Math 113 Homework 2 Solutions

due July 5, 2011

1. Prove that the additive group R+ of real numbers is isomorphic to the multiplicative group P of positive reals. Solution: Consider the function : R+ P given by (x) = ex . is a bijection, as it has an inverse 1 : P R+ given by 1 (x) = ln(x). Further, for all a, b R we have (a + b) = ea+b = ea eb = (a)(b), so is a homomorphism. Hence is an isomorphism and R+ = P. 2. Prove that the matrices A := and B := 1 1 1 1 1 1

are conjugate elements in the group GL2 (R), but that they are not conjugate when regarded as elements of SL2 (R). Solution: Consider the permutation matrix P = 1 . Observe that 1 P AP 1 = B . Further, det(P ) = 1, so P GL2 (R); this shows that A and B are conjugate as elements of GL2 (R). Now suppose they were conjugate by some element Q SL2 (R), say a b QAQ1 = B , where Q = . Then c d QA = a c a+b c+d = BQ = a a+c b b+d

Therefore a = 0 and b = c, so det(Q) = b2 < 0, contradicting Q SL2 (R). So A and B are not conjugate as elements of SL2 (R). 3. Prove that the set Aut(G) of automorphisms of a group G forms a group, the law of composition being composition of functions. Solution: The automorphisms form a subset of the permutations of the underlying set of G. Function composition is always associative, bijections are invertible (with inverse map also a bijection), and a composition of bijections is a bijection, so the permutations of the underlying set of G form a group. We must show that Aut(G) is a subgroup. 1

The identity map is clearly an automorphism. If Aut(G), then for all a, b G we have (1 (ab)) = ab = (1 (a))(1 (b)) = (1 (a)1 (b)) as is a homomorphism; applying 1 to both sides we see that 1 is likewise a homomorphism, hence an automorphism. Finally if , Aut(G), then for all a, b G, we have ( (ab)) = ( (a) (b)) = ( (a))( (b)) so a composition of automorphisms is an automorphism, and we are done. 4. Determine the group of automorphisms of the following groups. (a) Z+ Solution: Homomorphisms with cyclic domain are determined by the image of a generator x, since then (xn ) = (x)n ; if the domain is Z+ , 1 may go to any element of the codomain, so the set of homomorphisms : Z+ Z+ (called the endomorphisms of Z+ ) is just the collection of maps given by multiplication by an element of Z. Of these, only 1 and 1 (i.e. the maps (x) = x, (x) = x) are bijections. Hence the group of automorphisms is {1, 1} = Z/2Z. More simply, a map of cyclic groups is a surjection i the image of a generator is a generator; Z has two generators {1, 1}, which may be transposed or not. (b) a cyclic group of order 10 Solution: Again, representing the group operation as addition modulo 10, endomorphisms of this group are given by multiplication by some integer modulo 10. The only ones that are bijections are those taking 1 to a generator, corresponding to multiplication by an integer relatively prime to 10, namely 1, 3, 7, or 9. Thus |Aut(Z/10Z)| = 4. Let Aut(Z/10Z) be the map given by multiplication by 3 modulo 10. As 32 = 9 = 1 modulo 10, has order larger than 2, hence equal to 4, in Aut(Z/10Z), showing that Aut(Z/10Z) = Z/4Z is generated by . (c) S3 Solution: Given any group G, there is a homomorphism G : G Aut(G) taking an element a G to the automorphism of G given by conjugation by a. Observe that an element a G is in the kernel of this homomorphism i conjugation by a is the identity map, that is, aga1 = g for every g G, that is, a Z (G). Since Z (S3 ) is trivial, S3 : S3 Aut(S3 ) is injective. This shows that |Aut(S3 )| 6. On the other hand, S3 can be generated by the transpositions. Since an automorphism preserves orders of elements, every automorphism of S3 must permute the 3 transpositions of S3 . Since a homomorphism is determined by its restriction to any set generating the domain, this implies there are at most 3! = 6 automorphisms of S3 . Hence there are exactly 6 and the above map S3 is an isomorphism, that is, Aut(S3 ) = S3 . 2

