a series of nuclear reactions such as this carbon cycle occurs:
15
plus the kinetic energy of the
I
Am.
Mev
.">.
As the source of
C" + H' ..V + 7 X - C + e + + neutrino C" + H' X 14 4 7 \u + H'^0" + 7 O lb -* N" + e* + neutrino

la
1
Q =+l.o Mev
(K t $) , = 1.20 Mev Q = +7.58 Mev Q = +7.34 Mev (A\ a),,,.,, = .UN Mev Q = 4-4.98 Mev
'
'
momentum, would be zero. So, actually the incident particle must have enough kinetic energy B** so that the outgoing particles can have the same total momentum as the incident particle. The
final
K' B
II
-*
C 12 +
lb'
Write the equation which represents the net result of this whole cycle. v Ans. 4H * He* 4- 2e 2 neutrinos 4- energy
l
261
carries an electric charge (as
do the electron, positron, proton,
deuteron, and a
particle) will exert a force on each electron near
19
which
it
passes.
charged particle collides with

is
in traveling even a short distance in matter. In
collisions,
knocked out kinetic energy as it leaves behind a trail of ion pairs (ejected electron and ionized atom). A stream of charged particles is referred to as an ionizing radiation. Photons and neutrons which carry no charge do not necessarily collide with every electron near their paths. Streams of uncharged
the struck electron
incident charged particle loses
its
many electrons many of those of its atom. The
particles are called nonionizing radiation.
19.2
DETECTORS
Science has a social value, and the
man
of science cannot
It is
wash
his
his
hands
Ionizing particles are easy to detect electrically. In an ionization
of his discoveries.
duty to see
chamber, a metal cylinder

cylinder along the axis.
has a wire
is filled
II'
insulated from the
that they are used for the betterment of
The tube
with gas at low pressure,
mankind, and not for
its
destruc-
and a potential
tion,
Fournier
slightly less than that reiumed for a discharge is maintained between cylinder and wire. A thin window allows particles, say, a particles, to enter the chamber. Kach particle ionizes the gas, producing a rush of charge and a fall of potential at P which actuates a counter circuit. Thus one can count the number of a particles. The behavior of the ion pairs created can be studied by plotting a curve of the size of the current pulse
versus the voltage applied to the tube.
The
ionization
chamber
To
interpret experiments in nuclear physics and to apply the knowledge gained from them, it is necessary to know how the high-energy particles behave as they pass through mutter. For this discussion, high-energy particle means one whose kinetic energy is much greater than the ionization energy of the atoms or molecules of the material in which it is passing. We shall discuss
Capacitor
#
resistor
To amplifier
and counter
Bottery
the absorption of radiation chiefly in relation to the identification

of particles, the
1
Fig. 19,1
measurement
of radiation dost;,
and the probIonization
lems of
human
health.
chamber
particle counter.
19.1
TYPES OF RADIATION
an
electric charge.
(Fig. 19.1), the proportional counter, and the Geiger-.Muller counter are ionization instruments designed to operate on dif-
Jn the behavior of a high-energy particle the most important fact

is
ferent regions of the curve.
whether or not
it
carries
particle
which
260
scintillation counter
makes use
of
one of several substances
262
263
which, when struck by a single particle, convert some of the energy received in the collision into visible tight. About. ])()(
investigators
light
l!)-l
I
depresses the temperature of the vapor below its "dew point." Some of the vapor will now condense. A vapor condenses prefer-
<rf radioactivity watched and counted the flashes of which individual a particles produced in zinc sulfide. Since a scintillator or phosphor such as a clear crystal of naph-
on charged particles, as nuclei for droplets, if there are any present. So, if the gas has been traversed by a particle which
entially
ionized molecules along
its
path, the vapor will condense on these
ions and the path of the particle will be visible as a trail of liquid
droplets.
of radioactivity
Al
foil reflectors
Photo cathode
semi transparent
Photographic plates were used by Bccquerel in his discovery (1886). Recently the manufacture of special emulsions for nuclear research has revived the use of this type of detector. Nuclear emulsions contain about 10 times the concentration of silver halide as do ordinary photographic emulsions,
and are much
thicker. Xuclear emulsions
can be made sensitive

(I
to slow neutrons by incorporating small amounts

First
per cent) of
dynode
lithium or boron, which undergo an (n,a) reaction. Emulsions may be "loaded" with other elements (such as uranium) to study specific reactions. In film badges, the general darkening of the
photographic emulsion, on development, measures cumulative exposure to radiation. In autoradiography, the distribution of radioactive material in a tissue or mineral section is determined
Tenth dynode JJ
"
-".-.j-
"-
Col lector grid
Output
Fig. 19.2
Scintillation counter.
by placing the specimen in contact with a photographic plate, in the dark, and developing the resulting pattern. The bubble chamber, invented by D. A. Glaser in 1952, takes advantage of the instability of superheated liquids for bubble formation, much as the Wilson cloud chamber uses the instability of supercooled vapors for droplet formation. The cloud chamber and the bubble chamber have similar general characteristics as
particle detectors.
The
resetting time
is
longer than lor counters.

lie
thalene has been used
in
conjunction with a
The
pilot onmlfiplier, for
advantages of the bubble

its
chamber
in
the high density
automatic counting. A particle or a -y-ray photon entering the phosphor causes a flash of light which is reflected by the aluminum foil onto the photocallmde. Klcctrons are emitted from it, and
these are subsequently multiplied to produce a relatively large pulse at the output of the tube.
(greater absorption) of
recycle
in
sensitive material
and
its ability
to
a few seconds.
Bubble chambers
filled
with liquid
hydrogen offer simplicity in interpreting without contaminating elements.
collisions with protons,
A cloud chamber, invented by C. T. It. Wilson in 18117, permits us to see the path of a particle through a gas. It consists of an enclosure filled with air and some vapor at a temperature just above, the condensing temperature. The chamber is designed so that its volume may be suddenly increased. This expansion
19.3
DETECTION OF NEUTRONS
neutron is attracted to other near nucleous by the nuclear force, but it is neither attracted nor repelled by an electric charge. Since a neutron and an electron exert no forces on each other, they do not collide. (We can neglect for practical reasons the
264
265
extremely small gravitational force between an electron and a neutron and also a small electromagnetic force associated with the magnetic moments of the two particles.) Since nuclei occupy only a small fraction of the volume of matter, neutrons are penetrating radiation, traveling relatively large distances between collisions. When a collision does take place, either the neutron is scattered or a nuclear reaction occurs. Since neutrons do not betray their presence directly in
detectors (Sec. 19.2), they
results
19.4
ABSORPTION OF PHOTONS
Photons can interact directly with the electrons of the material through which they pass. But for high-energy photons, the cross
(probability) of such interact ions is so small that the photons constitute an extremely penetrating radiation. The energy of photons can lie dissipated in three different kinds of
section
collision.
effect a photon is absorbed by an atom; its eject an electron and to impart kinetic energy used to energy section for the photoelectric effect cross The electron. to the atomic number (Z) and deincreasing with rapidly increases
must he detected by the ionization which
In the photoelectric
is
from some nuclear reaction of scattering. For slow neutrons (having kinetic energy less than I ev) it is convenient to
use the reaction
JB-f oNi-
If
Ji-|- ,He
is filled
creases rapidly with increasing energy (hr) of 6he photon.
a counter tube
is
the wall
with a gas containing boron, BK or if 3 coated with boron, then some neutrons will he captured
,
positron and an electron
In pair production, the energy of the photon is converted into and their kinetic energies. The cross
section for pair production increases rapidly with increasing
to give fast
particles,
which
will
cause ionizations in the gas

of
and give counts. Another method used to detect slow neutrons makes use
the reaction
on 1
of the absorber and with increasing energy of the photon, above Mev (= 2m c 2 ). the threshold value of Campion In the effect, photons are in effect scattered, not
1
absorbed.
16
A photon
is still
in
play after the collision.
The
cross
În'
-* win" 6
The radioactivity of an indium foil after exposure to a neutron beam is a measure of the number of neutrons which passed through the foil. The (n,y) cross section, or probability of capture, is sharply higher for neutrons of l.4(S-ev energy. detector favors or picks out those neutrons.
section is a slowly varying function of (hv) and Z. The detection of photons is relatively simple; for any type of collision described above gives a fast electron: a photoelectron,
Thus
this
The
detection of fast neutrons, and the initiation of certain
important reactions, often requires first that the neutrons be slowed down. This is accomplished by arranging for the neutrons to pass into a moderatora material such as graphite or D,,0 in which the probability (cross section) for scattering is much larger than that for a nuclear reaction. The neutrons then bounce around among the nuclei until both reach an average energy of !i/,-r, where k is the Boltzmaun constant.
an electron-positron pair. The electrons are ionizing particles and may be counted directly. The variation of photon "absorption" by each of these processes is represented in Fig. U)M, where for each process, an absorption coefficient a is defined as the product of the cross section a of the reaction and the number n of atoms per unit, volume, a rur. If the Compton effect were strictly an absorption, a total absorption coefficient a, could be defined for photon absorption
a
Compton
electron, or
Ctt
OfphutM "T" Gâir
^Complin
ami the attenuation of a beam of x rays or 7 rays could be represented by the exponents! equation
Bxampk. Find
22
the energy of a "thermal neutron"
in
n moderator at
Bk =
=
10-" joulc/K)(295K) |(1.3H 0,0382 ev
6.11
10~" joule
While this relation has practical usefulness, it must be applied with care, since eeoinpton does not relate to a true absorption.
266
267
a, cm"
|.
1.4
i
\
^
^
a niol
^*m
1
1
1
1.2 1.0
\ \
'
\ V
A
\
J* /?
in aluminum; a 10- Mev a particle energy travels only 0.0 in aluminum. travels only 0.00(> The decrease in the kinetic energy of a charged parlislc with distance traveled is indicated schematically in Fig. 19.4 as
mm
mm
occurring
in
many
small steps.
The distance
traveled before the
Jya. ra
kinetic energy
is all lost is
called the range of the particle.

its
Range
0.8
0.6 0.4 0,2
\%~4
V
A
--_
50
500 Mev
depends on the
material.
particle,
initial
energy, and the absorbing
When the kinetic energy of the charged particle has been reduced to a small value (about 100 ev for a proton), it becomes increasingly probable that the ion will capture an electron and end as a neutral atom.
v^
0.5
5
Photon energy
19.6
ABSORPTION OF ELECTRONS AND POSITRONS
Fig.
19,3
Variation of photon absorption coefficient, a,
in
The path
load, with photon energy.
19.5
RANGES OF HEAVY CHARGED PARTICLES

particles
of an electron or positron is longer than that of a heavy charged particle of the same energy, but it is a path full of bends because of scattering. Electrons, like other charged particles, lose their energy in a very small region of space; they do not constitute
a penetrating radiation.
heavier than electrons experience frequent, collisions with electrons in passing through matter. The heavier
particle cannot
Charged
appreciably deflected, and il can lose only a small fraction of its energy in collision with an electron. Vet the
lie
19.7
RADIATION DOSE
collisions are so frequent that
charged particles are slowed down
to thermal energies in very short distances.
Charged
particles are
of kinetic
not a penetrating radiation.
The dose of any kind of radiation received by an object is the amount of energy that the object absorbs from the radiation. One might try to use a calorimeter to measure the energy absorbed by a specimen in terms of the resulting rise in its temperature. It turns out that- even a lethal dose of radiation produces an undetectable rise in the temperature of a biological specimen.
Radiation produces
ical,
proton with 10
Mev
many
specific effects
on physical, chem-
and
biological systems.
Many
of these effects
related to the ability of the ionization caused
promote particular chemical

devised to specify dose
in
reactions.
seem closely by the radiation to Hence methods have been
(1
terms or ionization. A beam of x rays or y rays is said to give a dose of one roentgen r)* if it will cause 2.08:{ X 10" ionizations in cm 3 of dry air at
J
1
Distance traveled,
Fig. 19.4
Kinetic
energy
vs.
distance troveled for a charged
particle.
National Bureau of Standards Handbook H47 gives the defishall be the quantity of x or y radiation such that he associated corpuscular emission per 0,001293 gin of air produces, in air, ions carrying 1 esu (if quantity of either sign," The figure 0.001293
nition:
i
"The
"The roentgen
268

1
269
atm. An ionization chamber is used to measure the 0C and dose from the radiation. The radiation passes through the air between the plates, and the ionization occurring in the air is collected. The chamber and its electrometer can be calibrated to
read directly
in
damage from external sources will be confined to a thin layer of emitters become internal hazards when introtissue. But a and duced into the body in foods or otherwise. The various kinds of radiation damage seem to he statistical
with no threshold or "safe" minimum exposure below which no injury occurs. Hence it seems prudent, to avoid all unnecessary radiation exposure. Since some exposure may be
in nature,
roentgens.
dose rate
is
0.3 r per week.

