Topic

Reproduction

3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Define asexual and sexual reproduction; Describe reproduction in human and animals; Explain asexual and sexual reproduction in plants and animals; Identify fertilisation and foetal development in human beings; Describe the formation of identical and non-identical twins in human beings; and Discuss tissue culture and cloning techniques as examples of biotechnology.

INTRODUCTION

Reproduction is one of the characteristics of living things. It is a process where offspring are produced. In doing so, the survival of the species are perpetuated. Animals and plants can reproduce asexually and sexually. Both methods have advantages and limitations. However, not all species of animals and plants can do both types of reproduction. In this topic, we will study both types of reproduction in animals and plants. We will study how fertilisation occurs in both animals and plants. In human reproduction, we will discuss how the zygote develops into a feotus and then a baby. We will look at how twins can sometimes occur in a pregnancy. We will also study similar happenings in sexual plant reproduction. Lastly, we will explore biotechnology with regard to tissue culture and cloning.

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3.1

ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual and asexual reproduction are two different ways of producing offspring. Some species of animals and plants reproduce either asexually or sexually while some other species reproduce both asexually and sexually. How are they done? What organs are involved? Let us look at the meaning of these processes. Table 3.1 shows the differences between the two processes. We will discuss both processes in detail in the next section.
Table 3.1: Differences between Asexual and Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction Number involved of organisms One parent needed Cells divide by mitosis Budding, vegetative reproduction, fragmentation and spore formation Time efficient no need to search for mate and requires less energy No variation if the parent has a genetic disease, so will the offspring Two Sexual Reproduction Two parents are required to mate Cells divide by meiosis Syngamy and conjugation

Cell division Types

Advantages

Variation and unique organism is more protected Requires two organisms and more energy Four

Disadvantages

No. of cells produced per parent cell at the end of process Evolution

There is very little chance of variation with asexual reproduction. Mutations in DNA can still occur but not nearly as frequently as sexual reproduction. Source: http://www.diffen.com

Sexual reproduction leads to genetic variation in new generations of offspring. This is fundamental to evolution.

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SELF-CHECK 3.1
After studying Table 3.1, write the meaning of asexual and sexual reproduction.

ACTIVITY 3.1
1. Give examples of species of animals and plants that reproduce asexually. Give examples of species of animals and plants that reproduce sexually. Give examples of species of animals and plants that reproduce using both processes.

2.

3.

3.2

REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS AND ANIMALS

We will now take a look at the process of both asexual and sexual reproduction in humans and animals in more detail.

3.2.1

Asexual Reproduction

As previously mentioned, in asexual reproduction one individual produces offspring that are genetically identical to itself. These offspring are produced by mitosis. There are many invertebrates, such as sea stars and sea anemones, that produce asexually. We will now take a look at the common forms of asexual reproductions. (a) Budding In this form of asexual reproduction, an offspring grows out of the body of the parent (see Figure 3.1 for an example of budding in process).

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Figure 3.1: A Hydra undergoing budding Source: http://www.devbio.biology.gatech.edu

According to Figure 3.1, process (1) of Hydra budding, a bud begins to form on the tubular body of an adult Hydra. Process (2) shows the bud developing a mouth and tentacles. Next, the bud detaches itself from the parent in process (3). In the final process (4), the new Hydra is fully developed and will find its own location for attachment. (b) Gemmulation (Internal Buds) In this form of asexual reproduction, a parent releases a specialised mass of cells that can develop into offspring. Some freshwater sponges exhibit this type of reproduction. One in particular is Spongilla (see Figure 3.2).

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Figure 3.2: Spongilla Source: http://s731.photobucket.com

(c)

Fission The parent organism grows in size and divides into two or more organisms. Binary fission implies the splitting of parent organism into two new organisms, whereas multiple fissions imply a division into more than two daughter organisms. Figure 3.3 shows this method of reproduction in process.

Figure 3.3: A paramecium Euglena reproducing Source: http://www.tutorvista.com

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(d)

Fragmentation In this type of reproduction, the body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, each of which can produce an offspring. An example of this type would be the starfish. Look at how the starfish undergoes fragmentation in Figure 3.4 below.

Figure 3.4: A starfish undergoing fragmentation Source: http://reproduction5a.blogspot.com

(e)

Regeneration In regeneration, if a piece of a parent is detached, it can grow and develop into a completely new individual. An example of this would be echinoderms (see Figure 3.5).

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Figure 3.5: The echinoderm Luzon Sea Star regenerating an arm Source: http://www.starfish.ch

(f)

Parthenogenesis This type of reproduction involves the development of an egg that has not been fertilised into an individual. Animals like most kinds of wasps, bees and ants that have no sex chromosomes reproduce by this process. Some reptiles and fish are also capable of reproducing in this manner. In some organisms, parthenogenesis occurs under specific conditions. For example, when aphids get enough food to eat in the spring season, they resort to asexual reproduction; this is because it is a quicker means of producing offspring (see Figure 3.6). However, these creatures also undergo sexual reproduction.

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Figure 3.6: Parthenogenesis in aphids Source: www.theaphidroom.wordpress.com

3.2.2

Sexual Reproduction

In sexual reproduction, two individuals produce offspring that have genetic characteristics from both parents. Sexual reproduction introduces new gene combinations in a population. (a) Gametes In animals, sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two different gametes to form a zygote. Gametes are produced by meiosis in the male and female reproductive organs. The gametes are haploid (containing only one set of chromosomes) while the zygote is diploid (containing two sets of chromosomes).

