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The j operator

Phasor Algebra

Let j be an operator which produces 90 degrees counterclockwise rotation of any phasor to which it is applied as a multiplying factor.

jjA=j2A j2A= - A j=sqrt(-1)

The j operator
If j is applied to the phasor j2A the result is j3A = -jA The phasor j3A is 270 degrees counterclockwise from

Complex Numbers

A complex number is a quantity of the form of

i b

Complex Numbers
z a bi
z

A complex number can also be written in phasor form:

Rectangular Form or Cartesian Form

z a bi
i 1
a: real part b: imaginary part

(1)
0

Where a and b are real numbers, and

z z (cos i sin ) z z ei z z

a r

Exponential Form Polar Form

z a bi

where

z a bi

is called the conjugate of z

- Modulus (or norm) - Argument (or phase)

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Arithmetic with Complex Numbers

To compute phasor voltages and currents, we need to be able to perform computation with complex numbers. Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division

Addition
Addition is most easily performed in rectangular coordinates: A = x + jy B = z + jw A + B = (x + z) + j(y + w)
Example on pg 113

Addition
Imaginary Axis A+ B

Real Axis

Subtraction
Problem 3 Add the phasors 14 60 degrees and 20 15 degrees. State the result in both rectangular and polar forms. Also illustrate using phasor diagram that the operation has been performed.

Subtraction is most easily performed in rectangular coordinates: A = x + jy B = z + jw A - B = (x - z) + j(y - w)

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Subtraction
Imaginary Axis

Multiplication
Multiplication is most easily performed in polar coordinates: A = AM B = BM f A B = (AM BM) ( f)

A A- B

Real Axis

Example on pg 115

Multiplication
Imaginary Axis B

Division
Division is most easily performed in polar coordinates: A = AM B = BM f
Real Axis

A B

A / B = (AM / BM) ( f)

Division
Imaginary Axis B

Arithmetic Operations of Complex Numbers

Add and Subtract: it is easiest to do this in rectangular format
Add/subtract the real and imaginary parts separately

Multiply and Divide: it is easiest to do this in exponential/polar format

Multiply (divide) the magnitudes Add (subtract) the phases Z1 z1e j z11 z1 cos 1 jz1 sin 1
1

A A/ B

Real Axis

Z 2 z2 e j2 z2 2 z2 cos 2 jz2 sin 2 Z1 Z 2 ( z1 cos 1 z2 cos 2 ) j ( z1 sin 1 z2 sin 2 ) Z1 Z 2 ( z1 cos 1 z2 cos 2 ) j ( z1 sin 1 z2 sin 2 ) Z1 Z 2 ( z1 z2 )e j (1 2 ) ( z1 z2 )(1 2 ) Z1 / Z 2 ( z1 / z2 )e j (1 2 ) ( z1 / z2 )(1 2 )

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Consider a phasor A, that will be raised to a power n

Raising a phasor to a given power

Extracting roots of a phasor

The inverse of the process of raising a phasor to a given power is employed in the extraction of the roots of a particular phasor Consider

A = AA
The n-root will be

Example: Find the square roots of A where A=3.08 + j8.455

An =

that is

A n

The remaining (n-1) roots will be found by adding 2q radians or 360 degrees to A before the division by n is performed . q is any integer and is used as 1,2,3.and (n-1) to obtain the remaining roots.

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Circuit Directions of Voltages and Currents

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Instantaneous Power Equation is

Power: Real and Reactive

General expression for average power when current and voltage is sinusoidal is:

The equation for average power may be written as

Instantaneous Power Equation

The third term is called the instantaneous reactive power or instantaneous reactive volt-amperes

The first two terms on the left side represent instantaneous real power. When 2t is an odd multiple of (eg. 1, 3, 5, etc.) the real power

Where V and I are rms values When 2t is an multiple of 2 the real power is zero Hence real power in a single-phase circuit fluctuates between 0 and 2VIcos, with an average value of VIcos

Volt-Amperes The product of effective voltage by effective current in an ac circuit is called volt-amperes. A larger unit is called kilovolt-amperes (kva) Power Factor Cosine is the factor by which volt-amperes are multiplied to give real power. Hence cos is called power factor.

Reactive Factor Sine is the factor by which volt-amperes are multiplied to give reactive volt-amperes or vars. Hence sin is called reactive factor.

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