NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL

VOLUME 26, NUMBER 3, 2009-2010

WHAT WILL THE EVOLUTION OF A

FRESH FRAMEWORK FOR 21ST CENTURY
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN
EDUCATION DO TO RETAIN HIGHLY
QUALIFIED HUMAN CAPITAL?

Loretta A. Terry
Prairie View A & M University

William Allan Kritsonis

Prairie View A&M University
ABSTRACT

Human resources management for 21st century education will involve the
evolution of a fresh framework for recruitment and retention of highly qualified
employees. A fresh framework approach will consist of the change. An
organization is a web of interconnections; a change in one area triggers an
imbalance in other areas. Consequently, managing change is a dynamic process
that requires organized, thoughtful planning and alignment of human resources
management practices and policies with the student achievement goals, teacher
performance competency, and instructional practices.

Introduction

S kill levels of the workforce is a common theme that virtually

pervades forecasting of strategic human resources planning for
any organization. High quality public education is especially
crucial today, as advances in the U. S economy have made cognitive
skills more important that ever in determining labor market success
(Murnane, Steel, 2007). Human resources management for 21st century
education will involve the evolution of a fresh framework for
recruitment and retention of highly qualified employees. Schools are
plagued with instability because of high teacher turnover rates, low

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student academic performance, disgruntled stakeholders and

ineffective human resources management. Peter Senge (2006) asserts
that “Our schools are paralyzed, overstressed teachers and
administrators try desperately to vend off pressures from dissatisfied
business leaders and fearful parents. Yet, we all know the education for
the twenty-first century must change profoundly from education of the
Nineteenth and twentieth centuries” (p. 362). A fresh framework
approach will consist of the change. Managing change from
methodologies that no longer work to instituting pragmatic policies
and procedures that will improve the entire scope of human resources
management in education. An organization is a web of
interconnections; a change in one area triggers an imbalance in other
areas. Managing change is a dynamic process that requires organized,
thoughtful planning and alignment of human resources management
practices and policies with the student achievement goals, teacher
performance competency, and instructional practices.

Background

Murnane and Steele (2007) noted that historically, the demand

for teachers has been driven by local preferences, and hiring decisions
have not always been based on estimates of teachers’ instructional
effectiveness.” Since the inception of the No Child Left Behind
Statute (NCLB) human resources directors and administrators in
school districts have been hard pressed to recruit highly qualified
teachers who help to meet accountability standards and adequate
yearly progress requirements. The NCLB included a mandate that by
July 1, 2006 all public schools employ teachers who are highly
qualified at every grade level and in every core academic area
(English, reading or language arts, math, science, history, civics and
government , geography, economics, the arts, and foreign language)
(Spradlin and Prendergast , 2006, p. 1 ). Teacher quality has emerged
as a primary importance in considering a candidate for employment.
With the massive exodus of baby boomers that are rapidly
approaching retirement, school districts across the nation are
 Loretta A. Terry & William Allan Kritsonis 124

struggling to fulfill the NCLB mandate. Spradlin and Prendergast

(2006) pointed out that an aging workforce and increasing student
enrollment are realities in many states; yet, recruitment and retention
of teachers in schools should be the focus of attention rather than
preparing higher numbers of new teachers to enter the profession.

Non-traditional teacher education further threatens teacher

quality. The alternative education program grew out of the deficit in
the supply of teachers across the nation. Alternative teacher
certification programs are designed to recruit degreed individuals from
other professions and offer them fast-track certification program
concurrent with a paid teaching internship. According to Solis (2004),
in addition to retaining new teachers in the profession once they are
recruited, trained, and placed in school, keeping teachers who have
come to the field through alternative route certification programs
exacerbate the retention problem. Colgan (2004) argues that no teacher
supply strategy will ever keep our school staffed with quality teachers
unless we reverse the debilitating turnover rates. The National School
Boards Association (2004) noted the inability to support high-quality
teaching in many of our schools is driven not by two few teachers
entering the profession, but by too many leaving it for other jobs.
Whether the terminology retention rate or turn over rate, both have
implications of an indispensable problem, school leaders are
compelled to address with pragmatic solutions.