In most cases, the male gamete, called the spermatozoa, is relatively motile and usually has a flagellum. On the other hand, the female gamete, called the ovum, is non-motile and relatively large in comparison to the male gamete.

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(b)

Types of Fertilisation There are two mechanisms by which fertilisation can take place. The first is external (the eggs are fertilised outside of the body) while the second is internal (the eggs are fertilised within the female reproductive tract). Patterns and Cycles Reproduction is not a continuous activity and is subject to certain patterns and cycles. Often times these patterns and cycles may be linked to environmental conditions which allow organisms to reproduce effectively. For example, many animals have oestrous cycles that occur during certain parts of the year so that offspring can typically be born under favourable conditions. However, humans undergo menstrual cycle. Likewise, these cycles and patterns are controlled by hormonal cues. Oestrous can also be controlled by other seasonal cues such as rainfall. All of these patterns and cycles allow organisms to manage the relative expenditure of energy for reproduction and maximise the chances of survival for the resulting offspring.

(c)

(d)

Human Sexual Reproduction Just like other animals, sexual reproduction in humans involve two parents. Each parent produces haploid gamete that fuses to form a diploid zygote. Human Male Reproductive System Male sexual organs are situated outside the body (see Figure 3.7). The penis transfers sperms into the female sexual organ.

(e)

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Figure 3.7: Male reproductive system Source: http://www.faqs.org

The male reproductive system as illustrated in Figure 3.7 consists of the penis, urethra, testes, sperm ducts and sex glands. (i) Penis Penis is an external tube and muscular organ that ejaculates sperms into the female reproductive organ or vagina during sexual intercourse. It contains two long cylinders of spongy tissue side by side. Below and between them runs a third cylinder of spongy tissue with the centre tube called urethra. Through the urethra, both semen (during ejaculation) and urine (during urination) are passed out. Urethra Urethra is a tube that runs through the centre of the penis. The function of this tube is to carry sperms in the semen to the outside of the male body and into the vagina of the female body. It also transports urine from the urinary bladder as body waste through excretion.

(ii)

(iii) Testes Testes are the external organs in the male reproductive system. They are found inside a sac called scrotum which hangs outside the body. A pair of testes produces male sex cells or gametes called sperms. It

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also produces male sex hormones from puberty onwards. The production of sperms and male hormone, testosterone, however, starts when a male is between 12 and 16 years old.

Figure 3.8: Human sperm Source: Johnson (2000)

The smallest cell in the human body is the sperm. A sperm looks like a tadpole with a head and a tail. It is about 0.01 to 0.05 mm long. It has three sections the head, neck and tail (see Figure 3.8). The head contains the nucleus. The nucleus carries genetic material, called the gene, to be transferred from the father to the offspring. The tail of the sperm helps the sperm to swim up to the fallopian tube to meet and fertilise the egg or ovum. During the fertilisation process, the head of the sperm will pierce through the cell membrane of the ovum. (iv) Sperm ducts A sperm duct is a long tube that begins from the testes. It connects the testes to the urethra. The sperms are produced in the testes and transported by the sperm ducts through the urethra.

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(v)

Sex glands Sex glands consist of seminal vesicles and prostate glands. Seminal vesicles are a pair of glands that release fluid containing nutrients. The nutrients provide energy for the sperms to swim. These sex glands temporarily store the sperms before they are released. The semen is the fluid which contains sperms. The semen is ejected through a tube that runs through the centre of the penis by the urethra.

SELF-CHECK 3.2
Which of the following statements are true? 1. Urethra transports urine from the urinary bladder as body waste through excretion. The production of sperms and male hormone, testosterone, starts when a male is between two to six years old. A sperm looks like a tadpole with a head and a tail. A sperm duct produces male sex cells or gametes called sperms. Seminal vesicles are a pair of glands that releases fluid containing nutrients.

2. 3. 4. 5.

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ACTIVITY 3.2
The diagram below shows the male reproductive system of a goat. Label A-E.

(f)

Human Female Reproductive System The female reproductive system (see Figure 3.9) is always internal. The functional part that is in contact with male reproductive organ is the vagina.

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Figure 3.9: Female reproductive system Source: http://www.faqs.org

The anatomy reproductive system for female includes external structures and internal structures. (i) External Structures The external female reproductive organ (i.e. genital) has two functions. The functions include enabling sperm to enter the body and protecting internal genital organs from infectious organisms. The main external structures of the female reproductive system are labia majora, labia minora and clitoris. x Labia majora They are relatively large and fleshy, and are similar to the scrotum in males. They contain sweat and oil-secreting glands. After females reach puberty, the labia majora are covered with hair. Labia majora enclose and protect the other female external reproductive organs. Labia minora They can be very small or up to 5 cm wide. They are located just inside the labia majora and surround the openings to the vagina and urethra. Next to the vaginal opening are Bartholins glands. The function of the glands is to produce a fluid (mucus) secretion.

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Clitoris The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive protrusion that is comparable to the penis in males. The clitoris is covered by a fold of skin, called the prepuce, which is similar to the foreskin at the end of the penis. Like the penis, the clitoris is very sensitive to stimulation and can become erect.

(ii)

Internal Structures The main internal structures of the female reproductive system are shown in Figure 3.10. The structures include the vagina, uterus (womb), ovaries and Fallopian tubes.

