Data Communication and Networks Lab

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Lab1: Getting Started

OBJECT:
To study about basics of Data communication & networking To study about Telecommunication transmission methods & modes To study about network architecture & standards

Data Communications and Networking

Most current hardware and software technological developments have been aimed at maximizing group productivity. Increasingly, personal computers are networked together to enable communication between users and to facilitate sharing of data and resources. We will discuss some recent communications technologies affecting business such as client/server systems, the Internet, and electronic data interchange. Almost all computer systems in organizations today are networked, and these networked computer systems invariably house a wealth of accounting information.

Terminals and workstations

User interaction with a network is almost always via a terminal or a workstation. A terminal is a device with a screen and a keyboard but usually does not have any data storage or processing capability independent of its connection to the network. Workstations on the other hand do possess data storage and processing capability independent of the network connection. The term "intelligent workstation" is often used and the device is invariably a personal computer. Regardless of whether a terminal or a workstation is used, a network interface card (NIC for short) is required to physically connect the terminal or workstation to the network. In personal computer, a network interface card is an expansion board that works with the network operating system to control the flow of information over the network.

Transmission links
Transmission links, the next component of a telecommunications network, are the links that actually carry the electronic transmissions and can be either physical or "through the air." Twisted pair telephone wire, coaxial cables, and fiber optic cables are examples of physical transmission links.
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Transmission methods and modes

Transmission methods consist of either analog or digital transmission using either circuit switching or packet switching. Analog transmission is used for voice transmission by continuously varying an electrical signal to correspond with the variation in the sound wave produced by the speaker's voice. In digital transmission, a signal has only two states -- 0 and 1. Networks typically use either circuit switching or packet switching to transmit messages. In circuit switching, the method used for placing telephone calls, the signal is routed through various nodes from the point of origin to the point of destination, and the selected path is fixed during the duration of the session. The path is also dedicated -- once a session (phone call) is initiated then there can be no other users (callers) on the channel connecting the sender and receiver. In packet switching, information to be sent is divided into small blocks called packets. Each packet is coded with the destination address and is sent separately over the network. Different packets can take different routes through the network to reach the destination node. As each node receives a packet, it checks the destination address on the packet and either accepts the packet or sends it further along if it is intended for another recipient. Upon arrival at the destination, the packets are assembled together in the correct order and presented at the receiver's terminal. For the transmission methods discussed above, the transmission mode can be either synchronous or asynchronous. In synchronous transmission, a timing signal is used to keep the sending and receiving unit synchronized to one another. Synchronous transmission requires expensive equipment but usually results in faster data transmission. In asynchronous transmission, the sending and receiving units are not synchronized to one another. Although asynchronous transmission is cheaper (no expensive timing devices are needed), data transmission is slower.

Line sharing and switching devices

The fourth component of telecommunications networks are line sharing and switching devices whose function is to receive signals from sending nodes and efficiently direct those signals to the intended destination. These devices can be thought of as airline hubs or highway interchanges where traffic from all directions gets routed appropriately. Line sharing devices include multiplexers and front end processors. Switching devices are hardware components that direct traffic over the physical network transmission links. They include bridges, routers, and gateways. A multiplexer (MUX for short) is a line sharing device that bundles small streams of slow-speed traffic together and places them on a single high capacity high speed line. At the receiving end, another multiplexer unbundles the traffic so that individual messages can be delivered to the appropriate locations. A front-end processor is a device that connects the multiplexer to the mainframe computer or server that is at the receiving end of the messages. While the multiplexer simply separates the
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bundled signals so that messages can be distinguished from one another, the front-end processor performs error checking and control functions that would otherwise have to be performed by the computer or server.

Architecture and standards

We have already briefly introduced the concept of a protocol or a communication convention. The final component of a telecommunications network is its architecture and standards. This component addresses the transmission protocols used and the specific network architecture around which the various components are organized. A protocol defines the procedures to follow when transmitting and receiving data. It can be thought of as a "common language" for computers to talk to one another. Protocols define the format, timing, sequence, and error checking mechanisms that allow telecommunications to occur.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model

While many hardware and software vendors have attempted to promote their own protocols, the International Standards Organization (ISO) has set forth a reference model for networking called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. The OSI model consists of seven interconnected layers, as shown in the figure on the next page.