Employee retention has always been an important focus for

human resources managers as well as school leaders and
administrators. Once an organization has invested time and money to
recruit and train a good employee, it is in their own best interest to
retain that employee, to further develop and motivate the employee so
that the employee continues to add value to the organization. Yet,
employers must also recognize and implement what is in the best
interest of their employees, if they intend to retain them. When an
organization overlooks the needs of its employees and focuses only on
the needs of the organization, retention or turnover issues results.
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Excessive turnover in an organization is a prime indicator that change

needs to take place in the employee environment.

Purpose and Research Questions

This article will delve into what the current research delineates
about the issue of employee retention in education and addresses six
questions effective school leaders and administrators should answer in
order for a fresh framework for 21st century education human
resources to evolve. Research questions include: 1) What does the
research say about employee retention? 2) Why do employees stay? 3)
What does an effective leader do? 4) What does an effective leader
seek? 5) What does an effective administrator do? 6) What does the
literature indicate about alignment models?

Methodology

This article explored the literature available on employee

retention in education leadership and human resource management
practices. The primary focus of the literature review was relevant to
the research questions. The literature review included the span of years
between 2003- 2008. These restrictions are imposed to provide a
current overview of the state of employee retention as one of the
challenges for 21st century human resources management.

What Does the Research Say About Employee Retention?

Nationally, almost half of new teachers leave the profession

within their first five years of teaching, demonstrating that teacher
attrition is not just due to an aging workforce. In fact, during the 1999-
2000 school years, retirees accounted for only about 28% of the total
leaving the teaching profession (NCTAF, 2003). Many schools must
hire teachers with a provisional, or temporary, licensure status to staff
 Loretta A. Terry & William Allan Kritsonis 126

classrooms; emergency licensure became a regular practice in the

1990’s (Strawn, Fox and Duck, 2008, p. 271). Administrators continue
to struggle with challenges of hiring teachers to meet the highly
qualified teacher mandate as well as ensuring diversity. The problems
new teachers encounter in their first year in the class room that results
in their decision to leave the profession has implications for both
teaching practices and policies (2008). Growing evidence supports the
idea that individuals educated in strong teacher preparation programs
manage these challenges more successfully than individuals who do
not have adequate training (Darling-Hammond, 2006).

Impact of Teacher Preparation Programs on Retention

As a result of working with provisionally licensed and teacher

candidates for a total of twenty-one years, Strawn, et.al, (2008)
developed a system based on school-university partnership with
George Mason University’s Graduate School to prevent teacher failure
as they proposed the following six keys to success for teacher
preparation programs:

1. Work actively with school districts in your area to

ascertain the norm of provisionally licensed teachers in
each school district, identify their areas of endorsement,
and integrate them into appropriate teacher education
programs.
2. Offer more flexible degree and course options geared to
meet the needs of the school districts and their teachers. In
addition to the traditional, on-campus master’s degree in
teacher education, colleges and universities can offer other
paths to licensure.
3. Create partnerships with schools in which teacher
effectiveness is taught and modeled every day in carefully
supervised or co-taught classrooms.
4. Align all the licensure courses and assessments with
national standards and accreditation requirements and
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include performance-based assessments within course and

program experiences.
5. Incorporate into teacher education programs culturally
responsive pedagogy based on principles of social justice.
6. Encourage teacher retention by emphasizing mentoring
and offering degree programs that focus on long-term
career goals.

“Solid licensure preparation can rescue new teachers from the sink-or-
swim mentality and help them develop a strong foundation for success
in the classroom” (Strawn, et. al., 2008, p. 276). Higher education
institutions preparing educators are engaging in avenues to provide
ongoing and meaningful professional development that result in high
teacher retention.

