America's Independent Way of Thinking First, let's take a look at the mindset of the founding fathers.

Geographic Considerations - The distance of the colonies from Great Britain created an independence that was hard to overcome. Those willing to colonize the new world generally had a strong independent streak desiring new opportunities and more freedom. Colonial Legislatures The e!istence of colonial legislatures meant that the colonies were in many ways independent of the crown. The legislatures were allowed to levy ta!es, muster troops, and pass laws. "ver time, these powers #ecame rights in the eyes of many colonists. $hen they were curtailed #y the British, conflict ensued. The future leaders of the %nited &tates were #orn in these legislatures. Salutary Neglect - 'ven though the British #elieved in mercantilism, (rime )inister *o#ert $alpole espoused a view of +salutary neglect.+ This was a system where#y the actual enforcement of e!ternal trade relations was la!. ,e #elieved this enhanced freedom would stimulate commerce. The Enlightenment )any of the revolutionary leaders had studied ma-or writings of the 'nlightenment including those of Thomas ,o##es, .ohn /ocke, .ean-.ac0ues *ousseau, and the Baron de )ontes0uieu. From these writings, the founders gleaned the concepts of the social contract, limited government, the consent of the governed, and separation of powers.

Major Events That Led to the American Revolution The road to revolution #uilt slowly over time. )any events fed the growing desire of the thirteen colonies for independence. Following are the ma-or events that led to the *evolution. 1234-1256 - French and Indian War This war #etween Britain and France ended with the victorious British deeply in de#t and demanding more revenue from the colonies. $ith the defeat of the French, the colonies #ecame less dependent on Britain for protection. 1256 - Proclamation of 1 !" This prohi#ited settlement #eyond the 7ppalachian )ountains. $hile Britain did not intend to harm the colonists, many colonists took offense at this order. 1254 - Sugar #ct This act raised revenue #y increasing duties on sugar imported from the $est 8ndies. 1254 - Currency #ct (arliament argued that colonial currency had caused a devaluation harmful to British trade. They #anned 7merican assem#lies from issuing paper #ills or #ills of credit. 1254 - Committees of Correspondence "rganized #y &amuel 7dams, these helped spread propaganda and information through letters. 1253 - $uartering #ct Britain ordered that colonists were to house and feed British soldiers if necessary. 1253 - Stamp #ct This re0uired ta! stamps on many items and documents including playing cards, newspapers, and marriage licenses. (rime )inister George Grenville stated that this direct ta! was intended for the colonies to pay for defense. (revious ta!es imposed #y Britain had #een indirect, or hidden. o 1253 - Stamp #ct Congress 8n 1253, 92 delegates from nine colonies met in :ew ;ork <ity and drew up a statement of rights and grievances there#y #ringing colonies together in opposition to Britain. o 1253 - Sons and %aughters of Li&erty <olonists tried to fight #ack #y imposing non-importation agreements. The &ons of /i#erty often took the law into their own hands enforcing these 'agreements' #y methods such as tar and feathering. 1252 - To'nshend #cts These ta!es were imposed to help make the colonial officials independent of the colonists and included duties on glass, paper, and tea. &mugglers increased their activities to avoid the ta! leading to more troops in Boston. 122= - (oston )assacre The colonists and British soldiers openly clashed in Boston. This event was used as an e!ample of British cruelty despite 0uestions a#out how it actually occurred. 1226 - Tea #ct To assist the failing British 'ast 8ndia <ompany, the <ompany was given a monopoly to trade tea in 7merica. o 1226 - (oston Tea Party 7 group of colonists disguised as 8ndians dumped tea over#oard from three ships in Boston ,ar#or. 1224 - Intolera&le #cts These were passed in response to the Boston Tea (arty and placed restrictions on the colonists including outlawing town meetings and the closing of Boston ,ar#or. 1224 - First Continental Congress 8n response to the 8ntolera#le 7cts, 19 of the 16 colonies met in (hiladelphia from &eptem#er-"cto#er, 1224. "ne of the main results of this was the creation of The 7ssociation calling for a #oycott of British goods. 1223 - Le*ington and Concord 8n 7pril, British troops were ordered to /e!ington and <oncord to seize stores of colonial gunpowder and to capture &amuel

7dams and .ohn ,ancock. 7t /e!ington, open conflict occurred and eight 7mericans were killed. 7t <oncord, the British troops were forced to retreat with the loss of 2= men. This was the first instance of open warfare. 1223 - Second Continental Congress 7ll 16 colonies were represented at this meeting in (hiladelphia #eginning )ay. The colonists still hoped that their grievances would #e met #y >ing George 888. George $ashington was named head of the <ontinental 7rmy. 1223 - (un+er ,ill This ma-or victory for the <olonists resulted in George 888 proclaiming the colonies in re#ellion.

8n the end, the 7merican *evolution grew out of increasing restrictions placed upon the colonies #y the British. "ne interesting side note? 8t is estimated that only one-third of the colonists were in favor of re#ellion. "ne-third continued to side with the British. The last third were neutral concerning the re#ellion and #reak from Great Britain. Societal Impacts of the #merican -e.olution /i#erty, repu#licanism, and independence are powerful causes. The patriots tenaciously asserted 7merican rights and #rought the *evolution. The *evolution #rought myriad conse0uences to the 7merican social fa#ric. There was no *eign of Terror as in the French *evolution. There was no replacement of the ruling class #y workers' groups as in revolutionary *ussia. ,ow then could the 7merican *evolution #e descri#ed as radical@ :early every aspect of 7merican life was somehow touched #y the revolutionary spirit. From slavery to women's rights, from religious life to voting, 7merican attitudes would #e forever changed. &ome changes would #e felt immediately. &lavery would not #e a#olished for another hundred years, #ut the *evolution saw the dawn of an organized a#olitionist movement. 'nglish traditions such as land inheritance laws were swept away almost immediately. The 7nglican <hurch in 7merica could no longer survive. 7fter all, the official head of the <hurch of 'ngland was the British monarch. &tates e!perimented with repu#lican ideas when drafting their own constitutions during the war. 7ll these ma-or changes would #e felt #y 7mericans #efore the dawn of the nineteenth century. The 7merican *evolution produced a new outlook among its people that would have ramifications long into the future. Groups e!cluded from immediate e0uality such as slaves and women would draw their later inspirations from revolutionary sentiments. 7mericans #egan to feel that their fight for li#erty was a glo#al fight. Future democracies would model their governments on ours. There are few events that would shake the world order like the success of the 7merican patriotic cause. The Impact of Sla.ery

)ore than 14= slaves lived and worked at 7ndrew .ackson's ,ermitage plantation in Tennessee in the 1A4='s /ife, li#erty and the pursuit of happiness simply did not seem consistent with the practice of chattel slavery. ,ow could a group of people feel so passionate a#out these unaliena#le rights, yet maintain the #rutal practice of human #ondage@ &omehow slavery would manage to survive the revolutionary era, #ut great changes were #rought to this peculiar institution nevertheless. The world's first antislavery society was founded in 1223 #y Buakers in (hiladelphia, the year the *evolution #egan. By 12AA, at least thirteen of these clu#s were known to e!ist in the 7merican colonies. &ome :orthern states #anned slavery outright, and some provided for the gradual end of slavery. 7t any rate, the climate of the *evolution made the institution unaccepta#le in the minds of many :ortherners, who did not rely on forced la#or as part of the economic system. :ortherners did not, however, go as far as to grant e0ual rights to freed #lacks. :onetheless, this ignited the philosophical de#ate that would #e waged throughout the ne!t century.