is
widely accepted human tolerance The dose from cosmic rays at the
of this tolerance dose.
surface of the earth
about 2 per cent
To extend the unit to permit measurement of radiation dose from other particles, and in living tissue, the roentgen equivalent physical (rep) is desigdefined for photons.
The roentgen was
necessary for
some
people, responsible agencies have suggested
nated as the radiation which produces the same energy as one roentgen of x- or 7-radiation. This amounts to 97 ergs per gram of tissue. This value is based on the observation that for any
particle particle
whole-body exposure of 0.3 r per week when continued over a long time. I'or hands and feet the tolerance may be 1.0 r/ week. A single exposure of 25 in an accident can probtolerances, such as a
1-
ably he accepted.
probably be
exposed.
fatal,
whole-body exposure of about 500 r would statistically, to 50 per cent of persons so
and any gas the average energy lost by a fast charged per ion pair formed is about 33.5 ev, A third unit for
is
radiation dose
the red: the radiation which produces LOO ergs

19.9
per gram of tissue.
ATMOSPHERIC CONTAMINATION FROM NUCLEAR
WEAPONS TESTS
19.8
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

is
The probable
Living tissue
damaged
>.V
exposure to high-energy radiation.
The danger
is
insidious, for the observed biological effects
may
effects on the health of the world population of atmospheric contamination arising from nuclear weapons tests cannol be assessed reliably from data known at present. Vet on the basis of incomplete information and conflicting interests,
political decisions
be delayed for periods ranging from a few days to years, depending upon the type of radiation and the dose received. Among the
effects of
of
vitally affect our national defense
overexposure to radiation are a decrease in the number

cells,
generations to
If
about nuclear detonations must be made which and the freedom and health of come.
white blood
loss
of hair,
sterility,
cancer, cataracts
from neutrons), and destruction of bones. In addition to the damage to the person receiving the radiation, there may be genetic effects extending through many generations of offspring. Penetrating radiations are effective in producing mutations or changes in heredity.
(chiefly
rays, y rays, and particles from supervoltage accelerators penetrate tissue readily and constitute externa! radiation hazards. In general, and /S particles have low penetrating power, and
the muss of
one examines, in addition to research reports, some 10 statements made since !>.">(> by the Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, The National Research Council, and the (British) Medical Research Council, one finds that these responsible bodies are in agreement on the
official
1
following points:
1.
Kin
is
cm 3
I
of charge
coul,
of dry air at 0C and produces

1
atm. Since 3
10 s esu
Radiation exposure of the world population from fallout (including Si'"") as a result of tests through mid-1963 is small compared to natural background radiation and other man-
2.
made radiation (such as diagnostic x rays). Any amount of radiation, however small, may
but
finite risk of
carry a small
10 statcoul/coul 1.6
10-" coul/ion
increasing the genetic mutation rate of the
2.083
10 ion pairs/cm'
population.
270
3.

Tt is unknown whether or not there exists! a threshold radiation dose for the production of somatic effects, including leukemia,
271
SUGGESTED READING
Articles in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
bone cancer, and general

4.
life
shortening.
Calculations of biospheric contamination in the event of continued testing of nuclear weapons are intelligent guesses at
best, since conclusions
The Milk We Drink, Consumer Reports, March, 1959. Fallout, in Our Milk, Consumer Reports, February, 1960. The Huge and Kver-iiiereushig Problem of Radioactive Wastes, ConFallout
depend on the many assumptions that
must be made.
5.
sumer Reports. February, !)(!(). an interim report, Consumer Reports, September, 1963
I .
. .
Continued testing of nuclear weapons will increase biospheric contamination and consequent risk to the world population.
Accelerated testing as more nations become nuclear powers, and (he touching off of nuclear war, could result in a serious radiation hazard to world health.
19(iH.
Iûtgham, Wright, and B. 0. Anderson; "Biospheric Contamination from Nuclear Weapons Tests through 1968," Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, University of California, I.os Alamos, X.Mex. 100 pp. Contain.* bibliography of 7 ilems.
I
19.10
DISPOSAL OF NUCLEAR WASTES

I
Nuclear power ranuol be developed by present techniques without also producing radioactive waste materials which are harmful to man. The safe disposal of such radioactive wastes is far more
difficult
ti;5
often say that

it
when you can measure what you

is
are speaking about and

it;
express express
kind;
it
in in
numbers, you know something about

numbers, your knowledge
of a
but
when you cannot
It
meagre and unsatisfactory
than that of ordinary industrial wastes.
million gal of highly radioactive
More than nuclear wastes are now con-
may be
the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your
thoughts, advanced to the stage of science, whatever the matter
may
be.
underground tanks because they are too "hot" to dump. Although the concrete and steel tanks are expected to last several decades, their contents will still be too radioactive to dump when the (auks have deteriorated! There has been increasing local public protest against the
fined in million-gallon
Lord Kelvin
Life
would be stunted and narrow
if
we
could feel no significance
in
the
world around us beyond that which can be weighed and measured with the
tools of the physicist or described by the metrical
symbols of the mathe-
dumping
shore
It
;
of nuclear wastes into the oceans, relatively close to the
matician.
Sir Arthur
Eddington
Cape Cod, Texas, and Mexico. has also been pointed out that it may even be dangerous to dump nuclear wastes in remote and deep trenches of the oceans because (I) experiments increasingly indicate thai there is conand (2) marine organisms tend to build up small and nearly harmless radioactive levels in sea water to potentially dangerous levels in the food supply. At the present time there are four general sources of radiation which can harm the present and future generations. In order of
intensity, these are (1) medical
particularly by citizens ul
Accurate and minute measurement seems
to
the non -scientific imagination
a less lofty and dignified work than looking for something new. But nearly
all
siderable circulation of ocean waters
the grandest discoveries of science have been but the rewards of accurate
patient long-continued labor in the minute sifting of
measurement and
numerical results.
Lord Kelvin
It
does not take an idea so long

the arts.
K. K.
to
become
"classical" in physics as
it
does
and dental
x rays, (2) radioactive
in
Darrow
sources naturally present in the earth, (3) radioactive fallout from nuclear testing, and (4) waste products from nuclear reactors. Within a decade or two, the latter two sources of radiation
exposure
may become
the most important.
273
reserved for those untapped sources ahout which enough is understood today so that one may reasonably predict that engineering refinements will soon make of them practical energy
20
sources, important in our

electric, thermionic,
cells,
and
fuel cells
economy. Nuclear reactors, thermoami magnetobydrodynamic generators, solar give promise of becoming increasingly impor-
tant practical sources of energy.
20.1
NUCLEAR FISSION
When, in 1042, the book "Applied Nuclear Physics" (K. Pollard and W. L, Davidson) was published, its title sounded visionary. Since then we have witnessed important and varied applications
of nuclear physics.
The nuclear
reactor has heen developed into a
the discovery with which
we
are
dealing involves forces of a nature too
dangerous
concepts. T87S,
to
fit
into
any of our usual

Record,
gasoline
may become the ultimate source of power for space travel.) With particle accelerators and nuclear reactors, a host of new isotopes have been
practical source of electric power. (A reactor
Congressional
commenting
on
the
engine
A physicist, like other persons, often finds living more purposeful and satisfying when he haw both short- and long-range goals.
Some
physicists seek to relate their goals to
some
of civilization's
long-range problems: food production, world peace, education, and the exploitation of new sources of energy. It would seem that
physics could contribute most directly in finding new sources of energy to supplant depleted reserves of coal and oil and to meet the ever increasing demand for power for industry, transportation,
These have been important in further fundamental also found diverse practical applications. In 1934, Fermi and his collaborators attempted to produce elements beyond the normal limit at uranium. In bombardment of the lighter elements by slow neutrons, the element after the capture is usually transformed by electron emission into the element of next higher atomic number. Therefore, one might expect that a similar bombardment of uranium (Z = 92) would produce a new element (93). This reaction has been produced with neptunium (93) as the resulting product. Neptunium also disintegrates by emitting a (i particle to produce plutonium (94). Plutonium is a rather stable clement having a half-life of 24,400 years. From 1944 to 1950, four other new elements were produced in the cyclotron: americium (95), curium (96), berkclium (97), and californium (98). More recently elements einsteinium (99), fermium (100), mcndelevium (101), and nobelium (102) have
created.
studies.
They have
and the home. Since we never create energy, it might be more precise to speak of a search for new and practical energy-
conversion devices.
Some
possible sources of energy are so speculative that they
been reported. In 1939, Halm and Strassmann found one of the products of neutron bombardment of uranium to be a radioactive barium 139 sijBa There must then be another fragment such as 36 Kr associated the barium fragment to make the charges equal. Ncir separated the isotopes of uranium in a mass spectrograph and
.
are referred to as esoteric sources.
The term "unconventional"
is
found that
U s,b
is
the one that undergoes the splitting process
272
274

is
275
called fission. Fission
a new type of radioactive process, the first that produced particles more massive than a particles. In the process of fission of uranium there is a decrease in total
a process the two positively charged nuclei must come into contact even though there are strong electrical forces of repulsion. This requires thai lie particles he moving with high speeds. With
I
a reaction then
mass, and therefore there is a corresponding gain in energy. Such is a possible source of energy. This energy is controllable since the process can be started at will and its rate can be governed.
artificial
accelerating apparatus, a few nuclei are given very high
speeds.
Only occasionally
it
will
nucleus before
has
lost
too
much
such a particle strike another of its energy to make contact.
Thus
Among the products of fission one finds one to three neutrons. These neutrons are faster than the ones used to start the fission, but if they strike uranium nuclei, they can cause fission. Since
the fission produces the starting particles and releases energy, the reaction can perpetuate itself, provided there is enough uranium present so that the neutrons produced will hit other
the process is extremely inefficient, and more energy must be supplied to initiate the fusion process than is realized from the
reaction.
The necessary
is
condition for a controlled nuclear-fusion process
the attainment of high particle energies for a time interval long

to bring
uranium
nuclei.
Thus a chain
is
reaction can be set up.
The
smallest
amount
flux)
of material in
which a chain reaction (constant neutron
can be set up
called the critical mass.
20.2
NUCLEAR REACTOR
is
about kinetic equilibrium. Knergy must be supabout 2 X 10 7 K (at which thermal fusion occurs in stars). At the same time reactants must be confined. Ordinary walls will not suffice, for they would vaporize under bombardment of high-energy particles, and these would be quickly cooled below their fusion temperature. These problems of heating and confinement must be solved in any con-
enough
plied initially to attain temperatures
trolled-fusion reactor.
nuclear reactor
a device for utilizing a chain reaction for

:
The
choice of fuel for a eon t rolled-fusion reactor
is
made on
any
of several purposes
to produce power, to supply neutrons,
to induce nuclear reactions, to prepare isotopes, or to make fissionable material from certain "fertile" materials. Typical
the basis of availability and the probability of attaining with it the necessary high temperature. One would prefer elements of
components of a reactor are: the fissionable fuel (LI or Pu), the moderator (graphite or D a O to slow down the fission-producing
neutrons), the control rods (usually Cd strips, whose insertion captures neutrons and slows the fission rate), and the coolant (water, air, hydrogen, or liquid metal, such as \a).
low atomic number because of the low Coulomb barrier to be overcome in the fusion reaction. Possible fusion reactions are
shown
in Fig. 20.1.
In power reactors, the coolant, through a heat exchanger, furnish steam to operate a conventional turbine and electrical generator. Breeder reactors make new nuclear fuel from
heating first strips the electrons from the atoms to produce a "fourth state of matter," a fully ionized gas, or plasma. Further heating of the plasma is done by adding electric energy, in part by using the resistance of the plasma to produce familiar
Initial
may
Ohmic
(or Joule) heating.

fields
Suitably designed magnetic

drical current
(10
provide a sort of magnetic
substances which cannot themselves sustain a chain reaction but which can be converted into fissionable material. One
fertile
bottle to confine the ions at I0*K. In the pinch effect, a cylin-
amp)
contracts because of electro magnet it-
possible breeding reaction

T -,
*
is
forces (parallel currents attract each other).
The plasma
inside
is
t^l.
2'A
ruin
iNP^^MPO**
'2:.i
duy
(20-1)
thus compressed, producing very high temperatures. The simple pinch is unstable, but with suitable stabilizing fields thermonuclear temperatures have been attained for confinement time
of
20.3
FUSION
lie
Nuclear energy can also

larger nuclei
if
released by fusion of small nuclei into

is
about 0.001 sec. Thus far, however, the power required for these devices has exceeded the useful power gained from the
fusion process.
in this
process there
a decrease in mass. In such
THE FOUR STATES

1-Solid
OF MATTER
3- Gas
4-Plosrao

20.4
277
2- Liquid
THERMOELECTRIC CONVERSION
The
is
direct conversion of heat to electricity on a commercial scale a prospect that has fascinated scientists and engineers for
tlili
First
.hres itafei of roaMer vory with arrongenien.

ima'lleir parr.c1.ev
about within limiti.