Figure 3.10: Internal structures of the female reproductive system (front view) Source: www.dhmc.org

Vagina The vagina, also known as the birth canal, is a muscular, ridged sheath connecting the external genitals to the uterus. This canal joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body. During the reproductive process, the vagina functions as a two-way street. First, it accepts the penis and sperm during intercourse. Secondly, during the nine months of pregnancy, it serves as the avenue of birth through which the new baby enters the world. Uterus (womb) The uterus, a pear-shaped and hollow organ, is where the embryo grows into a foetus during pregnancy. It has two parts the

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cervix, the lower part that opens into the vagina; and the corpus, the main body of the uterus that can easily expand to hold a developing baby. A channel through the cervix allows sperms to enter and menstrual blood to exit. x Ovaries The ovaries are a pair of female reproductive organs. They are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus. The ovaries are connected to each other by the Fallopian tubes. Each ovary is about the size and shape of an almond. The ovaries have two functions: produce eggs (also called ova) and produce female hormones. The size of each ovary is about 1.5 inches long. Each month, during the menstrual cycle, an egg is released from one ovary. Fallopian tubes They are narrow tubes attached to the upper part of the uterus. They serve as tunnels for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. The fertilisation of an egg by a sperm, called conception, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilised egg will move to the uterus, where it implants to the uterine wall.

(g)

Menstrual Cycle The menstrual cycle, under the control of the endocrine system, is necessary for reproduction. It is commonly divided into three phases: the follicular phase, ovulation and the luteal phase. (i) The Phases When a girl reaches 10 to 14 years of age, the pituitary glands start a serious hormonal cycle indicating that she has matured. Menstruation is also called menstrual bleeding or period. The flow of bleeding serves as a sign that a woman has not become pregnant. However, this fertile woman is capable of becoming pregnant. This menstrual cycle is a monthly recurring cycle of physiological changes which occurs in the female reproductive system (see Figure 3.11). Menstruation is indicated by the process of bleeding from the vagina in the cycle of 28 days.

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Figure 3.11: Phases of the menstrual cycle Source: http://biancabelcherpa.blogspot.com

The menstrual cycle is controlled by the hormone system and is necessary in the reproduction process. The cycles are counted from the first day of menstrual flow because the onset of menstruation corresponds closely with the hormonal cycle. This menstrual cycle can be divided into several phases. The length of each phase varies from woman to woman and cycle to cycle. The average values are shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Average Values of the Menstrual Cycle Phases Menstrual phase Follicular phase (proliferative phase) Ovulation (dividing phase) Luteal phase (secretory phase) Ischemic phase (some group this with secretory phase) 1-4 5-13 14 15-26 27-28 Days

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During the follicular phase, the lining of the uterus thickens, stimulated by gradually increasing amounts of estrogen. The follicles in the ovary begin to develop under the influence of a complex interplay of hormones. After several days, one or occasionally two follicles will become dominant, releasing an ovum or egg in the event called ovulation. If the egg is fertilised by a spermatozoon, it will become a zygote. This zygote will take about one to two weeks to travel down the fallopian tubes to the uterus. If the egg is not fertilised in about a day of ovulation, it will die and be absorbed by the woman's body. After ovulation, the remains of the dominant follicle in the ovary become a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum is essential for establishing and maintaining pregnancy in females. In the ovary, the corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone. They are steroid hormones which are responsible for the thickening of the endometrium and its development and maintenance, respectively. Under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium (uterine lining) changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy. If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks, the corpus luteum will die, causing sharp drops in levels of both progesterone and estrogen. These hormone drops cause the uterus to shed its lining in a process termed menstruation. (ii) Terms The first menstruation of a woman is called menarche. It is one of the later stages of puberty in girls. The average age of menarche in human beings is 12 years but is normal from ages 8 to 16. Some factors affecting the acceleration or delay of menarche are heredity, diet and overall health. The cessation of menstrual cycles at the end of a woman's reproductive life is termed menopause. The average age of menopause in women is 51 years but it is common between 40 and 58 years. The length of a woman's menstrual cycle varies. Some women experience shorter cycles and some longer cycles. A woman who experiences variations of less than eight days between her longest cycles and shortest cycles is considered to have regular menstrual cycles. It is unusual for a woman to experience cycle length variations of less than four days. Length variation between eight and 20 days is considered moderately irregular. Variation of 21 days or more between a woman's shortest and longest cycles is considered abnormal.

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SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. 2. What are the functions of estrogen and progesterone? What happens to the level of progesterone when a woman becomes pregnant?

ACTIVITY 3.3
Creighton model is related to womens fertility and menstrual cycles. Explain the theories behind this model. You can refer to Internet sources for detailed reference.

3.3

FERTILISATION AND EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT

Every human being begins life as a single cell, formed when the father's sperm fertilises the mother's egg. Fertilisation normally takes place in the mother's Fallopian tube, which connects the uterus (womb) with the ovary. The uterus is the size and shape of a large pear, it is made of muscle and it stretches to allow the baby's growth throughout the months of pregnancy. Fertilisation refers to the fusion of gametes to form a new organism. Once deposited within the vagina, the sperms proceed on their journey into and through the uterus and on up into the fallopian tubes where the fertilisation may occur. Although a sperm can swim several millimetres each second, the trip to and through the fallopian tubes may be assisted by muscular contraction of the walls of the uterus and the tubes. There is also evidence that they respond to a chemical attractant produced by the egg or the tissues surrounding it. In any case, the sperms may reach the egg within 15 minutes of ejaculation. The trip is also fraught with heavy mortality. An average human ejaculates over 100 million sperms but only a few dozen complete the journey. However, only one sperm will succeed in fertilising the egg.