)any slaves achieved their freedom during the *evolution without formal emancipation. The British army, eager to de#ase the colonial economy, freed many slaves as they moved through the 7merican &outh. )any slaves in the :orth were granted their freedom if they agreed to fight for the 7merican cause. 7lthough a clear ma-ority of 7frican 7mericans remained in #ondage, the growth of free #lack communities in 7merica was greatly fostered #y the $ar for 7merican 8ndependence. *evolutionary sentiments led to the #anning of the importation of slaves in 1A=2. &lavery did not end overnight in 7merica. Before any meaningful reform could happen, people needed to recognize that the economic #enefit was vastly overshadowed #y the overwhelming repugnance, immorality, and inhumanity of slavery. # -e.olution in Social La'

/i#rary of <ongress :ew ;orkers topple a statue of >ing George 888 after hearing a reading of the Ceclaration of 8ndependence on .uly D, 1225. Curing the colonial era, 7mericans were #ound #y British law. :ow, they were no longer governed #y the <rown or #y colonial charter. 8ndependent, 7mericans could seek to eliminate or maintain laws as they saw fit. The possi#ilities were endless. *epu#lican revolutionary sentiment #rought significant change during the immediate postwar years.

,uge changes were made regarding land holding. 'nglish law re0uired land to #e passed down in its entirety from father to eldest son. This practice was known as primogeniture. This kept land concentrated in the hands of few individuals, hardly consistent with revolutionary thinking. $ithin fifteen years of the *evolution, not a single state had a primogeniture law on the #ooks. The cries of the landless, those who formerly paid 0uitrents and fees to the <rown, could now #e heard. ,uge estates of the /oyalists were divided into smaller units. These land seizures were harshest in :ew 'ngland, #ut e!isted to some e!tent throughout the 7merican colonies. The sale of the (enn family estate yielded over a million dollars to the new government. 8n addition, the Treaty of (aris granted the %nited &tates land out to the )ississippi *iver, which created a great opportunity for land hungry citizens to go west. Cespite the fact that much of this land was go##led up #y rich land speculators, the removal of the /oyalists served to #e a great social leveler. The fight for separation of church and state was on. 8n Eirginia, it hardly seemed appropriate to support the 7nglican <hurch of 'ngland with ta! dollars. The 7nglican <hurch itself #roke from its 'nglish hierarchy and renamed itself the 'piscopalian <hurch. &oon they were appointing their own 7merican clergy. Thomas .efferson helped win the #attle for religious freedom in Eirginia. The <ongregational (uritan churches in :ew 'ngland held on longerF however, #y 1A66, all states a#andoned the practice of a statesupported church. The *evolution had sparked great changes indeed. Political E*perience

The Bill of *ights 'very society needs a set of rules #y which to operate. 7fter the colonies declared independence from Great Britain, they had to write their own constitutions. 8mpassioned with the repu#lican spirit of the *evolution, political leaders pointed their ideals toward crafting +enlightened+ documents. The result was thirteen repu#lican la#oratories, each e!perimenting with new ways of realizing the goals of the *evolution. 8n addition, representatives from all the colonies worked together to craft the 7rticles of <onfederation, which itself provided the nascent nation with invalua#le e!perience. The state constitutions had much in common with each other. Fearful of a strong monarch, the states were reluctant to grant sweeping powers to a new government. )ost governors were kept purposefully weak to deter an individual from aspiring to regal status or power. The legislative and -udicial #ranches were elected regularly, so voters could hold them regularly accounta#le for their actions. )ost states granted their people a Bill of *ights to protect treasured li#erties from the threat of future despotism. (roperty re0uirements were still maintained, #ut in many cases they were lowered. 7lthough the wealthy maintained a disproportionately large percentage of legislative seats, their influence was diminished. This is reflected in the post-*evolutionary transfer of state capitals from wealthy sea#oard towns to the interior. 7t least seven states moved their centers of government. The most nota#le changes occurred in (ennsylvania, which moved its capital from (hiladelphia to ,arris#urg, and in :ew ;ork, which transferred its governing seat from :ew ;ork <ity to 7l#any. )assachusetts developed an idea that would soon #e implemented #y the entire nation. They made any changes to their constitution possi#le only #y constitutional convention. This inspired the nation's leaders to ratify changes in the 7rticles of <onfederation the same way. Truly political ideals of e0uality were set into place in the states #efore the war even came to a close. 1/d0 1-epu&lican )otherhood1

Gate at )t. ,olyoke <ollege, )assachusetts, founded #y )ary /yon. /yon, Gilpah Grant, .udith &argent )urray, and others educated in the years following the *evolution, opened the gates to further education for women. $omen's role in society was altered #y the 7merican *evolution. $omen who ran households in the a#sence of men #ecame more assertive. 7#igail 7dams, wife of .ohn, #ecame an early advocate of women's rights when she prompted her hus#and to +*emem#er the /adies+ when drawing up a new government. (re-*evolutionary ministers, particularly in (uritan )assachusetts, preached the moral superiority of men. 'nlightened thinkers re-ected this and knew that a repu#lic could only succeed if its citizens were virtuous and educated. $ho were the primary caretakers of 7merican children@ 7merican women. 8f the repu#lic were to succeed, women must #e schooled in virtue so they could teach their children. The first 7merican female academies were founded in the 12D=s. This idea of an educated woman #ecame known as +repu#lican motherhood.+ 7s in the case of the a#olition of slavery, changes for women would not come overnight. But the 7merican *evolution ignited these changes. 'ducation and respect would lead to the emergence of a powerful, outspoken middle class of women. By the mid nineteenth century, the &eneca Falls Ceclaration on the rights of women slightly alters Thomas .efferson's words #y saying? +$e hold these truths to #e self-evidentF that all men and women are created e0ual...+

Salient Features of the American Constitution Chec+s and (alances2 "ne of the most powerful weapons in the %& constitution which makes it one of the most important written documents in world is the system of check and #alance #etween the three tiers of state i.e. e!ecutive, legislative and -udiciary. (rief 3 Simple2