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The application layer is the highest layer in the OSI model and is what the user sees (at both the sending and receiving ends of the communication network). It defines the way the user's application program interacts with the network. The presentation layer defines the way that data is formatted, presented, converted, and coded. If necessary, or as directed by the user, the message is also compressed and encrypted at this stage. The session layer coordinates communication between the sender and receiver. In essence, this layer maintains the session for as long as it is needed, performing security, logging, and any administrative functions that are needed. The transport layer, layer 4, defines protocols for message structure and supervises the validity of the transmission by performing error checking. In effect, the transport layer protects the data being transmitted. The third layer, the network layer, defines protocols for data routing to ensure that the data arrives at the correct destination node. It is the network layer that essentially selects a route for the message, using protocols such as TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet protocol. Routers are used at the network layer. The data are formed into packets and a header is added that contains the sequence and number of packets and the network address of the destination. Layer 2, the data-link layer, validates the integrity of the flow of data between nodes. This validation is performed by synchronizing blocks of data and controlling the
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flow of data. In this manner, the data-link layer supervises the transmission. Bridges are used at the data-link layer. Finally, the physical layer is the actual transmission hardware or link along which the messages physically pass. It is only along layer 1 that messages physically move from the origin to the destination. At the receiving end, the message passes through the same seven layers, in reverse. The physical layer reconverts the analog signals into digital form (bits). The data-link layer recomputes the checksum, confirms arrival, and logs in the packets. The network layer recounts each packet for security and billing purposes. The transport layer again recalculates the checksum and rebuilds the message segments. The session layer holds the parts of the message until the message is complete and then sends it to the next layer. If the message was compressed, the presentation layer expands it, and if the message had been encrypted it is decrypted at this stage. Finally, the application layer reconverts the bits into readable characters and directs the data to the appropriate application (e.g., email).

Network types
Let us now turn to a discussion of the broad categories of networks -- local area networks and wide area networks. It should be noted that networks -- both local area and wide area -- can be either private or public and can carry either voice or data or both. Given our focus on computerbased accounting systems, we focus only on data oriented local area and wide area network, although the concepts also apply to voice networks. Local area networks When two or more computers in close physical proximity are linked together using physical connectors the result is a local area network (LAN). The main components of a LAN are (1) computers and other devices such as printers, (2) a relatively powerful computer which functions as the network "server," and (3) a communications channel connecting the computers and devices. Each computer and device to be connected on the LAN must have a network interface card. The three main types of cable physically connecting the computers together are coaxial, twisted pair, and fiber optics. As the name suggests, a server is any node on the network that provides a service such as shared access to a printer, a disk drive, or other devices such as modems. The three network topologies are bus, ring, and star.

Wide area networks As discussed above, local area networks involve computers that are in close geographical proximity. In contrast, networks that connect users over vast geographical distances are referred to as wide area networks (WAN). The communication links connecting nodes in a wide area network are either phone lines, microwave links, or satellites. For a computer to communicate with another computer over phone lines, a device called a modem is required. Modems can be internal or external.

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The various communication technology options for WANs are summarized below. Communications Technologies Technology Modem Description Modulator demodulator. Uses conventional phone lines. Sustained speeds of about 33.6 kbps. Modems theoretically capable of 56 kbps. Integrated Services Digital Network. Requires special adapters and digital modems. Speeds up to 128 kbps. Line charges and modem costs higher than conventional modems. Fading in popularity with the emergence of DSL and cable modems. Digital Subscriber Lines. Emerging as an alternative to ISDN, with downloading speeds up to 6 mbps. Requires proximity to phone company switching station. Downloading only. Speeds up to 400 mbps. Constant Internet connection; speeds up to 10 mbps for uploading and downloading. Requires cable TV connection.

ISDN

DSL

Satellites Cable modems

Client/Server Systems
Client/server is an architecture that distributes processing in a networked environment between clients and one or more servers. Any node in a network requesting data or a service is considered to be a client, and any node or device providing a service is considered to be a server. Clients are simply the end-user computers requesting information while running an application. Servers have access to data repositories and make the information available. In a client/server network, the client computer can perform certain local processing tasks such as handling the user interface, while a server at a remote location performs the more data intensive tasks such as searching and retrieving data from large corporate databases. Thus, processing tasks are shared across the client/server network.

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ASSIGNMENT: Define the following terms a. IP address

b. MAC address

c. Client/server difference

d. Difference between routing & switching

e. Difference between packet & circuit switching (with example each)

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