(coflered Qnd
In
a got, moleculei ore
man
it
and movement of maleculei, ihe

C K roc t >
lii
;
movv
Foiier,
Fooith lfoie^ ploinna,
c of a
1
rrva
if io I
trill
tn to I id ,
In liquid
mo lee u
ei
or* cfoYe-packec ond
they tnovt
wholly '"ionized" 901. Molecule* break into aTorm, alonm into poiilive ion* and rega-ive elecrron>>.
decades. In 1821, Thomas Sccbeck noted thai heal -applied to one junction of a circuit containing dissimilar metals would cause a small electric current in the connected circuit. The physical median ism can be understood, qualitatively, in terms of the freeelectron picture of conduction.
electrons.
Proton
-THE FUSION REACTION-
O Neutron
Deuteriurn Fusion
3,25
Energy
field
Kach metal contains some free These electrons can be made to move by an electric or by a thermal field. If heat is applied at one end of the
He3
Mev
4
Mev
conductor, the electrons will rearrange to become somewhat more sparse in the warmer regions of the .specimen and more dense in
the colder regions. This leads to an electrical gradient.
En ergy
To
take
P
Deuterium -tritium fusion
advantage
of
it,
the circuit
is
closed through a dissimilar metal
Pi^rC^
He*
fusion con take piece within a plasma,
certain lighl element!.
rl
^^5 M^
energy
is
Fuiian
ii
from hydrogen fusion
On
earth
combination of nuclei (atom* minus electrons} of
most likely such reaction involves Twtopes

(voiiants)
Man of
the Fuiion product!
of hydrogen
In
let*
than that of orioinal nuclei; the difference
tritium.
deuterium and o plasma heated to millions of
Then, as long as the temperature difference is maintwo conductors will cause an electron flow, here clockwise. The efficiency of conversion, using the best metal combinations, was only 1 to 3 per cent. Thus, until recently the only
(Fig. 20.2).
tained, the difference in electrical gradient in the
h
1
radiated os energy, mojlly heat.
The
fcjn"
voit
degrees, they
may
fuse, as in the
H-bomb.
HEATING THE PLASMA

;'-..:
-
THE PINCH EFFECT
Direction of current-.
.
-....
A
it
To get controlled ihermonucleai reaction instead of explosion, small quonliriei of plasma
tuirenl eieaies o magnetic field around itself.
This Field exerts pressure
on plasma,
St,
"pinching,"
it
must be contained and heated.
Process begins
toward center,, compressing

But this
making
hotter
with passage 0! a current through the plasma

inside a Straight nr doughnut -shaped tube.
and preventing plasma

walls af tube
.
pari ides from touching

is
theoretical behavior.
-PROBLEM OF INSTABILITY-
-CONTROLLING INSTABILITY-
was in thermocouples to measure temperatures. Recent discoveries in the field of semiconductors have led to substantial improvement in thermoelectric conversion efficiency and foreshadow practical thermoelectric generators of power. One arm of the thermocouple may be made of an -type semiconductor, in which the voltage difference is established by the flow of negatively charged electrons. The other arm may be a p-type semiconductor in which the voltage difference occurs by the flow of positively charged voids (holes) vacated by the electrons.
practical application of Seebeck's effect
The
attractiveness of materials for thermoelectric converters
mm
In
can be specified by a figure of merit
defined as
(20.2)
Z =
Powige of new current (A) around rube create! a linear meaner ic field in column/ giving il "backbane/' Currenli induced in wo 111 of lube (B) help uraighren column. Pinch can then be mointoined
longer.
r/
4
temperature,
practice pinched column of ploimo develops
"kinky,"
Pinch wandert llighHy;
distortion af
where
he
magneric Held create* new forcer and diirorn
column further. Pinch eilher rouchei walk of r^re rub* and loiei energy (A) or ii broken or or (B)
T = S = = =
Seebeck coefficient, volt/K (i.e., emf developed per unit temperature difference in the specimen)
electrical conductivity,
Fig. 20.1
Principles of a thermonuclear reaction,
f Copyright
by
Trie
New/ York
(ohm-cm) -1
(i.e.,
reciprocal
Times. Reproduced with permission.)
of resistivity p)
k
276
thermal conductivity, watts/ C
cm
278
mutators
Semiconductors
Metals
Both 8 and a depend on the density of conduction electrons in the specimen, as shown in Fig. 20M. It is apparent that for intermediate- and low- temperature use, semiconductors will provide the highest efficiency in thermoelectric converters. Pairs of
semiconducting comp<
ds
which have high conversion
effi-
10"
Electron density,
Fig.
tric
no./cm*
20.3 Properties that govern the choice of materials for thermoelecdevices, (Courtesy John C. Kelly, VVesfinghouse Research laboratories.)
40
Central station
Practical limits of thermoelectricity
- 30
c HI 9
esel or
marine
a.
o c
.2 'o
20
Present
^^
^S Automobile
Fig.
20.2
8.
A thermocouple
circuit
of dissimilar metals,
LU
and
The migration of electrons from regions of higher
10
density toward regions of lower density produces
o conAuxiliary power
ventional current
in
the counterclockwise sense.
ciencies
have been found by making binary ami ternary compounds of materials in groups I, III, and VIj or the periodic table: AgSbSe^, CuTiSt, etc. The numerous combinations possible make the task of screening and developing the most favorable thermoelectric materials a formidable one. Vet exciting progress
J
10
-L.
-L.
100
1000
10,000
100,000
Power rating, kilowatts

Fig. 20.4 Thermoelectric power devices con be competitive with other sources. {Courtesy John C. Kelty, Weslinghouse Research laboratories.)
power
279

281
has been made. Seebeck's original thermocouples (1821) could convert heat into electric power with an efficiency of only 2 per cent. Study of the PbS-ZnSb couple by Maria Telkes in 1833
raised the efficiency to 4 per cent. Further work with semiconductors has given the present efficiency of about 17 per cent. Theoretical considerations (using quantum mechanics) suggest that it will be possible to attain efficiencies as high as 35 per cent.
existing
make thermoelectric power devices competitive with power sources (fig. 20.4). Each of the germanium-silicon thermoelectric elements shown in Fig. 20.5 is capable of generating about -i watts upon exposure to heat at about 1000C. A
This
will
s<]uare-foot platelike
arrangement
of
snch elements could generate
up to
10 kilowatts, nearly three times the usual electric

in
power
the
in
demand
Fig. 20.0.
Fig.
a home.
Some
alternatives to be explored in
development
of a thermoelectric
power system are suggested
20.5
Power- producing
thermoelectric
elements
mode
of
germonium20.5
silicon
semiconductors.
(RCA
laboratories, Princeton, N.J,)
THERMIONIC CONVERTER
Heat source Nuclear Nuclear heat transFer

Fossil Fuel
Thermionic emission was noticed by Edison in 1883. In 1956 V. C. Wilson designed a converter in which electrons are "boiled
Thermoelectric
materials
Junction technology
^"Waste"
heat
J^Xv. Cooling
1
f
Insulator
MM*
"*-ia
Anode
Electrons
|
Load
Cathode
KS
Controls
Heat
Fig. 20,7
thermionic converter.
DC-motching voltage/
current inverters
Fig.
20.6
Thermoelectric
power system
alternatives.
{Adapted from the Genera/
Electric
brochure GEZ-3Q79B.}
out" of a hot metal and used to produce an electric current directly. One obvious difference between the thermionic converter (Fig. 20.7) and the thermocouple is that in Wilson's device the metals arc separated by a vacuum or a gas at low pressure. There is electrical Row between the electrodes, but there
280
282
is less
283
flow of heat in this space than through a metal.
Thus ho
t
unit has the additional advantage of smaller weight per unit of
electrodes can be at different temperatures,

increased.
and the
20.8,
efficiency
is
power:
-!
versus
2.">
li>
kilowatt.
The conversion
energy
is
process
is
shown
in
l'"ig.
where electron
plotted against distance from cathode to anode.
The
20.6
MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS
Mill.) generator utilizes the principle discovered
in
base line corresponds to the energy of the electrons in the cathode. Heating the cathode "lifts" some of these electrons over the workfunction barrier
at.
An
by
l-'araday
that an ion moving

(Sees. 10.8
a magnetic held experiences a side push
the surface of the cathode,
wn
into the space
between electrodes. If the electrons can follow path a to the anode with only a small loss of energy, there will be a potential
rs
I
I
of
and 10.9), Hot ionized gas is forced between the poles an electromagnet (Fig. 20.9), producing a voltage difference
To regenerator
\ \
b
V \
~~
>
Cathode 140QK
^- -
^
< |
.1
Plasma drop
Hot gos Flow
T
J"
Anode
~ 700
Fermi level
a
gas
Fermi level
'
Output
voltage
Load
Flow
77777777777777^
Fig. 20.8 to
JV
Field
Current
electron energy vs. distance (cothode
A plot of
in
anode)
a thermionic converter.
difference between the electrodes, capable of doing
work
in
an
Fig, 20.9
external circuit. In
vacuum
devices, the electrons entering the
-VW
A magnetohydrodynamic
generator,
interelectrode space soon form a space-charge barrier, represented
by path
h.
This would increase the cathode electron energy neces-
sary to electrons to cross to the anode, so the space charge is neutralized by adding an ionizable gas, such as cesium. Or
alternatively a
{0.001 in.) spacing
vacuum-type converter is made with a very small between cathode and anode to minimize space-
charge
effects.
Current models of thermionic converters are stated by Gear eral Electric to have these characteristics: vacuum type, efficiency 5 per cent, cathode temperature 1100C; gas-filled type, efficiency 17 per cent, cathode temperature 15:!0 C. The gas-lillcd
between the electrodes, at right angles to the magnet. By connecting the elect rudes, power may be delivered to an external load. A regenerator is used to recover energy from the emerging Kas stream which may still be as hot as 2000C when its ionization has dropped to levels insufficient for effective energy conversion. generator might be operated as part of a convenAn tional gas or combined gas and steam turbine cycle. Few data exist today on which to calculate efficiencies attainable with such a combination Some estimates suggest that addit ion of an M H D
MUD
284

tlio
generator could raise

to
over-all efficiency of a generating station
55 per cent.
20.7
FUEL CELLS
A fuel cell is a continuous-feed electrochemical device in which the chemical energy of reaction of a fuel and air (oxygen) is converted directly and usefully into electrical energy. A fuel cell
from a battery in that (1) its electrolyte remains unchanged and (2) it can operate continuously as long as an externa! supply of fuel and air is available. Sir William CSrove, an Englishman distinguished in electrochemistry and the law, used a hydrogen fuel cell in his experidiffers
-2
.2 -
I K
Chemieol
energy
r
Heat
is
4)
5
I
91
a.'-*
0.
c
l
CD >-
K
t
*
-*
Thermoelectric
Thermionic
S3
Thermogolvanic
\
Fig.
Fuel cell
/
most
efficient
$MWiW AW Mi
'"
''
o.
20.10 Fuel cells convert chemical energy directly into electric energy, thereby avoiding the thermodynamic limitation on the efficiency of heot engines.
IV*
'if
'.I:
'r
lit.
1
M
1
',]
\\Ai\i
I.
ments as early as 1839. By the end of the last century, Wilhelm Ostwald and others came to appreciate, through thermodynamic
analysis, that the fuel cell
potentially the
simple
^F
way
of converting chemical energy into electrical energy.
Heat engines are subject to the Carnot limitation of thermodynamics which says that the maximum theoretical efficiency with which heat can be converted into another form of energy is determined by the inlet and exhaust temperatures of the engine:
Maximum
It
is
efficiency
7>
J
i
nlet
7',,,
71 / outlet
i,-i
on
rt\
'v
,1
an attractive feature of the fuel cell that its efficiency is not subject to the Carnot limitation, for the energy being converted never deteriorates into the random motion of heat. The fuel cell,
p
1 I
I,
"<
III
('"ill
when compared with
familiar
methods
of generating electric
if-. i! f 'if jf 1 li 1! , 1. llil'.i,li.l.l,r |l.,.il)|l:M l,'lt,ll.r t'^L

. l l
l
MMii
hi
285
286
Looking
In
287
The
electron does useful

in
work
for
its
in
passing from anode to

ion completes the
cathode
circuit
the external circuit.
The hydrogen
by going from anode
to cathode through the electrolyte.
The
electrons are urged through the external circuit
by the
thermodynamic driving
over-all reaction.
force called the Ciibbs free energy of the
The major
difficulty
in the design of fuel cells:
noted by Grove in 18W) is still a problem how to obtain sufficient fuel-electrode
(catalyst)-eleetrolyte reaction sites in
a given volume. In many
Fuel cell
Fig.
20.13
Unlike other conver-
sion systems, fuel cells

efficient at
ore more
tow output.
50
Rated bod, per cent
Fig.
100
20.12
75-wott 4-cell Allis-Chalmers fuel

