Slides Transmissão de Calor

1
Mecanismos F Mecanismos F sicos e sicos e

Equa Equa es de Taxas de es de Taxas de
Transmisso de Calor Transmisso de Calor
O que a transferncia/transmisso de calor?
A transferncia/transmisso de calor o trnsito de energia trmica
devido a uma diferena de temperaturas num meio ou entre meios.
O que a energia trmica?
A energia trmica est associada translao, rotao, vibrao e aos
estados electrnicos dos tomos e molculas que constituem a matria.
Transferncia de Calor e Energia T Transferncia de Calor e Energia T rmica rmica
A energia trmica representa o efeito cumulativo das actividades microscpicas
e est relacionada com a temperatura da matria.
2
Unidades Smbolo Significado fsico Quantidade
Transporte de energia trmica devido a
gradientes de temperatura
Transferncia de
Calor
NO confundir ou trocar os significados fsicos de Energia Trmica,
Temperatura e Transferncia de Calor
Energia associada ao comportamento
microscpico da matria
Energia
Trmica
+ J/kg J ou
u U ou
Modo indirecto de determinar a
quantidade de energia trmica
armazenada na matria
Temperatura
K C ou
T
Quantidade de energia trmica transferida
num intervalo de tempo t > 0
Calor
Q
J
+
U Energia Trmica
u Energia Trmica especfica
Energia trmica transferida por unidade
de tempo
Taxa de
transferncia de
calor
q
W
Energia trmica transferida por unidade
de tempo e por unidade de rea
Fluxo de calor
' q'
2
/ m W
Conduo: Transferncia de calor num slido ou fluido esttico (gs ou lquido) devida ao
movimento aleatrio dos seus tomos, molculas e/ou electres constituintes.
Conveco: Transferncia de calor devida ao efeito combinado do movimento
aleatrio (microscpico) e do movimento macroscpico (adveco)
do fluido sobre uma superfcie.
Radiao: Energia que emitida pela matria devido a mudanas das configuraes
electrnicas dos seus tomos ou molculas e que transportada por ondas
electromagnticas (ou por fotes).
A conduo e a conveco exigem a presena de matria e de variaes de temperatura nesse
meio material.
Embora a radiao tenha origem na matria, o seu transporte no exige a presena de um
meio material. Alis, o transporte radiativo mais eficiente no vcuo.
Modos de Transferncia de Calor
3
Aplicaes
Identifica Identifica o de mecanismos o de mecanismos
Problema 1.73(a): Identificao de mecanismos de transferncia de calor para janelas de vidro simples e duplo
Conduo atravs do vidro que tem superfcie interior em contacto com ar exterior na janela de vidro duplo , 2 c o n d
q
Conveco entre a superfcie interior da janela e o ar interior ,1 conv
q
Fluxo radiativo til trocado entre as paredes do quarto e a superfcie interior da janela ,1 rad
q
Conduo atravs do vidro que tem superfcie interior em contacto com ar interior ,1 c o n d
q
Radiao solar incidente durante o dia: a fraco transmitida pelo vidro duplo menor que a transmitida pelo vidro simples. s
q
Conveco entre a superfcie exterior da janela e o ar exterior ,2 conv
q
Fluxo radiativo til trocado entre a envolvente e a superfcie exterior da janela ,2 rad
q
Conveco no espao entre vidros (janela de vidro duplo) , conv s
q
Fluxo radiativo til entre as superfcies dos vidros que limitam o espao entre vidros , rad s
q
2 1
x
T T dT
q k k
dx L
= =
1 2
x
T T
q k
L
=
Taxa de transferncia de calor (W):
x x
q q A =
Aplicao ao caso de conduo unidimensional, estacionria atravs de uma
placa plana com condutibilidade trmica constante:
Conduo
Forma geral (vectorial) da Lei de Fourier:
Taxas de Transferncia de Calor
Fluxo de calor (W/m
2
):
Fluxo de calor
2
W/m
Condutibilidade trmica
K W/m
Gradiente de temperatura
K/m ou C/m
4
Conveco
Relao entre conveco e o escoamento sobre uma superfcie e o desenvolvimento
das camadas limite hidrodinmica e trmica:
Lei do arrefecimento de Newton :
( ) h
s
q T T
=
h [W/m
2
.C] ou [W/m
2
.K]: Coeficiente de transferncia de calor por conveco
2500 - 100000 Ebulio ou condensao
50 - 20000 Conveco forada - lquidos
25 - 250 Conveco forada - gases
50 - 1000 Conveco natural - lquidos
2 - 25 Conveco natural - gases
Gama de valores tpicos do coeficiente de
conveco [W m
-2
K
-1
]
Adveco, difuso, conveco
Conveco forada, conveco natural
Calor sensvel e calor latente
Ebulio e condensao
5
Radiao
Fluxo de energia que sai devido emisso:
4
b s
E E T = =
Energia absorvida devida irradiao: abs
G G =
A transferncia de calor por radiao numa interface gs/slido envolve a emisso de
radiao a partir da superfcie e pode tambm envolver a absoro da radiao incidente
da envolvente (irradiao, G ), bem como da conveco (se T
s
T
)
Gabs [W/m
2
]: Radiao incidente absorvida
(0 1): Absorsividade da superfcie
G [W/m
2
]: Irradiao
E [W/m
2
]: Poder emissivo da superfcie
(0 1): Emissividade da superfcie
E
b
[W/m
2
]: Poder emissivo de um corpo negro (emissor perfeito)
= 5,67 10
-8
[W m
-2
K
-4
] (constante de Stefan-Boltzmann)
Irradiao: Caso especial de uma superfcie exposta a uma
envolvente de grandes dimenses com temperatura uniforme,
sur
T
4
sur sur
G G T = =
Se = , o fluxo radiativo til a partir da superfcie
devido s trocas de calor por radiao com a envolvente :
( ) ( )
4
sur
4
s S b
' '
rad
T T G T E q = =

6
Em alternativa,
Para conveco e radiao combinadas:
( ) ( )
conv rad s r s sur
q q q h T T h T T
= + = +
(1.10)
) )( (
2 2
sur S sur S r
T T T T h + + =
) (
' '
sur S r rad
T T h q =
[ ] K m W h
r
. /
2
Coeficiente de transferncia de calor por radiao
Aplicaes
Arrefecimento de componente electr Arrefecimento de componente electr nica nica
Problema 1.31: Dissipao de potncia em chips que operam com uma temperatura superficial de 85C
num quarto cujas paredes e ar esto a 25C para (a) conveco natural e (b) conveco forada.
Hipteses: (1) Estacionrio,
(2) Trocas de radiao entre superfcie pequena e grande
envolvente,
(3) Transferncia de calor desprezvel das faces laterais
e da superfcie de trs do chip
( ) ( )
4 4
h
s s sur
A T T A T T
= + elec conv rad

P q q = +
( )
2
2 -4 2
= 0.015m =2.2510 m A L =
(a) Se for conveco natural,
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
5 / 4 5/4
2 5/4 -4 2
-4 2 -8 2 4 4 4 4
=4.2W/m K 2.2510 m 60K =0.158W
0.60 2.2510 m 5.6710 W/m K 358 -298 K =0.065W
0.158W+0.065W=0.223W
conv s
rad
elec
q CA T T
q
P
=
=
=
(b) Se for conveco forada,
( ) ( )( )
2 -4 2
h =250W/m K 2.2510 m 60K =3.375W
3.375W+0.065W=3.44W
conv s
elec
q A T T
P
=
=
7
Conserva Conserva o de Energia o de Energia
Formulaes Alternativas
Base temporal:
Num instante
ou
Num intervalo de tempo
Tipo de Sistema:
Volume de controlo
Superfcie de controlo
Uma ferramenta importante na anlise do fenmeno de transferncia
de calor, constituindo geralmente a base para determinar a temperatura
do sistema em estudo.
CONSERVAO DE ENERGIA
(Primeira Lei da Termodinmica)
8
Num instante de tempo: Num instante de tempo:
Notar a representao do sistema atravs de uma
superfcie de controlo (linha a tracejado) nas
fronteiras.
Fenmenos superficiais
Fenmenos volumtricos
APLICAO A UM VOLUME DE CONTROLO
Taxa de transferncia de energia trmica e/ou mecnica atravs da superfcie de controlo,
devido transferncia de calor, escoamento de um fluido ou transferncia de trabalho
Taxa de gerao de energia trmica devido converso de outra forma de energia (e.g.
elctrica, nuclear, qumica); converso essa de energia que ocorre no interior do sistema
Taxa de variao de energia armazenada no sistema
Num instante de tempo: Num instante de tempo:
Notar a representao do sistema atravs de uma
superfcie de controlo (linha a tracejado line) nas
fronteiras.
Conservao de energia
APLICAO A UM VOLUME DE CONTROLO
Num intervalo de tempo:
( ) b E E E E
st out g in
11 . 1 = + Cada termo tem unidades [J].
Cada termo tem unidades [J/s] ou [W].
9
H um caso especial para o qual no existe massa ou volume contidos na superfcie de controlo
Conservao de Energia (num instante):
Aplica-se em condies estacionrias e transientes
Considere a superfcie de uma parede com transferncia de calor (conduo, conveco e radiao).
0
cond conv rad
q q q =
( )
( )
4 4 1 2
2 2 2
0
sur
T T
k T T T T
L