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The process of fertilisation (as shown in Figure 3.12) starts with the binding of a sperm head to the outer coating of the egg (zona pellucida). Exocytosis of the acrosome at the tip of the sperm head will release enzymes that digest a path through the zona. This will enable the sperm head to bind to the plasma membrane of the egg. The fusion of their respective membranes allows the entire contents of the sperm to be drawn into the cytosol of the egg. As the sperm's mitochondria enter the egg, they are always destroyed and do not contribute their genes to the embryo. Therefore, human mitochondrial DNA is almost always inherited from mothers only.

Figure 3.12: Sperm fertilisation process Source: www.chariho.k12.ri.us

After fertilisation, the single zygote splits into two; then the two cells double to four, four to eight, eight to sixteen and so on. The zygote then journeys down to the uterus. By the time the womb cavity is reached, the cell cluster becomes hollow and fluid-filled, and is referred to as the blastocyst. However, this is not an inert clump of cells but a busily developing human being. Differentiation (organisation into different parts and functions) is already taking place. Meanwhile the uterus is forming a spongy lining within which the embryo will implant. To achieve this, the embryo burrows into the wall of the womb and is covered over by the lining of the womb. This begins six days after fertilisation and is completed within the next seven days. If fertilisation has not taken place, the lining of the uterus comes away at the end of the monthly cycle as the woman's menstrual period. But once implantation occurs, the embryo sends out a hormonal signal which prevents the mother's period. This is usually her first indication of pregnancy.

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The foetus relies upon its mother for protection, supply of nutrients and oxygen. It also needs its waste substances removed. The foetus is protected by the uterus and the amniotic fluid, a liquid contained in a bag called amnion. The placenta is responsible for providing oxygen and nutrients as well as removing the waste substances. It grows into the wall of the uterus and is joined to the foetus by the umbilical cord. The mothers blood does not mix with the foetus blood, but the placenta lets substances pass between the two blood supplies such as the following: (a) (b) Oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the placenta from the mother to the foetus; and Waste substances such as carbon dioxide diffuse across the placenta from the foetus to the mother.

Figure 3.13 shows the physical changes that happen from the first week to the third month. The baby will undergo more changes during the gestation period until the due date.

Figure 3.13: Changes from first week to third month Source: Kids.brittanica.com

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ACTIVITY 3.4
1. Conduct a research on the physical, neurological and physiological changes that a foetus undergoes from one month to nine months. Draw a timeline to summarise the changes.

2.

3.4

IDENTICAL AND NON-IDENTICAL TWINS

In the previous section, you have studied that a sperm fertilises an egg to form a zygote that then develops into a foetus. However occasionally, two eggs are released by the ovary and fertilised. This results in fraternal twins who are different in appearance and may be of different sexes because their genes form from two eggs and two sperm cells. Rarely, one embryo splits into two and both cells develop separately, as identical twins, similar in appearance.

3.4.1

Non-Identical or Fraternal Twins

With fraternal twins (also known as non-identical twins), the most common type, the mother contributes two eggs and each are fertilised in the womb by two different sperm cells from the father. The two eggs form two zygotes, and these twins are therefore also known as dizygotic as well as biovular twins (see Figure 3.14). Fraternal twins, like any other siblings, may look very similar, particularly given that they are the same age. However, fraternal twins may also look very different from each other. They may be a different sex or the same sex. The same holds true for brothers and sisters from the same parents, meaning that fraternal twins are simply brothers and/or sisters who happen to be the same age. They are genetically as similar as any ordinary siblings. This type of twin is more common if there is a family history of twins, also more common for older mothers, with twinning rates doubling in mothers over the age of 35. They are also more likely to occur if fertility drugs are used to help you become pregnant.

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3.4.2

Identical Twins

With identical twins, one egg (zygote) from the mother is fertilised by one sperm from the father, and then very early in development the embryo splits and two foetuses grow (refer to Figure 3.14). Spontaneous division of the zygote into two embryos is not considered to be a hereditary trait, but rather a spontaneous or random event. If the zygote splits very early (in the first two days after fertilisation), they may develop separate placentas (chorion) and separate sacs (amnion). These are called dichorionic and diamniotic (or di/di) twins. While all fraternal twins are 'di/di', this occurs 20-30% of the time in identical twins. Most of the time in identical twins, the zygote will split after two days, resulting in a shared placenta but two separate sacs. These are called monochorionic and diamniotic (mono/di) twins. These twins are very similar genetically and share a single afterbirth. Very occasionally, twins will also share the same sac (fluid cavity). In about 1% of identical twins, the splitting occurs late enough to result in both a shared placenta and a shared sac. These are called monochorionic and monoamniotic (mono/mono) twins.

3.4.3

Conjoined Twins

If the zygote splits extremely late, it will result in conjoined twins. Popularly known as Siamese twins, conjoined twins occur once in every 100,000 births. Conjoined twins can be identified via ultrasound in the early part of pregnancy. Apart from sharing placentas and membranes, conjoined twins can also share body parts and organs. Occurrence of conjoined twins happens when the zygote divides late and does not split totally. The twins can be linked at any part of the body but both will be joined at the same place.

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Figure 3.14: Formation of identical and non-identical twins Source: http://pravf.hubpages.com

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SELF-CHECK 3.4
Which of these photos show identical and non-identical twins?

3.5

SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Just like animals, plants can reproduce by sexual and asexual reproduction. We will first discuss how plants carry out sexual reproduction. Later in this section we will discuss how plants reproduce asexually.

3.5.1

Structure and Function of Flowers in Reproduction

Stamens and pistil are parts of flowers which are responsible for reproduction. Flowers which have both stamen and pistil are categorised as complete flowers. This is because stamen is considered a male sex organ whereas pistil is considered a female sex organ. However, some flowers do not have complete male and female sex organs such as that of melon, cucumber and pumpkin. Some have male sex organs only and some have female sex organs only. Flowers with only male sex organs are called staminate flowers whereas flowers with only female sex organs are called pistillate flowers. When flowers have both male and female sex organs, they are referred to as hermaphrodite flowers. Examples of hermaphrodite flowers are lilies (Figure 3.15) and roses (Figure 3.16).