Impact of Induction and Mentoring Programs on Retention

Ingersoll and Kralik, (2004) denoted that there is extensive

research demonstrating that low levels of employee turnover are
normal and beneficial to organizations since limited turnover helps to
prevent stagnancy and eliminates many of the least-committed, low
caliber workers. Ingersoll and Kralik (2004) located 150 empirical
studies on induction and mentoring programs but only ten were
included in their comprehensive report to the Commission of the
States. The studies incorporated in the report satisfied three criteria 1)
quantitative data to determine the value added of the individuals
programs 2) evaluation and outcomes to evaluate effects of induction
for the teachers who were mentored and 3) comparisons to compare
those individuals mentored who were not mentored to provide
unequivocal conclusions about value added. The most current study
included in the report that falls within current literature perimeters for
this research paper was conducted by Fuller (2003). The review of the
studies included:
 Loretta A. Terry & William Allan Kritsonis 128

Texas Beginning Educator Support System-Fuller (2003) along

with the Charles A. Dana Center (2002) at the University of Texas at
Austin conducted a study with an evaluation of the Texas Beginning
Educator Support System (TxBESS), to obtain information from
teacher mentors, along with other support-team members such as
school and district administrators education service center staff
members and faculty members from teacher preparation programs.
The data was collected through an annual mailed survey questionnaire,
and a state personnel database. The study found program participation
had positive effects on beginning teachers’ retention and the TxBESS
participants left teaching at lower rates than beginning teachers who
had not participated in TxBESS for each of their first three years on
the job. The difference between the participants in TxBESS and
nonparticipants was statistically significant (2003).

While the studies reviewed here provided some empirical

support for the premise that teacher mentoring and induction programs
produced a positive impact on teachers and their retention, there were
still limitations. “Most of these studies do not or are not able to control
for other factors that also cold impact the outcomes under
investigation” (Ingersoll, Kralik, p.14). Induction additionally
improves the satisfaction of veteran teachers. Experienced teachers
serving as mentors or evaluators improve their own teaching practices
by observing and coaching new teachers and intern teachers.

The Impact of State Strategies

A high level of turnover, such as that in the teacher workforce,

has been connected with performance problems in organizations; a
high turnover rate has negative consequences for American’s schools
in addition to making the 100% high quality teacher goal difficult to
achieve (Spradlin, Prendergast, 2006). Moreover, Spradlin and
Prendergast (2006) submitted in the Education Policy Brief a summary
of their finding while exploring the factors and circumstances behind
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the national struggle to meet the highly qualified teacher requirement

under NCLB. The researchers presented strategies being considered in
Indiana and other states to improve recruitment and retention of highly
qualified teachers. The following tables document their findings:

Table I. Recruitment Strategies

Strategy #States with State Program Indiana’s

Programs Examples Implementation
Scholar Programs 32 Illinois Special Minority
Education Waiver Teacher/Special Edu.
Exemption from Scholarship
tuition fees for up
to 4yrs
Loan Forgiveness 39 California’s Federal Teacher
Programs Assumption Loan Forgiveness
Program of Loans Program
for Education-up
to $19,000. for
outstanding
education loans
Alternate Route 47 Academy for Transition to
Programs Urban school Teaching (TtoT) –to
Leadership- produce more
funding for teachers in subject
teaching at low shortage areas
income schools Troops to Teachers
Recruitment 14 Arkansas Signing Not Available
Bonus Bonus
Improved Hiring 35 Teach in Virginia Prof. Edu. Employee
Referral
Grow your own 11 Illinois “Grow No State Program
your Own”
Rehiring Retired 17 Hawaii House Bill Indiana Code 5-
Teachers 1862–hires retired 10.2-4-8-retired
teachers to teach teaches
in shortage areas
Note. The data from the table are from “Emerging Trends in Teacher Recruitment
and Retention in the NCLB Era,” by T. E. Spradlin and K. A. Prendergast, (2006)
Center for Evaluation & Educational Policy, 4 (12). p. 6-7. Copyright 2008 by
Center for Evaluation & Education Policy
 Loretta A. Terry & William Allan Kritsonis 130

Table II. Retention Strategies

Strategy States with State Programs Indiana’s

Programs Programs
Mentoring and 17 Kentucky Indian Mentoring
Induction Teacher Internship and Assessment
Programs Program-Teachers Program (IMAP)-
with less than two remodeled version
years of of 1988 Beginning
experience must Teacher Internship
complete a 1 yr. Prog.
“Internship”…
Improved/Targeted 35 Ohio’s Professional
professional Reconfigured Development
Development Professional Grant-$14 million
Development- 12 distributed to
regional service public and private
centers created school’s
professional
development.