"jsero gravity" conditions.
cell
system designed
for
and tested under
cells,
fuel
(gas), electrolyte
(liquid),
and electrode
(solid)
are
brought into effective contact by a porous electrode structure which depends on surface tension forces to get reasonable contact
energy (Fig. 20.10), is very direct in its conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy. Partly because of this incentive, fuel cells are probably the most highly developed of the unconventional energy-conversion methods discussed in this chapter.
stability.
In theory a fuel
cell
can be
built
in
almost any
size
and
Under favorable conditions, efficiencies of 80 and even 5)0 per cent have been reported with hydrogen fuel. A fuel cell, like any other electrochemical cell, contains two electrodes: anode and cathode. These are joined externally by a metallic circuit, through which the valence electrons from the fuel flow, and internally by an electrolyte, through which ions flow to complete the circuit (Fig. 20.1 1). These are the electrode
reactions
capacity. Practically, fuel cells are packaged in small modules or "batteries" to be connected in series or parallel as needed for it particular application (Fig. 20.12). While conventional generating devices hei
ie less efficient
as they so front design load to
idling, the fuel cell is
more
efficient at lighter loads (Fig. 20.13).
Anode
Cathode
Over-all
2H 2 Oj O*
4-
411+
4H++
ier
= ee~ = 2H 4
+ 211,
= 2H aO
APPENDIX
Reaction Thrust
The concept
recoil
of reaction
Hi nisi
may
lie
clarified
by considering the
produced by a parallel si ream of particles. Prom Newton's laws it follows that for any system <>f objects or particles tin- center of mass of the sy-iem moves according to the equation
F =
where
mv
net external force applied to system
total
at
(1)
F = m =
v
/
mass
of
system
= velocity = time
vector of the center of mass
matter how complicated the system or how inncli force one of its parts exerts on any other, if the net external force is zero (as in fieldfree space), then
Xo
It
i|ii:inl ity.
il
(2)
which stales thai (he total moment urn of Hie system
is
a constant vector
Consider a system of two particles, a "rocket" of mass m ami velocity particle of (jas of mass 8m which is just leaving the nozzle with rclalive velocity t.. The uel momentum of this system is mv + 8m{r v,). From Eq. (2)
and a
j-
[mv
6m (v
iv)]
289
290
Appendix
A
t
Rut 8m(di</dt) is negligible, and d(6m)/dt = -ilm ill. since he mass of exhaust gas equals the decrease of the mikei max. Also for the exhaust velocity r, ilr, ill = 0, and m is a small quantity which approaches sera
.
in the limit.
We
dt
have the result

v.
m
or
dl
ilr
dm
(3)
(4)
lit
APPENDIX
the reaction force on the rocket. The mass flow leaving the rocket dm/<lt is re presented by a positive Dumber. The negative sign in the equation expresses the fact that Fand ', are in opposite directions.
where
is
Burnout Velocity and Range
In differentia] notation, Kq. (:i.bs) of A><-. :i7
may
be written
du
rfflll
m)
(i)
Kven
if
the thrust
!>,
is
not constant-, this equation can be integrated to
give the velocity
at
burnout
i'o
ffu/,
In
flit
gtt,
cos 8
(2)
If we assume that the rocket starts from rest. c = and R = Wo/i&, the ratio of initial mass t" final
0, set
/.
i.\.
"g,
or burnout
mass.
Kq, (2}
i'
may
'"-tr
be put
in
the form
eos 9
(3)
In
gtt.
Here 6, is the duration of burning in seconds. The two averages f, (( and ;/ are necessary since the values of both effective exhaust velocity and gravitational acceleration are dependent on altitude. The altitude reached at burnout for a rocket in drag-free vertical flight with practically constant thrust (dttt/dt = const) turns out to be
h=
291
gI,k
- p _
il?'i
<Vb
Ita
292
Appendix B
where Ao
is the initial altitude at the start of burning. After burnout, the rocket will coast upward to its maximum hoiÎii h m Again assuming vertical nielli and negligible (has. hut taking into account the variation
,
of g with altitude
during coasting,
(r.
(lie
masting distance
is
Ac
>;
2{?d r,
5
ft*)'
t-*(r,
h b)/2g
()
tt
of
where r r is the radius of the earth. For a rocket which reaches a summit no more than a few hundred miles, h, is much smaller than r, ami \i\. (5) rednees to a familiar form
lu
APPENDIX
Schrodinger Wave Equation
M
altitude A reached in this vertical flight
is
(6)
The summit
hm
A*
Ac
^j
the range <>f a ballistic rocket, one may treat the powered portion of the trajectory as vertical ami the coasting portion a< elliptic. The coasting range a, along the surface of a nonrotating earth
To approximate
has been determined as
rf
2rf sin1
If
is
the amplitude of the de ftroglic wave,
2gr,
-**
(8)
The range
for
i>i
W W
Ei
**
calculation can be corrected for the earth's rotation by using the vector sum of relative burnout velocity and the velocity of
the launching site and by adding veclorially to h the distance the l landing point move's while the rocket is in flight. If small, Bq. (8) reduces to he familiar equation for the range of an ideal parabolic trajectoryon a Hat earth:
The X in this equation is to be found from the momentum of the particles we are discussing. The momentum /' can be related to the kinetic energy
I '
mV ^
in
. JL
2m
lir
V^B,
kinetic energy K, plus
:
<2)
0u
If r b is large,
(9)
The
but less than
)i, (2ff r (
total energy energy E, so
B of a
a
particle
is its
its
potential
zero
and
sr
becomes
rf.
he denominator of Fq. Hence a burnout velocitv of

t
(S)
approaches
is
(2ffur,.)J
just
sufficient for the rocket to enter into a circular satellite orbit. The optimum angle of elevation f the trajectory at
~
burnout
p~
(3)
V2m"c^re7)
vanes with the desired range

tan
*r
according to the relation
and the wave equation becomes

(10) aso, x-iy
* -
sin (sr /2r r )
îty
JU-1
ooa (sJ2r,)
dx-
dy*
^^
(4)
A*
For short ranges,
+ =
46", For longer ranges,
is
Jess
than
t.V
E. Schrodinger showed, in I92(i, that Bohr's rules of quantisation could be explained on the basis ,f the solutions of this equation. The quantity
(
ty
(jisi)
is
called the
"wave function" or
Although
293
+ may
be negative (or even complex),
the "probability amplitude." it turns out that its
294
Appendix C
are applied to theeteetrons, they move with constant velocity. Their potential energy W the same at all pointe; we may take /' equal to zero. The solution of he wave equation in tins ease will be a plane wave, expressive in terms of Bmea and cosmos, just as for an electromagnetic wave.
We may ask what sort of eolations this equation would have foe electrons moving m the +x direction. Sinee no forces
for
APPENDIX
1.
BOOKS FOR A PHYSICS TEACHER'S REFERENCE SHELF

Ilijdi
for the Advancement of Science: "The Traveling School Science Library." AAAS and National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., 1961. American Institute of Physics: "Physics in Your High School," McGrawHill Book Company, Inc.. New York, I960.
American Association
Hrown, Thomas II. (edL): "The Taylor Manual of Advanced Undergraduate Experiments in Physics," Addison- Wesley Publishing
Heading, Mass., 1959. "A Guide to Science Beading," The New American Library of World Literature, Inc.. New York, 1963. Glasstone, Samuel: "Sourcebook on Atomic Energy," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. Princeton, N..L, 195K.
Inc.,
Company,
Deason,
11. J. (ed.):
Hodgman. CI),
cal
(ed.): "Handbook of Chemistry and Physics," ChemiUubber Publishing Company, Inc., Cleveland, 1963. [(niton, Gerald, and 1). 11. >. Poller: Foundations of Modern Physical Science," Addison- Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Heading,
I
Mass..
Miehols.
]!)oS.
W,
C. (ed.):
I).
Electronics,"
'The International Dictionary of Physics ami Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, N..L,
1956. National Science Teachers Association: "New Developments in High School Science Teaching." Washington, D.C.. I960. neludes 9-page list, "Additional science program materials available." Orear, Jay: "Fundamental Physics," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,, Now York^ 1961. Parke, N. G.: "Guide to the Literature of Mathematics and Physics,"
I
Dover Publications,
295
lue.,
New
York, 1958.
296
Appendix
D
Committee: "Fhyaes,"
for Physics," J).
Appendix D.
C.
297
Physical
Science Study
Heath and
Company, Boston,
:
!%().
"Laboratory Guide
C. Heath and
Company
Boston, IWiO.
Derek John deSollu: '.Science since Babylon," Yale University New Haven. Conn,, 1961. Kesuick, R., and I). Halliday: "Physics for Students of Science and Engineering," John Wiley & Sons. Inc., New York. I960. Rogers, Eric M,: "Physics for the Inquiring Mind: The Methods, Nature and Philosophy of Physical Science." Princeton University
Price.
Press,
Press. Princeton, N.J., HltiO.
(Publishers), Ltd.. London, 195(5. W. White. :iud K. V. Manning: "College Phvsies.'* Hook Company. Inc. New York, 1959, White. M. W., K. V. Manning, and R. L. Weber, "Practical Physics," McC raw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1955. Includes 33
L J., and John Murray Weber, R. I.., M. MeCraw-Hil]

Rouse.
experiments.
American Backet Society. 500 Fifth Ave,. Xew York 36, N.Y, (Ask for latest Book List.) American Society for Engineering Education, W. L. Collins, National Secretary, University of Illinois, Frbana. 111. Astronomical League, 310 Livingston Terr.. BE, Washington 20, D.C. Commission on Mathematics, College Entrance Examination Board, 425 West 17 St., New York 27, N.Y. Committee on School Mathematics. University of Illinois. Urbana, 111, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, N.J. (The Cooperative Test Division publishes a loose leaf binder, 805 pp., of Questions and Problems in Science, Text Item Folio no. 1. 195ft.)
1
R. J. ISarllc: "Experiments for
Modern Schools,"
National Association of Biology Teachers, Paul Webster. SecretaryTreasurer, Bryan City Schools. Bryan, Ohio. National Education Association, 1201 Hi St., NW. Washington (i, D.C. National Science Teachers Association, 1201 16 St., NW, Washington ft, D.C. School Mathematics Study Group, Drawer 2502A, Yale Station, New
Haven. Conn.
Master's Association, John Murray Albemarle St., London, Wl, England. Smithsonian Inst it uf ion, Washington 25, D.C.
Science
(Publishers),
Ltd.,
50
2.
SOME PERIODICALS FOR A SCHOOL SCIENCE LIBRARY
American Journal of Physics. American Institute of Plivsies. 335 Last 45 St., New York 17. N.Y. Xature, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., St. Martin's St., London, 2, England, and St .Martin's Press, inc., 103 Park Ave., New York 17,
WC
4.
SOME SUPPLIERS OF PHYSICS APPARATUS FOR TEACHING
Central Scientific Division, Cenco Instruments Corp., 1700 Irving Park Road, Chicago 13. III., and (it Hi Telegraph Rd.. Los Angeles 22,
Calif.
The Physic* Teacher. American Institute of Phvsies, 335 East 45 St.
X.Y. Physics Today, American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45 St., New York 17, X.Y. The School Science Renew, The Science Master's Association, 52 Bateman St., Cambridge, England. Science, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1515 Massachusetts Ave., XW, Washington 5, IXC. The Science Teacher, Journal of the National Science Teachers Associ17,
New York
The Ealing
Corp., 33 University Rd., Cambridge 3S, Mass. Macalaster Bicknell Co., 243 Broadway at Windsor St., Cambridge, Mass. (Suppliers of PSSC apparatus.) Science Materials Center. 5!* [-'mirth Ave., Xew York 3, N.Y. The W. M. Welch Scientific Co.. 1515 Sedwick St.. Chicago 10, III.
5.
GREEK ALPHABET
ation, 1201 16 St., XW, Washington (i, D.C. Scientific American, (15 Madison Ave.. New York 17. N.Y. Sky and Telescone, Sky Publishing Co.. Harvard College Observatory,
A
Ii
a
fi
alpha
beta
nu
xi
Cam
3.
I)
ridge 3M, Mass.
7
a
e
gamma
delta
cpsilott
ii
omieron
TC
l'i
a E
SOME PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO THE PHYSICS TEACHER
Z
H
n
1
r
n
I
seta eta
1
P V
rho
sigma
tau
upsilon
phi
chi
psi
T
T
r
V
<P
liela
Association of Physics Teachers. American Institute. of Physics. 335 East 45 St., New York 17. N.I erican Chemical Society. 1155 16 St., XW, Washington 25, D.C. American Meteorological Society, 3 Joy St.. Boston S, Mass.
.
American
iota
Am
K
A
X n
kappa lambda
inn
X
*
Q
*
w
omega
298
Appendix
D
Appendix
299
6.
SYMBOLS
under the
the
to
hairline.
= means equal
"C"
scale.
Head the answer on the "D" seale, under the index of Determine the decimal point by rough mental approxi-
means is defined as, or is identical to ^ means is not equal to = means varies as, or is proportional to 2 means the sum of * means average value of j: means is approximately equal to > means is greater than "( means much greater than) < means less than ( means much less than)
"
{hiir
mation.
EXAMPLE: Divide
by
3.
See Fig. D.2.

