Animal cells and plant cells Animal cells usually have an irregular shape, and plant cells usually

have a regular shape Cells are made up of different parts. It is easier to explain what these parts are by using diagrams like the ones below. Plant Cell Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that differ in several key aspects from the cells of other eukaryotic organisms. Their distinctive features include: A large central vacuole, a water-filled volume enclosed by a membrane known as the tonoplast[1][2] that maintains the cell's turgor, controls movement of molecules between the cytosol and sap, stores useful material and digests waste proteins and organelles. A cell wall composed of cellulose and hemicellulose, pectin and in many cases lignin, is secreted by the protoplast on the outside of the cell membrane. This contrasts with the cell walls of fungi (which are made of chitin), and of bacteria, which are made ofpeptidoglycan. Specialized cell-to-cell communication pathways known as plasmodesmata,[3] pores in the primary cell wall through which theplasmalemma and endoplasmic reticulum[4] of adjacent cells are continuous. Plastids, the most notable being the chloroplast, which contains chlorophyll, a green-colored pigment that absorbs sunlight, and allows the plant to make its own food in the process known as photosynthesis. Other types of plastids are the amyloplasts, specialized for starch storage, elaioplasts specialized for fat storage, and chromoplasts specialized for synthesis and storage ofpigments. As in mitochondria, which have a genome encoding 37 genes, plastids have their own genomes of about 100120 unique genes[6] and, it is presumed, arose as prokaryotic endosymbionts living in the cells of an early eukaryotic ancestor of theland plants and algae. Cell division by construction of a phragmoplast as a template for building a cell plate late in cytokinesis is characteristic of land plants and a few groups of algae, notably the Charophytes[8]and the Order Trentepohliales Animal Cell Cell in an animal, which, like all eukaryotic cells, has a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and anucleus, but in which the surface consists of the cell surface membrane only it does not have a cell wall. The cell surface membrane keeps the cell together by being strong, even though it is very thin and flexible. The membrane also controls what enters and leaves the cell. For example, nutrients need to be able to enter and waste materials to leave. The cell

contains cytoplasm, in which is located a nucleus. This controls the activities of the cell. An animal is made up of many thousands of cells, which are used as building blocks. However, as with a house, different types of building blocks are used in different places. Groups of similar cells form a tissue. An example of this is the tissue forming the brain. One of the specialized cells found in this tissue is the neurone or nerve cell. The brain is an organmade up of a number of different tissues. The blood is a tissue consisting mainly of another type of specialized cell the red blood cell. Other specialized cells include the epithelium and sperm cell.

Eurafrasia[change | edit source]

Eurafrasia is a continent in the three-continent system and includes Africa, Asia and Europe.

Africa[change | edit source]

Africa is a continent in the systems with 5 or more continents, consisting of 57 countries.

Algeria - Algiers(Al - Jaza'ir) Angola - Luanda Benin - Porto Novo, Cotonou Botswana - Gaborone Burkina Faso - Ouagadougou Burundi - Bujumbura Cameroon (also spelled Cameroun) - Yaound Cape Verde - Praia Central African Republic (Centrafrique) - Bangui Chad (Tchad) - N'Djamena Comoros - Moroni Republic of the Congo - Brazzaville Democratic Republic of the Congo - Kinshasa Cte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) - Yamoussoukro Djibouti - Djibouti Egypt (Misr) - Cairo Equatorial Guinea - Malabo

Eritrea - Asmara Ethiopia (Itiopia) - Addis Ababa Gabon - Libreville The Gambia - Banjul Ghana - Accra Guinea - Conakry Guinea-Bissau - Bissau Kenya - Nairobi Lesotho - Maseru Liberia - Monrovia Libya - Tripoli Madagascar - Antananarivo Malawi - Lilongwe Mali - Bamako Mauritania - Nouakchott Mauritius - Port Louis Morocco (Al Maghrib) - Rabat Mozambique - Maputo Namibia - Windhoek Niger - Niamey Nigeria - Abuja Rwanda - Kigali So Tom and Prncipe - So Tom Senegal - Dakar Seychelles - Victoria, Seychelles Sierra Leone - Freetown Somalia - Mogadishu South Africa - Cape Town, Pretoria, Bloemfontein South Sudan - Juba Sudan - Khartoum Swaziland - Mbabane Tanzania - Dar es Salaam, Dodoma Togo - Lome Tunisia - Tunis Uganda - Kampala

Western Sahara *DISPUTED* - La'youn Zambia - Lusaka Zaire - Kinshasa Zimbabwe - Harare

Eurasia[change | edit source]

Eurasia is a continent in the 5 continent systems, called simply Asia in one of them.

