NATIONAL FORUM OF APPLIED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL

VOLUME 21, NUMBER 1, 2007--2008

THE IMPACT OF AN EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE INTERVENTION
PROGRAM ON FRESHMEN
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
George R. Potter
Texas A&M University--Kingsville

ABSTRACT

The study examined the impact of a campus wide Emotional Intelligence

intervention program on freshmen students at a South Texas institution of
higher education. Results of the study indicated significant improvement in the self-
reported emotional intelligence skills of the intervention group (Total EI skill scores). Pre
and post-test results for the comparison group were not significant. When controlling for
pre-test differences (ANCOVA) the intervention group demonstrated significantly higher
scores on the Commitment Ethic scale than the comparison group. These findings
suggested an overall positive effect of the EI intervention program on freshmen skill
levels.

s
Introduction

ince the early 1900s, intellectual intelligence and standardized

scholastic aptitude tests were the foundation for evaluating
student academic achievement as well as determining entrance
into college. Assessment tools screen applicants to postgraduate
programs. A plethora of standardized assessments have been used to
make predictions about student success, retention, and success in
employment following graduation. There exists a growing body of
evidence suggesting that these tests are poor predictors of future
behavior and have often been misused (Epstein 1998; Sternberg 1996).

66
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Many talented and successful students, leaders, and individuals have

not been selected because of reliance on these types of tests
(Kincheloe, Steinburg, & Gresson, 1996).

Measurement of student achievement has been an increasing

trend in education today. Texas, like many other states, has mandated
levels of proficiency for promotion into the next grade. The problem
associated with this trend has been that most, if not all of these
measurements, are cognitive factual tests that are singular in
dimension (Epstein, 1998). Tests that are of a singular dimension have
assessed only one aspect of cognition or recollection as compared to a
test that is multi-dimensional and measures several or many aspects of
learning or traits. Many studies have indicated that students of low
socio-economic, ethnic, and culturally diverse backgrounds have done
poorly on these single dimension test types like the SAT (The College
Board, “Dimensions of the Minority High Achievement Problem”,
2000).

Traditional teaching methods in higher education have centered

on the distribution of knowledge held solely by the professor or
instructor and imparting this knowledge to students by means of
lecturing. Students have had the total responsibility for absorption of
the information. Many talented and gifted students, oftentimes first
generation college students and students from culturally, ethnically, or
economically diverse backgrounds, have failed or struggled with this
type of instruction. The loss of potential talent and future leadership is
a resource seldom accounted for, and may be lost forever. Lecture-
only instruction has been directed toward auditory learning style and
the cognitive domain (Francis, K., McDaniel, M., & Doyle, R., 1987).
. This type of instruction may have augmented students fluent in the
same language as the presenter. Lecture only instruction has not met
the needs of students with a different type of learning style such as the
students with a different first language. Additionally, lecture style
instruction has favored students with college-educated parents and
 George R. Potter 68

similar socio-economic, cultural, and ethical backgrounds to the

instructor. Sternberg (1996) has suggested that different cultures have
a different perception of intelligence.

Background of the Problem

Promise for advancement in the understanding of factors in

student success has been balanced by a lack of consensus on what
defines emotional intelligence (Epstein, 1998). Additionally, few
universal intervention programs have existed to aid in student success.
More research was needed that explore the effects of emotional
intelligence on future academic success. Goleman’s work served as a
model that evaluated the application of emotional intelligence to
success in the business world.

Institutions serving a high percentage of minority and low-

income based students have especially needed intervention programs.
Additional assets, such as intervention programs, are needed at
regional or community colleges. Low income and minority students at
the secondary education level, if retained, fail twice as often as
middle-class white students. This pattern of failure has continued into
the freshman college year if intervention was not provided (Marshall,
2003).

Purpose of the Study

The study was designed to examine the impact of an emotional

intelligence intervention program on freshmen students enrolled in
higher education.
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Research Methodology and Design

The study was a mixed method of qualitative and quantitative

measures. “Mixed methods in evaluation have [sic] been extensively
explored and have been widely accepted as a useful and valid means
of gathering diverse information” (Brace-Govan, 2002, p. 50). A
qualitative approach was used to discover and identify patterns or
themes emerging from data collected from open-ended questionnaire
collected during interviews. Quantitative research was used to
determine the relationships between pre-test/post-test scores and
intervention/control groups.