The %& <onstitution hardly consists of 5=== and is less than 19 pages in length which makes it one of the shortest and simply written constitutions of the world. Written Constitution2 The %& constitution is in the written form and comprises of 2 articles and 92 amendments had #een made since the constitution was made in 12A2. %ual Citi4enship2 The peoples living in 7merica are authorized to have dual citizenship according to their constitution. The 1st citizenship of #eing an 7merican and the 9nd is of the state which a citizen #elongs to. Secular State2 &ince the constitution declares 7merica as a secular state. Therefore no law can #e made which prohi#its or dents any religion in the country. Supremacy of the Constitution2 The %& <onstitution is the supreme document as descri#ed in the article 8E. The constitution is declared superior over the entire citizens, law making agencies and the government. :o law can #e passed contrary to the constitution. Strong Federation2 7rticle 8, section 2AD declares the federal form of government in 7merica. The stress is laid upon the strong center and relatively weaker states. (ill 5f -ights2 Bill of rights were the 1st ten amendments in the %& constitution which defined the rights of the peoples living in 7merica. -igid Constitution2 %& constitution is a rigid constitution #ecause it re0uires a difficult procedure to amend it. 'very amendment, which can #e moved in two different ways, must #e ratified #y three-fourths of the states. Separation of Po'ers2 The constitution is #ased on the doctrine of separation of powers. 7ccording to the constitution the national powers are divided into three departments i.e. e!ecutive, legislature and -udiciary. (icameralism2 7merican parliament is known as <ongress. 8t consists of two cham#ers. %pper house is the &enate and lower house is the ,ouse of *epresentatives. Independent 6udiciary2 The president of %&7 appoints the -udges #ut he has no power to remove them. 8t is only the legislature according to 7rticle 1 &ection 5, which can impeach the -udge of &upreme <ourt. 7ni.ersal Suffrage2 The <onstitution has given right to vote to every citizen who is 1A years old without any distinction of male or female. %i.ision of Po'ers2 7s the Federal Government re0uires a dou#le set of Government. That of center and those of states there must #e a division of powers #etween the two parts. 7ll those powers which are not stated in the constitution are to #e e!ercised #y the states. Spoils System2 This system was introduced #y (resident 7ndrew .ackson. 7ccording to this system the new president appoints all important official of the government sacking the previous administration. This system is known as the H&poilt &ystem #ecause the -o#s are distri#uted among the party men regardless of their merit, e!perience and talent. Presidential form of go.ernment2 The <onstitution esta#lishes a presidential form of government. The constitution vests all e!ecutive powers to the president .The president is the head of the state as well as the government. -epu&licanism2 There would #e *epu#licanism in the political structure of the %&. /aws made #y the legislature shall #e supreme as it represents the will of the people. The people who made those laws are elected #y the people themselves. So.ereignty of the People2 The pream#le of the %& <onstitution emphasizes the theory of popular sovereignty i.e. the ultimate authority has #een vested in the people of the %&7.

System of Chec+ and (alance in #merican Constitution

The %nited &tates <onstitution provided very direct safeguards to the freedoms of all 7mericans as the first three 7rticles of the %nited &tates <onstitution discuss a#out the specific powers reserved to the three #ranches of government that ena#le a #alance of power. The national government is divided into three #ranches? /egislative '!ecutive .udicial These three #ranches are not independent of one another #ecause the <onstitution set up a system of checks and #alances to help ensure that no one #ranch #ecomes too powerful. 'ach #ranch has powers that it can use to check and #alance the operations and power of the other two #ranches. Following is a look at the specific checks that each #ranch has #een given. The Legislati.e (ranch of Go.ernment )a+es the La's &ection &even outlines the procedure for passing #ills and resolutions. ,ere we find a good e!ample of Hchecks and #alances. 7 #ill might arise in the ,ouse and passed with a simple ma-ority. 8f then passed #y the &enate, it goes to the (resident for signature. "nce signed, the #ill #ecomes law. ,owever, if the (resident vetoes the #ill, #oth cham#ers can still pass the #ill with a two-thirds vote. This is referred to as a vote to Hoverride the veto. )ay override presidential vetoes with a two-thirds vote ,as the power over the purse strings to actually fund any e!ecutive actions )ay remove the president through impeachment &enate approves treaties &enate approves presidential appointments The Legislati.e (ranch has the follo'ing chec+s o.er the 6udicial (ranch2 <reates lower courts )ay remove -udges through impeachment &enate approves appointments of -udges

The E*ecuti.e (ranch of #merican Go.ernment The '!ecutive Branch is given the power to carry out the laws. 8t has the following checks over the /egislative Branch? Eeto power 7#ility to call special sessions of <ongress <an recommend legislation <an appeal to the people concerning legislation and more The E*ecuti.e (ranch has the follo'ing chec+s o.er the 6udicial (ranch2 (resident appoints &upreme <ourt and other federal -udges The 6udicial (ranch of 7nited States Go.ernment The .udicial Branch is given the power to interpret the laws. 8t has the following checks over the '!ecutive Branch? .udges, once appointed for life, are free from controls from the e!ecutive #ranch <ourts can -udge e!ecutive actions to #e unconstitutional through the power of .udicial review The 6udicial (ranch has the follo'ing chec+s o.er the Legislati.e (ranch2 <ourts can -udge legislative acts to #e unconstitutional. Conclusion The 7merican system of checks and #alances has worked well over the course of 7merica's history. 'ven though some huge clashes have occurred when vetoes have #een overridden or appointees have #een re-ected, these occasions are rare. The system was meant to keep the three #ranches in #alance. 'ven though there have #een times when one #ranch has risen preeminent, overall the three #ranches have achieved a worka#le #alance with no one #ranch holding all the governmental power.

George Washington (1789-1801) George $ashington was the unanimous choice as the 1st president of 7merica after winning the war of independence. ,e was #orn on 99nd Fe# 1269 in Eirginia to an 'nglish family. ,is #rotherIs mirage to a royal family helped him enter politics. ,e was a soldier with e!ceptional skills and led the army of 16 colonies in war of independence against British. 8nitially a staunch supporter of reconciliation with British #ut he also felt that there should #e no discrimination in the salaries and ranks of continental and the royal army. ,e was a more of military General than a politician #ut still good enough to drive the nascent 7merica out of its crisis as the 1st president of 7merica. Domestic Achie ements 10 ,amilton Financial Plan