Asia[change | edit source]

Asia is a continent in the 5 continent systems (but includes Europe in one of them) and those with 6 or more continents. The 49 countries within it are as follows:

Afghanistan - Kabul Armenia - Yerevan Azerbaijan - Baku Bahrain - Manama Bangladesh - Dhaka Bhutan - Thimphu Brunei - Bandar Seri Begawan Cambodia (Kampuchea) - Phnom Penh China, People's Republic of - Beijing Taiwan (a.k.a. Republic Of China) - Taipei East Timor (Timor Leste) - Dili India (Hindi: Bharat) - New Delhi Indonesia - Jakarta Iran - Tehran Iraq - Baghdad Israel - Jerusalem Palestine - Jerusalem Japan (Nihon) - Tokyo Jordan (Al Urdun) - Amman Kazakhstan - Astana Kuwait - Kuwait Kyrgyzstan - Bishkek Laos - Vientiane

Lebanon (Lubnan) - Beirut Malaysia - Kuala Lumpur Maldives - Mal Mongolia - Ulaanbaatar Myanmar (Burma) - Naypyidaw Nepal - Kathmandu North Korea - Pyongyang Oman - Muscat Pakistan - Islamabad Philippines - Manila Qatar - Doha Russia () - Moscow Saudi Arabia - Riyadh Singapore - Singapore South Korea - Seoul Sri Lanka - Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte, not Colombo now Syria - Damascus Tajikistan - Dushanbe Thailand (Muang Thai) - Bangkok Tibet Turkey - Ankara Turkmenistan - Agabat United Arab Emirates - Abu Dhabi Uzbekistan - Tashkent Vietnam - Hanoi Yemen - Sana'a

Europe[change | edit source]

Europe is a continent in one of the 6 continent systems and the 7 continent system. In other systems it is part of Asia, Eurasia or Eurafrasia. 47 countries are listed below.

Albania (Shqipria) - Tirana Andorra - Andorra la Vella Austria (sterreich) - Vienna Belarus - Minsk

Belgium - Brussels Bosnia and Herzegovina - Sarajevo Bulgaria () - Sofia Croatia (Hrvatska) - Zagreb Cyprus (Kupros) - Nicosia Czech Republic (esko) - Prague Denmark (Danmark) - Copenhagen* Estonia (Eesti) - Tallinn Finland (Suomi) - Helsinki France - Paris Georgia () - Tbilisi Germany (Deutschland) - Berlin Greece (Hellas) - Athens Hungary (Magyarorszg) - Budapest Iceland (Island) - Reykjavik Republic of Ireland (ire) - Dublin Italy (Italia) - Rome Latvia (Latvijas) - Riga Liechtenstein - Vaduz Lithuania (Lietuvos) - Vilnius Luxembourg - Luxembourg City (Former Yugoslav) Republic of Macedonia - Skopje Malta - Valletta Moldova - Chisinau Monaco - Monaco Montenegro (Crna Gora, ) - Podgorica Netherlands (Nederland) - Amsterdam (Capital), The Hague (Location of Government) Norway (Norge) - Oslo Poland (Polska) - Warsaw Portugal - Lisbon Romania (Romnia) - Bucharest Russia () - Moscow San Marino - San Marino Serbia () - Belgrade

Slovakia (Slovensko) - Bratislava Slovenia (Slovenija) - Ljubljana Spain (Espaa) - Madrid Sweden (Sverige) - Stockholm Switzerland - Bern Turkey - Ankara Ukraine () - Kyiv or Kiev United Kingdom - London Vatican City - Vatican City

America[change | edit source]

America is a continent in the 4, 5 and one of the 6 continent systems.

North America[change | edit source]

North America is a continent in the 7 continent system, consisting of 3 countries.

United States - Washington DC Mexico - Mexico City Canada - Ottawa

Central America and the Antilles[change | edit source]

Central America is a continent in the 6 continent system, consisting of 23 countries.

Antigua and Barbuda - St. John's Bahamas - Nassau Barbados - Bridgetown Belize - Belmopan Cayman Islands - George Town Costa Rica - San Jos Cuba - Havana Dominica - Roseau Dominican Republic (Republica Dominicana) - Santo Domingo El Salvador - San Salvador Grenada - St George's Guatemala - Guatemala Haiti - Port-au-Prince Honduras - Tegucigalpa

Jamaica - Kingston, Jamaica Nicaragua - Managua Panama (Panam) - Panama City Puerto Rico - San Juan Saint Kitts and Nevis - Basseterre Saint Lucia - Castries Saint Vincent and the Grenadines - Kingstown Trinidad and Tobago - Port of Spain Turks and Caicos - Cockburn Town

South America[change | edit source]

South America is a continent in the seven continent system. In other systems it is part of America. The 13 countries belonging to it are as follows:

Argentina - Buenos Aires Bolivia - La Paz, Sucre. Brazil (Brasil) - Braslia Chile - Santiago Colombia - Bogot Ecuador - Quito French Guiana - Cayenne (part of France) Guyana - Georgetown Paraguay - Asuncion Peru - Lima Suriname - Paramaribo Uruguay - Montevideo Venezuela - Caracas

Oceania[change | edit source]

Several terms are in use to describe the region comprising Australia and the nations of the Pacific Ocean. The term Oceania is usually preferred, and this is the term in use by the United Nations. The term Pacific Islands generally excludes the islands of New Zealand, and the continent of Australia. The indigenous Mori of New Zealand are a Polynesian people. Historically the region was called Australasia, although this often meant just Australia, New Zealand and sometimes Papua New Guinea. The term gives special emphasis to Australia and is falling out of favour.

The countries (26 total) are listed below according to their UN classification:

Australasia (Australia and New Zealand)[change | edit source]

Australia - Canberra New Zealand (Aotearoa) - Wellington

Melanesia[change | edit source]

Fiji - Suva Papua New Guinea - Port Moresby Solomon Islands - Honiara Vanuatu - Port Vila

Micronesia[change | edit source]

Kiribati - South Tarawa Marshall Islands - Majuro Micronesia - Palikir Nauru - Yaren Palau - Koror

Polynesia[change | edit source]

Samoa - Apia Tonga - Nuku'alofa Tuvalu - Funafuti