= h
Sem massa nem volume, no faz sentido falar em energia armazenada ou em gerao no balano de
energia, mesmo que estes fenmenos ocorram no meio de que a superfcie faz parte.
O BALANO DE ENERGIA SUPERFICIAL
0 =
out in
E E
& &
EXEMPLOS DE APLICAO
Exemplo 1.3: Aplicao resposta trmica de um fio condutor com aquecimento por efeito
de Joule (gerao de calor passagem da corrente elctrica).
0 =
in
E
&
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
4 4
sur out
T T T T h L D E + =

&
2
I R E
elect g
=
&
( ) T V c
t d
d
E
st
=
&
st g out in
E E E E
& & & &
= +
10
EXEMPLOS DE APLICAO
Exemplo 1.43: Processamento trmico de uma bolacha de slica num forno de 2 zonas.
Sabe-se que a bolacha de slica est posicionada no forno com as superfcies
inferior e superior expostas, respectivamente, zona quente e zona fria.
Determinar
(a) Taxa inicial de aquecimento da bolacha a partir de Twi = 300K,
(b) Temperatura em regime estacionrio.
A conveco relevante?
ESQUEMA
Hipteses:
a) Temperatura da bolacha uniforme
b) Temperaturas uniformes das regies quente e fria
c) Trocas radiativas entre corpo pequeno e
envolvente grande
d) Perdas da bolacha para o suporte desprezveis
EXEMPLOS DE APLICAO
Exemplo 1.43: Processamento trmico de uma bolacha de slica num forno de 2 zonas (cont)
ANLISE: No balano de energia bolacha de slica deve contabilizar-se a conveco com o gs ambiente pelas
superfcies inferior (l) e superior (u), as trocas de radiao com as zonas quente e fria e a acumulao de energia.
, , , ,
w
rad h rad c cv u cv l
d T
q q q q cd
dt
+ =
Em termos de fluxo (por unidade de rea)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
4 4 4 4
,
,
w
w sur c w u w l w
sur h
d T
T T T T h T T h T T cd
dt

+ =
(a) Como condio inicial temos Tw =Twi = 300K
( )
w
i
dT / dt 104 K/ s =
3
( ) ( )
8 2 4 4 4 8 2 4 4 4 4 4
0.65 5.67 10 W/ m K 1500 300 K 0.65 5.67 10 W/ m K 330 300 K

+
( ) ( )
2 2
8W/ m K 300 700 K 4W/ m K 300 700 K =
( )
w
i
0.00078 m dT / dt
2700kg/m875J/kgK
st out in
E E E
& & &
=
11
EXEMPLOS DE APLICAO
Exemplo 1.43: Processamento trmico de uma bolacha de slica num forno de 2 zonas (cont)
Em regime estacionrio o armazenamento de energia nulo. O balano de energia efectuado com a temperatura
da bolacha em regime estacionrio, Tw,ss
( ) ( )
4 4 4 4 4 4
w,ss w,ss
0.65 1500 T K 0.65 330 T K +
( ) ( )
2 2
w,ss w,ss
8W/ m K T 700 K 4W/ m K T 700 K 0 =
w,ss
T 1251 K =
Para determinar a importncia relativa da conveco, resolver o balano de energia sem conveco. Obtm-se
(dTw/dt)i = 101 K/s e Tw,ss = 1262 K. Logo, a radiao controla a taxa de aquecimento inicial e o regime
estacionrio.
Fourier Fourier s Law s Law
and the and the
Heat Equation Heat Equation
12
A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium.
Fouriers Law
Its most general (vector) form for multidimensional conduction is:
Implications:
Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
(basis for minus sign).
Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant
temperature (isotherms).
Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.
Fouriers Law serves to define the thermal conductivity of the
medium
T k q =
r
x T
q
k
x
x

=
Cartesian Coordinates: ( ) , , T x y z
T T T
q k i k j k k
x y z

=

x
q
y
q
z
q
z
q
T T T
q k i k j k k
r r z

=

r
q q
Cylindrical Coordinates:
( ) , , T r z
q
sin
T T T
q k i k j k k
r r r

=

r
q q
Spherical Coordinates: ( ) , , T r
13
In angular coordinates , the temperature gradient is still
based on temperature change over a length scale and hence has
units of C/m and not C/deg.
( ) or ,
Heat rate for one-dimensional, radial conduction in a cylinder or sphere:
Cylinder
2
r r r r
q A q rLq = =
or,
2
r r r r
q A q rq = =
Sphere
2
4
r r r r
q A q r q = =
The Heat Equation
A differential equation whose solution provides the temperature distribution in a
stationary medium.
Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential control volume
through which energy transfer is exclusively by conduction.
Cartesian Coordinates:
Net transfer of thermal energy into the
control volume (inflow-outflow)
Thermal energy
generation
Change in thermal
energy storage
p
T T T T
k k k q c
x x y y z z t
| | | | | |
+ + + =
| | |
\ \ \

14
Spherical Coordinates:
Cylindrical Coordinates:
2
1 1
p
T T T T
kr k k q c
r r r z z t r

| | | | | |
+ + + =
| | |
\ \ \

2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
sin
sin sin
p
T T T T
kr k k q c
r r t r r r

| | | | | |
+ + + =
| | |
\ \ \

One-Dimensional Conduction in a Planar Medium with Constant Properties
and No Generation
2
2
1 T T
t x

=

thermal diffu o sivit f the med y ium
p
k
c

15
Boundary and Initial Conditions
For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution: ( ) ( )
0
, , 0
t
T x t T x
=
=
Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions
must be specified. Some common cases:
Constant Surface Temperature:
( ) 0,
s
T t T =
Constant Heat Flux:
0
|
x s
T
k q
x
=
Applied Flux Insulated Surface

0
| 0
x
T
x
=
Convection
( )
0
| 0,
x
T
k h T T t
x
=
= (

Thermophysical Properties
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a materials ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.
Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a materials ability to respond to changes
in its thermal environment.
Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 A.7
16
Methodology of a Conduction Analysis
Solve appropriate form of heat equation to obtain the temperature
distribution.
Knowing the temperature distribution, apply Fouriers Law to obtain the
heat flux at any time, location and direction of interest.
Applications:
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 5: Transient Conduction
Problem 2.46 Thermal response of a plane wall to convection heat transfer.
KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform temperature, is suddenly exposed to convective heating.

FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find the
temperature distribution, T(x,t); (b) Sketch T(x,t) for the following conditions: initial (t 0), steady-
state (t ), and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of time at the two
surfaces; (d) Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume (J/m
3
).
SCHEMATIC:

17
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal
heat generation.
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional conduction with constant properties, the heat equation has the
form,

2
2
T 1 T
t
x

=

( )
i
0
L
Initial, t 0: T x,0 T uniform temperature
Boundaries: x=0 T/ x) 0 adiabatic surface
x=L k T/ x) = h T

=
=
( ) L,t T surface convection
(

and the
conditions are:
(b) The temperature distributions are shown on the sketch.

Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is adiabatic. Note also that the
gradient at x = L decreases with time.
Dividing both sides by A
s
L, the energy transferred per unit volume is
c) The heat flux, as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces x = 0 and
x = L.
( ) t x q
x
,
( ) ( )
in s
0
E hA T T L,t dt
d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as
in conv s
0
E q A dt
( )
3 in
0
E h
T T L,t dt J/m
V L
(
= (

18
Problem 2.28 Surface heat fluxes, heat generation and total rate of radiation
absorption in an irradiated semi-transparent material with a
prescribed temperature distribution.
KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a semi-transparent medium subjected to radiative flux
Problem: Non Problem: Non- -uniform Generation due uniform Generation due
to Radiation Absorption to Radiation Absorption
SCHEMATIC:
FIND: (a) Expressions for the heat flux at the front and rear surfaces, (b) The heat generation rate
( ) q x , & and (c) Expression for absorbed radiation per unit surface area.
Problem : Non Problem : Non- -uniform uniform
Generation (Cont.) Generation (Cont.)
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in medium, (3)
Constant properties, (4) All laser irradiation is absorbed and can be characterized by an internal
volumetric heat generation term ( ) q x . &
ANALYSIS: (a) Knowing the temperature distribution, the surface heat fluxes are found using
Fouriers law,

( )
-ax
x
2
dT A
q k k - a e B
dx
ka
( (
= = +
( (

Front Surface, x=0: ( )
x
A A
q 0 k + 1 B kB
ka a
( (
= + = +
( (

<
Rear Surface, x=L: ( )
-aL -aL
x
A A
q L k + e B e kB .
ka a
( (
= + = +
( (

<
(b) The heat diffusion equation for the medium is

d dT q d dT
0 or q=-k
dx dx k dx dx
| | | |
+ =
| |
\ \
&
&
( )
-ax -ax
d A
q x k e B Ae .
dx ka
(
= + + =
(

&
( c ) Performing an energy balance on the medium,

in out g
E E E 0 + =
& & &

19
Problem : Non Problem : Non- -uniform uniform
Generation (Cont.) Generation (Cont.)
Alternatively, evaluate
g
E
&
by integration over the volume of the medium,