<hr) Set 3 or." C"
Over 6 on "D"
Vof-lln 12,600 ik stated

,
V, P <!ifii,) '*&**** fiwt doubtful digit; e.g. to only three signifieant figures: 1.20
'
i-
rt
'
T
*?
-V
h'K
1
1
iJi
i
u
i
7.
BRIEF INSTRUCTIONS ON USE OF A SLIDE RULE*

11
(2nd)
Under Left "C" Index Read 2 on "D"

Fig.
li
I'
lT
D.2
*% performed on ^P^H? irtwL?a&' S caes he " um! " " on the end of the seale
?
I
the
is
"C"
t
-,?
,r
left
,,
|, ( |
Su%TS!
^"l-attherigluemlofthescalei!
index of
flufe /or multiplication: Set
"C"
seale over cither f th
second fac or on the "C" scale. Read the answer on the <!>" under the ha,rhe. Determine the location of the decimal point rough mental approximation.
'
J..
I,
flow to Find a 8quctre (too'.. Problems involving square roots are, worked on the "A" and "B" scales in conjmietion with the "C" and wo "I)'' scales. Note llial the "A" and "li" scales are divided into identical parts, which will he referred to as "A-left" and "A-fight." Rule for square roots: If the number is greater than unity, and has an
I
"i
odd number of figures before the decimal point, set the hairline over the number on "A-left" and read the square root under the hairline on the
scale. If the number has an even number of figures before the decimal point, use "A-right" instead of "A-left." Locate the decimal point in the answer by mental approximation. If the number is less than unity, move the decimal point an even numami 100 is obtained. ber of places to the ri^ht until a number between Find the square root of the number thus obtained as explained above. To locate the decimal point, move it to the left one-half as many places
kxamplk: Multiply 17
(lit)
"D"
23.
See Kg. D.I.
Set Left "C" Index
Over
V on
"D" Scole
i:
as
it
was originally moved
to the right.
root of 507.
fo-r 1
1
> -Tr
Life?.t,v3
-a:
î
..'.,i
î.: >..;''
|
'
i| ii i
>:
i
Vt*
ii
Hbt -_.
kxamclk: Find the square

(lsl) Set
See Fig. D.3.
:^r
(2nd)
Under 23 on "C" Scole Read 391 on "D" Scale
Hairline to 567
Left
on
Ho If
of
"A"
Fig. D.l
TL
ii|iiii jm
i|i
i
//ow
(o
Dtafe. Division
ii
scales also.
generally performed on the

1
"C" and "D" "
|
[
iii|iii t} i|i
nji|
;
i
.c
o
i..V4.r-.Vi"
i
the^^ûtS'', scale and

tin-
tte um ^tor (dividend) on bring^T the denominator (divisor) on the "C" scale
8-''
'
'T
""'
7i
~i
".?%'& tTwWWl
I
i),.
"
>
1 1 1
it
hii J w jhii|hii|h4
i
liK ^
\s~rs
(2nd)
StnU tbnS gen*Co.

'
"'"'
,,|)VriK!l1
iHu8**tiM <-"">!esy of Eugene Diets-
Under Hairline on "D" Read 238

Fig. D.3
300
Appendix
8.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
[;:.]'..'.
l*sc "A4aft," since than is mi odd number of figures before the decimal point. By mental approximation, locate the decimal poinl after the second significant figure, making the answer 23.8.
Radians
Sine*
Cosine?
Tang ants
Cotangents
.0000 .0178
a
i
kxamplk: Find the square root of 0.0956. See

(1st)
Fig,
]>.-].
.(Will
2
if
0524 ,0698
Set Hairline
4
5
7
.0000 .0175 .0349 .0523 .0008 .0872 1046 1219 .1392 1504
. .
1.0000 ,9988
.9984 .9986 .9976
,0000 .0175 .0340 .0521 .0699
s 57.20
28 04 10,08 14.30
.
00 80 88 87 86
85 84 83
S2 81
5708 5533
,5359 1.5184
1
5010
.
Over
Half of "A"
9.56 on
Left
.0878
Ml 17
.
.9962 .9946
.
.0875
.1051
.
11.430
n 61
i
1835
(661
1222 1390
r
05)25
1228
105
''-.'
I
...r
W..I., .t,.
>
>
<
"!"
),...i...*..i...j
. p
t.i.ip
.l, >7]
8 9
10
11
mod3
.9877
.1
.
1581
8.144 7.115 0.314

5.671
5
!
1.4480 .4312 1.4137

1
.1
.1
.1-
n'~a
>
n'TT)
,k
im].|.l,,.Jl^,l,l|l.
(
..
1(
,ii
i;
~m
Fig.
.1745 .1920 .2091 2209

21 !3
.2(il8
.1736 ions
,21)70
.9848 .9810
.978! .9741
12 13
(2nd) Under Hairline
on
14
15
.2250 .2410
.9703
1703 .1914 .2120 .2300 .2493

.
15
4.705 4.332
I
SO 79 78 77
70
3963 1.3788
I
Oil
.3614 1.3439 1.3205

[
"D" Read 3.09

D.4
2588
J
0059
.9613 9563
,
.2798
.
2967
.Move the decimal point two places to the right, thus obtaining 9.56. Fse the "A-left," hecause there is now an odd number of figures before the decimal point. Take the square root of 9,r>6. !hen move the decimal poiul one place to the left, making the answer 0.309,
.3142 ,3310
.3491
,
16 17 18
19
7511
.2021 .3090 .3250
.9511
.0455 .9397 .9336
.2070 .2867 .3057 .3240 ,3443

.3640 .3839 .4040
3.732 3.487
3.271
75
74
1.3090 .2918
1.2741 .2666
3.078
2 904
73 72
71
1.2302
20
21
3605
38
1
H> 101 .-1189

. .
22 23 21 25
211
.3420 3584 .3746 .3907 .4007 .4220 .4384

.
2.748 2.606
2
175
70
69
08
67
9272
'.1205
.9136
4245 .4152
.
2.350 2.246
2 144
a 05
< 1
1,2217 1.2043 1.1808 1.1694 1.1519

1.1345 1.1170 .0990 1.0821 1. O047
1
1
7A. SLIDE
Bishop, C.
RULE BIBLIOGRAPHY
.
4363
('.:
"Slide
Rule-
How
to
Fse
It."
New York. Bshbaeh, 0. \V., and H. L Thompson: "Vector Type Log Log Slide Rule." .Manual no. 1725, llugene Dietisgen Co., 1009 Vine S(
Philadelphia
7.
Barnes & Xohle,
Inc..
.1538 .1712 .4887 .5081
27
4540
1695
2S 29 30
31
IMS
.5000
.9003 .8088 .8010 .8829 .8740

.
.4003 ,4877
.
5095
2.050 963
1
.
.5317 .5543
.5771
1.881 1.804
68 02
01
Pa.
for Slide
5236
Naming. M, L:"A Teaching Guide

I
Rule Instruction," Pieketl
.5411
5150
.5299 .5440
and Eckel Inc., 1109 South Fremonl Ave,, AJhamhis, Calif Harold, Don: "Slide Rule? May Help ," KeulTel and Baser Co., . . Adams and Third Sis., Hohoken, X.J. "Inirnducing the Slide Rule," Wabash Instrument & Specialties Company, [tic. Wabash, lud., 1943. "Ii'- Easy to Use Four Post Slide Rule." Educational Director, Frederick Post Co., 3050 North Avondale Ave., Chicago, 111. (A projec.
.5586 .5700 5934

.
32 33
34
8660 S572 S1S0
5592
.5736 .5878 .0018
11157
.112!):!
.8387 .8200
.0009 0249 .0494

.
1.732 1.664 .000

1 1
00
.1)172
59 58
57
1.0297 1.0123
54(1
is:;
0745
7002 7266
56
55
54
0.9948 0.9774 0.9599

(1
Jill)!)
35
j
:
.8102
SOOt)
.6283 .0458 .6632 .0807

.0081
.715(1
.
,r,
37
.7980
7530
38
39 40
II
7SS0
.7771
.7813 .8098
.
1.428 370 1.327 280 1.235

1
1)125
53
52
51
0.9250 0.9076
o 8901
tion slide rule is expected to be available soon for classroom use.) Johnson. L. H.: "The Slide Rule," I). Van Xostrand Company. Inc.,
lltiS
Princeton.
X..1.
-Macliovina. P. K.:
"A Manual
Company, foe, 330 Weal
for the Slide Rule," McGraw-Hill 12 St.. New Ym-k 30, N.Y., 1950.
Book
7330 7605 7079

78, )4
r
42 43
44
.0501 .0091
7660 .7547
.
839 8693
.7431
.
.0820 .0047
.7071
73
7
1
93
1
.9004 ,9325 .0057
"Mathematics, .Mechanics, and Physio." Engineers Council for Professional Development, 29 West 39 St., New York, N.Y.
45
.7071
0000
192 150 I. Ill 1.072 1.030 1.000

. .
50 49
48
47
46
45
0.8727 0.8552 0.8378 0,8203 0.8029 0.7854

Rudiufis.
Coiinei
Sinfti
Colon genii
Tongont?
Degree*
301
302
Appendix
D
s
Appendix
303
9.
LOGARITHMS TO THE BASE

These two pages give the
I
LOG, (BASE e
(hy1
2.718284)
Tenrht
rial lira!
iierbohe, or Napierian) logarithms of tnniibera between and m, correcl in four places. Moving the decimal point places to the right (or left) fa tfie number is equivalent to adding ,, limes 2,:<02(i (or n tunes 3.6974) to the logarithm.
'2
3
1
5 6
i
2.8026 6052 6 B078 8.2103 11.6129 13.8165

i
6974-3
'.HUH
."i
2
3 4 G
05)22-7
of the Tabular
Difference
7897-10 4871-12
I
9
5.0
G.1
I 6134 6332 66J5 0715 8901

7084
1
0154 6351
4
0174 6371 6563
6
0214 8409
6601
7 6233 8429 6620 6808 8993

7174 7351 7527
10
1234
6
7
Sir,
IS
1181
18.4207
20.7233
8 9
8819-17 6793-19
27(17-21
1.8094
112! 12
0)14
6194
8.2
S.J 6.4
6487
6677 6864
7047
8311 6508 0696 8882 7060 7246 7422 7690 7760 7934 8090 8262 8421 8579
8733
6544 6734 6910 7102 7281 "457 7630 7800 7967 6132 8294 8453 8810 8784 8918
'.Win;
6390 8582
6771
0752 6938 7120 7199 7475 7647 7817 7984 8148 8310 8460 6025
MM
7138 7317 7492 7864 7834
8001
6700 6974 7156 7334 7609

7681
6263 8448 6630 6327 7011 7192 7370 7544 7716 7884
0273 6487 6668 6845 7029 7210 7387

7561
6292 6487 6677 6864 7047 7128 7405 7579 7760

1.7618
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
2 4 6 8 10
2 4 6 7 14 6 7
Tflnrhf of the
6.5
6.6 6.7
24 57
2 2 2 2 4 3 3 3 5 7 5 7 5 7
6 7
7 7
Tabular
Difference
19
1.0
i.i
12
10
6.8
5.9
0.00OQ
0953
1823
0100 1044
0108
1133
iiair,
0392
1310 2151
0488
1398
2231
0583
1484 2311
0077
1570 2390 3148 3853
4S11
0770
1055 2469 3221 3920
0862
1740
0.0053
1823
i.j
i.
mm
2700 1436
4121
1222
10 29 38 48
7228 7406 7679 7760

1.7016
7J63 7440 7813 7783

7951
9
9
7851
7099 7867 8034 6197 8358 8516 K67J
7733 7901 8060

,j,,l
9 8 8 8 8 S 8
IMS
2770 3607 4187 4824 5423 5988 0523
7031
1.4
1624 3305 4055

470(1
J070 2852 3577 4253 4836 6481 8043 6675 7080

7561 8020
2927 3640 4318 4947 SS39 6098 6627 71JS 7608 8065 850J 8020 9322 9708 0080 0438 0784
1119
I44J
1756
3001
3710 43S3 5008

.i,W,
3075 3784
JS46 3293 3088 4837 5J47 5822 0366

6SS1
2024 3365 4055

4700 5306
17 20 35 44 8 15 24 32 40 7 15 22 30 37 7 14 Jl 28 34
13 19 26 32 8 12 18 24 30 8 II 17 23 J8 5 II 18 22 27 5 10 15 21 26
CD
6.1
6.2 6.3 6.4
l.S 1.6 1.7 l.S 1.9
5300
5S7.V
4762 53S5 5933