7merica was going through one of the most crucial financial crisis after its #irth. 8n the meanwhile 7le!ander ,amilton was appointed as the secretary state of treasury. ,e gave a comprehensive plan to promote and sta#le the financial condition of 7merica. i0 *evenue generation via ta!ation ii0 (ayment of national and state de#ts JK34 million &tate Ce#tsL iii0 'sta#lishment of :ational Bank on the #asis of Bank of 'ngland i.0 'sta#lishment of %niform <urrency in all states of %&7 /0 Whis+ey -e&ellion 8n western (ennsylvania a group of farmers refused to pay federal e!cise duty on whiskey which was a challenge to the 7merican constitution and the government itself. Farmers insisted they wonIt #e a#le to #ear the #urden to pay ta! on the distilled whiskey from surplus corn $ashington responded #y federalizing 13,=== men in the state militia under the supervision of 7le!ander ,amilton. This led to the collapse of whiskey re#el without any #loodshed. This act of $ashington was appreciated #y the entire country. "0 West'ards E*pansion Cue to the treaty of Greenville and .ays, %& government controlled vast lands. <ongress passed a (u#lic /and 7ct in 12D5 for rapid settlement of land and selling federal land at reasona#le price. This also allowed process of adding new states to the union and in 12D1 Eermont #ecame the 1st newly added stated followed #y >entucky and Tennessee. 80 6udicial #ct This act was passed in 12AD and laid the foundation of -udicial system of %nited &tates of 7merica. 8t laid stress that the states -udiciary should #e under the control of federal -udiciary. Further points, it discussed are as under aL "ne <hief .ustice #L 3 7ssociate .udges cL 16 Cistricts dL Federal Cistrict <ourt along with 7ttorney General 90 Treaty of Green.ille The :ative 7mericans were defeated #y the 7merican army lead #y General 7nthony $ayne and in the #attle of Fallen Tim#er in :orthwestern "hio which led them to sign the HTreaty of Greenville in which the natives surrendered their claims on the "hio territory Foreign !olic" 10 French -e.olution 7mericans had hum#le feeling towards France #ecause of the French *evolution and France was the country that supported 7merica in the war of independence against British #ut when the revolution of France turned into violence. The 7merican decided to #e neutral and sidelined from the internal affairs of France. /0 Citi4en Genet 'dmond Genet was a French minister who came to 7merica and asked for %& assistance in French cause as per treaty of 122A. Genet was so outrageous with his conduct that even .efferson approved $ashington to ask French government to remove the offending diplomat. "nce recalled #y French government Genet chose to live in %&7, where he married and #ecame a %& citizen. "0 6ays Treaty $ashington sent his <hief -ustice on a special mission to Britain that they should stop the offensive practice of searching and seizing 7merican &hips and impressing seamen in British :avy. 7fter a year of negotiation, .ohn .ay #rought #ack a treaty in which British agreed to evacuate %& post in western frontier #ut did not said any thing a#out search and seizure of %& ships. 80 Proclamation of Neutrality 7 war #etween 'ngland and France #roke out. $ashington referred his ca#inet whether he should remain neutral or support France in the war. )a-ority of votes went in favor of neutrality as 7merica it self was a nascent country. "n 99nd 7pril 1D26 $ashington issued H(roclamation of :eutrality. 90 Pinc+ney Treaty &pain was in desperate need to have good relations with 7merica #ecause of tense relations with Britain. *ealizing the situation, 7merica sent their minister Thomas (inckney to )adrid where he signed the :Treaty of Son Loren4o;0 This gave 7mericans the access to lower )ississippi and :ew "reland. !0 <=> affairs The 7mericans were angered #y the reports of %& merchant ships search and seizure #y France. 7merica sent its minister to France to hold talks with French government. <ertain French ministers known as M, ;, and G met the delegation from %& in (aris and demanded a large sum of #ri#e to enter negotiations. 7merican Celegation refused and returned #ack. :)illions for defense &ut not a single cent for tri&ute to France; #ecame the slogan in 7merica. the condition were so severe that 7le!ander ,amilton demanded to wage a war against France in :orth 7merica #ut .ohn 7dam refused saying that the 7merican 7rmy and :avy was not that powerful and neither in the position to wage war against France. 0 Con.ention of 1?@@ :apoleon came into power in 1A== and there was a threat that he might wage a war against 7merica. 7merica sent another mission to France to revive the treaty of 122A. The mission was successful this time as napoleon too was eager to have good relations with 7merica and a convention was signed on 6=th &ep 1A== which removed the peril of war #etween the two countries. ?0 T'o Party System2 $ashington himself was appointed as a unanimous president of 7merica and it #ecame a popular #elief that the political parties are not needed as nothing was mentioned a#out the political parties in the constitution also. But this soon proved wrong as the de#ates #etween federalist and anti-federalist indicated that the two party system would emerge in 7merica as the permanent feature of politics. Cemocratic *epu#licans Federalist Washington Fare'ell #ddress 7t the time of his retirement he wrote a farewell which was pu#lish in 12D5 in the newspapers. This message had an enormous effect #ecause of $ashingtonIs prestige. The president spoke of the policies that he consider as unwise and warned 7mericans :ot to get involved in 'uropean affairs :ot to form political parties

:ot to avoid sectionalism :ot to make any permanent foreign alliance

War of 1?1/
The war of 1A19 is recorded as a military conflict #etween the British and 7mericans. This pro#a#ly was the 9nd war fought #etween the two countries after the war of independence. Britain at first was on the defensive mode as it was #usy in the war with :apoleon in 'urope #ut once the war with France ended in 1A14 British adopted aggressive strategy and send large invasion armies to fight 7merica. The nation went to war #itterly divided. $hile the south and west favored the conflict. The %.&. military was weak. The army had fewer than 2,=== regular soldiers, distri#uted in widely scattered posts along the coast, near the <anadian #order, and in the remote interior. The state militias were poorly trained and undisciplined. But yet they decided to declare the war against Britain. Causes of War From %& point of view, pressure leading to war came from two sides the continued %& neutral rights on sea and trou#les with Britain on western frontier. i0 Free Sea and Trade 7s a trading nation 7merica was dependant upon the free flow of ship over the 7tlantic "cean. ;et the #elligerents of 'urope France and Britain had no interest in neutral rights respect for each other. Cue to support from France in 7merican $ar of 8ndependence and French *evolution 7mericans had a soft corner toward France #ut the British violation was taken very #latantly. ii0 Impressments of #merican )erchants in -oyal Na.y British was involved in capturing and impressing the %& sailors in to the royal navy which was another cause that led %&7 to enter the war with Britain. iii0 (ritish Support to -ed Indians British were providing military and financial assistance to the *ed 8ndians to fight against the 7mericans which was denting the situation in 7merica. i.0 War ,a'+s 8n 1A1= there was a group of young repu#licans in congress. )any of them were from frontier states were very eager to fight a war with Britain. They were led #y .ohn <alhoun and ,enry <lay and they 0uickly gained significant influence in ,ouse of *epresentatives %eclaration of War 7merica invited British to held talks on the neutral rights #ut British delayed. Bothe the political pressure and British delay in talks led )adison to seek the declaration of war in -une1A19. In.asion of Canada 7 poorly e0uipped 7merican army led the e!pansion of <anada from three parts on 1A19. The forces captured <anada from Cetroit, :iagara and /ake <hamplain. The 7merican raid on Toronto and #urnt officials #uildings there #ut they British army easily repulsed them out and gained control. (urning of White ,ouse By the spring of 1A14, the defeat of :apoleon in 'urope ena#led British to #e more aggressive in war against %& and they send more troops toward :orth 7merica. 7t the <hesapeake campaign, British troops marched and captured $ashington C.< and set white house and other official #uilding on fire. (ritish troops set Treaty of Ghent British ,aving fought :apoleon for more than a decadeF they now were in desperate need of peace in 'urope. 7t the same time )adison and 7merica recognized that 7merica will #e una#le to get a decisive victory. Therefore 7merican peace commissioner traveled to Ghent, Belgium in 1A14 to held peace talk with Britain and finally a Treaty of Ghent was signed #etween the two countries. #ain !oints of $reat" of Ghent 7 halt to fight *eturn of all con0uered territories to prewar claimants *ecognition of prewar #oundary #etween <anada and 7merica The War Legacy From )adisonIs point of view, the war achieved none of its original aims. :evertheless, it had a num#er of important conse0uences for the future development of the 7merican repu#lic. They may #e listed as follows? 1. ,aving now survived two wars with Britain, a great power, the %nited &tates gained the respect of other nations. 9. The %nited &tates came to accept <anada as a neigh#or and a part of the British 'mpire. 6. $idely denounced for its talk of secession and disunion in :ew 'ngland, the Federalist (arty came to an end as a national force and declined even in :ew 'ngland. 4. Talk of nullification and secession in :ew 'ngland set a precedent that would later #e used #y the &outh. 3. 7#andoned #y their British allies, :ative 7mericans in the $est were forced to surrender large areas of land to white settlement. 5. 7s 'uropean goods #ecame unavaila#le due to the British naval #lockade, more %.&. factories were #uilt, and 7mericans took a #ig step toward industrial self-sufficiency. 2. $ar heroes such as 7ndrew .ackson and $illiam ,enry ,arrison would soon #e in the forefront of a new generation of political leaders. A. 7s a result of the war, there was a strong feeling of 7merican nationalism and also a growing #elief that the future for the %nited &tates lay in the $est and away from 'urope. #issouri Com%romise (18&0) 8n an effort to preserve the #alance of power in <ongress #etween slave and Free states, the )issouri <ompromise was passed in 1A9= admitting )issouri as a slave state and )aine as a free state. Furthermore, with the e!ception of )issouri, this law prohi#ited slavery in the /ouisiana Territory north of the 65N 6=O latitude line. 8n 1A34, the )issouri <ompromise was repealed #y the >ansas-:e#raska 7ct. Three years later the )issouri <ompromise was declared unconstitutional #y the &upreme <ourt in the Cred &cott decision, which ruled that <ongress did not have the authority to prohi#it slavery in the territories. The 7merican new #oundary lines were #eing drawn during the presidency of .ames )onroe. The population of 7merica #y that time was 1= millions. Curing this period of e!plosive growth new states were #eing added almost every year and the issue of slavery was increasingly dividing the nation. #ddition of as sla.e and Free states2 )ississippi Jslave &tateL 1A12 8llinois JFree &tateL 1A1A 7la#ama Jslave &tateL 1A1D By the time 7la#ama was added as a slave state the num#er of free and slave states #ecame e0ual as there were