Diversified 18/35 A++ in Florida:- Differentiated

Compensation/ each school Staffing Proposal-
Retention Bonuses district must adopt
a salary schedule
with differentiated
pay by 2007-2008
Note. The data from the table are from “Emerging Trends in Teacher Recruitment
and Retention in the NCLB Era,” by T. E. Spradlin and K. A. Prendergast, (2006)
Center for Evaluation & Educational Policy, 4 (12). p. 9. Copyright 2008 by Center
for Evaluation & Education Policy

Impact of Compensation and Working Conditions on Retention

Salaries are virtually the largest funds allocation on school’s

budget. Employee compensation packages have the power to attract,
retain and motivate employees. Districts that offer competitive salaries
and benefits invariably are in a position to attract and retain highly
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qualified teachers. In other words money matters. Hansen, Lien,

Cavaluzzo, Wenger (2004) analyzed data from a large urban school to
examine the determinants of teacher retention and the impact of
compensation on the attrition of math and science teachers. The
Annualized Cost of Leaving (ACOL) model a framework developed
by military manpower analysts, to estimate the effect of current and
future relative earnings on teacher retention was used. The ACOL
presumed that someone with t years of teaching experience has two
choices: remain as a teacher for an additional y years or separate from
the teaching profession immediately (p. 10, 2004). Hansen, et.al
(2004), analysis suggested that relative teacher compensation does
have an effect on teachers’ retention, even when controlling or other
factors. Their results implied the across the board increases in
compensation will have only modest effects on rates of secondary
teacher (2004).

There was a great deal of evidence that working conditions had

a large effect on teachers’ retention. Hansen et. al. (2004) asserted that
rather than measure specific compensation characteristics of working
conditions and estimate each factor’s effect on retention, others have
used school-level fixed effects models to control working conditions.
The data available to the researchers suggested that working
conditions in this district did not play a role in teacher retention.
Consequently, several studies have concluded that higher teacher pay
increases the likelihood that a person will continue to teach while
higher opportunities outside teaching will cause people to leave the
profession (2004).

Why do Employees Stay?

Employees stay for some of the same reasons they enter the
profession. The employee may stay because of trust, confidence and
faith in their students. Knowledge of the subject matter, rewards of
establishing meaningful relationships and the inner motivation to make
a difference are important to teachers too. A teacher’s decision to stay
 Loretta A. Terry & William Allan Kritsonis 132

or leave a particular school might be contingent on a variety of factors

—that may be associated with the school’s culture and environment.
Goldhaber, Goss and Player, (2007) found in a study to assess the
career transitions of teachers and their implication for the quality of
the teacher workforce, on average, teachers who have been shown to
increase their students’ academic performance stay in the teaching
profession longer. Although challenging environments generally
increase the likelihood of teacher attrition, those teachers who are
deemed more effective are also more likely to stay in these lower-
performing school (2007).

According the NCTAF (2003) teachers who work in high

poverty school have an annual turnover rate of 20 percent, while those
in low poverty schools have a rate of 12.0 percent. Students attending
the most-disadvantaged schools should not be neglected nor should the
teacher who are making a difference with the students and have a
desire to stay. Lower turnover rates of effective teachers among
challenging schools is optimistic.

What Does an Effective Leader do?

Retaining highly qualified teachers requires effort, and

effective school leaders turn to research to help develop the skills
needed to facilitate the personal and professional development of
teachers and to provide avenues that manifest teaching into a
continuously rewarding and satisfying experience. One of the driving
forces behind student success is the quality of the teachers. Leaders
must clearly understand the standards outlined by the federal law
NCLB defining “highly qualified.” To be considered highly qualified,
new teachers must: (1) have at least a bachelor’s degree, (2) have full
certification and licensure as defined by the State Education Agency
(SEA), and (3) demonstrate competence (as defined by the SEA) in the
subject area to be taught (United Department of Education [U.S. ED],
2006).
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What Does an Effective Leader Seek?