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Figure 3.15: Lilies Source: http://www.thewhiteheart.co.uk

Figure 3.16: Roses Source: http://eggheadblog.ucdavis.edu

Figure 3.17 illustrates some basic reproductive organs of flowers needed to produce seeds.

Figure 3.17: Reproductive organs of flower Source: http://www.theflowerexpert.com

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The stamen is the male reproductive organ of the flower whereas the pistil is the female reproductive organ of the flower (see Figure 3.18).

Figure 3.18: Stigma and stamen Source: http://www.bloomindesigns.com

There are two essential parts in a stamen which are anther and filament. Anther is responsible for carrying pollen grain. The colour of the anther is usually yellow. The anther is held by the filament. During dry and sunny conditions, the anther swells to produce mature pollens which then split open to release the pollens. The pistil is made up of three parts, namely, stigma, style and ovary. The pollen is trapped by a sticky surface called stigma. The stigma is held by the style. The style is a tube-like structure that leads down to the ovary. The ovary contains ovules. The female gamete is produced by the ovule. Petals and sepals are other important parts of the flower. People are usually attracted to buy flowers because of the existence of the petals. Petals are highly coloured which also attract pollinators. Sepals are considered important because they protect the flower during the bud stage and prevent injury from insects and loss of water.

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SELF-CHECK 3.5
Tomato Flower Label the parts of this flower. Copy the words below into the correct boxes in the diagram.

3.5.2

Pollination

Pollination is a process of transferring pollen from the male organ of the flower to the female organ of the same or a different flower. In other words, to be pollinated, the pollen must be transferred from a stamen to stigma. It is called self-pollination when pollen from a plants stamen is transferred to the same plants stigma. However, when pollen from a plants stamen is transferred to a different plants stigma, it is called cross pollination.

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There are male gametes in the pollen. Thus, when male gametes are transferred into the female organ, a pollen lands on the stigma and a sugary secretion on the stigma stimulates the germination of the pollen. A pollen tube is formed. This tube grows downwards through the style towards the ovule which is found inside the ovary. The ovules are female gametes found in the ovary. The ovule is fertilised by the male nucleus of the pollen after passing down the tube. Consequently, the fertilised ovule becomes seed. Meanwhile, the ovary becomes fruit after the petals fall. Figure 3.19 shows the grains of pollen on the stigma of a lily.

Figure 3.19: Grains of pollen on stigma of a lily Source: http://www.beyondblossoms.com

Although plants are immobile, they are able to accomplish sexual reproduction with the help of birds and insects. Birds and insects are attracted to physical features of flowers, like the colour of the petal and the sweetness of the nectar which is located at the base of the petals. With bird and insect pollination, the pollen sticks to the body of the animals as they touch one flower and are rubbed off the bodies as they touch another flower. Other than these features, factors such as wind, water and the structure of the flower itself may also enable sexual reproduction to occur. With wind pollination, microscopic pollen grains drift in the air from one flower to another. The same principle applies to water pollination which occurs for plants that live entirely in the water. Some flowers open their petals at special times to attract pollinators such as night blooming plants that are pollinated by bats.

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3.5.3

The Difference between Insect and Wind Pollinated Flower

Flowers pollinated by insects have pollen grains that are rough so that they easily stick to the insects, whereas flowers pollinated by wind have pollen that is relatively smoother and smaller. An insect pollinated flower has large coloured petals while a wind pollinated flower has relatively smaller petals. Flowers pollinated by insects produce nectar whereas flowers pollinated by wind do not produce nectar. Figures 3.20 and 3.21 illustrate insect and wind pollinated flowers.

Figure 3.20: Insect pollinated flowers Source: http://www.saburchill.com

Figure 3.21: Wind pollinated flowers Source: http://www.theflowerexpert.com

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ACTIVITY 3.5
Using a suitable graphic organiser, contrast insect and wind pollinated flowers.

3.5.4

Fertilisation

Fertilisation starts when a pollen grain lands on the stigma. The pollen grain germinates, forming a pollen tube. The tube nucleus controls the growth of the pollen tube. The generative nucleus travels down the pollen tube. It undergoes mitosis, forming two haploid male gamete nuclei. The pollen tube enters the ovule by way of the micropyle. The two male gamete nuclei are released into the embryo sac. The tube nucleus then disintegrates. Refer to Figure 3.22.

Figure 3.22: Fertilisation Source: http://leavingbio.net

Since there are two sperm nuclei that have reached the embryo sac, both nuclei will fuse with female gametes. One sperm nuclei will fuse with the egg cell to form the zygote (2n) while the other sperm nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei in the embryo sac to form an endosperm nucleus (3n). This process is called double fertilisation (see Figure 3.23).

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Figure 3.23: Double fertilisation Source: http://leavingbio.net

The fertilised zygote becomes the seed.

3.5.5

Seed

Let us take a look at the pictures below. Which of the pictures shows seeds?

Figure 3.24: Fruit or seed?