11 free states 11 slave states But the application of adding )issouri as a slave state was a threat to upset the #alance #etween the free and slave states. The issue was presented in the %& congress for an action. <ongress had the right to a#olish slavery in any of the state including )issouri #ut this action was strongly opposed #y the leaders of the southern slave state. 7s they feared a#olishing slavery in )issouri may result in the im#alance this might help declaring slavery as an illegal institution. ,enry <lay, a leading congressman, played a crucial role in #rokering a two-part solution known as the )ISS57-I C5)P-5)ISE. 1st Point2 )issouri would #e admitted to the union as a slave state, #ut would #e #alanced #y the admission of )78:', a free state, that had long wanted to #e separated from )assachusetts. /nd Point2 slavery was to #e e!cluded from all new states in the /ouisiana (urchase north of the southern #oundary of )issouri. "rd Point2 Ban on &lavery over the north of )issouri #onroe Doctrine (18&') The )onroe Coctrine was a regular annual address of the president to the nation delivered on /nd %ecA 1?/" which ultimately #ecame the pillar of %& foreign policy in the nineteenth century, #ut its importance in the twentieth century is disputed. "n the one hand, it laid the grounds for 7merican e!pansion in the $estern ,emisphere and provided a framework of reciprocal non-interference in transatlantic relations. Therefore, a reconsideration of its impact is relevant to the discussion of the tension #etween internationalism and isolationism. 7n assessment of the relevance of the )onroe Coctrine in twentieth-century %& diplomacy must take into account that (i) It outlined a regionalist view of world affairs (ii) It expressed widespread notions of American culture, history, and national identity. The period of 1A12 to 1A9D can #e divided in two phases. The 1st period #elongs to .ames )onroe who #rought peace and security in the country therefore his period is known as era of good feelings. The period of .ohn Buincy 7dams was considered to #e the period of hardship and difficulties. Thus it was known as era of hard feelings 1817-18&() *ra of Goo+ Feelings 18&,- 18&9 *ra of -ar+ feelings The Principles of )onroe %octrine2 Anti-Colonization on-Intervention !elf "efense American ationalism and !elf-Awareness )ain Points in %octrine 10 7merican continent cannot #e considered as su#-ect for further colonization #y 'uropean powers. /0 'uropean political system is different than that of 7mericans and any attempt to e!tend to this system to 7merican hemisphere will #e considered dangerous to our peace and security. "0 7merica will not interfere in 'uropean war and their politics neither we do have any aim to oppress them. 7se of )onroe %octrine "#-ection to British 7lliance in Te!as in 1A65 1A43 $estward e!pansion during the presidency of .ames (olie 1A56 French empire in )e!ico was seriously taken #y 7mericans as violation of )onroe Coctrine (resident Theodore *oosevelt declared 7merican right to intervene in continent. *ffects The effects of the )onroe Coctrine on 'urope were mi!ed. $hile &pain did not attempt to restore empire in /atin 7merica, Britain continued as a dominant trade power there. &ome /atin 7merican nations resented the implications that the %nited &tates was somehow responsi#le for their well-#eing. 8t was not until the 1AA=s and the development of the %.&. :avy that the %.&. actually had the military power to enforce the )onroe Coctrine. A.raham /incoln (1801-180,) 7#raham /incoln was #orn on Fe#ruary 19, 1A=D in a log ca#in near present day ,odgenville, >entucky. ,is parents, Thomas and :ancy ,anks /incoln, named him after his pioneer grandfather who was shot dead #y hostile 8ndians in 12A5. 1A=D was the 15th (resident of 7merica. ,is family moved to 8ndiana and then to 8llinois, and /incoln gained what education he could along the way. $hile reading law, he worked in a store, managed a mill, surveyed, and split rails. 8n 1A64, he went to the 8llinois legislature as a $hig and #ecame the party's floor leader. For the ne!t 9= years he practiced law in &pringfield, e!cept for a single term J1A42 4DL in <ongress, where he denounced the )e!ican $ar. 8n 1A33, he was a candidate for senator and the ne!t year he -oined the new *epu#lican (arty. Achie ements of A.raham /incoln 10 Popular Leadership 7 poll was released in Fe#ruary 9==D. This poll was sponsored #y <-&(7: and consisted of a survey of 53 historians. The participants were asked to rank the presidents in ten categories ranging from pu#lic persuasion and economic management to international relations and moral authority. 7#raham /incoln finished first, George $ashington was second, and Franklin *oosevelt was third. /0 #&olition of Sla.ery 7#raham /incoln is remem#ered for his vital role as the leader in preserving the %nion during the <ivil $ar and #eginning the process that led to the end of slavery in the %nited &tates. The actual fact is that legal freedom for all slaves in the %nited &tates did not come until the final passage of the Thirteenth 7mendment in Cecem#er of 1A53. /incoln was a strong supporter of the amendment, #ut he was assassinated #efore its final enactment. "0 Lincoln and %omestic Society (resident /incoln's domestic policies included support for the ,omestead #ct. This act allowed poor people in the 'ast to o#tain land in the $est. ,e signed the )orrill #ct which was designed to aid in the esta#lishment of agricultural and mechanical colleges in each state. 7lso, /incoln signed legislation entitled the