8471
4447 5068
56.53
0419
0.8931
6152 6678 7178
6208 0729
7227
7701
5IJ8 5710 0259 0780 7275

7747
4574 SI8S 5766 0313

6831
8083 6245 8405 8563 8718 8S71 9021 0109 0315

1.9459 96UI
8116 8178 8437 8594
8185 8326
S4S",
8017 8181 8342 8500

silSft
8050 82)3 8374 6532

v ( ;s:
8083 8245
-41')-,
8041
8390 8647 8703
8563 8718
8871 0011
2 3 6 2 3 5 2 3 5 2 3 5 13 5
8 6
5878 6419
0.6931
6.5 6.6
0.7
8749
8901
8779
8931
iw-ii
8795
-8940
6.8 2.0
2.1
J.J
2.3
J.4
7419 7885 8329 8755 9ISJ 9555 0.9933

1.0296
698t 7467
7514 797S 8416 8838
7930 S372 8700 9203 9504
8450 8S70 92*2 0670 0043 0403 0750

1086 1410 1725
7665 8109 8644

8901 9361
8154 8587 0002 9400 9783 0152 0508 0952

1184
8198 8829 9042 9439

9821
7324 7793 8242 8671 9083 9478 98S8 0225 0578 0918
1249
L500
7372 7839 8286 8713 9123 gsi7 9806 0260 0513 0953
1282
7419 7885 8320 8755 9103

9565 0.9g33
1.0296
5 10 15 20 24 5 9 14 19 23 4 9 13 IS 22
4 9
6.9
8886 9036 9184 0330 0473 0615 9755 9802 0028 0102 0295 0425 0554 0681 0807 0031 10S4 1175
1204 1412
0051 9100
9344 948S 0629 0769 9900 004!
9213 9369
9228 9373
0095 9142 93S7

0530 0671 0810 9947 0082
8810 8961 9110 9257 9402 9544 0686 0824

998)
8825 8976 9125 9272 9410

9560 9600 0838 9974 0109
8840
8991
MM
9008 9155 9301 9445 9587 9727 9385
9140 9280 9430 9573 9713 9851
9109 9315
1.9459
2 3 5 2 3 5 6 13 4 13 4 6 13 4
S
8
7
7
7
T.O
7.1
9502 0643
0516
0857
9601 0741
1
13 17 21
8 12 16 20 8 II 10 20 8 II 15 19
7 11 7 It
7.1
7.3
7.4
9741
emg
9920 0055
(1I.1SI
th
9933 0069 B202 0334 0464 0592
071!l
',-7'.'
13 13 13
13 13 13
4 6
4
4 8
7 7 7
7 7 7
1J870
2.0015
0B88/0O0I
0122 0255 0386 0516 0643
O70II
2.0015
4 5
J.S
2.0 J.7
0243 9632 0367 0710

1053
0000 0229 0360 0490 0618 0744

OS00 0002
1)14
OI30 0268 0399 0528 0656 0762 0906

1020 1150 1270 13SH 1506 1822 1730 1849
1961
0149
0281
4 5 4 5 4 5
4 5 4 5 4 6 4 5
0746
0111,
9960/0006
033J 0682
1019
2.8
2.6 3.0
3.1
0473
IIS
0647
IS
0188 0543 0886

1217
7.5
T.fl
15 18
14 18
0647
1.09S6
7.7
7 10 14 17
7 10 13 18
7.8
7.9
0149 0281 0412 0541

IlW'.i
1161
0176 0308 043K 0567 0604 0810 0843

1080 1187
1300 1424 1541 1660
0311
0461 0580 0707
0215 0347 0477 0805 0732

0867 0080 1101
1223 1342 1469
0241 0373 0503 0831 0757

0882
1005 1126
1247 1305 1483
0412 0541 0660

2.07114
13
13
7
1
13
13
6 6 6 6 6 5 6
6
1314 1632
10811
>>$<
1346 1063 1009
1378 1094
1474
1506
1817 21 19
1537 1B48 2149
3.2
1600
1009
1314 1632
J.S 3.4
3.5 3.0 J.7 3.8 S.9
2267 2556 2137
2000 2206
2585 2S5 3137 3403 3661
2030 2320 2613 2M)2 3164 3429 3680
2060 2355
2641
1787 2000 J3S4
1878
24 13
J442
2720 2002
3271 3633
2170 2470 2754 3020 3297 3558 3813

4001
JJ08 2499
2792 3056 3324 3584 3838 4085 4327 4563
471)3
1939 2238 2526 2800 3083 3350 3610

1
6 10 13 16 6 II 15 6 9 12 15 6 9 12 14 8
II
1.0
8.1
2.0704
0010
1041
0832 0058
1078 1199 1318 1436 1562
1668
S.2 8.3 8.4
0844 096s 1090

1211 1330
0894
1017
ll'.llll
1041
1138 1158 1377 1494 1610 1726

I83S
1163
2528 1809 3083 3350 JO 10

1.3883
2M|
3191
3110 3376 3635 3888 4134 4375 4600 4839

5063 5282 5497 5707 6013
2669 2947 3216

3481
MM
2976 3244 3507 3702
4012 4255 4403 47J5
4!>. ,l
1163 1282
1401
1235
1353
1471
1282
1401
12 12 12 12 12
12 12
4 5
4 8 4 5 4 6
4 5
14
3455 3712 3962 4J07 4446 4670 4907

5120 6347 5560 5769 6974
3737
3788
4036 4279 4510 474s 4074 5195 5412 5023
5831 8034
3m;;i
8 II 14 8 II 13 8 10 13 8 10 13
2
8.S
1448
1564
16711
1618
1623
8.6
8.7
1518
1833
1529 1645 1759 1872

1083
1576
1601
1587 1702 1815 1028
1590 1713
1827 1039
1748
1861
J .8
8.9
1748
1861 2.1971
1770
1883
M
4.1
1781 1894
1793
1804 1917
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.0 4.7 4,6

4
LI
4110 436!
!>,,
3013 4159 4398 4633

4861
1906
1050 2061
2.1972
12 12 12 12 12
12
3 3 3 3
5 5 5
4
6 6 6 8 6 5
5
4810
5041 6201
3938 4183 4422 1666 4884

5107
3987
4281 4469
4110
435)
4303 4540
4770 4090
4702 4929
51SI
5019
5230 5464 5865 5872 8074
4586 4816 6041

5261 5476
2 2 2 2 J 2 J J 2
5 5 5 5
4
7 7 7
10
12
10 12
J.O
9.1
1904
II
7
7
9 9
11 11
1.2
9.3 9.4
2083 1192 2300 2407 2513 2'Us

2721
2094 2103 2311 2418 2523 2628 2732 IS34 2935
2105 2214 2322 2428

2534 2638 2742 2844 1948
2006 2116 2225 2332 2439 2544 3649 2752 2854 2966
1017 2127 2235 2343 2450

1.555
21159
2028 1138 2240 2354 2460 2565 2670 2773 2875 2978
2039 2148 2257 2364

2471
2050 2159 2288 2376 1481
2072
2181 2 2 Mi
2170 2270 2386 2492

2597 2701 2803 2906 3006
2396 2502
2607 2711 2814 1915 3016
2083 2102 2300 1407 2513 2616 2721 2v>4

2
'.:.'.
3 4
3 4
12
12
1
3 4 3 4
3 4
5 5 F 6 5
5476 5688 6892
5085 5304 5518 5728 5033
5320 5530 5748 5953
6309 5581 5790 5994
5173 6390 5602 S8I0 6014
5217 5433 5844 5851 8054
4
4 4 4
5680 6802
1.6094
6 8 6
9 II 9 II 8 11 8 10
8 10
9.5 9.8
S.7
0.8 9.9
2824 2925
2702 2865 1966
2576 2680 2783 2886 2980
2586 209O 2703 2895 2996
12 12
1
2 3 4 3 4 3 4 2 3 4 3 4
S
5
2.3026
12
304
Appendix
D
11.
Appendix
305
10.
VALUES OF PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
CONVERSIONS OF ELECTRICAL UNITS

Quantity
As experimental data improve, "best values" of the physical constants are recomputed by statistical methods. See, for example, K, It, Cohen, J. \V. M. Do Mond. 'I". \V. Lay Ion, and J. S. Hollelt. "Analysis of Variance of the 1052. Data on the Atomic Constants and a New Adjustment, 1885" Review of Modern i'hysv-s, 27:303 380 (1955). The values listed below have been rounded off from those liste<l in the paper cited and have been expressed in inks units. The physical scale is used for all constants involving atomic 0)88868.
Symbol
Practical
unit, mfcs
Cgs-esu equiv.
Cgs-emu equiv.
Energy
Current
Electronic potential Electronic field
w
(
1
1
jouJe
10" ergs
3
J
10" ergs
0.1
ampere
volt
X X
10 9 jtotomp 10 -s statvolt
abomp
f'
10*
1
1
1
volt/m
10~ 4 iv/cm
ob volts abv/cm
Avogadro's number: A'.i = 6.0249 X 10 10 molecules kmole Gas constant per mote: R = 8,31 7 joules/(kmoie)(K) Standard volume of a perfect gas: V a = 22.420 m 3 atm. kmole Standard atmosphere: i> = 1.013 x 10* newtons/m* Speed of light in free space; c = 2.9979 X 10" m/sec
SO" 3 " joule-sec 10 7 coul/ kmole Charge/mass ratio for electron: e/m = 1.758" X 10" coul/kg Rest mass of electron: m = 9.1083 X 10~ 31 kg First. Uohr radius: = 5.2917 X 10 ll m Compton wavelength of electron: X = h/mc = 24.203 X 10 13 10 S3 joule, K Boltamann's constant: = 1.3804
Electronic charge: e = 1.0021 Planck's constant: A = 6.6252 Faraday constant: F = 9.652
Magnetic Magnetic
flux
a
B
induct.
weber weber /m 2
10^ maxwells 10' gauss
Permittivity of free
BBS
10" 11
statcoulomb
space
coulV newton -ni !

1.257
dyne cm 5
10"
unll
VM>
Permeability of free
10" 6
pole
X
X
10-
|!l
coul
space
newton/ omp-
9- 10"
V*wso
dyne cm 5
Note:
= C
A.-
=
.'lass-energy conversions:
I
8.617
X10
cv/"K
kg
electron mass
=
= = mass =
1
1
proton mass
amu
10 s * 5.610 0,51098 Mev 938.21 .Mev 931.14 Mev

939.51
Mev
Energy conversion
factor:
31 Rest masses: electron m = kg = ft.4870 X 10 proton t = .0724 X 10"" kg neutron i = 1.6747 X 10 " kg Proton mass electron mass ratio = 1,830.12 = 6.67 X 10 ll newton-mVkg* (iravitational constant:
1
neutron ev = 1.6021 9.1083 X 10
Mev
10 "joule
amu
Index
Absorption coefficient, 265

Acceleration cine to gravity, 41, 43 Acoustic waves, 1(11, 103
(See a/so Wave) Activity, 240
specific.
Autoradiography, 203
life, 24 Avogaclro's number, 78, 144
Average
Baker, K.
11..
IS,
19
242
Bnlmcr
7.
Series, 208, 212,
214
_M-">
Adams,
Actlu
i-
('.
C,
Hand theory
R.
of conduct inn.
theory, 139, 1st; Ampere, 110 Ampere's law, 131, 150, 161 Amplitude, !l(i, 106 Angle of ascending node, 51 Angle of inclination, 51
Harkla, C. G, 281 Barrier, energy, 220, 244

Bertie,
J.,
A..,
290
IS
Bauer. 0.
Beats, 197 BecquereJL H. A., 77, 203
Angular momentum, 55 Anode, 140 Apogee, BJ Apparatus, suppliers of, 297 Argument of perigee, 53
Benson, O.
().,
7
I'll
Bernoulli's theorem,
si
Wending node, angle of, 51 Asteroids, 10, 13 Astronautics, bibliography of, 7 careers in, 7 lilms on, 7 history of, 3
Astronomical unit, 9 Atmosphere, entry of, 72
Beta decay, 210 spectrum, continuous. 24S Bel Binding energy, 299, 242. 251 Bishop, C. ('.. 390 Blaekbody, 168 Blackbody radiation, 166 energy distribution in. lit) (See also Radiation) Blunchard. C. II.. 153 Bohr. N.. 1 18, 293 Bohr atom model, 293 204,297.222
(See
iitao
Atom,
7!i
Atom)
earlv concept of. 78
Hook
25:1
list.
205
models
radius
or,
of,
117.
203 205. 23\
K5 speed of, 86 Atomic Knergy Commission, 32 Atomic muss, 70, 153 Atomic mass unit, 70 Atomic number, 118, 183, 205, 211, 220 Atomic weight, 79 Auger effect, 175 307
Bore, 08, 9!) Hot he. W.. 253
Bragg
diffraction, electron
analogy
of, 21
Breeder reactor, 271

Breillat rahluug, 17li
Brown, T. IS., 295 Bubble chamber, 203

Budierer, A. II.. 198 Bnchheiin, It. YV., 7, 70
308
Index
Index
Burnett, C.
It.,
309
163
Burnout
Daltnn,
.speed, rocket, 20, 201 {See alxo Rocket
J.. 77. 7.s
Damped wave,
Cajori, !'., 64 Calorie, ss
Darwin, C, R. Davidson, U'. ].., 273 Davisson ami Germer cxia-riim-nt