Many structures commonly referred to as seeds are actually dry fruits. Sunflower seeds are sold commercially, while still enclosed within the hard shell of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the so-called stone fruits (such as the peach) have a hardened fruit layer (the endocarp) fused to and surrounding the actual seed. Nuts are the oneseeded, hard-shelled fruit of some plants with an indehiscent seed, such as an acorn or hazelnut. (a) Seed and Fruit Formation in Plants Previously, we have learnt that pollination aids the production of seeds. The seeds are developed after the eggs (ovules) have been fertilised by pollen grains. Meanwhile, the wall of the ovary develops into a fruit. In other words, the ovary swells to form the fruit. Some people assume that a fruit is just something juicy and soft. However, from the biological perspective, a fruit is an organ for dispersing seeds.

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Seeds can be found in various shapes, colours and sizes. There are certain kinds of seeds that can be eaten and certain kinds of seeds that cannot be eaten. One of the most important features of seed is the seed coat. Seed coat protects the seed from becoming dry and the embryo in the seed from being damaged. Some seed coats are thin while others are thicker. For instance, bean seed has a soft and thin seed coat but coconut seed has a hard and relatively thick seed coat. Due to the reason that seeds exist in various forms, some seeds germinate easily, while other seeds need certain requirements to be fulfilled before they can germinate. When the seed germinates, it is visible to see the endosperm, a temporary food supply, which is packed around the embryo in the form of special leaves called cotyledons. Plants are categorised based upon the number of cotyledons in the seed. Monocots are plants that have one cotyledon in the seed while dicots are plants that have two cotyledons. The dicot and monocot seeds structure are shown in Figure 3.25.

Figure 3.25: The dicot and monocot seed structures Source: http://www.cartage.org

ACTIVITY 3.6
1. 2. Collect pictures of monocot and dicot plants around your house. Create your own scrapbook on monocot and dicot plants.

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(b)

Seed Dispersal Seed dispersal occurs in order to provide opportunities to spread new plant to new localities. Consequently, it reduces competition between the seeds and parent plant. When the seeds and parent plant grow far away from each other, both will get enough nutrients and have a better chance of finding the right condition to grow. Seed dispersal can be categorised into four types, namely, wind dispersal, animal dispersal, water dispersal and self dispersal. Some seeds have a unique function which enables them to carry themselves away from the flower. These kind of seeds are light or have hairy growth which act like tiny parachutes. Thus, they use the wind to disperse themselves away from the parent plant. For example, the seeds of the orchids are almost as light as dust. Self dispersal involves an explosion of fruits which consequently spread the seeds away from the fruit. Pea plant is a kind of plant which disperses its seeds away through an explosion of pea fruits. Seeds can also be dispersed with the aid of animals. The fruits are eaten by creatures such as birds and subsequently, the seeds of the fruits are thrown away by those birds. Some seeds have a special hook which is easily attached to the animal. Certain seeds are less dense than water, thus, the seeds are dropped from the plants to the river so that they can be dispersed to other places. Due to this reason, coconut seeds can travel for thousands of kilometres across the sea and grow on islands as coconut palm trees, although they originally come from the mainland.

(c)

Germination of Seed Certain conditions need to be fulfilled before seeds can germinate. Water, oxygen and suitable temperature are three essential factors for germination. However, certain seeds need to be exposed to higher amount of light compared to other kind of seeds. It is important to pay ample attention to all conditions needed by seeds to germinate. If not, seeds would remain dormant or inactive. The embryos cells start to enlarge when the seed is exposed to suitable condition. Consequently, the seed coat breaks open after the water and oxygen are taken in through the seed coat. The plumule grows during germination to form a root. The growing root pushes down into the soil to anchor new plant and to absorb water and minerals from the soil. Subsequently, the plumule grows from the seed to form the shoot. It grows towards the light. The germination phase ends when a shoot emerges from

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the soil. It is considered that the new plant starts growing. It continuously needs water, warmth, nutrients and light to grow. There are a few factors which potentially lead to poor germination, as listed below: (i) (ii) Oxygen cannot reach the plant if the plant is overwatered; Plants need to use full energy to reach the soil surface if it is planted deeply;

(iii) Seeds cannot start to germinate if it is in dry condition; and (iv) Water and oxygen cannot get into seeds if the seed coat is too hard. Thus, in order to avoid poor germination, the following tips are suggested: (i) (ii) Seed coat which is too hard needs to be soaked and scratched; and Expose seeds to suitable temperature because some seeds need to be exposed to cold temperature for a certain period, in order to make them germinate.

ACTIVITY 3.7
Design your own experiment to test the effects of several factors towards the germination of seed. Choose one of these following variables as an independent variable of your experiment: (a) (b) (c) Temperature Light Humidity

3.5.6

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Several kinds of plants do not produce seeds and flowers. This kind of plants produces spores instead of seeds. Thus, they are called non-flowering plants. Spores are usually recognised by looking at the undersides of leaves where there are brown spots or pads on the bottom of the leaves. When the spore case breaks open, thousands of tiny spores, each consisting of thick-walled cell, pour forth and are spread over great distances by winds and water currents. The best example of this kind of plant is the fern (see Figure 3.26).

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Figure 3.26: Spores on fern leaves Source: http://www.magnoliagardensnursery.com

Plants can also reproduce asexually through vegetative propagation, naturally or by man. (a) Vegetative propagation (in plants) In vegetative propagation, part of a plant becomes detached and grows into a new plant usually near the original parent. Let us look at some examples. (i) Runners The strawberry plant has a short thick stem and a rosette of leaves close to the ground. The buds in the axils of the leaves grow outward, forming long and thin horizontal stems with a few tiny scales leaves on the surface of the ground. The terminal bud of the runner turns upward and adventitious roots grow down, thus, anchoring the new plant. The new plant may in turn form more runners. Later, the runner connecting the young plants to the parent rots, so that the new plant becomes independent. Examples are strawberry plant and spider grass. Rhizomes Many herbaceous plants have part of their shoot system underground; if it is horizontal it is termed a rhizome. A rhizome can send up aerial shoots at frequent intervals. These shoots grow from buds in the axils of small scale leaves and are anchored in the ground by adventitious roots which grow from the nodes. An example of this is grass.