The study consisted of a self-administered pre-test and a post-test

assessment with the intervention program given to all subjects
participating in the intervention program. A control group received
pre-test and post-test without the intervention program, but instead
received only an introduction about emotional intelligence.

The study was descriptive and inferential and applied a quasi-

experimental, nonequivalent control group as a quantitative design. A
deductive logical approach was used and the theoretical concept of
Emotional Intelligence was narrowed to three hypotheses that were
tested using data collection (Trochim, 2002). Quantitative information
and data were collected by means of an emotional intelligence
assessment and records from a secure database from the computer
services of Texas A&M University-Kingsville. The purpose of the
study was to evaluate statistically the impact of this intervention
program.

Personal interviews were used to construct alternative realities

that might emerge. The interviews allowed students to discuss the
strength and weaknesses of the EI intervention program. The blending
of these two research methods, quantitative and qualitative, provided
numeric and human data to the study.
 George R. Potter 70

Total EI scores utilizing ten subtests were statistically analyses to

determine the impact of the intervention program. The within
analysis was used to determine differences if any between the
intervention group pre-test and post-test , non-intervention pre-test and
post-test, and between analyses for differences in the intervention and
non-intervention groups.

Population and Sample

The population for the study consisted of college students

enrolled in the Javelina Emotional Intelligence intervention program at
an institution of higher education in South Texas. The population
consisted of 310 students enrolled in the Spring semester. The student
sample was divided into two groups of intervention (n = 179) and non-
intervention (n = 131). The total EI sub-test and subsequent statistical
computations were based on this original group. Next, because of
missing or incomplete data the demographic information was reduced
to a number of 133 for the intervention group (n = 133) and non-
intervention of 102 (n = 102). Finally, because of missing data,
instructors’ non-participation and selection for ANCOVA the sample
was further reduced to 72 for intervention group (n = 72) and 52 for
the non-intervention group (n = 52).

The intervention group sample consisted of 133 participants, 50

were males (n = 50), and 83 females (n = 83). Approximately 70
percent of the participants were Hispanics (69.5%), Whites
represented 22 percent (22.1%) and the remaining ethnics composition
were 7 percent Blacks (6.9%) and 2 percent others (1.5%).

The non-intervention group sample consisted of 102 participants,

69 were males (n = 69), and 33 females (n = 33). Approximately 65
percent of the participants were Hispanics (64.7%), Whites
represented 17 percent (16.7%) and the remaining ethnics composition
were 16 percent Blacks (15.7%) and 3 percent others (2.9%).
 71 NATIONAL FORUM OF APPLIED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL

For the qualitative portion of the study, interviews were carried

out to answer the question: What value does the Javelina Emotional
Intelligence intervention program as an academic success model
provide as perceived by students? During an interview, five students
were asked to respond to questions (Appendix B). All students
interviewed had participated in the Javelina Emotional Intelligence
program. Students were selected from the total pool of students in the
educational orientation class and were selected from three different
professors. The interview was held on two separate days within a one
week period. The beginning of each interview was initiated by a brief
period of time to allow for comfort and rapport to develop. The
session lasted for a period of 40 minutes to one hour.

Data Collection and Recording

The pre-test began with permission being obtained from all

participating students and parental permission being obtained for
students under the age of eighteen. University personnel for the
Javelina Emotional Intelligence intervention program collected the
study data. Students were given an explanation and directions for
assessment prior to administration and distribution of the assessment.

Assessments were given to both control and intervention

groups and collected by the individual instructors. Assessment was
blinded and scored by university personnel and graduate students
trained and supervised under the EI Program. The Emotional
Intelligence Intervention Program was given to the intervention groups
and a placebo intervention program to the control group. A post-test
was given during the last month of the semester and conformed to the
procedures of the pre-test. Once scored, the subtest results were
entered into a database without inclusion of name to protect
anonymity.
 George R. Potter 72

Demographic data (gender, age, and ethnicity) were obtained

from the computer center of the university. Statistical data reported
only summative information, and personal information was not
reported.

Respondents were asked to respond to the 5 open-ended

questions. Each interview session began with a statement to the
respondents about the motives and the purposes of the interview,
specifically that the interviews were part of a study on the EI
intervention program. Additionally, the respondents were told the
expected length of the session, the number of sessions, and who had
final control over the content of the interview. Observations as well as
responses to questions and probes were recorded as field data.