National (an+ing #ct which esta#lished a national currency and provided for the creation of a network of national #anks. 8n addition, he signed tariff legislation that offered protection to 7merican industry and signed a #ill that chartered the first transcontinental railroad. 80 Wisest 7S President (oliticians love to 0uote 7#raham /incoln #ecause /incoln is considered 7merica's wisest president. 7 ma-or effect /incoln has on the %.&. today is simply through the good e!ample he set when it came to leadership and integrity. 90 Fugiti.e Sla.e #ct To soften the attitude of peoples in south /incoln supported the Fugitive &lave /aw or Fugitive &lave 7ct which was passed in 1A3=. This was one of the most controversial acts of the 1A3= compromise and heightened :orthern fears of a +slave power conspiracy+. 8t declared that all runaway slaves will #e #rought #ack to their masters. !0 Good -elations 'ith Ca&inet /incoln managed e!cellent relations with his advisors, ca#inet and military. $hen ever, there was disagreement among advisors and he, his leadership style often involved telling a story that demonstrated his point. /ots of times this method worked, and ca#inet admired and respected him for it. ,e could virtually disarm his enemies with his highly moralistic, skillful leadership. /incoln possessed 0ualities of kindness and compassion com#ined with wisdom. 8n fact, one of his nicknames was +Father 7#raham.+ 0 Foreign Policy The )a-or achievement of /incoln foreign policy was that it geared toward preventing foreign intervention in the <ivil $ar. ,e was a very shrewd diplomat and an e!cellent negotiator. )any countries would have entered the 7merican civil war, had there #een no 7#raham /incoln as the (resident of %nion #y that time. &ome of his ma-or achievements in foreign policy were? )ade Great Britain neutral in <ivil $ar :ot opted for any political support to a#olish slavery from 7merica. )aintained #etter trade relations with neigh#oring countries and 'urope.

18 Points of Woodro' Wilson

Curing the #loody #attles of the First $orld $ar, (resident $oodrow $ilson #egan to e!plain his plans for the peace following the war. )ost widely known was his message of a +peace without victory+ most completely e!plained in his +Fourteen (oints+ speech #efore <ongress on A .anuary 1D1A. The first five points consisted the idea of an +open+ world after the war. The ne!t eight points focused mainly upon the idea of granting +self-determination+ to national minorities in 'urope. )ost significant, however, was point num#er fourteen which stressed a +general association of nations+ to ensure +political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.+ 'ssentially, these Fourteen (oints signaled a generous, non-punitive postwar settlement. 10 #&olishment of Secret Treaties 7#olition of secret diplomacy #y adoption of open covenants JagreementsL openly arrived at. /0 #&solute Freedom of The Seas Freedom of the seas in peace and war, e!cept as the seas may #e closed in whole or in part #y international action to enforce international covenants. "0 -emo.al of economic &arriers and eBuality of trade *emoval of international trade #arriers where-ever possi#le and esta#lishment of e0ual trading conditions among the nations accepting the peace. 80 -eduction of armaments0 *eduction of armaments to the lowest point consistent with pu#lic safety. 90 #dCustment of colonial claims0 7d-ustment of colonial claims, taking into account the interests of the colonial population as well as those of the rival colonial powers. !0 E.acuation of -ussian Territories 'vacuation of German troops from *ussian territory, and an opportunity for *ussia, then engaged in the <ommunist revolution, to determine its form of government without outside interference. 0 Preser.ation of (elgian so.ereignty 'vacuation of German troops from Belgium. ?0 -estoration of French territory #lsaceDLorraine 'vacuation and restoration #y Germany of French territory, with restoration to France of 7lsace-/orraine. E0 -eDadCustment of Italian frontiers *ead-ustment of the frontiers of 8taly along clearly recogniza#le lines of nationality. 1@0 %i.ision and autonomous de.elopment of #ustriaD,ungary "pportunity of autonomous development for the peoples of 7ustria-,ungary. 110 -edra'ing of (al+an &oundaries 'vacuation #y the <entral (owers of &er#ia, )ontenegro, and *omaniaF granting of seaports to &er#iaF and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the Balkan states. 1/0 Limitations on Tur+ey 8nternationalization of the Cardanelles and self-determination for non-Turkish peoples under Turkish control. 1"0 Esta&lishment of an independent Poland an independent (oland with access to the sea. 180 #ssociation of nations FLeague of NationsG 7 /eague of :ations should #e set up to guarantee the political and territorial independence of all states.

Bush Coctrine
The (hrase Bush Coctrine was 1st used #y <harles >rauthammer in .une 9==1. This phrase initially descri#ed the policy of invasion of 7fghanistan. (resident Bush articulates his discrete concept of the Bush Coctrine. 7ccording to the (resident, his doctrine consisted of four +prongs,+ three of them practical, and one idealistic. They are the following? J8n his wordsL 1. )ake no distinction #etween terrorists and the nations that har#or them and hold #oth to account.

9. Take the fight to the enemy overseas #efore they can attack us again here at home. 6. <onfront threats #efore they fully materialize. 4. 7dvance li#erty and hope as an alternative to the enemy's ideology of repression and fear. )ain Characteristics 7 doctrine of unrivaled military supremacy 7 doctrine of preemptive or preventive war $illingness to act unilaterally if multilateral cooperation cannot #e achieved Criticism The Coctrine however has met significant criticism. The Bush Coctrine was polarizing #oth domestically and internationally. 8n 9==A, polls showed there was more anti-7mericanism than #efore the Bush administration formed the Bush CoctrineF this increase was pro#a#ly, at least partially, a result of implementing the Bush doctrine and conservative foreign policy.

Dulles Doctrine
The Culles' plan or the Culles Coctrine is the central document of a conspiracy theory, according to which the <87 chief 7llen Culles had developed a plan for %nited &tates to destroy the &oviet %nion during the <old war #y secretly corrupting the cultural heritage and moral values of the &oviet nation. The plan was first pu#lished in *ussia shortly after the dissolution of the %&&* and was often 0uoted #y prominent *ussian politicians, -ournalists and writers. The original program outlined #y the %& :ational &ecurity <ouncil in 1D4A esta#lished the #asic policy towards the &oviet %nion. ,owever, this te!t neither has anything to do with the <87 or 7llen Culles, nor do its contents #ear any te!tual similarity with the document presented #y the supporters of the conspiracy theory.

%-9 <risis
The relation #etween 7merica and *ussia were increasingly getting tense following the world war. *ussia denied to the H"pen &kies (roposal of 7merica in 1D33 which deteriorated the relations even further. %&7 instituted high altitude flights over *ussia to keep check and #alance on their activities #ecause of mistrust #etween the two. %-9 was a spying plan, which after a numerous successful flights was shot down #y the *ussian army 1st may 1D5=. The pilot of the plane Francis Gary was #rought down to &verdlovsk and this incidence had a lasting negative impact on the relation of two countries. Safe Landing of plane There re various theories that are given for the landing of plane on *ussian soil, #ut still it is a mystery to #e solved. ,owever some famous theories of %-9 /anding are given as #elow aL Gary was flying his plane #elow the high flying altitude and was hit #y anti-aircraft fire. #L Gary himself landed the plane in %&&*. cL There was a #om# on the #oard of plane. ConseBuences 8t can #e said that this was the #iggest and one of the most important incident that prolonged the cold war era. The (aris &ummit #etween *ussia and 7merica collapsed #ecause *ussia demand apology and the president #y that time 'isenhower was unwilling to give any apology. Gary was convicted of crime and was sentenced 6 years of -ail and 2 years of hard la#or. This incident lead to the <u#an )issile <risis and the %&-%&&* relation reached an all time low.