(ii)

(iii) Stem tubers When the swollen stem tuber is planted, the eyes, which are actually axillary buds, start to grow and form leafy shoots, and adventitious roots grow from the bases of these shoots. One

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tuber may give rise to many plants if cut into several parts before planting. An example of tubers is the potato. (iv) Bulbs These are underground buds with reserve food stored in the scales of layers of fleshy leaf bases of the previous year. These leaves surround and hide the short stem to which they are attached. Buds are presents in some of their axils. From the stem, a series of new adventitious roots grow down. New shoots develop from axillary buds and emerged from the bulb. If two or more axillary buds grow from the bulb, each form its own new bulb and so reproduction continues, since the common stem soon erodes and allows their separation. Onions, lilies and tulips are examples of bulbs.

ACTIVITY 3.8
Match the following words with the correct picture. Tuber Rhizome Bulb Runner

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(b)

Vegetative Propagation by Man Here, plant reproduction is propagated by people through various methods. (i) Cuttings A sharp knife cuts off obliquely short stems containing four or five nodes. The leaves are removed except for two or three of the smallest. When planted in soil, roots form from the cut surface and the small leaves. Examples of this are bougainvilleas and roses (see Figure 3.27).

Figure 3.27: Roses reproduced by cutting

(ii)

Grafting This is a way of joining a root system from a vigorous stock plant with a shoot system of the desired variety. A bud and a leaf are selected from near the base of the desirable variety. The bark of the stock plant is cut in a T-shape and lifted from the wood to allow the new bud to be inserted. The wound is bound up firmly with moist strong raffia. The new bud will grow if the joining is successful (refer to Figure 3.28).

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Figure 3.28: A plant reproduced by grafting

3.6

BIOTECHNOLOGY TISSUE CULTURE AND CLONING

Producing offspring can occur naturally through the various methods of reproduction. A person can also intervene in certain stages of the reproduction process to determine the type of offspring that he wants. In this last section, we will study two techniques used in the field of biotechnology that can be used to enhance the quality of the offspring. The term biotechnology, often referred to as biotech, brings to mind many different things. Many people think that biotechnology only involves genetic research. However, the field of biotechnology is much broader. Genetic engineering of crops for agriculture, bioremediation, food processing, drugs and proteomics are all included in the field of biotechnology. Biotechnology is the branch of technology that utilises living organisms or biological systems to modify humans and their environment. Biotechnology is not limited to high-tech or prototype technologies. Biotechnology can be medical, environmental or agricultural in application.

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Biotechnology was being practised long before the term was coined. In fact, humans have been practising biotechnology for centuries. One of the earliest examples of biotechnology is the fermenting of yeast into alcohol; a similar process is used to create yogurt and cheese. Salting foods was done to preserve food long before a microorganism was seen by the human eye, along with quarantining those struck by illness. Even 19th century farmers were practising a form of biotechnology when they selected their best plants for their crops. Selective breeding for plants that produced the most crop yield and the largest fruits and vegetables were early experiments in genetics that formed the basis of 21st century research.

3.6.1

Cloning

One of the most talked about discoveries in modern history was done through biotechnology cloning. Cloning is the creation of an organism that is an exact genetic copy of another. This means that every single bit of DNA is the same between the two! But how is cloning done? Cloning can be done through the following (http://learn.genetics.utah.edu): (a) Artificial Embryo Twinning As the name suggests, this technology mimics the natural process of creating identical twins. In nature, twins occur just after fertilisation of an egg cell by a sperm cell. In rare cases, when the resulting fertilised egg, called a zygote, tries to divide into a two-celled embryo, the two cells separate. Each cell continues dividing on its own, ultimately developing into a separate individual within the mother. Since the two cells came from the same zygote, the resulting individuals are genetically identical. Artificial embryo twinning uses the same approach, but it occurs in a Petri dish instead of in the mother's body. This is accomplished by manually separating a very early embryo into individual cells, and then allowing each cell to divide and develop on its own. The resulting embryos are placed into a surrogate mother, where they are carried to term and delivered. Again, since all the embryos came from the same zygote, they are genetically identical.

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(b)

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) uses a different approach than artificial embryo twinning, but it produces the same result: an exact clone, or genetic copy, of an individual. This was the method used to create Dolly the Sheep. To make Dolly, researchers isolated a somatic cell from an adult female sheep. Next, they transferred the nucleus from that cell to an egg cell from which the nucleus had been removed. After a couple of chemical tweaks, the egg cell, with its new nucleus, was behaving just like a freshly fertilised zygote. It developed into an embryo, which was implanted into a surrogate mother and carried to term. The lamb, Dolly, was an exact genetic replica of the adult female sheep that donated the somatic cell nucleus to the egg. She was the first-ever mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell. How does SCNT differ from the natural way of making an embryo? The fertilisation of an egg by a sperm and the SCNT cloning method both result in the same thing: a dividing ball of cells, called an embryo. So what exactly is the difference between these methods? An embryo is composed of cells that contain two complete sets of chromosomes. The difference between fertilisation and SCNT lies in where those two sets originated. In fertilisation, the sperm and egg both contain one set of chromosomes. When the sperm and egg join, the resulting zygote ends up with two sets one from the father (sperm) and one from the mother (egg). In SCNT, the egg cell's single set of chromosomes is removed. It is replaced by the nucleus from a somatic cell, which already contains two complete sets of chromosomes. Therefore, in the resulting embryo, both sets of chromosomes come from the somatic cell.