5. Prove that the kernel and image of a homomorphism are subgroups. Solution: Let : G H be a group homomorphism. (1) = (1 1) = (1)(1) so (1) = 1. This shows both that 1 ker() and that 1 im(). Further, for all a in G we have that 1 = (1) = (aa1 ) = (a)(a1 ); multiplying on the left by (a)1 we obtain (a1 ) = (a)1 . This shows that if a ker() then a1 ker(), and that if a im() then a1 im(). Finally, if a, b ker() then (ab) = (a)(b) = 1, so ker() is closed and hence a subgroup of G. Likewise, for any (a), (b) im(), (a)(b) = (ab) shows that im() is closed and hence a subgroup of H . 6. Describe all homomorphisms : Z+ Z+ , and determine which are injective, which are surjective, and which are isomorphisms. Solution: As described in (4a), such a map is determined by the image of 1, since it must be that (n) = n(1), and all of these are distinct. So the maps are just multiplication by n for each n Z. These are injective unless n = 0, but only surjective in the cases n = 1 or n = 1, which are thus also the bijective cases. 7. (a) Let H be a subgroup of G, and let g G. The conjugate subgroup gHg 1 is dened to be the set of all conjugates ghg 1 , where h H . Prove that gHg 1 is a subgroup of G. Solution: Let ghg 1 gHg 1 , where h H ; then (ghg 1 )1 = gh1 g 1 is a conjugate of h1 H by g 1 , and so is also in gHg 1 . Also if gh1 g 1 and gh2 g 1 are any two elements of gHg 1 , then gh1 g 1 gh2 g 1 = g (h1 h2 )g 1 gHg 1 . Finally, 1 = g 1g 1 gHg 1 , so gHg 1 is nonempty and thus a subgroup. (b) Prove that a subgroup H of a group G is normal if and only if gHg 1 = H for all g G. Solution: If this equation holds, then for any h H , g G we have ghg 1 gHg 1 = H , so H is normal in G. Conversely, if H is normal, then for any g G, if x gHg 1 , there exists h H such that x = ghg 1 = h, so in fact gHg 1 = H . 8. Prove that the center of a group is a normal subgroup. Solution: If G is a group, then for all a Z (G), g G we have gag 1 = agg 1 = a Z (G) Therefore Z (G) is normal in G. 9. Prove that if a group contains exactly one element of order 2, then that element is in the center of the group. Solution: Let a be the unique element of order 2 in a group G. Then as conjugation preserves order (by the last homework), for every g G ag = gag 1 also has order 2, and hence ag = a. This means that ga = ag for every g G, i.e. that a Z (G). 3

10. Let : G G be a surjective homomorphism, and let N be a normal subgroup of G. Prove that (N ) is a normal subgroup of G . Solution: Let n (N ) and g G . There exist n N and g G such that (n) = n and (g ) = g . Then g n (g )1 = (g )(n)(n)1 = (gng 1 ) (N ) since gng 1 N by normality of N . Thus (N ) is a normal subgroup of G. 11. Let G be a group. Prove that the inversion function : G G given by (x) = x1 is a homomorphism i G is abelian. Solution: Observe that for all a, b G, we have (ab) = (b)(a). Now, if is a homomorphism, then for every a, b G we have ab = (a1 )(b1 ) = (a1 b1 ) = ((ba)1 ) = ba and therefore G is abelian. Conversely, if G is abelian, for every a, b G we have (ab) = (ab)1 = b1 a1 = a1 b1 = (a)(b) so is a homomorphism. 12. Prove that the nonempty bres of a map form a partition of the domain. Solution: Let f : A B be a function. For each a A, a f 1 [f (a)], so every element of the domain is in some nonempty bre of f . Further, if a f 1 (b), then b = f (a), so each element of the domain is in a unique nonempty bre of f . Hence the nonempty bres of f form a partition of A as desired. 13. (a) Prove that the relation x conjugate to y in a group G is an equivalence relation on G. Solution: Reexivity: for every x G, x = x1 , so x x. Symmetry: if x y there exists some g G such that xg = y , but then x = yg1 , so y x. Transitivity: if x = yg and y = zh , then x = zhg , so x y and y z implies x z . (b) Describe the elements a whose conjugacy class (= equivalence class) consists of the the element a alone. Solution: An element a is of this type precisely when gag 1 = a for all g G, that is, when a Z (G). 14. Prove directly that distinct cosets do not overlap. Solution: Let H be a subgroup of a group G, let a, b G, and let x aH bH . Then there are h1 , h2 H such that ah1 = x = bh2 . 1 1 Multiplying on the left by h 1 , we obtain a = bh2 h1 . Then for any 1 y aH , there exists some h3 H such that y = ah3 = bh2 h 1 h3 bH , so aH bH . By symmetry, bH aH , so aH = bH . Therefore, overlapping cosets are identical, i.e. distinct cosets do not overlap.

15. Let H, K be subgroups of a group G of orders 3, 5 respectively. Prove that H K = {1}. Solution: An intersection of subgroups is again a subgroup; this follows because for all a, b H K , ab1 H and ab1 K , so ab1 H K , and further 1 H K . Thus H K is a subgroup both of H and of K . By Lagranges theorem |H K | divides |H | = 3, and |H K | divides |K | = 5, so |H K | = 1; therefore, H K = {1}. Note that this argument immediately generalizes to show that any family of subgroups such that the greatest common divisor of their orders is 1 has trivial intersection. 16. (a) Prove that every subgroup of index 2 is normal. Solution: Let H be a subgroup of index 2 in a group G. Then the left cosets of H in G must consist of H , and G\H . These must also be the right cosets of H in G by the same argument. Therefore, the left and right cosets of H coincide, i.e. gH = Hg for all g G. This is equivalent to gHg 1 = H for all g G, which by (6b) is equivalent to normality of H . (b) Give an example of a subgroup of index 3 which is not normal. Solution: Consider (12) S3 . It is an index 3 subgroup, but is not normal as, for instance, (12)(23) = (13) / (12) .