Cu&an )issile Crisis

The <u#an )issile <risis was the closest the world ever came to nuclear war. The %nited &tates armed forces were at their highest state of readiness ever and &oviet field commanders in <u#a were prepared to use #attlefield nuclear weapons to defend the island if it was invaded. /uckily, thanks to the #ravery of two men, (resident .ohn F. >ennedy and (remier :ikita >hrushchev, war was averted. 8n 1D59, the &oviet %nion was desperately #ehind the %nited &tates in the arms race. &oviet missiles were only powerful enough to #e launched against 'urope #ut %.&. missiles were capa#le of striking the entire &oviet %nion. 8n late 7pril 1D59, &oviet (remier :ikita >hrushchev conceived the idea of placing intermediate-range missiles in <u#a. 7 deployment in <u#a would dou#le the &oviet strategic arsenal and provide a real deterrent to a potential %.&. attack against the &oviet %nion. )eanwhile, Fidel <astro was looking for a way to defend his island nation from an attack #y the %.&. 'ver since the failed Bay of (igs invasion in 1D51F <astro felt a second attack was inevita#le. <onse0uently, he approved of >hrushchev's plan to place missiles on the island. 8n the summer of 1D59 the &oviet %nion worked 0uickly and secretly to #uild its missile installations in <u#a. For the %nited &tates, the crisis #egan on "cto#er 13, 1D59 when reconnaissance photographs revealed &oviet missiles under construction in <u#a. 'arly the ne!t day, (resident .ohn >ennedy was informed of the missile installations. >ennedy immediately organized the 'M-<")), a group of his twelve most important advisors to handle the crisis. 7fter seven days of guarded and intense de#ate within the upper echelons of government, >ennedy concluded to impose a naval 0uarantine around <u#a. ,e wished to prevent the arrival of more &oviet offensive weapons on the island. "n "cto#er 99, >ennedy announced the discovery of the missile installations to the pu#lic and his decision to 0uarantine the island. ,e also proclaimed that any nuclear missile launched from <u#a would #e regarded as an attack on the %nited &tates #y the &oviet %nion and demanded that the &oviets remove all of their offensive weapons from <u#a. Tensions finally #egan to ease on "cto#er 9A when >hrushchev announced that he would dismantle the installations and return the missiles to the &oviet %nion, e!pressing his trust that the %nited &tates would not invade <u#a. Further negotiations were held to implement the "cto#er 9A agreement, including a %nited &tates demand that &oviet light #om#ers #e removed from <u#a, and specifying the e!act form and conditions of %nited &tates assurances not to invade <u#a.

N#T5 D North #tlantic Treaty 5rgani4ation

North #tlantic Treaty was signed in 7pril 1D4D. %nder its terms, the %nited &tates, <anada, Great Britain, France, 8taly, Belgium, the :etherlands, /u!em#ourg, (ortugal, Cenmark, :orway, and 8celand agreed that an attack against one country would #e treated as an attack against all. The North #tlantic Treaty 5rgani4ation J:7T"L was created in the following year to integrate the military forces of the mem#er states in 'urope. :7T" was e!panded in 1D39 to include Greece and Turkey, and the admission of $est Germany in 1D33 caused the &oviet %nion to esta#lish a counterpart to the alliance through the Warsa' Pact0 :7T" is an 7lliance that consists of 9A independent mem#er countries :7T" was signed in 7pril 1D4D :7T" ,ead0uarters is located at (russelsA (elgium

)c<arthyism

8n 1D42, (resident Truman had ordered #ackground checks of every civilian in service to the government. $hen 7lger ,iss, a highranking &tate Cepartment official was convicted on espionage charges, fear of communists intensified. )c<arthy capitalized on national paranoia #y proclaiming that C5))7NIST SPIES were omnipresent and that he was 7merica's only salvation. 7n atmosphere of fear of world domination #y communists hung over 7merica in the postwar years. There were fears of a nuclear holocaust #ased on the knowledge that the &oviet %nion e!ploded its first 7-#om# in 1D4D. That same year, <hina, the world's most populous nation, #ecame communist. ,alf of 'urope was under .oseph &talin's influence, and every time 7mericans read their newspapers there seemed to #e a new atomic threat. 7t a speech on Fe#ruary D, 1D3=, )c<arthy launched his first salvo. ,e proclaimed that he was aware of 9=3 card-carrying mem#ers of the <ommunist (arty who worked for the %nited &tates Cepartment of &tate. 7 few days later, he repeated the charges at a speech in &alt /ake <ity. )c<arthy soon #egan to attract headline

Cold War
The <old $ar had its roots in $orld $ar 88, when the repeated delays in opening a second front in 'urope made the *ussians suspicious of the $estern 7llies' motives. Those concerns were heightened when the %nited &tates discontinued lend-lease aid to the &oviet %nion soon after the war ended. &talin's commitment at ;alta to allow free elections in 'astern 'urope was 0uickly #roken. Iron Curtain across Europe To ensure Hfriendly states on its western #orders, the %&&* supported and helped install <ommunistdominated governments in (oland, Bulgaria, and *umania J*omaniaL in the spring and summer of 1D43. $ithin a year, as $inston <hurchill told an 7merican audience, an Hiron curtain had descended across 'urope, separating the Hfree democratic nations of the $est from the Hcaptive <ommunist nations of the 'ast. Cold War in Nutshell The $orld was #ipolar after world war %&&* P %&7 were the two super powers after $orld $ar 88 'ra of <old $ar 1D43 1DD= 7 war of economic system J<apitalism vs. <ommunismL Both ideologies over the control of 'uropean countries and their economies :7T", %:", $arsaw (act were the tools of this war 1D2D %&&* invaded 7fghan 1Where there 2SS3 4ill go5 America 4ill go there6 %&7 1D2D-1DAD $ar in 7fghan and %& military support to (ak and 7fghan to fight %&&* 1DAD Breakdown of $all of Berlin Cisintegration of %&&* into 13 countries JBaltic and <7*IsL 1DD1 cold war came to an end after dismem#erment of %&&*. 1DD1 onwards the world #ecame %ni-polar. 7merican (resident *onald *eagan J1DA1-ADL was declared ,ero of the <old war

%ollar %iplomacy
This term was originally coined #y Theodore *oosevelt. Collar Ciplomacy is the term used to descri#e the effort of the %nited &tates particularly under (resident $illiam ,oward Taft - to further its aims in /atin 7merica and 'ast 7sia through use of its economic power #y guaranteeing loans made to foreign countries in 1D16. (enefits of Granting Loans i0 They wanted to introduce 7merican Collar as an international <urrency ii0 'conomic (rosperity of %&7 iii0 '!pansion of %& values a#road i.0 &ta#ility a#road 8n &hort it was a strategy to #ring 7merican Collar as powerful currency of the world