2I.S
106 115
Electrification, 1 17 It Electrolysis,
I
field, electric, 121 deflection of particles bv, 125,
Electromagnetic wave, 103, 161 energy of, (66 gamma ray, 242
plane, 103. (66 of. 104 x-ray, 175 Electron, 10s. 127, 130, 144
Ml
gravitational, 42
magnetic, 125
deflection of particles by, 125, 120, 141 Field intensity, electric, 121 strength, magnetic, 105 Field
Careers
7 [See also Astronautics)

*
in astronautics,
Curncit efficiency. 32. 2x4
Cathode, 140
tube, 143 Cal lioiie rays, 1 30 Cavity radiation, L89
Cathode ray
205 I,., 216 De Broglie wave, 170, 222, 230 Decai constant, 211, 25<J Deflection of charged particles, 125,
J.,
Deason, H. De BrogUe,
speed
charge
or,
145
Film
lists, 7,
IS.
37
and
Center of mass, 20 ^ rotation about, 212 Chad wick. J., 253 Chain reaction, 274 Charge, of an electron, 145
Degree of freedom, S8
I
e/m
electrolysis, 111 ratio for, 142

Hi!)
Fission, nuclear,
273
Fitzgerald-Lorents contraction, 104

Flux, electric, 157
'elector, radiation, 2til
Do ^'auvenargues, Marquis, 138 Dewey, John, 40

Dill ruction, 107,
energy data for. free, 146, 232 in nucleus. 246 shells, 227, 230
magnetic, 135 Forbidden energies, 237
Charge /mass
Charging, 117
ratio, 127. 142
Chromosphere,
ISO of electrons, 2 IS of neutrons. 210 of photons. 2 IS

I
Electron configuration, 228, llecfroti (iilTraetion, 2 Is
230
II
Circular orbit, 46, 53 Clock paradox, 195 Cloud chamber, 263 Cohen, ]:. H., :)4
Collisions, molecular,
Diffraction grating, 108 Dilatation of lime, it Dirac, P. ,\. M., 216 Direction rules, for induced emf, 136
Electron (low, 127 Electron theory of conduction, 146 Section volt, 124 Hectrostatic units, 1 19
Force, gravitational, 41 magnetic. 134, 142 on a current, 120 nuclear, 206, 254 Fourier series, 07, 104
Founder.
(I,,
201)
86
demerits, periodic table of, 228 Elements of an orhil, 51 Jliot. C, 166
Franklin, YV. S., 138 Free electrons, 140. 232 Free fall. 43. 4li
nuclear, 252
Comets,
11),
i:j
Common
139,
Coulomb.
elect rieity in a tas 140 Conductivity, band theory of, 235 electrical and thermal. 233 of metals, 146 quantum theory of, 234 Conic orbits, 65 Conic sections, 64 Conservation of energy, 200, 244 Constants, physical, :mm Corona, 1 Correspuiidence principle, 183, 214 osmic rays, II, 14, 208
I
Condon, Conduction of
erf, 176, E. U., 210
ell
265
magnetic force, 134 magnetic induction, 134 Disintegration energy, 243 Kspucement, 06 Disraeli, Benjamin, lis
for for
I
Distances, to planets. HI
to stars, IS
64 Emerson, It. W., 77, 1S3 imf, induced, 135 Energy, binding. 20(1, 254 conservation of. 21 Ml, 244
jllipse. 61,
Freedom, degree Frequency. 114 Fuel cell, 284
of,
88
Fusion, unclear. 274

a,
Dobie,
disintegration, 243 distribution in blacklmdy radiain
(7,
gravitational acceleration, 41, 43 gravitational constant, 41 Galaxies, 17
.1.
Dopplcr
[''rank. ti7 effect, 112, 107
tion, 170 electromagnetic wave, 105
transverse, 1 14 Dose, radiation, 267 Dunne and Hunt law, 170
DnClaux,
lit)
Dulongand
Dyne.
Earth
21
oquipnrtilion of, SS forbidden, 237 in nuclear reactions, 243, 273. 270

potential, 44
25S'.
Camilla decay, 242 Gas, fully ionized. 275 ideal, 80 kinet ic henry of, S! Gas constant, so Gas discharge tube, 140, 141
I i
IViit law,
I4S
DuMoml.,1. U\ M., Duncan, .1. c. mi
las law,
so
:)4
quantization of, of satellite. sources of, 272

1
2(H),
220
It)
barrier. 220. 244 Coulomb's law, lis, 200
Coulomb
satellite, fit
.",1
Eccentricity,
Cou titer,
201 (leiger-MuUer, 261
Eddington, A.
tiergv barrier. 220, 244 uerg'y levels, 2IIX. 21(1, 235. 242 qua! ion of state. 81
Gauss, 120 Gauss's law, 157. 150 ( lav-Iaissac, .1.. 7s Geiger. H., 203
(ieiger-Mnller counler, 261 rator principle, 186 Glaser. D. A,, 263
(ilasstone. S., 205 Goddard, H. II., 4
8., 115.
271
scintillation, Crew, II., mi

< 'fit
202
Edison, T. A 2X1 Effective exhaust velocity. 25, 30

Efficiency of heal engine', 32. 284 Einstein, A., !t, 67, 77, 173, 175, 1X4, 104, 196 Einstein's mass-energy equation,
mass, 27 1 Cross product, vector, 56

teal
quilihrium, radioactive, 250 quipnrthinn of energy, 8S scape speed, 31, 45 shlmch, O. W., 301) xelusion principle, 227
Ixlinust
Gram
30
tuoieciilar
volume, 70
velocity. efTeclive, 25,
Curie, 242 Current, conventional, 127 direction of, 12s electric, (27
electron, 127
Exponential law of decay, 230

Falling body, 42 Faraday, ML 136, 144, 150, 283 Faraday, 144
199
Einstein's photoelectric equation, 173 ESectiio current, 127 in magnetic Meld, 130 in metals, 148, 235 Electric field intensity, [21 Electric potential, 122
Grating, optical, 108 Gravitation, universal, 41 Gravitational acceleration,
i/,
41
on planets. HI slandard, 25
Gravitational constant, 0, 41
(
iravitat iunal field.
42
induced, 136
in
Paradays law
Kit
I
of induct ion. 158,
Gravitational force, 41
magnet ie
field,
in metals,
Hti,
130 235
on planets, 10
Gravitational potential energy, 44,
Fermi, K., 273
Fermi distribution, 234
47
310
Index
Ionization potential, 2in, 211 Ionizing radial ion, 2(51 iHHtojws, 140, />:*
I
Index
Matter, composition
of. 117 four states' of. 27(i Matter wave, 170, 217, 230
311
Gravity. 41 Irsek alphabet, 207

(
Croup
Newton's laws Node, 51
of motion, 21,
43
velocity,
l(J(l
Croups, orbital, 227, 230 drove, W., 284

(iuidnnco of rocket,
"(I
Ives.
II.
i:..
Ml
Ives
and
Maxwell..).
C.
83, 87, 88. 103, 166,
Stilwell experiment, li)7
lid. 1114
Halm, a. 273
Half-life,
James,
J. N.,
Miixwell-iloltzinann distribution,
s:{. 87, 232 Maxwell's electromagnetic theory,
241 (See (i/.to Radioactivity) Hall effect. 233

I).. 2!lli
Jet .separation, 2!l L. 11., 300 Joliot. 1''.. 253
Johnson,
Jupiter,
186, Mil. 107
Maxwell's equations.
Mil
lit,
12
Ilalliday,
Mean
live path, 84
Hartung. M, I. 300 Heat engine, ellieienev

Ilcavisido,
of,
32
(I., 120 Heiscubcrg, W,. 2 It; Hciscnljerg a uncertainty principle,
A*-eapture, 217 Kelvin, Sir William Thomson, 271 Kepler's laws, 56, (HI
182
derivation of, (i2 Kinetic theory of gases, 81
Mechanics, principles of, 21 Mendeleev, 1). 1., 228 Mercury, HI. II Mesons, 107 Metals, conduction in, 232
Meteorites. HI, 13 and radio waves, 13 Miehels, W. ('.. 205 Micbelson interferometer,
Slilky Way, 17 Miliicurie. 242 Millikan, H. A.. 145 Mills, M. M-, 38 Missilery, chronology of, 4 Model rockets, 37
Henry,
Herald,
J..
]>.,
135
H err iik.
K.,
300 02
Kirchhoffs law, lli.s Kiwi engine, 32, 33 Krogdahl, W. S.. I!)

l-i
lst>
Hohbs. M 3S Hodgroan, (". 1),, Hull on, (i., 205

Horace.
I
Hertz, (i.. 157. KM High-ejicrgv particles. 260

2!>f>
Michelson-Morlev experiment, ISS

ert, B., St!.
S7
Launching speeds, 70
(See also space)
Nonionizing radiation, 261 Nozzle, rocket, 2S, 33 (See also Hocket) Nuclear atom model, 205, 238, 253 Nuclear landing energy, 200 Nuclear emulsions, 203 Nuclear fission, 273 Nuclear force, 206, 254 Nuclear propulsion, 31, 71 Nuclear reactions, energy from, 243. 25S. 273. 270 equations for. 25ti threshold energy for, 258 Nuclear reactor, 32, 273, 274 breeder, 274 Nuclear testing, 269 Nuclear wastes, 270 Nuclei, stable, 255 Nut icon. 17, 254 Nucleus, 17, 230 radius of, 254
1 1
Layton.
Life,
1'.
W., 304
Lens's law, 135
Oersted, B.C., 110 Orbit, circular, Hi, 53

electron,
Ill
lo vie, V.,
I!)
Hubble, !:. P.. go Huxley. T. H., 252 Hydraulic jump, SIM
on planets, is, 10 of radioisotope, 241 Light, speed of, |(>4, |8(i,
227,230
atmosphere, 72 atom. 2111), 222
1JI2
Hydrogen, Hulir model

energy levels for, spectrum of, 207
(See alao
207 208, 210

of,
Atom)
Line of force, gravilat imial, 42 Loeb, L. I).. s:i Logarithms, 3112 Lorents, H. A., 232 Lorentz transformation. 193
manufacturers of, 37 (Seeaiso Rocket) Models of molecules, 8(1
for entry o[ in hydrogen satellite, 47
Modern
Ideal ga law, SO
(u puke, specific, 25, 27, 32, 33 Inclination, angle of, 51 Induced current, 135 direction of. 135 Induced end. 135 direct ton of, 138
I
Much number,
2s, 102
Machoviaa. !'. K.. 300 McLaughlin. !l. .. Ml Magnetic deflection, I3ti, 141 Magnetic field strength. I(i5 Magnetic Mux, 135 Magnetic induction, I2K, 131
center of loop. 132 direction rule for. 131 Faraday's law of, 158 force due to, 134 near straight wire. 133
ill
physics, 77 Mole, 79 Molecular mass, 7'.i_ Molecular volume. 70 Molecule, 70. 117 mode! of. 88
conic, 66
elements
of,
precession
of,
61 57
Ordwnv.
Orear,
.1.,
1 I '.
L. * 63, 296
Oslwald, W., 281

Page, I.., S3 Pair production. 243, 266 Pairing of aueleons, 255 Parke, X. <',., 296
Pauli exclusion principle, 221 Performance of liquid propellents,
Momentum,
in
angular, 55 quantisation of, 209, 220 relativity theory, 198

HI,
Moon.
12
Induction, magnetic, 128, 131 at center of loop. 132 direction rule for, 134
Moslev's (aw, 231 Motion. Newton's laws of, 21, 43 uniformly accelerated, 22, 42 Motors, rocket. 27. 32 (See alxo Hockot
|
20
Perigee, 51
Faraday's law
force
argument
of,
53
of,
IjjK
due
to,
134
near Straight wire, 133

Insulator, 237 Intensity. ]{I5
M.'ignclohydi'odyiiariiics, 34, 283
wave, 165
(See alto Wave) Interference. 106, 1*7 Interferometer. iMi
Manning, K. V.. Marconi, (!., 157 Mars, HI, 12 Marsdon. E., 203
.".Id
(National Aeronauties and Space Administration), 7, 8, 32 National Association of Rocketry,
NASA
Period. 51. 54,04 Periodic table, 228 Periodicals, io astronautics, 8

list of,
Interplanetary travel, OR
Ion.
144.
Mas.s. atomic. 70 niolcnilar, 7'.) Mass-energy relation, HIS Mass number, IS

I
Mi)
Ion propulsion, 34, 3d, 71 Ionization chamber, 201 Ionization energy, 229
Mass rat io, 30 Mass spectrometer,

Dempster type,
37 Mangle, J. E., 14, 17. 19 Neptune, 10, 12 Neutrino, 240 Neutron, 118, 274 detection of, 263 discovery of, 253 Newell. H. K.. 14, 17. HI
296
131,
Mil
Uainbridge type, 152