Participants

The Participants consisted of freshmen and other students

enrolled in orientation classes (e.g. EDED-1301) with instructors who
choose to participate. The design of the study was to sample
approximately 400 students in the intervention arm and 50 to 60
students in the control arm. The Non-Equivalent Group Design
(NEGD) was selected. Consideration was given to the statistical
implication in the use of NEGD design instead of a randomized
experimental design (Trochim, 2002). Because the NEGD was
selected as the appropriate design, the use of Analysis of Covariance
(ANCOVA) and other appropriate statistical operations were used to
compensate for a non-random selection of subjects. The study design
assumed that the control group represented an approximate match to
the intervention group, yet differences were controlled statistically.
The study assumed as acceptable practice the invoking of statistical
significance in testing when samples from an approximate
representative sample are used (Thompson, 1994).
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Purposive sampling (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen,

1993) was used to select subjects because the major goal of the
qualitative portion of the study was discovery of patterns, themes, and
problems and not generalization of the findings. The subjects
consisted of five students chosen from the total student population.
Subjects who agreed to participate were selected from EDED-1301
classes that participated in the Emotional Intelligence intervention
program. Quality over quantity is generally an accepted practice in
naturalistic inquiry with emphasis on richness and depth of
information (Erlandson, et al., 1993).

Analysis of Data
A within-group analysis was conducted to analyze the total EI
scores of the intervention group, comparing pre-test to post-test EI
skill scores. The total score is the cumulative scores of the ten subtests
(assertion, comfort, empathy, decision making, leadership, drive
strength, time management, commitment ethics, self-esteem, and
stress management). A general linear model repeated-measures
ANOVA indicated a significant time difference, Wilks’s Λ = .938, F
(1, 71) = 4.70, p = .034, multivariate η2 = .062. The students who
received the intervention showed significant improvement in their
scores between the first and second administration of the EI skill
scores. The results are shown in Table 1.
Based on the significant improvement of the intervention group
as demonstrated by total EI scores and statistical implications
indicated by ANOVA, the first null hypothesis was rejected.
 George R. Potter 74

Table 1

Within-Group Analysis of Variance for Total Emotional Intelligence

Measures and Test (Pre/Post), Intervention Group

Effect Value F df df2 p η2

Time3 Wilks' Lambda .938 4.698 1 71 .034 .062

A within-group analysis was conducted to analyze the total EI

scores of the non-intervention group pre-test compared to post-test
scores. The total score is the cumulative scores of the ten subtests
(assertion, comfort, empathy, decision making, leadership, drive
strength, time management, commitment ethics, self-esteem, and time
management). A general linear model repeated-measures ANOVA
indicated no significant difference, Wilks’s Λ = .929, F (1, 51) =
3.875, p =.054, multivariate η2 = .071. The results are shown in Table
2. The non-intervention group indicated no significant change in EI
scores between the first and second administration of the instrument.
Based on no significant improvement the non-intervention group as
demonstrated by total EI scores as analyzed by ANOVA, the second
null hypothesis failed to be rejected.
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Table 2

Between-Group Analysis of Variance for Total Emotional Intelligence

Measures and Test (Pre/Post), Non-Intervention Group

Effect Value F df df2 p η2

Tim3 Wilks' Lambda .929 3.875 1 51 .054 .071

To answer the research question of whether or not there was a

significant difference between students score in pre-test, scores
between the intervention and control group, the General Linear Model
(GLM) procedure analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted.
The factor was group (intervention and non-intervention) and the
dependent variable was the post-score on the EI scale. The covariate
was the pre-test score for the EI scale. The Exploring and Developing
-Emotional Intelligence Skills (EDEIS) scales included, assertion,
comfort, empathy, decision making, leadership, drive strength, time
management, commitment ethics, self-esteem, and time management.
Additionally, the total EI score was analyzed. The ANCOVA indicated
a statistically significant difference in scores on the commitment ethic
scale, F (1,121) = 5.62, p = .019, partial η2 = .044, while the
differences in the other scale items were not significant. The results
are shown in Table 3.

The results of the ANCOVA demonstrated significant

difference in the adjusted means between the post-test scores of the
intervention and non-intervention group for the commitment ethics
scale, therefore Null Hypothesis 3 was rejected for that scale only.