( ) ( )
L L L
-ax -ax -aL
g
0 0 0
A A
E q x dx= Ae dx=- e 1 e .
a a
( = =

&
&
On a unit area basis

( ) ( )
( )
-aL
g in out x x
A
E E E q 0 q L 1 e .
a
= + = + = +
& & &
<

One One- -Dimensional, Steady Dimensional, Steady- -State State
Conduction without Conduction without
Thermal Energy Generation Thermal Energy Generation
20
Specify appropriate form of the Specify appropriate form of the heat equation. heat equation.
Solve for the Solve for the temperature distribution temperature distribution. .
Apply Apply Fourier Fourier s Law s Law to determine the to determine the heat flux. heat flux.
Simplest Case: Simplest Case: One One- -Dimensional, Steady Dimensional, Steady- -State State Conduction with Conduction with No No Thermal Energy Thermal Energy Generation Generation
Alternative conduction analysis Alternative conduction analysis
Common Geometries: Common Geometries:
The The Plane Wall: Plane Wall: Described in rectangular ( Described in rectangular (x x) coordinate. Area ) coordinate. Area
perpendicular to direction of heat transfer is constant (in perpendicular to direction of heat transfer is constant (independent of dependent of x x). ).
The The Tube Wall Tube Wall: Radial conduction through tube wall. : Radial conduction through tube wall.
The The Spherical Shell: Spherical Shell: Radial conduction through shell wall. Radial conduction through shell wall.
Methodology of a Conduction Analysis
Consider a plane wall between two fluids of different temperatur Consider a plane wall between two fluids of different temperature: e:
The Plane Wall
Implications:
0
d dT
k
dx dx
| |
=
|
\
Heat Equation:
( ) Heat flux is independent of .
x
q x
( ) Heat rate is independent of .
x
q x
Boundary Conditions:
( ) ( )
,1 ,2
0 ,
s s
T T T L T = =
Temperature Distribution for Constant :
( ) ( )
,1 ,2 ,1 s s s
x
T x T T T
L
= +
k
21
Heat Flux and Heat Rate: Heat Flux and Heat Rate:
( )
,1 ,2 x s s
dT k
q k T T
dx L
= =
( )
,1 ,2 x s s
dT kA
q kA T T
dx L
= =
Thermal Resistances and Thermal Circuits:
t
T
R
q
| |
=
|
\
Conduction in a plane wall:
, t cond
L
R
kA
=
Convection:
,
1
t conv
R
hA
=
Thermal circuit for plane wall with adjoining fluids:
1 2
1 1
tot
L
R
h A kA h A
= + +
,1 ,2
x
tot
T T
q
R

=
Thermal Resistance for Thermal Resistance for Unit Surface Area: Unit Surface Area:
, t cond
L
R
k
=
,
1
t conv
R
h
=
Units: W/K
t
R
2
m K/W
t
R
Radiation Resistance:
,
1
t rad
r
R
h A
=
,
1
t rad
r
R
h
=
( )
( )
2 2
r s sur s sur
h T T T T = + +
Contact Resistance:
,
A B
t c
x
T T
R
q
=
t c
t c
c
R
R
A
,
,
Values depend on: Materials A and B, surface finishes, interstitial conditions, and
contact pressure (Tables 3.1 and 3.2)
22
Composite Wall Composite Wall with with Negligible Contact Resistance: Negligible Contact Resistance:
,1 ,4
x
tot
T T
q
R

=
1 4
1 1 1
C tot A B
tot
A B C
L R L L
R
A h k k k h A
(
= + + + + =
(

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) :
A modified form of Newtons Law of Cooling to encompass multiple resistances
to heat transfer.
x overall
q UA T =
1
tot
R
UA
=
Series Series Parallel Composite Wall: Parallel Composite Wall:
Note departure from one-dimensional conditions for .
F G
k k
Circuits based on assumption of isothermal surfaces normal to x direction or
adiabatic surfaces parallel to x direction provide approximations for .
x
q
23
ALTERNATIVE CONDUCTION ANALYSIS:
STEADY STATE
NO HEAT GENERATION
NO HEAT LOSS FROM THE SIDES
A(x) and k(T)

dx x x
q q
+
=
IS TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION ONE-DIMENSIONAL?
IS IT REASONABLE TO ASSUME ONE-DIMENSIONAL
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN x?
FROM THE FOURIERS LAW:

dx
dT
T k x A q
x
) ( ) ( =

=
T
T
x
x
dT T k
x A
dx
q
0 0
) (
) (
Tube Wall Tube Wall
Heat Equation: Heat Equation:
The Tube Wall
1
0
d dT
kr
r dr dr
| |
=
|
\
Is the foregoing conclusion consistent with the energy conservation requirement?
How does vary with ?
r
q r
What does the form of the heat equation tell us about the variation of with
in the wall?
r
q
r
Temperature Distribution for Constant : k
( )
( )
,1 ,2
,2
1 2 2
ln
ln /
s s
s
T T
r
T r T
r r r
| |
= + |
|
\
24
Heat Flux Heat Flux and and Heat Rate: Heat Rate:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
,1 ,2
2 1
,1 ,2
2 1
,1 ,2
2 1
ln /
2
2
ln /
2
2
ln /
r s s
r r s s
r r s s
dT k
q k T T
dr r r r
k
q rq T T
r r
Lk
q rLq T T
r r
=
= =
= =
=
(3.27)
Conduction Resistance:
( )
( )
2 1
,
2 1
,
ln /
Units K/W
2
ln /
Units m K/W
2
t cond
t cond
r r
R
Lk
r r
R
k
=
=
Why is it inappropriate to base the thermal resistance on a unit surface
area?
Composite Wall with Composite Wall with
Negligible Contact Negligible Contact
Resistance Resistance
( )
,1 ,4
,1 ,4 r
tot
T T
q UA T T
R

= =
1
Note that
is a constant independent of radius.
tot
UA R

=
But, U itself is tied to specification of an interface.
( )
1
i i tot
U A R

=
25
Heat Equation Heat Equation
Spherical Shell
2
2
1
0
d dT
r
dr dr r
| |
=
|
\
What does the form of the heat equation tell us about the variation of
with ? Is this result consistent with conservation of energy?
r
q r
How does vary with ?
r
q r
Temperature Distribution for Constant : k
( ) ( )
( )
( )
1/
,1 ,1 ,2
1 2
1
1 /
s s s
r r
T r T T T
r r
Heat flux, Heat Rate Heat flux, Heat Rate and and Thermal Resistance: Thermal Resistance:
( ) ( )
( )
,1 ,2
2
1 2
1/ 1/
r s s
dT k
q k T T
dr r r r
= =
(

( ) ( )
( )
2
,1 ,2
1 2
4
4
1/ 1/
r r s s
k
q r q T T
r r
= =
Composite Shell:
overall
r overall
tot
T
q UA T
R
= =
1
Constant
tot
UA R

=
( )
1
Depends on
i i tot i
U A R A
=
( ) ( )
1 2
,
1/ 1/
4
t cond
r r
R
k
=
26
Critical radius (cylindrical geometry) Critical radius (cylindrical geometry)
Isolamento
r
1
r
T ,h
,1 1
T ,h
r
2
h
1
L r
1
p 2
1
T
T
,1
h L r p 2
1
L k
r r
2
p 2
/ ln( )
L k
1
r
2
p 2
/ ln( ) r
1
(a)
(b)
( )
h L r L k
r r
h L r
T T
q
revest sem r
2 1
1 2
1 1
1 ,
. ,
2
1
2
ln
2
1
+ +
=

( ) ( )
h L r L k
r r
L k
r r
h L r
T T
q
revest com r
2
1
2
ln
2
ln
2
1
2
1
1 2
1 1
1 ,
. ,
+ + +
=

2
1
2
1 1
2
1
r h L r L k r d
R d
tot

=
h
k
r
crit
=
0 =
r d
R d
tot
0
2
2
1 1
2
1
3 2 2
2
>
(
\
|
+ |
\
|
=
|
|
\
|
=
=
h k r
h k r
tot
r h L r L k r d
R d

Problem 3.23: Assessment of thermal barrier coating (TBC) for protection
of turbine blades. Determine maximum blade temperature
with and without TBC.
Schematic:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a composite plane wall, (2) Constant
properties, (3) Negligible radiation
27
ANALYSIS: For a unit area, the total thermal resistance with the TBC is
( ) ( )
1 1
tot, w o t, c i
Zr In
R h L k R L k h

= + + + +
( )
3 4 4 4 3 2 3 2
tot, w
R 10 3.85 10 10 2 10 2 10 m K W 3.69 10 m K W

= + + + + =
With a heat flux of
,o ,i 5 2
w
3 2
tot, w
T T
1300K
q 3.52 10 W m
R
3.69 10 m K W

= = =

the inner and outer surface temperatures of the Inconel are
( )
s,i(w) ,i w i
T T q h
= +
( )
5 2 2
400K 3.52 10 W m 500 W m K 1104K = + =
( ) ( )
3 4 2 5 2
400 K 2 10 2 10 m K W 3.52 10 W m 1174 K

= + + =
( ) ( )
s, o(w) ,i i w In
T T 1 h L k q
= + + (

Without the TBC,
( )
1 1 3 2
tot, wo o i In
R h L k h 3.20 10 m K W

= + + =
( )
wo , o , i tot, wo
q T T R

= = 4.0610
5
W/m
2
( )
wo , o , i tot, wo
q T T R

= = 4.0610
5
W/m
2

The inner and outer surface temperatures of the Inconel are then
( )
s,i(wo) ,i wo i
T T q h 1212K
= + =
( ) ( ) [ ]
s, o(wo) , i i wo In
T T 1 h L k q 1293 K

= + + =
Use of the TBC facilitates operation of the Inconel below Tmax = 1250 K.
COMMENTS: Since the durability of the TBC decreases with increasing
temperature, which increases with increasing thickness, limits to its thickness are
associated with reliability considerations.
28
Problem 3.62: Suitability of a composite spherical shell for storing
radioactive wastes in oceanic waters.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Steady-state conditions,
(3) Constant properties at 300K, (4) Negligible contact resistance.
PROPERTIES: Table A-1, Lead: k = 35.3 W/mK, MP = 601K; St.St.: 15.1
W/mK.
ANALYSIS: From the thermal circuit, it follows that

3 1
1
tot
T T 4
q= q r
R 3
(
=
(

&
The thermal resistances are:

( )
Pb
1 1
R 1/ 4 35.3 W/m K 0.00150 K/W
0.25m 0.30m
(
( = =
(

( )
St.St.
1 1
R 1/ 4 15.1 W/m K 0.000567 K/W
0.30m 0.31m
(
( = =
(

( )
2 2 2
conv
R 1/ 4 0.31 m 500 W/m K 0.00166 K/W
(
= =
(

tot
R 0.00372 K/W. =
The heat rate is then
( ) ( )
3 5 3
q=5 10 W/m 4 / 3 0.25m 32, 725 W =
and the inner surface temperature is

( )
1 tot
T T R q=283K+0.00372K/W 32,725 W
= + 405 K < MP = 601K. =

Hence, from the thermal standpoint, the proposal is adequate.
COMMENTS: In fabrication, attention should be given to maintaining a good
thermal contact. A protective outer coating should be applied to prevent long
term corrosion of the stainless steel.
29
One One- -Dimensional, Steady Dimensional, Steady- -State State
Conduction with Conduction with
Thermal Energy Generation Thermal Energy Generation
Implications of Energy Generation
Involves a local (volumetric) source of thermal energy due to conversion
from another form of energy in a conducting medium.
The source may be uniformly distributed, as in the conversion from
electrical to thermal energy (Ohmic heating):
or it may be non-uniformly distributed, as in the absorption of radiation
passing through a semi-transparent medium.
Generation affects the temperature distribution in the medium and causes
the heat rate to vary with location, thereby precluding inclusion of
the medium in a thermal circuit.
For a plane wall,
V
R I
V
E
q
g
2
= =
&
&
( ) x q exp &
30
The Plane Wall
Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction
in a plane wall of constant k, uniform generation,
and asymmetric surface conditions:
Heat Equation:
Is the heat flux independent of x?
q
General Solution:
What is the form of the temperature distribution for
0? q =
> 0? q
< 0? q
How does the temperature distribution change with increasing ? q
2
2
0 0
d dT d T q
k q
dx dx dx k
| |
+ = + =
|
\
(3.39)
2
2
0 0
d dT d T q
k q
dx dx dx k
| |
+ = + =
|
\
(3.39)
( )
2
1 2
/ 2 T x q k x C x C
| |
= + +
|
\
Symmetric Surface Conditions or One Surface Insulated:

What is the temperature gradient
at the centerline or the insulated
surface?
Why does the magnitude of the temperature
gradient increase with increasing x?
Temperature Distribution:
Overall energy balance on the wall
How do we determine the heat rate at x = L?
How do we determine ?
s
T
( )
2 2
2
1
2
s
q L x
T x T
k L
| |
= +
|
\
(3.42)
( )
2 2
2
1
2
s
q L x
T x T
k L
| |
= +
|
\
(3.42)
0 out g E E + =

( ) 0
s s s
s
hA T T q A L
q L
T T
h
+ =
= +
(3.46)
( ) 0
s s s
s
hA T T q A L
q L
T T
h
+ =
= +
(3.46)
31
Radial Systems
Cylindrical (Tube) Wall Spherical Wall (Shell)
Solid Cylinder (Circular Rod) Solid Sphere
Heat Equations:
Cylindrical
1
0
d dT
kr q
r dr dr
| |
+ =
|
\
Spherical
2
2
1
0
d dT
kr q
r dr dr
| |
+ =
|
\
Heat Equations:
Cylindrical
1
0
d dT
kr q
r dr dr
| |
+ =
|
\
Spherical
2
2
1
0
d dT
kr q
r dr dr
| |
+ =
|
\
Temperature Distribution Surface Temperature
Overall energy balance:
Or from a surface energy balance:
Solution for Uniform Generation in a Solid Sphere of Constant k
with Convection Cooling:
A summary of temperature distributions is provided in Appendix C
for plane, cylindrical and spherical walls, as well as for solid
cylinders and spheres. Note how boundary conditions are specified
and how they are used to obtain surface temperatures.
3
2
1
3
dT q r
kr C
dr
= +
2
1
2
6
C q r
T C
k r
= +
0 1
0 0
r
dT
C
dr
=
= = |
( )
2
2
6
o
o s s
q r
T r T C T
k
= = +
( )
2 2
2
1
6
o
s
o
q r r
T r T
k r
| |
= +
|
\
0 out
g
E E + =

3
o
s
qr
T T
h
= +
0 in out E E =

( )
cond o conv
q r q =
3
o
s
q r
T T
h
= +
32
Problem 3.91 Thermal conditions in a gas-cooled nuclear reactor
with a tubular thorium fuel rod and a concentric
graphite sheath: (a) Assessment of thermal integrity
for a generation rate of . (b) Evaluation of
temperature distributions in the thorium and graphite
for generation rates in the range .
8 3
10 W/m q =
8 8
10 5x10 q
Problem 3.91 Thermal conditions in a gas-cooled nuclear reactor

with a tubular thorium fuel rod and a concentric
graphite sheath: (a) Assessment of thermal integrity
for a generation rate of . (b) Evaluation of
temperature distributions in the thorium and graphite
for generation rates in the range .
8 3
10 W/m q =
8 8
10 5x10 q
Schematic: Schematic:
Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) Constant
properties, (4) Negligible contact resistance, (5) Negligible radiation, (6) Adiabatic surface at r
1.
Properties: Table A.1, Thorium: 2000 ; Table A.2, Graphite: 2300 .
mp mp
T K T K Properties: Table A.1, Thorium: 2000 ; Table A.2, Graphite: 2300 .
mp mp
T K T K
Analysis: (a) The outer surface temperature of the fuel, T
2
, may be determined from the rate equation
2
tot
T T
q
R
where
( )
3 2
3
1n / 1
0.0185 m K/W
2 2
tot
g
r r
R
k r h
= + =
The heat rate may be determined by applying an energy balance to a control surface about the fuel
element,
out g E E =

or, per unit length,
out g E E =

Since the interior surface of the element is essentially adiabatic, it follows that
Hence,
With zero heat flux at the inner surface of the fuel element, Eq. C.14 yields
( )
2 2
2 1
17, 907 W/m q q r r = =
( )
2
17, 907 W/m 0.0185 m K/W 600 931
tot
T q R T K K
= + = + =
2
2 2 2
2 1 1
1 2 2
2 1
1 1n 931 25 18 938 <
4 2
t t
r
q r r q r
T T K K K K
k r k r
| |
| |
|
= + = + =
|
|
\
\

33
Since T
1
and T
2
are well below the melting points of thorium and graphite, the prescribed
operating condition is acceptable.
(b) The solution for the temperature distribution in a cylindrical wall with generation is
( )
2 2
2
2 2
2
1
4
t
t
qr r
T r T
k r
| |
= +
|
\
( )
( )
( )
2
2 1
2 2
1n /
2 1
2 1
2 1n /
2
1
4
r r
r r
t
q r r
T T
k r
(
| |
(
+ |
| (
\
(

(C.2)
( )
( )
( )
2
2 1
2 2
1n /
2 1
2 1
2 1n /
2
1
4
r r
r r
t
q r r
T T
k r
(
| |
(
+ |
| (
\
(

(C.2)
Boundary conditions at r
1
and r
2
are used to determine T
1
and T
2
.
( )
( )
2 2
2 1
2 1 2
2
1
1 1
1 2 1
1
4
: 0
2 1n /
t
q r r
k T T
k r
qr
r r q
r r r
(
| |
( +
|
(
\

= = =
(C.14) ( )
( )
2 2
2 1
2 1 2
2
1
1 1
1 2 1
1
4
: 0
2 1n /
t
q r r
k T T
k r
qr
r r q
r r r
(
| |
( +
|
(
\

= = =
(C.14)
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 1
2 1 2
2
2
2 2 2
2 2 1
1
4
:
2 1n /
t
qr r
k T T
k r
qr
r r U T T
r r r
(
| |
(
+
|
(
\

= =
(C.17)
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 1
2 1 2
2
2
2 2 2
2 2 1
1
4
:
2 1n /
t
qr r
k T T
k r
qr
r r U T T
r r r
(
| |
(
+
|
(
\

= =
(C.17)
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2 2
2
tot tot
U A R r R

= =
(3.32)
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2 2
2
tot tot
U A R r R

= =
(3.32)
0.008 0.009 0.01 0.011
Radial location in fuel, r(m)
500
900
1300
1700
2100
2500
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
(
K
)
qdot = 5E8
qdot = 3E8
qdot = 1E8
The following results are obtained for temperature distributions in the graphite.
Operation at is clearly unacceptable since the melting point of
thorium would be exceeded. To prevent softening of the material, which would occur
below the melting point, the reactor should not be operated much above .
The small radial temperature gradients are attributable to the large value of .
8 3
5x10 W/m q =
t
k
8 3
3x10 W/m q =
Operation at is clearly unacceptable since the melting point of

thorium would be exceeded. To prevent softening of the material, which would occur
below the melting point, the reactor should not be operated much above .
The small radial temperature gradients are attributable to the large value of .
8 3
5x10 W/m q =
t
k
8 3
3x10 W/m q =
34
0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014
Radial location in graphite, r(m)
500
900
1300
1700
2100
2500
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
(
K
)
qdot = 5E8
qdot = 3E8
qdot = 1E8
the temperature distribution in the graphite is
Using the value of T
2
from the foregoing solution and computing T
3
from the surface condition,
( )
( )
2 3
3 2
2
1n /
g
k T T
q
r r

= (3.27)
( )
( )
2 3
3 2
2
1n /
g
k T T
q
r r

= (3.27)
( )
( )
2 3
3
2 3 3
1n
1n /
g
T T r
T r T
r r r
| |
= +
|
\
(3.26)
( )
( )
2 3
3
2 3 3
1n
1n /
g
T T r
T r T
r r r
| |
= +
|
\
(3.26)
Operation at is problematic for the graphite. Larger temperature gradients
are due to the small value of .
8 3
5x10 W/m q =
g
k
Operation at is problematic for the graphite. Larger temperature gradients
are due to the small value of .
8 3
5x10 W/m q =
g
k
Comments: (i) What effect would a contact resistance at the thorium/graphite interface have on
temperatures in the fuel element and on the maximum allowable value of ? q
What would be the influence of such

effect on temperatures in the fuel element and the maximum allowable value of ? q
(ii) Referring
to the schematic, where might radiation effects be significant?