151
Newton, Isaac. (HI Newton (unit), 21 Newton's law of gravitation.
II
Permeability, 131 Permittivity, 1 10 Phase veloeitv. 100 Photoelectric effect, 172, 266 Pholooleotron, 172,242,286 Photons, 172, 173, 179, ITS, 180,211 absorption of. 205 Photosphere, 1 Physical const ants, 304 Pinch effect, 270
312
Index
Radiation dose, 267 Radiation pressure, 13 Hadiai ion tolerances, 17 Radioactive equuibn 250 Radioactive scries, 240 Radioactivity, decav lav, for, 239
natural. 238. 249
series in, 2-10
Index
313
4
Planck, M.. 171 I'liini-k's constant. 182 Planck's law, 170
17-'.
173. I7(i
Rocket
Planets, flight between, 68 life on, 18 physical data for, 10 limes to reach, 70
Plasma, 275
Plasma propulsion, 35
Plato, 07
lypes
of,
239
I
Poinenre,
II.,
07, 139, 191
units of, 24 Radioisotopes, natural, 251
Haniu,
Pollard, !:.. 273 Positron, absorption of. 207 Positron -electron pair, 243, 205 Potential, electric, 122 Potential energy, gravitational,
74 ISAM) Corporation, 5, 7 Range, of charged particles, 266

S.,
trajectories, 60 Roentgen, w, C, 77 Roentgen, 267 Rogers, H. M., 64, 206 Holler, I). H. I)., 295 Hollett, J. S., 304 Root-in can -square speed (rtns), 83 Rouse, [..,!.. 296 Rowland, H. A., 2t)(i Russell. Hortrand, 183 Rutherford atom model, 205, 238, 2S3 Ryilbcrg constant, 207
Space vehicles, chronology Spec lie heat, 87

i
of,
of metals, 147 Specific impulse. 25. 27, 32, 33
Spectrum, I0S, 2<l( of hydrogen. 207 x-ray. 230 Speed, burnout, 201
of light. Hi.!. ISO. I!I2 of molecules. S3, SO
rms, 83 Spencer, II., 67

Spin, 225. 249
of rockets.
for
II.
2!
1.
30. 40, 201

1
Sarnoff.
!>..
149
atmospheric entry, 73
10
47
Potential well,
in
Rationalised units,
Satellite orbits, 47 Satellites, earth. 3
Sputniks, 5, 50, 05 Stable nuclei. 255 Stages, rocket, 31

(ate also Rocket Standing wave, (19,
|
gravitational Belda,
47 for hydrogen atom, 210 Pouudal. 21

Poyntnuj'a vector, 166 Pressure of radial ion, i:t Pressure thrust, 24
Price,
1).
2!iti
Hay. 93, !!4 Rayleigh-Jeans Jaw, 17(1 Reaction principle', 20, 22 Reaction thrust, 2so Reactor, nuclear. 273, 274 for rocket power. 32 Reduced mass, 213 Re-entry of earth's atmosphere 72
Reference systems, 185
Relativistic Doppler effect, 114 Relativity theory, Einstein's, 111 ma.vf ami energv in, IVx
I
energy of, 55 escape speed for, 31

reasons for, 0, 50 Saturn, 10, 12 .Savage, J. N 20 Scattering of alpha particles, 204 Schoolcy, J. S., 48 Sehrodingcr, [',., 216 Sehrodiiigcr wave equation, 222,
220, 245, 203 Scintillation counter, 262 Screening, electron. 220
Star distances, 18 State, equation of, SI

Stern,
Stefan-Boltsmann law, 170 ()., 86
Probability, wave. |8I) Product vector, 66 Project Hover, 32 Project Sherwood, 34 Projectile motion, 43
I'ropellants.
Storn-dei huh experiment. 224 SlMwell. 0. EL III Stake's law, 145 Stouer. R. <:.. 153 Stoney, G. J., 44
1
Strassmann, F 273
Strughold,
II.,
Newton's, 185
performance
3(1
and spaee
of,
travel, 201
in,
28
Propulsion, ion, 34, nuclear, 31

:,
win paradox
I!I5
Scebeek, T., 277 Sciferl, B. ., 8,88, 58 Seismic wave, 103
velocity addition in, 103
solar,
36
->|>(*
Proton, UK, 127
Rep, 2tl.s Resistance, of free space, 165 of metals, 147

Resistivity, 147
Semiconductor, 237, 277 Series, radioactive, 240
Suninierfeld, M., 38 Sun. 10 Superposition principle, 104. 109 Surge. 9S

P., 26 Symbols, mathematical, 208
Sutton. G.
Shaw,
J. H.,
10
Shells, electron. 227,
230
Proton-neutron diagram, 243,

front's hypothesis, 153
Resnick,
Shock wave, 102

Simultaneity, 103 Singer, ('Italics, 13N Slide rule, use of, 298 Slug, 21
Societies, professional.
ii
1
*R..
1
2116
Thermion ie converter, 281

Thermocouple, 278
Thermoelectricity. 277 power from, 279 Thomas, B, It., !K3
Resonance,
10
Q- value. 243, 25.S Quantization, energy, 208,
"242
momentum,
209,
220
apace, 224
Quantum,
172, 173, 170
Quantum mechanics, 1X4. 2 Hi. 219 Quantum numbers, 224. 227 Quantum theory, iu7
Rad, 268
liailialioa. atmospheric contamination by, 269 liiologieai effects of, 268
speed. 83 Roberta, Michael, 1K3 Hocket, burnout velocity for, 20 definition of, 20 flight theory of, 2 20 forces on, 29
1
R MS
HiKht-hiiiid rule, 134
296
ion, 34 mass ratio, 30 model, manufacturers motors for. 27. 32
of,
37
Solar const at. Solar propulsion, 30 Solar sail, 36 Solar system. 10. 18 Soli. stale, theory ..I'. 231 Sonic boom, 102 Sound wave. 100
I
Thompson, II. !.., 30(1 Thomson, J, J., 77, 131,

203. 288 Tli res hold energy, 25s
130, 149,
Thrust, decrease with momentum, 24 pressure. 24
alt
it
talc,
24
speed
of,
101
multiple stage, 31
oosale, 28, 33 nuclear, 31
0e oho Wave)
36
Space, environment of, gravitational fields in. 40, 47 radiation in, 14
vehicles 71
in, 4
Time Time
rocket, 24, 289 dilatation. 114. 195. 201 to reach planets. 711
blnckhody, 108
cavity, 169
electromagnetic theory
101, 167 in space, 14
performance plasma, 35
of,
of, 2ii.
156
types of, 20 Radiation holts, 14

I
propulsion of, 21, 22, 26, 32 range of. 2IJ, 30 specific impulse of, 25, 27 staging of, 31 Rocket guidance, 70
Space exploration, reasons Spaee quantization, 224
for,
li.
Tiros satellite. 58 Total energy of B parliele, 2(10 Transformations, Lorentz, 192 Transurauic elements, 273 Trigonometric functions, 301
Tunnel
effect
245
Space research, 74 Space travel, and relativity, 201
Twin paradox, 105

Tyndall,
J.,
116
314
Index
I'liceifainty principle. ISI

l.'nifoniily accelerated
Wave, sound, 100

speed
of, 104 square, 96
motion, 22,
42
("nils, electrostatic,
119
standing
tuks, 119, 120 for Newton's second law, 21
109, III
1
in u string, 95,
11
Utmma
Drams,
rationalized mks,
(film),
10,
li)
18
12
surge, !IS transverse, 92, 103 traveling, 95 x-ray, 17.5
16 Vector cross product, 50 Vector product, !2,s Velocities, iiddition of, 193 Velocity, burnout, 29 of escape, 45 in group,
1
\'-2 rocket, 24, 30 \an Allen belts, 14,
Wave
Wave Wave
aquation, 92, no
Schroilinger. 293 Wave forms, 95, 90, 104

front, 93.
:it
W ave speed, !(ll Waves, interference
mechanics, 219, 245, 293 \\.ni-|i;iniile duality, 179, 217

of,
Km
of molecules, phase, Hit)
H'A,
so
rms, 83 Venus, JO, II

Volt, 122
Von Goethe,
Wave,
J.
W., 115
soperposi'i f. KM, 109 Weber, R. I. 7, 153,290 Weiicr, 129 Weightlessness, \i\ Wells. II. 00 Whipple, V. L_ 3
245 damped, 106 in different mediums, 94

elastic,
acoustic, 101, 108 at a boundary, 04, 110,
White, M. \V., 290 Whitehead, A. \., 50 Whitney, W. \i., 20
Whole number
\\
rule-.
153
Wiedcnianu-Frani!
nil's law. 171
rule,
233
93
electromagnetic, 93, 103, 101 energy of, 105 group velocity in, 100 intensity of, 105 in a liquid, 07 longitudinal, 92, 103 panicle motion in. 99 phase velocity in, 100 saw-tool li, 90 seismic, 103 shock, 102
sine,
Wilson, V. C, 281 Wilson cloud chamber, 262
X-ray spectrum, characteristic, 230 continuous, 230
rays, 175
frequency limit
scattering of,
19
h\,
J
of,
176
76
ffin,
II.,
Zodiac, 9
96
Zwicky,
08
PHYSICAL DATA, EARTH
Mean
Mass
diameter
12,742.46
72.9
km
Angular velocity
10~ 6 radian/sec
5.975X10" kg Mean density 5,517 gm/cm 3 Normal gravity (p = geodetic g m 9.78049(1 + 5.22884 X 10m/sec
2
latitude)
sin
3
10 B
5.9
lO" 6 sin 2
2<p)
Standard atmosphere
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
1.013
newton/m 2
Na = Avogadro's number = 6.0249 X 10 M molecules/kmole R = Gas constant per mole = 8317 joules/ (kmole)(K) 23 k - Boltzmann constant m 1.3804 X 1Q~ jou1e/K = 8.617 X
10- 5 ev/K
y = Standard volume of a perfect gas = 22.420 m afm/kmole s c - speed of light - 2.9979 X 10 m/sec 19 coul e m Electronic charge m 1.6021 X 10~
3
Planck's constant
6.6252
9.652
1
F = Faraday
constant
X 10~ 34 joule-sec X 10 coul/kmole

T
Energy conversions:
electron volt
1.6021
10- 19 joule
Mev m = Rest mass of electron - 9.1083 X 10~ 3I kg = 0.51098 Mev m p = Rest mass of proton = 1.6724 X 10"" kg - 938.21 Mev Mb - Rest mass of neutron m 1.6747 X 10-" kg - 939.51 Mev mjm s = 1836.12
1
atomic mass unit
931.14
Permittivity of free
space = 8.8542
10" 12
farad/m
ô
Permeability of free space
4tt
10" 7 henry/m
= (/*oAo)i = Impedance of free space = 376.73 ohm G = Universal gravitational constant = 6.67 X 10" n
Zo
newton-mVkg 2
: -
: = :
=-- =:
-"
*
f*
fii
a
3
T
(0
68806

Physics For Teachers

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Physics For Teachers

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

physics for teachers

Physics for Teachers:

Physics for Teachers:

The Pennsylvania State University

McGraw-Hill Book Company

to Marion, Robert, Karen,

Meredith, and Ruth

reader of this boob

physics and atomic physics and to have had a full-year course in

Capitalizing on his interest

rockets and satellites. Part

presents enough of the principles

quantum physics which have characterized twentieth-century

less familiar to the reader, are

developed in greater but where feasible (e.g.,

Looking Out: Rockets,

Rocket Propulsion Escape from Earth

Looking In: Atomic and Nuclear Physics

and Magnetic Forces

Wonderland 184 Hydrogen Atom Bohr Model Quantum Dynamics 216

Unconventional Energy Sources

289 Burnout Velocity and Range

Physics Teacher's Reference Shelf

Periodicals for a School Science Library

Professional Organizations of Interest

Suppliers of Physics Apparatus for Teaching

Greek Alphabet 297 Symbols 298 Instruction on the Use

Looking Out: Rockets, Satellites,

7A. Slide Rule Bibliography

Values of Physical Constants

Conversion of Electrical Units

In his millennia of looking at the stars,

man has never found

challenge as the year 1957 has sud-

the science and technology of

earth satellite was launched by the Soviet Union

United States starts

ICBM program; USAF awards

launched by the United

propel "arrows of flying

lunar probe, launched

Project Score (Atlas) launched, broadcasting a

Advanced type of rocket developed

outer space for the

Troops of Tipu, Sultan of Mysore, use rockets against

Russia launches Lunik,

United States satellite to orbit sun.

improves rocket propellant

William Hale, an American, increases

Telstar satellite relays

transatlantic television, programs.

Russian astronauts put

launched to encounter Venus. passed within 22,000 mi of Venus, reporting data on

Robert H. Goddard, professor of physics at Clark University,

fires first successful liquid- fuel rocket.

Corporation has estimated

be able to do the following:

Orhit satellite payloads of 10,000

Impact 3,000 lb on the moon Land, intact, more than 1,000

instruments on the moon,

United States uses

the United States on an intercontinental ballistic

program, the MX-774,