The effective school leaders seek to retain a staff of highly

qualified teachers to produce students who are well educated, critical
thinkers, high performers able to compete and meet high standards of
the global society. School leaders recognize the human value in the
employees that leads to development of the best practices and policies
to support professional growth. Robore (2007) discussed the
leadership transcendental theory from the human resources
management perspective. “The basis premise of transcendental
leadership is that a person acts from the totality of who he or she is as
a human being” (2007, p. 23). While school leaders take the blame for
low student academic performance on standardized tests, low teacher
performance, outdated curricular, school violence, and dispassionate
parental involvement, they persist with the power of influence. School
leaders seek to maintain a human disposition to create a positive
culture of concern, empowerment and support of employees.
Transcendental leader could affirmatively impact employee retention.

What Does the Effective Administrator do?

In all American school districts, people must be recruited,

selected, placed, evaluated, and compensated, whether by central
human resources or various administrators within the school district.
The role of the school administrator in successful schools has
transcended the traditional notions of functional management,
behavior style and instructional leadership (Normore, 2006). School
districts delegate a major share of human resources management
(HRM) to specialize a department strategically located in the central-
office complex operating under the supervision of an assistant
superintendent or a director of human resources. Equally as important
in human resources management in education is the administrators of
schools who share the responsibility with the central office
administrators to ensure that staffing needs for their campuses remain
 Loretta A. Terry & William Allan Kritsonis 134

in focus. The human resources function is primarily to manage the

fulfillment of staffing needs which requires knowledge of the school’s
mission, goals and culture. It is incumbent on the human resources
administrator to collaborate with the school leaders and be familiar
with the needs of particular a school.

Rebore (2007), details that the goals of human resources

function are basically the same in all school systems to hire, retain,
develop and motivate personnel in order to achieve the objective of the
school district, to assist individual members of the staff to reach the
highest possible levels of achievement, and to maximize the career
development of personnel. The following dimensions of human
resources goals were documented by Rebore (2007), p. 11-12):

1. Human resources planning. Establishing a master

plan of long- and short-ranged human resources
requirements is a necessary ingredient in the school
district’s curricular and fiscal planning processes.
2. Recruitment. Quality personnel, of course, are
essential for delivery of effective educational
services to children, youth, and adults.
3. Selection. The long- and short-rang human
resources requirements are implemented through
selection techniques and processes.
4. Placement and induction. Through appropriate
planning, new personnel and the school district
accommodate each other’s goals.
5. Staff development. Development programs help
personnel meet school district objectives and also
provide individuals with other opportunity for
personal and professional growth.
6. Performance evaluation. Processes and techniques
for evaluation help the individual grow
professionally and help the school district attain its
objectives.
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7. Compensation. Establishing programs that

compensate quality performance helps to motivate
personnel
8. Collective negotiations. The negotiation process
gives personnel an opportunity to participate in
matters that affect their professional and personal
welfare.

These dimensions clearly confirm that human resource function

exceeds merely hiring competent or highly qualified teachers.

Marrewijk and Timmers (2003) discussed classical personnel

management and human resources management, with both starting
from the position of control exerted over the individual employees by
means of authority, contract or temptation. Both approaches view the
employee as an allocated resource within the organization. This
approach persist with organizations that are trapped in a time zone of
stale methodologies that do not garner maximum employee potential,
productivity or yields retention. Although, administrators in human
resources management positioned themselves to be the liaison between
upper managers and middle managers sometimes the decisions made
are against the interest of the employee. “As a mouthpiece for
management in unpopular measures, HRM will not be able to gain the
confidence of the employees and therefore, it will not be able to create
a culture of trust, involvement, commitment and motivation, in spite of
its intentions” (Marrewijk, Timmers, p. 174, 2003,). As a result, the
researchers devised an alignment model of human resources to the
human capital. In the model the needs of potential new employees who
were choosing to work in organizational cultures was aligned their
personal values and support in their personal and profession growth
(2003). The human capital management model consisted of three
management disciplines in which human asset management
predominantly covered operations. Human potential management
corresponded with human development operations. Human potential
management corresponded with human development. The model
allows the humility characteristic of leaders to evolve with concern
 Loretta A. Terry & William Allan Kritsonis 136

and support for employees. The theory is void of traditional

bureaucratic notions of control and standards that literally suffocates
the growth, development and retention of employees.