5pen %oor %iplomacy

The "pen Coor (olicy is a treaty which was formulated #y the 7merican &ecretary to &tate, .ohn ,ay, in 1ADD, and was an important part of 7merican history. The treaty proposed that all nations would have e0ual rights to access <hinese ports for trade and #usiness purposes. This was informed to all the first-world countries like Britain, Germany, France, 8taly, .apan and *ussia. 8t received mi!ed response from the aforementioned countries #ut was later assumed to #e the #est step to tie trading relationships with the oriental world. There shall #e no intervention with any other treaty or port or issues regarding other nations. <hina would have the authority to levy duties on all merchandise imported to or e!ported from its own territories. The normal <hinese tariff shall #e applica#le to all the freighted goods. <hina would not #e authorized to charge additional ta!es or dues on ships and vessels #elonging to foreign countries than what they would #e charging their own vessels. This (olicy started to decay after the onset of local opposition and the war #etween *ussia and .apan in 1D=4. 'ventually, the policy ceased to e!ist after the .apanese seizure of )anchuria and advent of <ommunism in <hina in 1D43. The "pen Coor (olicy was aimed at improving relationships #etween the 'ast and the $est. "n the contrary, it elicited 0uite a massive uproar amongst the natives. The <hinese inha#itants were not happy with the foreign trespassing and open trade, which was conse0uently #rought down #ecause of the conflicting principles and there#y, the preceding events. ,owever, its demise marked the inception of <ommunist era in <hina and the rest is history.

%r0 )artin Luther HingA 6r0

Born in 7tlanta, Georgia, Cr. )artin /uther >ing, .r., graduated from )orehouse <ollege JB.7., 1D4AL, <rozer Theological &eminary JB.C., 1D31L, and Boston %niversity J(h.C., 1D33L. The son of the pastor of the '#enezer Baptist <hurch in 7tlanta, >ing was ordained in 1D42 and #ecame J1D34L minister of a Baptist church in )ontgomery, 7la. ,e led the #lack #oycott J1D33-35L of segregated city #us lines and in 1D35 gained a ma-or victory and prestige as a civil-rights leader when )ontgomery #uses #egan to operate on a desegregated #asis. Southern Christian Leadership Conference >ing organized the &outhern <hristian /eadership <onference J&</<L, which gave him a #ase to pursue further civil-rights activities, first in the &outh and later nationwide. ,is philosophy of nonviolent resistance led to his

arrest on numerous occasions in the 1D3=s and 5=s. ,is campaigns had mi!ed success, #ut the protest he led in Birmingham, 7la., in 1D56 #rought him worldwide attention. ,e spearheaded the 7ug., 1D56, )arch on $ashington, which #rought together more than 9==,=== people No&el Peace Pri4e2 "n 1=th of Cec, 1D54 )artin /uther >ing, .r., was the youngest man to have received the :o#el (eace (rize. $hen notified of his selection, he announced that he would turn over the prize money of K34,196 to the furtherance of the civil rights movement. ,e was 63 years old when he got this award. )artin Luther HingIs 1I ,a.e a %ream1 Speech2 ,e planned the drives in 7la#ama for the registration of :egroes as votersF he directed the peaceful march on $ashington, C.<., of 93=,=== people to whom he delivered his address, +l ,ave a Cream+, he conferred with (resident .ohn F. >ennedy and campaigned for (resident /yndon B. .ohnsonF he was arrested upwards of twenty times and assaulted at least four timesF he was awarded five honorary degreesF was named )an of the ;ear #y Time magazine in 1D56F and #ecame not only the sym#olic leader of 7merican #lacks #ut also a world figure. Letter from a (irmingham 6ail2 Cr. )artin /uther >ing, .r. was a ma-or part of many nonviolent protests as he helped lead the fight for desegregation and e0ual rights. ,e was arrested numerous times. 8n 1D56, numerous +sit-ins+ were staged in Birmingham, 7la#ama to protest segregation in restaurants and eating facilities. >ing was arrested during one of these and while he was imprisoned wrote his famous +/etter from a Birmingham .ail.+ 8n this letter he argued that only through visi#le protests would progress #e made. ,e argued that it was an individual's duty to protest and in fact diso#ey un-ust laws. #ssassination2 Between 1D53 and 1D5A, >ing continued with his protest work and fight for <ivil *ights. >ing #ecame a critic of the $ar in Eietnam. $hile speaking from a #alcony at the /orraine )otel in )emphis, Tennessee on 7pril 4, 1D5A, )artin /uther >ing was assassinated. .ames 'arl *ay was arrested and charged with the assassination, there have #een and still are 0uestions to his guilt and whether there was a larger conspiracy at work.

PanD#mericanism
The essence of (an 7mericanism is in the prefi! +pan+ which derives from a Greek word meaning all. (laced in front of 7mericanism, (an implies a union of all the nations of the 7mericas. "r, taken down even further, it suggests a -oining of all the peoples of these nations for a common goal, which is the pursuit of friendship and goodwill. Benito .uarez in )e!ico and 7#raham /incoln in the %nited &tates were two of the leaders who typified the (an 7merican effort. Both were #orn poor, and #oth rose to the head of their individual nations. Both sought freedom and e0uality for all men. 8n 1AD=, the role of (an 7mericanism turned from using conflict to ensure freedom to seeking more peaceful means to achieve the same goal. The first (an 7merican <onference was held in $ashington, C< that year. 8ts purpose was to preserve peace among the 7mericas. The (an 7merican %nion was esta#lished out of this conference in 1D1=. 8t devoted itself to promoting friendship and cooperative action in the 7mericas. 8n 1D6=, it succeeded in having #pril 18 named Pan #merican %ay to cele#rate this united effort throughout the $estern ,emisphere. The (an 7merican effort changed government as well. (resident Franklin C. *oosevelt #rought 91 $estern ,emisphere nations together in 1D4A in what today is called the "rganization of 7merican &tates J"7&L. Friendship among 7merican nations has #een a cornerstone of every presidential policy since. Today there are 63 mem#er nations in the "7&.

Treaty of Jersailles
8n 1D1D, /loyd George of 'ngland, "rlando of 8taly, <lemenceau of France and $oodrow $ilson from the %& met to discuss how Germany was to #e made to pay for the damage world war one had caused. $oodrow $ilson wanted a treaty #ased on his 14-point plan which he #elieved would #ring peace to 'urope. Germany was not happy with the terms of the Treaty of Eersailles. ,owever, they had no choice #ut to sign the document. The main terms of the Treaty of Jersailles 'ere2 i0 $ar Guilt <lause - Germany should accept the #lame for starting $orld $ar "ne ii0 *eparations - Germany had to pay Q5,5== million for the damage caused #y the war iii0 Cisarmament - Germany was only allowed to have a small army and si! naval ships. :o tanks, no air force and no su#marines were allowed. The *hineland area was to #e de-militarized. i.0 Territorial <lauses - /and was taken away from Germany and given to other countries. 7nschluss Junion with 7ustriaL was for#idden.