(ii) Referring
to the schematic, where might radiation effects be significant?
35
Extended Surfaces Extended Surfaces
36
Nature and Rationale of Extended Surfaces
An extended surface (also know as a combined conduction-convection system
or a fin) is a solid within which heat transfer by conduction is assumed to be
one dimensional, while heat is also transferred by convection (and/or
radiation) from the surface in a direction transverse to that of conduction.
Why is heat transfer by conduction in the x-direction not, in fact, one-
dimensional?
If heat is transferred from the surface to the fluid by convection, what
surface condition is dictated by the conservation of energy requirement?
What is the actual functional dependence of the temperature distribution in
the solid?
If the temperature distribution is assumed to be one-dimensional, that is,
T=T(x) , how should the value of T be interpreted for any x location?
How does vary with x ?
, cond x
q
When may the assumption of one-dimensional conduction be viewed as an
excellent approximation? The thin-fin approximation.
as for a gas and natural convection.
Extended surfaces may exist in many situations but are commonly used as
fins to enhance heat transfer by increasing the surface area available for
convection (and/or radiation). They are particularly beneficial when is small, h
Some typical fin configurations:
Straight fins of (a) uniform and (b) non-uniform cross sections; (c) annular
fin, and (d) pin fin of non-uniform cross section.
37
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
TYPICAL FIN CONFIGURATIONS
z
x
y
dx
x
A
c
(x)
dq
conv
q
x
dA
s
q
x+dx
conv dx x x
q d q q + =
+
x d
T d
A k q
c x
=
( )
= T T dA h q d
s conv
dx
x d
T d
A
x d
d
k
x d
T d
A k dx
x d
q d
q q
c c
x
x dx x
|
|
\
|
= + =
+
( ) 0 = +
|
|
\
|

T T
x d
A d
h
x d
T d
A
x d
d
k
s
c
( ) 0
1 1
2
2
=
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
+

T T
x d
A d
k
h
A x d
T d
x d
A d
A x d
T d
s
c
c
c
The Fin Equation
38
The Fin Equation
2
2
2
0 =
d
m
dx

( )
2
2
0
=
c
d T hP
T T
kA dx
(3.62)
( )
2
2
0
=
c
d T hP
T T
kA dx
(3.62)
Assuming one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in an extended surface
surface of constant conductivity and uniform cross-sectional area ,
with negligible generation and radiation , the fin equation
is of the form:
( ) k ( )
c
A
0 q
| |
=
|
\
( ) 0
rad
q =
Assuming one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in an extended surface
surface of constant conductivity and uniform cross-sectional area ,
with negligible generation and radiation , the fin equation
is of the form:
( ) k ( )
c
A
0 q
| |
=
|
\
( ) 0
rad
q =
or, with and the reduced temperature , ( )
2
/
c
m hP kA

T T or, with and the reduced temperature , ( )
2
/
c
m hP kA

T T
Solutions (Table 3.4):
Base (x = 0) condition
( ) 0
b b
T T
=
Tip ( x = L) conditions
( ) A. : Convect / i n | o
x L
kd dx h L
=
=
B. : / | Adiabati 0 c
x L
d dx
=
=
( ) Fixed temper C. : ature
L
L =
( ) D. ( Infinite fin >2.65 ): 0 mL L =
Fin Heat Rate:
( )
0
|
f
f c x A s
d
q kA h x dA
dx
=
= =
39
Caso
Condio de
fronteira em x = L
Distribuio de temperaturas
/
b

Taxa de transmisso de
calor
(i)
( ) L h
x d
d
k
L x
=
|
|
\
|
=

( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) L m
k m
h
L m
x L m
k m
h
x L m
sinh cosh
sinh cosh
+
+

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) L m
k m
h
L m
L m
k m
h
L m
M
sinh cosh
cosh sinh
+
+

(ii)
0 =
|
|
\
|
=L x
x d
d

( ) [ ]
( ) L m
x L m
cosh
cosh

( ) L m M tanh
(iii) ( )
L
L =
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) L m
x L m x m
b L
sinh
sinh sinh +

( )
( ) L m
L m
M
b L
sinh
/ cosh

(iv) ( ) 0 = L
x m
e

M

c
A k
P h
m =
2
b c
A k P h M =
Fin Performance Parameters
Fin Efficiency:
,max
f f
f
f f b
q q
q hA
=
How is the efficiency affected by the thermal conductivity of the fin?
Expressions for are provided in Table 3.5 for common geometries.
f
( )
1/ 2
2
2
2 / 2
f
A w L t
(
= +

( ) / 2
p
A t L =
( )
( )
1
0
2 1
2
f
I mL
mL I mL
=
Fin Effectiveness:
Consider a triangular fin:
,
f
f
c b b
q
hA
Fin Resistance:
with , and /
f c
h k A P
,
1
b
t f
f f f
R
q hA
=
40
Correction of fin length to account for heat loss from the tip
extremidade
isolada
Transmisso de calor
na extremidade
( ) ( ) ( ) L L L P h L A h q
c c tip f
=
,
P
A
L L
c
c
+ =
Fin of rectangular cross section with t << w:
L
c
= L + t / 2
Fin of circular cross section :
L
c
= L + D / 4
Approximation error negligible if ht / k or
hD / 2k 0.0625
Fins efficiency
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.8
2
4
3
1.6
1.4
ri
L
ro
t
1 =
i
o
r
r
h
f
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
h
f
t
x
y (x)
41
Fin Arrays
Representative arrays of
(a) rectangular and
(b) annular fins.
Total surface area:
t f b
A NA A = +
Number of fins Area of exposed base (prime surface)
Total heat rate:
,
b
t f f b b b o t b
t o
q N hA hA hA
R
= + =
Overall surface efficiency and resistance:
,
1
b
t o
t o t
R
q hA
= =
( )
1 1
f
o f
t
NA
A
=
Equivalent Thermal Circuit :
Effect of Surface Contact Resistance:
( )
( ) ,
b
t t b o c
t o c
q hA
R
= =
( )
1
1 1
f f
o c
t
NA
A C
| |
=
|
\
( )
1 , ,
1 /
f f t c c b
C hA R A = +
( )
( )
,
1
t o c
t o c
R
hA
=
42
Problem 3.116: Assessment of cooling scheme for gas turbine blade.
Determination of whether blade temperatures are less
than the maximum allowable value (1050 C) for
prescribed operating conditions and evaluation of blade
cooling rate.
Schematic:
Assumptions: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction in blade, (2) Constant k, (3)
Adiabatic blade tip, (4) Negligible radiation.
Analysis: Conditions in the blade are determined by Case B of Table 3.4.
(a) With the maximum temperature existing at x=L, Eq. 3.75 yields
( )
b
T L T 1
T T cosh mL
( )
( )
1/ 2
1/ 2 2 4 2
c
m hP/kA 250W/m K 0.11m/20W/m K 6 10 m
= = = 47.87 m
-1
( )
( )
1/ 2
1/ 2 2 4 2
c
m hP/kA 250W/m K 0.11m/20W/m K 6 10 m
= = = 47.87 m
-1

mL = 47.87 m
-1
0.05 m = 2.39
From Table B.1, . Hence, coshmL=5.51 From Table B.1, . Hence, coshmL=5.51
( ) 1200 300 1200 5 51 1037 = + =
o o o
T L C ( ) C/ . C
and, subject to the assumption of an adiabatic tip, the operating conditions are acceptable.
(b) With ( )
( ) ( )
1/ 2
2 4 2 1/ 2
c b
M hPkA 250W/m K 0.11m 20W/m K 6 10 m 900 C 517W
= = =
o
,
Eq. 3.76 and Table B.1 yield
( )
f
q Mtanh mL 517W 0.983 508W = = =
Hence, b f
q q 508W = =
Comments: Radiation losses from the blade surface contribute to reducing the blade
temperatures, but what is the effect of assuming an adiabatic tip condition? Calculate
the tip temperature allowing for convection from the gas.
43
Problem 3.132: Determination of maximum allowable power for a 20mm
x 20mm electronic chip whose temperature is not to exceed
when the chip is attached to an air-cooled heat sink
with N=11 fins of prescribed dimensions.
c
q
85 C,
c
T =
o
Problem 3.132: Determination of maximum allowable power for a 20mm
x 20mm electronic chip whose temperature is not to exceed
when the chip is attached to an air-cooled heat sink
with N=11 fins of prescribed dimensions.
c
q
85 C,
c
T =
o
Schematic:
Assumptions: (1) Steady-state, (2) One-dimensional heat transfer, (3) Isothermal chip, (4)
Negligible heat transfer from top surface of chip, (5) Negligible temperature rise for air flow,
(6) Uniform convection coefficient associated with air flow through channels and over outer
surface of heat sink, (7) Negligible radiation.
Analysis: (a) From the thermal circuit,
c c
c
tot t,c t, b t,o
T T T T
q
R R R R