Table 3
 George R. Potter 76

Analysis of Covariance Results

Source F d df2 p η2
f
Assertion 0.10 1 120 0.752 .001
Comfort 0.40 1 120 0.526 .003
Empathy 1.55 1 120 0.215 .013
Decision 0.03 1 119 00.856 .000
Leadership 0.44 1 121 0.510 .004
Drive 0.31 1 121 00.577 .003
Time 0.05 1 121 0.823 .000
Commit 5.62 1 121 00.019* .044
Self- 0.02 1 121 0.890 .000
Stress 0.04 1 121 0.851 .000
* p < .05

Summary and Conclusions

In summary, data from the emotional intelligence intervention

program were analyzed using General Linear Model (GLM) procedure
repeated-measures, Analysis of Variance and Analysis of Covariance.
The following is a summary of the findings:

1. The students who received the intervention showed significant

improvement in their scores between the first and second
administration of the EI skill scores. In general, the results
suggested a change in measurable attitude, perception, and
behavior. Since this change is not observed or measured in the
non-intervention group, other factors like maturation,
exposure, or learning that occurred as a result of the instrument
itself is not the probable cause. The improvement of the
77 NATIONAL FORUM OF APPLIED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL

intervention group is suggested to be related to the EI

intervention program.

2. The non-intervention group demonstrated no significant

change in EI scores between the first and second
administration of the instrument. The results of the non-
intervention group suggested a lack of change in attitude,
perception, and behavior because of limited exposure to
meaningful concepts and activities that are provided in the EI
intervention program.

3. The results of the ANCOVA demonstrated significant

difference in the adjusted means between the post-test scores
of the intervention and non-intervention group for the
commitment ethic scale. The concept of commitment ethic is
founded in ideas of succeeding in difficult situations,
persistence, and a focus on success. An example of this is
question 6 of the assessment survey that states: “When I decide
to do something, I carry through and do it”. Although not
central to the EI intervention program commitment ethic is a
value that is implied and the concept of following through and
not quitting is presented in the EI intervention program. The
differences between the intervention and non-intervention
groups is important in the fact that with varied presenters of the
EI intervention program this concept still permeated and was
significant across the entire group.

4. Qualitative results supported quantitative finding that time

management had impact and was reported as a central theme in
all interviews. All participants interviewed stated that they
were positively influenced by the EI intervention program.
Other areas identified as meaningful were stress management,
assertiveness, and goal setting. The importance of the
qualitative results is that a year after the EI intervention
program students still demonstrated changes in their behavior
 George R. Potter 78

with regard to time management, could remember cognitive

changes, and decisions they made based on information
learned from the EI intervention program.

5. Areas central to the emotional intelligence intervention

program had demonstrated short term impact as demonstrated
by quantitative data and long term impact as demonstrated by
qualitative data.

Emotional intelligence as an intervention program appeared to

have short term and long term impact on student behavior. The major
focus of the Javelina Emotional Intelligence intervention program was
a seven step program that focused on assertion, drive strength, time
management, and commitment ethics. The within analysis conducted
with the intervention group demonstrated significant changes in the
time between pre-test and post-test for the total scale scores. The same
within group analysis did not demonstrate significant changes between
the time of the pre-test and post-test for the non-intervention group.
The logical assumption is that the EI intervention program helped
participants make positive changes in attitudes, conception and
behaviors that are related to student success. Skills like study habits
that were derived from the presentations on time management and
other topics. Other skills like the importance of assertion not
aggression in aiding in class success seemed to have influenced
participants.

When the two groups were compared by between group

analysis (ANCOVA) significance was identified in the area of
commitment ethic. Commitment ethic is an area that is indirectly
presented by the EI presenters and the concept of persistence, not
giving up, and achieving success is interwoven throughout the concept
of Emotional Intelligence.
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With the exception of assertion, the areas of significance were

implicated as areas of change as measured from pre-test to post-test on
the Emotional Skills Assessment Process assessment. Both the
intervention group and the non-intervention group demonstrated
significance. A higher level of difference demonstrated by the
intervention group may be a reflection of the fact that longer more
intense instruction and intervention was given to the intervention
group.

Qualitative data demonstrated changes in assertion, time

management from direct themes and drive strength was assumed to be
implied based on interviews. The theme of time management was
expressed by all five respondents. Student 1 discussed changes in her
studies directly related to her experiences as part of the emotional
intelligence program. Student 2 expressed “time management helped
me a lot. Lisa P. described that the one activity that stood out was time
management and Student 4 stated that “time management really
helped”, especially the activity tracking time expenditure for one
week. Additionally, 4 out of the 5 students expressed help from the
theme of assertion.
 George R. Potter 80

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