3.6.2

Tissue Culture

Tissue culture, also known as micropropagation, is a propagation method used to produce plants under sterile conditions. This method uses plant explants (plant parts) or seeds that have been sterilised before being placed in containers with a growing medium (usually a gel) that has some nutrients added. The explants or seeds, the containers and the medium

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have all been sterilised, and this (if successful) prevents any cut or torn tissue, or the entire explants or seed itself, from becoming infected with a microorganism of some kind and rotting during the time these plant parts require to become rooted or to multiply. Many types of seeds germinated in these conditions tend to grow very fast compared to being sowed in standard growing media outside of sterile, enclosed containers. Using plant tissue, it is possible to grow exact copies of the donor plant. This is extremely useful for plants that genetically have desirable traits because one can create many clones of a particular plant much faster than traditional propagation methods like cuttings, pullings or divisions. The sterile nutrient media usually contains a nutrient solution (typically salts and vitamins), sucrose (sugar), hormones (optional), antibiotics (optional) and a solidifying or gelling agent such as agar (a product of seaweed). The standard procedure for performing plant tissue culture experiments is fairly basic (see Figure 3.29). (a) A sterile environment must be created. The medium used to grow the plant tissue, the plant tissues themselves, and the environment surrounding the tissue culture, must be free of all possible contaminants. Tissue can be collected from the plants leaf, shoot, bud, stem or root. The tissue sample can then be placed on an aseptic (free of microorganisms), nutrient-rich medium where its cells will begin to grow and develop into the desired plant product. Finally, the developing tissue should be maintained in a closely controlled chemical and physical environment, such as a greenhouse, to achieve the best results.

(b) (c)

(d)

Figure 3.29: Basic steps of micropropagation Source: http://www.bio.davidson.edu

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The following are the benefits of plant tissue culture in the agricultural world: (a) (b) It allows for the production of huge numbers of plants in a very short period; An overwhelming number of plants can be produced using tissue collected from a single parent plant a plant which itself remains unharmed in the tissue harvesting process; and It eliminates the possibility of interruption in the growing season because it can be carried out inside the carefully regulated environment of a greenhouse.

(c)

Micropropagation will be crucial to the agricuture industry in the future because it is used to produce plants which have been genetically modified and selected for their ability to resist certain indigenous environmental stresses.

SELF-CHECK 3.6
Which of the following statements are false? (a) (b) (c) Cloning is the creation of another organism that has the same DNA as the original organism. Artificial embryo twinning and somatic cell nuclear transfer are two ways to clone an organism. Tissue culture, also known as micropropagation, is a propagation method used to produce animals under sterile conditions. Tissues can be collected only from a plants leaves.

(d)

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There are two methods of reproduction asexual and sexual. Asexual reproduction involves one parent while sexual reproduction involves two parents. Animals can reproduce asexually through the process of budding, binary fission, gemmulation, fragmentation, regeneration and parthenogenesis. Animals reproduce sexually by producing two types of gamete spermatozoa or sperm; and ovum or egg. Menstruation occurs in matured women once in every month. The menstrual cycle is controlled by the hormone system. Fertilisation results in pregnancy. The baby will be born after nine months of pregnancy in humans. The male spermatozoa fertilise the egg whether inside or outside the body to form a zygote. Zygote undergoes mitosis and develops into a foetus in the uterus of a female animal. Identical twins are formed when one sperm fertilises an egg to form a zygote which then splits into two foetuses. Non-identical twins are formed when the mother contributes two eggs which are fertilised in the womb by two different sperm cells from the father. Stamen is the male sex organ of a flower whereas pistil is the female sex organ of the flower. Stamen consists of anther and filament. Pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary. Pollination is the process of transferring pollen from the male organ of a flower to the female organ of the same or a different flower.

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One sperm nuclei will fuse with the egg cell to form a zygote (2n) while the other sperm nucleus fuses with the 2 polar nuclei in the embryo sac to form an endosperm nucleus (3n). This is double fertilisation. There are four ways that seeds are dispersed, namely, wind dispersal, animal dispersal, self dispersal and water dispersal. Water, oxygen and suitable temperature are the three essential factors for seed germination. Some flowering plants are able to do vegetative reproduction. Non-flowering plants produce spores instead of seeds.

Asexual reproduction Biotechnology Budding Bulb Cloning Double fertilisation Fission Fragmentation Germination Identical twins Menstrual cycle Non-identical twins Ovum Parthenogenesis

Pistil Pollination Seed Regeneration Reproductive organs Rhizome Runner Seed dispersal Sexual reproduction Spermatozoa Stamen Stem tubers Tissue culture Vegetative propagation Zygote

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Asexual reproduction in plants. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.buzzle.

com/articles/asexual-reproduction-in-plants.html Campbell, N. A., Reece, J. B., Mitchell, L. G., & Taylor, M. R. (2003). Biology (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Benjamin Cummings.

Fetal

development. (n.d.). Retrieved medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm

from

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/

Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., & Jackson, R.B. (2010). Campbell biology (9th ed.). San Francisco: PearsonBenjamin Cummings

Reproduction. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/ks3/

science/organisms_behaviour_health/reproduction/revision/1/ Roberts, M. B. V. (1986). Biology: A functional approach (4th ed.). Surrey: Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd.

Types of twin pregnancy. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.baby2see.com/

multiples/twins.html

What is cloning? (n.d.). Retrieved from http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/

content/tech/cloning/whatiscloning/