What Does the Literature Indicate About Alignment Models?

Alignment is a concept that has been utilized in organizations as

a tool for grouping processes and applications to add value and order
to organizational practices. In the context of human resources
management practices for school systems, an alignment model
identifies and illustrates the various HR practices that could be aligned
to the performance competency model linking teacher competency and
student achievement Herman III, Milanowski, 2004). An alignment
model provides support for diagnosing teacher quality issues and
developing plans to address the issues. According to Herman III and
Milanowski (2004) an effective HR alignment model of a school
system must be preceded by three components: student achievement,
teacher competency model and a set of HR practices. These researcher
accede an established teacher competency model, “According to
Danielson (1996), its four domains (Planning and Preparation, The
Classroom Environment, Instruction, as well as the Professional
Responsibilities) and 22 components constitute a behavioral mapping
of” those aspects of a teacher’s responsibilities that have been
documented through empirical studies and theoretical research as
promoting improved student learning” (p.10).

HR practices are intrinsically identified in key functions

including recruitment, selection, and induction, mentoring professional
development, compensation, performance management and
instructional leaders. Each of these components influence teacher
competency. These eight areas cover most of the HR domain in most
districts for which alignment is appropriate (2004). Two types of
alignment were portrayed in the model; vertical alignment represented
by the degree of linkage between a particular HR functional practiced
and teacher performance competency and horizontal alignment
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represented the linkages represented to be internally consistent and

reinforcing. An example of the horizontal alignment is the linkage
between favorable signing bonuses in critical areas to hiring standards.
Many districts today are incorporating favorable signing bonuses in
critical subjects such as mathematics and science.

Figure: 1
Model of Human Resource Management Systems Alignment

Note: Heneman III, H., Milanowski, A., (2004). Alignment of human resource
practices and teacher performance competency. Peabody Journal of Education 79(4),
108-125 Copyright 2004, Lawrence Erlbaum associates, Inc.
 Loretta A. Terry & William Allan Kritsonis 138

The alignment model presents a clear picture of a framework

that links student achievement to HR practices. Student achievement is
the focal point of the model and paramount to the entire gamut of
alignment components. Herman III and Milanowski utilized the above
alignment model to guide and conduct qualitative studies of the HR
practices in the Cincinnati and Washoe County school districts (2004).
The researchers collected data from interviews with HR staff and other
administrators, examined archival documents, and navigated through
the districts’ Web sites to discover evidence and examples of HR
practices utilizing the alignment model. It was discovered that in both
school districts, Cincinnati and Washoe County, the Teacher
Competency Model Framework was adopted as the foundation for a
new standards-based teacher evaluation system. However, there was
divergence in the HR practice alignment as well as between the two
districts. In Cincinnati greater emphasis was on alignment of
recruitment and selection, whereas in Washoe County mentoring and
professional development were aligned. Professional development in
both districts was split off from the HR function. Some components of
HR practices were exercised in each district for which no examples of
alignment was found.

Concluding Remarks

In conclusion, during this era of unrelenting accountability,

school administrators must seek new avenues that have the potential to
improve teacher recruitment and retention. Recruitment and retention
of a highly qualified workforce, though challenging, has an overriding
affect on student performance and academic success. New theories
such as human capital, transcendental leadership when embraced and
utilized by the administrators may have positive impact teacher
retention decisions. Perpetual research is still need to investigate
teacher preparation programs, employee compensation, induction/
mentorship, work conditions as well as recruitment and retention in
order for a fresh framework for 21st century human resources
management to evolve.
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 Loretta A. Terry & William Allan Kritsonis 140

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