TECTONICS:

• From the Greek “tecton”

– to build, or one who constructs (architect)

• Major paradigm: Theory of plate tectonics

– Theory states: Earth's surface is made up of rigid plates

• In geology, this theory is the equivalent of

General Relativity and quantum theory in physics,
or evolution in biology

The Plate Tectonic Theory

• As with all theories it is not perfect; but it explains
much of the behavior of the solid Earth.
• Science is not absolute. Science is not a series of
facts, but more like a way of looking at problems
and revealing the facts.
• Realize that none of the theories used in science
are complete and can be revised as new data are
learned.
• General Relativity, Quantum Theory, Newtonian
Mechanics, and Evolution all have problems at
some level
• Does this mean they are wrong or worthless?

History of Plate Tectonics

• First published by Alfred Wegener as Continental
Drift
Wegener’s observations (some were recognized
by others as early as 1620)

1) The eastern coastline of South America fits

the western coastline of Africa

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 Africa
South America

Continental Drift
• First published by Alfred Wegener
Wegener’s observations (some were recognized
by others as early as 1620)

• The eastern coastline of South America fits

the western coastline of Africa

2) Evidence of glacial deposits were found in

South America, Africa, India, Antarctica and
Australia

Alternate interpretations ?

2
 Continental Drift
• First published by Alfred Wegener
Wegener’s observations (some were recognized
by others as early as 1620)

3) Evidence of warmer climates was found in

the northern hemispheres

– Coal deposits, sand dunes and fossil coral

reefs were found in North America,
Southern Europe and Northwestern Africa

Worlds coal deposits

Continental Drift
• First published by Alfred Wegener
Wegener’s observations (some were recognized
by others as early as 1620)

4) The distribution of fossils

– Fossils of land reptiles and plants were

found in South America, Africa, India,
Antarctica and Australia

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Same fossils on different continents

Continental Drift
• First published by Alfred Wegener
Wegener’s observations (some were recognized
by others as early as 1620)

5) Mountain Chains were continuous across

the oceans

- The rocks in the Appalachian Mountain Belt,

for example, are very similar to those found
in British isles, Scandinavia and Africa

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 Continental Drift
• Wegners conclusion from observations:

– All the continents were once part of a

larger, unified continent, or supercontinent
that he called Pangea

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 Breakup of Pangea

Continental Drift
• What happened to Wegner?
– Wegner was severely criticized by others who
wanted to know how continents could drift.
– He suggested two possibilities, but physicists
proved both were impossible.
• Since his mechanisms were wrong, many believed
his theory was wrong despite his large body of
evidence that continents were once joined.

Wegner disappeared in Greenland in 1930 and his

theory did too for almost 30 years

Continental Drift is Revived!!

• World War II technology
– ocean floor exploration, sonar magnetometers
• International Geophysical Year (IGY)
1957-58
• Worldwide Standardized Seismic Network
1963

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 Worldwide Standardized Seismic Network

Discovery of Sea-Floor Spreading

• Sea floor mapping revealed a massive,

continuous mountain chain running
through the center of the Earths ocean
basins, called the mid-oceanic ridge
system (MOR)
• The ocean floor was NOT flat as
previously believed. High ridges and deep
trenches exist on the ocean floor

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 A section of the East Pacific Rise

Discovery of Sea-Floor Spreading

• Sediments progressively thickened away
from the MOR

• Magnetometers detected patterns on the

sea floor; symmetric stripes on either side
of a ridge

Discovery of Sea-Floor Spreading

Magnetic patterns on the sea floor

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 Discovery of Sea-Floor Spreading

Plate Tectonic Theory

• The Earth’s surface is covered by about 12
lithospheric, or tectonic plates
• Tectonic plates move relatively slowly
(cm/year)
• Most geological activity (earthquakes and
volcanoes) occurs at or near plate
boundaries

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Plates around North America

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 Review of The Earth’s Layers
• Crust
• Lithosphere
• Asthenosphere
• Mantle
• Core
– outer core is liquid
– inner core is solid

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12
13
 Plate Boundaries

• There are 3 types of plate boundaries:

1)Divergent boundaries
– Plates move apart
• Volcanic activity is always present
• Earthquakes are shallow

• Two types of divergent boundaries:

• Oceanic
• Continental

Divergent Plate Boundary

animation

Fig. 6-7, p.130

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15
 ocean continent

New sea floor is created!

Plate Boundaries

• 3 types of plate boundaries:

1)Divergent boundaries
2) Convergent boundaries
-Plates move towards one another

Three types of Convergent Boundaries

1. Ocean-ocean
2. Ocean-continent
3. Continent-continent

Convergent Plate Boundary

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 Ocean-continent convergence
During ocean-continent convergence, oceanic
lithosphere always subducts beneath continental
lithosphere
Continental volcanic arc formed
Example: Andes mountains

animation

Ocean-ocean convergence
•Subduction – one oceanic plate subducts (dives) beneath the
other
•Volcanic island arc is formed
Example: Aleutian Islands

animation

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 Ocean-ocean convergence
•Which ocean plate subducts?

animation

Continent-continent convergence
Subduction does not occur (continental crust is too
buoyant to be subducted)
Mountain building occurs without volcanism
Example: Himalayas, Alps

animation

The Rocky Mountains

• The Rockies are not near a plate
boundary, which is where mountain
chains are usually found.

Why are they where they are?

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 Plate Boundaries
• 3 types of plate boundaries:
1)Divergent boundaries
2) Convergent boundaries
3) Transform boundaries
-Plates slide horizontally past each other

Little or no volcanic activity

Shallow earthquakes

Example: oceanic transform faults; San Andreas Fault

Transform Plate Boundary

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 Transform boundary

animation

Why do tectonic plates move?

• Convection in the mantle

Why do tectonic plates move?

• Convection in the mantle
• Ridge push, or gravity

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 Why do tectonic plates move?
• Convection in the mantle
• Ridge push, or gravity
• Slab pull

Why do tectonic plates move?

Mantle Plumes
• Rising column of plastic mantle rock
• Can be in the center of a plate or on a
plate boundary

Form “hot spots”

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BIG ISLAND OF HAWAII

Mauna Kea
≈ 14,000 feet

Mauna Loa
≈ 14,000 feet

14,000 feet
above sea level

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 14,000 feet
above sea level

18,000 feet
below sea
level

TALLER THAN
MOUNT EVEREST!

14,000 feet
above sea level

18,000 feet
below sea
level

Other hot spots?

• Yellowstone

• Iceland

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How Plate Movements Affect Earth
Systems
• Volcanoes
• Earthquakes
• Mountain Building
• Migrating Oceans and Continents

Summary
1. Earth’s surface is covered by about 12
lithospheric plates.
2. The plates move slowly (2.5-15 cm/year).
3. Most volcanism and earthquake activity
occurs at or near plate boundaries.
4. Plate interiors are relatively quiet
geologically (some exceptions).

Isostasy

Fig. 6-16, p.138

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Lake Bonneville

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