= =
+ +
( )
2 6 2 2
t, c t, c
R R / W 2 10 m K / W/ 0.02m 0.005 K / W
= = =
( )
2
t, b b
R L / k W = ( ) W / m K
2
0.003m/ 180 0.02m 0.042 K / W = =
From Eqs. (3.103), (3.102), and (3.99) ( )
f
t,o o f t f b
o t t
NA 1
R , 1 1 , A NA A
h A A
= = = +
A
f
= 2WL
f
= 2 0.02m 0.015m = 6 10
-4
m
2

A
b
= W
2
N(tW) = (0.02m)
2
11(0.182 10
-3
m 0.02m) = 3.6 10
-4
m
2

A
t
= 6.96 10
-3
m
2

With mL
f
= (2h/kt)
1/2
L
f
= (200 W/m
2
K/180 W/mK 0.182 10
-3
m)
1/2
(0.015m) =
1.17, tanh mL
f
= 0.824 and Eq. (3.87) yields
f
f
f
tanh mL 0.824
0.704
mL 1.17
= = =
o
= 0.719,
R
t,o
= 2.00 K/W, and

( )
( )
c
85 20 C
q 31.8 W
0.005 0.042 2.00 K/ W

= =
+ +
44
Comments: The heat sink significantly increases the allowable heat dissipation. If it
were not used and heat was simply transferred by convection fromthe surface of the chip with
from Part (a) would be replaced by
2
100 W/m , 2.05 K/W
tot
h K R = =
2
1/ hW 25 K/W, yielding 2.60 W.
cnv c
R q = = =
Transient Conduction: Transient Conduction:
The Lumped Capacitance The Lumped Capacitance
Method Method
45
Transient Conduction
A heat transfer process for which the temperature varies with time, as well
as location within a solid.
It is initiated whenever a system experiences a change in operating conditions
and proceeds until a new steady state (thermal equilibrium) is achieved.
It can be induced by changes in:
surface convection conditions ( ), , h T
Solution Techniques
The Lumped Capacitance Method
Exact Solutions
The Finite-Difference Method (not to be studied)
surface radiation conditions ( ), ,
r sur
h T
a surface temperature or heat flux, and/or
internal energy generation.
Based on the assumption of a spatially uniform temperature distribution
throughout the transient process.
Why is the assumption never fully realized in practice?
General Lumped Capacitance
Analysis:
Consider a general case,
which includes convection,
radiation and/or an applied
heat flux at specified
surfaces
as well as internal energy
generation
( )
, , ,
, , ,
s c s r s h
A A A
) t ( T ) t , r ( T
r
46
First Law:
Assuming energy outflow due to convection and radiation and with
inflow due to an applied heat flux ,
s
q
Is this expression applicable in situations for which convection and/or
radiation provide for energy inflow?
May h and h
r
be assumed to be constant throughout the transient process?
How must such an equation be solved?
g sur r , s r , s c , s h , s
' '
h , s
E ) T T ( A h ) T T ( hA A q
t d
T d
C V
&
+ =

g out in
st
E E E
t d
T d
C V
dt
E d
& & &
+ = =
Special Cases (Exact Solutions, )
( ) 0
i
T T
Negligible Radiation
( ) , / : T T b a

The non-homogeneous differential equation is transformed into a
homogeneous equation of the form:
d
a
dt
=
Integrating from t=0 to any t and rearranging,
( ) ( )
/
exp 1 exp
i i
T T b a
at at
T T T T
( = +

To what does the foregoing equation reduce as steady state is approached?
How else may the steady-state solution be obtained?

C V
A h
a
c s
,
=

C V
E A q
b
g h s
&
+
=
,
' '
47
Negligible Radiation and Source Terms , 0, 0 : g
r s
h h E q
| |
>> = =
|
\
( )
, s c
dT
c hA T T
dt

=
,
i
s c
t
o
c d
hA
dt
=

, s c
i i
hA T T
exp t
T T c
( | |
= =
( |

\ t
t
(
=
(

exp
The thermal time constant is defined as
( )
,
1
t
s c
c
hA

| |

|
|
\
Thermal
Resistance, R
t
Lumped Thermal
Capacitance, C
t
The change in thermal energy storage due to the transient process is
t
out
st
o
E Q E dt =

,
t
s c
o
hA dt =
( ) 1 exp
i
t
t
c
( | |
=
( |
\
(5.8)
Negligible Convection and Source Terms , 0, 0 : g
r s
h h E q
| |
>> = =
|
\
Assuming radiation exchange with large surroundings,

( )
4 4
, s r sur
dT
c A T T
dt
=
,
4 4
i
s r
T
sur
T o
t A
c
dT
T T
dt

=

3
,
1n 1n
4
sur sur i
s r sur sur sur i
T T T T c
t
A T T T T T
+ +
=
Result necessitates implicit evaluation of T(t).

1 1
2 tan tan
i
sur sur
T T
T T

( | | | |

+
` ( | |
\ \ )
48
The Biot Number and Validity of
The Biot Number: The first of many dimensionless parameters to be
considered.
Definition:
c
hL
Bi
k
convection or radiation coefficient h

thermal conductivity of t so e d h li k
of the solid ( / or coordinate
associated with maximum spa
char
tial temperature differe
acteristic lengt
e
h
nc )
c s
L A
Physical Interpretation:
Criterion for Applicability of Lumped Capacitance Method:
1 Bi <<
/
/
1/
c s cond solid
s conv solid fluid
L kA R T
Bi
hA R T

=
=
Problem 5.11: Charging a thermal energy storage system consisting
of a packed bed of aluminum spheres.
KNOWN: Diameter, density, specific heat and thermal conductivity of aluminum spheres used in
packed bed thermal energy storage system. Convection coefficient and inlet gas temperature.
FIND: Time required for sphere at inlet to acquire 90% of maximum possible thermal energy and the
corresponding center temperature.
Schematic: Schematic:
49
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Negligible heat transfer to or from a sphere by radiation or conduction due to
contact with other spheres, (2) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: To determine whether a lumped capacitance analysis can be used, first compute Bi =
h(r
o
/3)/k = 75 W/m
2
K (0.025m)/150 W/mK = 0.013 <<1.
Hence, the lumped capacitance approximation may be made, and a uniform temperature may be
assumed to exist in the sphere at any time.
From Eq. 5.8a, achievement of 90% of the maximum possible thermal energy storage corresponds to
( )
st
t
i
E
0.90 1 exp t /
cV

= =
( )
t
t ln 0.1 427s 2.30 984s = = =
3
t s
2
2700 kg / m 0.075m 950 J / kg K
Vc / hA Dc / 6h 427s.
6 75 W/ m K

= = = =

From Eq. (5.6), the corresponding temperature at any location in the sphere is
( ) ( ) ( )
g,i i g,i
T 984s T T T exp 6ht / Dc = +
( )
( )
2 3
T 984s 300 C 275 C exp 6 75 W/ m K 984s / 2700 kg / m 0.075m 950 J / kg K =
( ) T 984s 272.5 C =
If the product of the density and specific heat of copper is (c)
Cu
8900 kg/m
3
400 J/kgK = 3.56
10
6
J/m
3
K, is there any advantage to using copper spheres of equivalent diameter in lieu of aluminum
spheres?
Does the time required for a sphere to reach a prescribed state of thermal energy storage change with
increasing distance from the bed inlet? If so, how and why?
Problem 5.15: Heating of coated furnace wall during start-up.
KNOWN: Thickness and properties of furnace wall. Thermal resistance of ceramic coating
on surface of wall exposed to furnace gases. Initial wall temperature.
FIND: (a) Time required for surface of wall to reach a prescribed temperature, (b)
Corresponding value of coating surface temperature.
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Constant properties, (2) Negligible coating thermal capacitance, (3)
Negligible radiation.
PROPERTIES: Carbon steel: = 7850 kg/m
3
, c = 430 J/kgK, k = 60 W/mK.
50
ANALYSIS: Heat transfer to the wall is determined by the total resistance to heat transfer
from the gas to the surface of the steel, and not simply by the convection resistance.
Hence, with
( )
1
1
1 2 2 2
tot f
2
1 1
U R R 10 m K/W 20 W/m K.
h
25 W/m K

| |
| |
= = + = + =
| |
\
\
2
UL 20 W/m K 0.01 m
Bi 0.0033 1
k 60 W/m K

= = = <<
and the lumped capacitance method can be used.

(a) From Eqs. (5.6) and (5.7),
( ) ( ) ( )
t t t
i
T T
exp t/ exp t/R C exp Ut/ Lc
T T

= = =
( )
3
2
i
7850 kg/m 0.01 m 430 J/kg K T T Lc 1200 1300
t ln ln
U T T 300 1300
20 W/m K

= =

t 3886s 1.08h. = =
(b) Performing an energy balance at the outer surface (s,o),
( ) ( ) s,o s,o s,i f
h T T T T / R
=
( )
( )
2 -2 2
s,i f
s,o
2
f
hT T / R
25 W/m K 1300 K 1200 K/10 m K/W
T
h 1/ R
25 100 W/m K
+
+
= =
+
+
s,o
T 1220 K. =
How does the coating affect the thermal time constant?
Transient Conduction: Transient Conduction:
Spatial Effects and the Role of Spatial Effects and the Role of
Analytical Solutions Analytical Solutions
51
Solution to the Heat Equation for a Plane Wall with
Symmetrical Convection Conditions
If the lumped capacitance approximation can not be made, consideration must
be given to spatial, as well as temporal, variations in temperature during the
transient process.
For a plane wall with symmetrical convection
conditions and constant properties, the heat
equation and initial/boundary conditions are:
2
2
1 T T
x t

=

( ) , 0
i
T x T =
0
0
x
T
x
=
( ) ,
x L
T
k h T L t T
x

=
( =

Existence of seven independent variables:

( ) , , , , , ,
i
T T x t T T k h
=
How may the functional dependence be simplified?
Non-dimensionalization of Heat Equation and Initial/Boundary Conditions:
Dimensionless temperature difference:
*
i i
T T
T T
*
x
x
L
Dimensionless coordinate:
The Biot Number:
solid
hL
Bi
k
( )
* *
, , f x Fo Bi =
Exact Solution:
( ) ( )
* 2 *
1
exp cos
n n n
n
C Fo x
=
=
( )
4sin
tan
2 sin 2
n
n n n
n n
C Bi

= =
+
See Appendix B.3 for first four roots (eigenvalues ) of Eq. (5.39c)
1 4
,...,
Dimensionless time:
*
2
t
t Fo
L

Fourier the Number Fo
52
The One-Term Approximation : ( ) 0.2 Fo >
Variation of midplane temperature (x
*
= 0) with time : ( ) Fo
( )
( )
( )
* 2
1 1
exp
o
o
i
T T
C Fo
T T

1 1
Table 5.1 and as a function of C Bi
( ) Fo Variation of temperature with location (x
*
) and time :
( )
* * *
1
cos
o
x =
Change in thermal energy storage with time:
st
E Q =
1
*
1
sin
1
o o
Q Q

| |
=
|
\
( )
o i
Q c T T

=
Can the foregoing results be used for a plane wall that is well insulated on one
side and convectively heated or cooled on the other?
Can the foregoing results be used if an isothermal condition is
instantaneously imposed on both surfaces of a plane wall or on one surface of
a wall whose other surface is well insulated?
( )
s i
T T
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
1.13030 1.11118 1.10381 0.89783 1.06419 0.62444 0.45
1.11635 1.05279 1.09314 0.85158 1.05804 0.59324 0.40
1.10226 0.98966 1.08226 0.80140 1.05166 0.55922 0.35
1.08802 0.92079 1.07116 0.74646 1.04505 0.52179 0.30
1.07365 0.84473 1.05984 0.68559 1.03819 0.48009 0.25
1.05915 0.75931 1.04830 0.61697 1.03109 0.43284 0.20
1.04453 0.66086 1.03655 0.53761 1.02372 0.37788 0.15
1.02980 0.54228 1.02458 0.44168 1.01609 0.31105 0.10
1.02684 0.51497 1.02216 0.41954 1.01454 0.29557 0.09
1.02387 0.48600 1.01973 0.39603 1.01297 0.27913 0.08
1.02090 0.45506 1.01729 0.37092 1.01138 0.26153 0.07
1.01793 0.42173 1.01485 0.34383 1.00979 0.24253 0.06
1.01495 0.38537 1.01240 0.31426 1.00819 0.22176 0.05
1.01197 0.34503 1.00993 0.28143 1.00657 0.19868 0.04
1.00898 0.29910 1.00746 0.24403 1.00495 0.17234 0.03
1.00599 0.24446 1.00498 0.19950 1.00331 0.14095 0.02
1.00300 0.17303 1.00250 0.14124 1.00166 0.09983 0.01
c
1
1
c
1
1
c
1
1
Esfera Cilindro longo Placa plana
Bi
53
Graphical Representation of the One-Term Approximation
The Heisler Charts Plane wall
Midplane Temperature:
Change in Thermal Energy Storage:
54
Radial Systems
Long Rods Heated or Cooled by Convection.
2
/
/
o
o
Bi hr k
Fo t r
=
=
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
= =
1
2
Fo exp *
, ,
n
n n o n
i i
*
r J c
T T
T t r T t r
( )
( ) ( )
n n o
n
n
n
J J
J
c
2
1
2
1
2
+
=
(5.184a)
o n n
r =
Long rod:
o
r r r =
*
Radial Systems
(5.184a)
( )
*
o
o
J
Q
Q
1
1 1
2
1 =
st
E Q =
( )
o i
Q c T T

=
(Fo > 0.2)
( ) ( ) ( ) * exp *
1
2
1 1 1
r J Fo r J c
T T
T T
o
*
o o
i
*
=
( ) Fo c
T T
T T
i
o *
o
2
1 1
exp =
Long rod one term approximation (Fo > 0.2):

55
The Heisler Charts Infinite cylinder
Centerline Temperature:
56
Spherical Systems
Spheres Heated or Cooled by Convection.
2
/
/
o
o
Bi hr k
Fo t r
=
=
(5.184a)
Sphere:
o
r r r =
*
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
= =
1
2
* sin
*
1
Fo exp
, ,
n
n
n
n
n
i i
*
r
r
c
T T
T t r T t r
( )
( )
n n
n n n
n

c
2 sin 2
cos sin 4
=
Bi tan co 1 =
n n

Spherical Systems
(5.184a)
st
E Q =
( )
o i
Q c T T

=
(Fo > 0.2)
( ) Fo c
T T
T T
i
o *
o
2
1 1
exp =
Sphere one term approximation (Fo > 0.2):

( )
( )
( )
*
* sin
Fo exp
*
* sin
1
1 2
1
1
1
1
r
r

r
r
c
T T
T T
*
o
i
*
=
( )
1 1 1
3
1
cos sin
3
1
Q
Q
*
o
o
=
57
The Heisler Charts Sphere
Center Temperature:
58
The Semi-Infinite Solid
A solid that is initially of uniform temperature T
i
and is assumed to extend
to infinity from a surface at which thermal conditions are altered.
Special Cases:
Case 1: Change in Surface Temperature (T
s
)
( ) ( ) 0, , 0
s i
T t T T x T = =
( ) , x
erf
2 t
s
i s
T x t T
T T
| |
=
|
\
( )
s i
s
k T T
q
t
=
Problem formulation
t d
T d
x
T
1
2
2
=
T(x, 0) = T
i
T(, t) = T
i
( )
( )
1
2
2
2 /
, exp
4
erfc
2
o
i
o
q t x
T x t T
k t
q x x
k t

| |
=
|
\
| |
|
\
(5.59)
Case 2: Uniform Heat Flux ( )
s o
q q =
( )
0
0,
x
T
k h T T t
x

=
( =

( )
2
2
,
2
2
i
i
T x t T x
erfc
T T t
hx h t x h t
exp erfc
k k k t
| |
=
|
\
( | |
( |
+ + ( |
(

\ (
\
(5.60)
Case 3: Convection Heat Transfer
( ) , h T
59
Contact between two semi Contact between two semi- -infinite bodies infinite bodies
( ) ( )
t
T T k
t
T T k
B
i B s B
A
i A s A

, ,

=
B p B B A p A A
i B B p B B i A A p A A
s
c k c k
T c k T c k
T
, ,
, , , ,
+
+
=
Two bodies initially at uniform temperatures,
T
A
and T
B
, are placed in contact at their free
surfaces
If the contact resistance is neglibible, then the
temperature and the heat flux must be equal at
the contact point
Multidimensional Effects
Solutions for multidimensional transient conduction can often be expressed
as a product of related one-dimensional solutions for a plane wall, P(x,t),
an infinite cylinder, C(r,t), and/or a semi-infinite solid, S(x,t). See Equations
(5.64) to (5.66) and Fig. 5.11.
Consider superposition of solutions for two-dimensional conduction in a
short cylinder:
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
, ,
, ,
,
i
Plane Infinite
i i
Wall Cylinder
T r x t T
P x t x C r t
T T
T x t T T r,t T
x
T T T T

=

60
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
b
i
o
o
a
i
o
o
b
i
a
i
b a
i
T T
T t T
T t T
T y,t T
T T
T t T
T t T
T x,t T
T T
T y,t T
T T
T x,t T
T T
T x,y,t T
2 espessura
de infinita placa
2 espessura
de infinita placa
2 espessura
de infinita placa
2 espessura
de infinita placa
2 2 r rectangula
seco de barra
(
(
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
(
(
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
=
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
=
|
|
\
|
( )
( )
=
T T
T t x T
t x S
i
,
, ( )
( )
=
T T
T t x T
t x P
i
,
,
( )
( )
=
T T
T t r T
t r C
i
,
,
b espessura
de plana placa
o
a espessura
de plana placa
o
b espessura
de plana placa
o
a espessura
de plana placa
o
b a r rectangula
o de barra
o
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
2 2
2 2 2 2
sec
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
=
|
|
\
|
61
Problem 5.66: Charging a thermal energy storage system consisting of
a packed bed of Pyrex spheres.
KNOWN: Diameter, density, specific heat and thermal conductivity of Pyrex
spheres in packed bed thermal energy storage system. Convection coefficient and
inlet gas temperature.
FIND: Time required for sphere to acquire 90% of maximum possible thermal
energy and the corresponding center and surface temperatures.
SCHEMATIC:

62
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional radial conduction in sphere, (2)
Negligible heat transfer to or from a sphere by radiation or conduction due to
contact with adjoining spheres, (3) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: With Bi h(r
o
/3)/k = 75 W/m
2
K (0.0125m)/1.4 W/mK = 0.67,
the lumped capacitance method is inappropriate and the approximate (one-term)
solution for one-dimensional transient conduction in a sphere is used to obtain the
desired results.
To obtain the required time, the specified charging requirement
( ) / 0.9
o
Q Q = must first be used to obtain the dimensionless center temperature,
*
.
o

From Eq. (5.52),

( ) ( )
3
1
o
o 1 1 1
Q
1
Q 3 sin cos
| |
=
|
(
\

With Bi hr
o
/k = 2.01,
1
2.03 and C
1
1.48 from Table 5.1. Hence,

( )
( )
3
o
0.1 2.03 0.837
0.155
5.386 3 0.896 2.03 0.443
= = =
(

From Eq. (5.50c), the corresponding time is

2
o o
2
1
1
r
t ln
C
| |
= |
|
\

( )
3 7 2
k / c 1.4 W/ m K/ 2225kg / m 835J / kg K 7.54 10 m / s,

= = =

( ) ( )
( )
2
2 7 2
0.0375m ln 0.155/1.48
t 1, 020s
7.54 10 m / s 2.03
= =

From the definition of
*
,
o
the center temperature is

( ) o g,i i g,i
T T 0.155 T T 300 C 42.7 C 257.3 C = + = =
The surface temperature at the time of interest may be obtained from Eq. (5.50b)
with r 1,
=
( )
( )
o 1
s g,i i g,i
1
sin 0.155 0.896
T T T T 300 C 275 C 280.9 C
2.03

| |
= + = =
|
\
Is use of the one-term approximation appropriate?
63
Problem: 5.82: Use of radiation heat transfer from high intensity lamps
for a prescribed duration (t=30 min) to assess
ability of firewall to meet safety standards corresponding to
maximum allowable temperatures at the heated (front) and
unheated (back) surfaces.
( )
4 2
10 W/m
s
q =
KNOWN: Thickness, initial temperature and thermophysical properties of
concrete firewall. Incident radiant flux and duration of radiant heating.
Maximum allowable surface temperatures at the end of heating.
FIND: If maximum allowable temperatures are exceeded.
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in wall, (2) Validity of semi-
infinite medium approximation, (3) Negligible convection and radiative exchange
with the surroundings at the irradiated surface, (4) Negligible heat transfer from
the back surface, (5) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: The thermal response of the wall is described by Eq. (5.59)

( )
( )
1/ 2
2
o o
i
2 q t / q x x x
T x, t T exp erfc
k 4 t k 2 t

| | | |
= + |
|
|
\
\

where,
7 2
p
k / c 6.92 10 m / s

= = and for
( )
1/ 2
o
t 30 min 1800s, 2q t / / k 284.5K. = = = Hence, at x = 0,
( ) T 0, 30 min 25 C 284.5 C 309.5 C 325 C = + = <
At
( )
( )
1/ 2 2
o
x 0.25m, x / 4 t 12.54, q x / k 1, 786K, and x / 2 t 3.54.
= = = =
Hence,
( ) ( ) ( )
6
T 0.25m, 30min 25 C 284.5 C 3.58 10 1786 C ~ 0 25 C
= +
64
Both requirements are met.
Is the assumption of a semi-infinite solid for a plane wall of finite thickness
appropriate under the foregoing conditions?
COMMENTS: The foregoing analysis may or may not be conservative, since
heat transfer at the irradiated surface due to convection and net radiation
exchange with the environment has been neglected. If the emissivity of the
surface and the temperature of the surroundings are assumed to be = 1 and T
sur

= 298K, radiation exchange at T
s
= 309.5C would be

( )
4 4 2
rad s sur
q T T 6, 080 W/ m K, = =
which is significant (~ 60% of the prescribed radiation). However, under actual
conditions, the wall would likely be exposed to combustion gases and adjoining
walls at elevated temperatures.
5.89
Um cilindro de cobre, com 100 mm de comprimento e 50 mm de dimetro
encontra-se inicialmente temperatura uniforme de 20C.
As duas bases so aquecidas muito rapidamente, a partir de um determinado
instante, ficando temperatura de 500 C, enquanto a superfcie lateral do
cilindro aquecida por uma corrente de gs a 500 C e com um coeficiente de
conveco de 100 W/m
2
K.
a) Determinar a temperatura do centro do cilindro ao fim de 8 segundos.
b) Atendendo aos parmetros adimensionais que determinam a distribuio de
temperaturas nos problemas de difuso transiente do calor, possvel admitir
hipteses simplificativas na anlise deste problema?
Apresente uma explicao resumida.
Propriedades do cobre
65
CILINDRO CURTO: 2D
PROPRIEDADES CONSTANTES
h CONSTANTE
PARA O CILINDRO INFINITO C(r,t):
PARA O PLACA PLANA INFINITA P(x,t):
PARA O CILINDRO CURTO:
PARMETROS ADIMENSIONAIS QUE CONTROLAM A CONDUO TRANSIENTE:
Fourier e Biot.
NO CASO DO CILINDRO Bi < 0,1 DESPREZAM-SE GRADIENTES
RADIAIS
66
5.90
Considerando que a carne fica cozida quando atinge uma temperatura de 80C,
calcule o tempo necessrio para assar uma pea de carne com 2,25 kg.
Admitir que a pea de carne um cilindro com dimetro igual ao comprimento e
que as suas propriedades so equivalentes s de gua lquida.
Considere que a carne se encontra inicialmente temperatura de 6C e que a
temperatura do forno 175C e o coeficiente de conveco de 15 W/m2K.
Propriedades da gua:
CLCULO DAS DIMENSES DO CILINDRO:
CLCULO DA TEMPERATURA NO CENTRO DO CILINDRO:
67
SOLUO TENTATIVA-ERRO:
Introduction to Convection: Introduction to Convection:
Flow and Thermal Considerations Flow and Thermal Considerations
68
Boundary Layers: Physical Features
Velocity Boundary Layer
A consequence of viscous effects
associated with relative motion
between a fluid and a surface.
A region of the flow characterized by
shear stresses and velocity gradients.
A region between the surface
and the free stream whose
thickness increases in
the flow direction.
( )
0.99
u y
u
=
Why does increase in the flow direction?
Manifested by a surface shear
stress that provides a drag
force, .
s
D
F
0 s y
u
y

=
s
D s s
A
F dA =

How does vary in the flow
direction? Why?
s
2
2
1
=
u
C
s
f
Thermal Boundary Layer

A consequence of heat transfer
between the surface and fluid.
A region of the flow characterized
by temperature gradients and heat
fluxes.
A region between the surface and
the free stream whose thickness
increases in the flow direction.
t
Why does increase in the

flow direction?
t
Manifested by a surface heat

flux and a convection heat
transfer coefficient h .
s
q
( )
0.99
s
t
s
T T y
T T
0 s f y
T
q k
y
=
0
/
f y
s
k T y
h
T T
=
If is constant, how do and

h vary in the flow direction?
( )
s
T T
s
q
69
Distinction between Local and
Average Heat Transfer Coefficients
Local Heat Flux and Coefficient:
( )
s
q h T T
=
Average Heat Flux and Coefficient for a Uniform Surface Temperature:
( )
s s
q hA T T
=
s
s A
q q dA =
( )
s
s s A
T T hdA
=

1
s
s A
s
h hdA
A
=

For a flat plate in parallel flow:
1
L
o
h hdx
L
=

Governing equations Governing equations
Equa Equa o da continuidade o da continuidade
( ) ( ) ( )
0 =
z
w
y
v
x
u
t

Equao de balano da quantidade de
movimento
( )
( )
i
j
ij
i j
i j
i
g
x x
p
x
u u
t
u
ij
k
k
i
j
j
i
ij
x
u
x
u
x
u

|
|
\
|
=
3
2
Equao de conservao da
energia
( ) ( ) q
x
u
x
u
p
x
T
k
x
e u
x
e
t
j
i
ij
j
j
j j
j
j
+
|
|
\
|
&
Energia interna
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
3
2
2
3
2
|
|
\
|
(
(
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
+
(
(
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
=
=
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
=
z
w
y
v
x
u
y
w
z
v
x
w
z
u
x
v
y
u
z
w
y
v
x
u
x
u
x
u
x
u
x
u
x
u
k
k
j
i
i
j
j
i
j
i
ij

Dissipao
viscosa de energia
70
Governing equations Governing equations
( ) ( ) q
x
p
u
t
p
x
T
k
x
h u
x
h
t
j
j
j j
j
j
+ +
+
|
|
\
|
&
Entalpia especfica
( ) ( ) q
x
p
u
t
p
T
x
T
k
x
T u
x
c T
t
c
j
j
j j
j
j
p p
+ +
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
& Temperatura
p
e h + =
Coeficiente de expanso trmica:
p
T
|
|
\
|
1
Gs perfeito: = 1/T
Fluido incompressvel: = 0
( ) dp T dT c dh
p
1
1 + =
The Boundary Layer Equations
Consider concurrent velocity and thermal boundary layer development for steady,
two-dimensional, incompressible flow with constant fluid properties and
negligible body forces.
( )
,
,
p
c k
Apply conservation of mass, Newtons 2
nd
Law of Motion and conservation of energy
to a differential control volume and invoke the boundary layer approximations.
Velocity Boundary Layer:
Thermal Boundary Layer:
T T
y x

>>
, ,
u v
u u v v
y x y x

>>
>>
71
Conservation of Mass:
0
u v
x y

+ =

In the context of flow through a differential control volume, what is the physical
significance of the foregoing terms, if each is multiplied by the mass density of
the fluid?
Newtons Second Law of Motion:
2
2
x-direction :
u u dp u
u v
x u dx y

| |
+ = +
|

\
What is the physical significance of each term in the foregoing equation?
Why can we express the pressure gradient as dp/dx instead of / ? p x
y-direction :
0
p
y
What is the physical significance of each term in the foregoing equation?

What is the second term on the right-hand side called and under what conditions
may it be neglected?
Conservation of Energy:
2
2
2 p
T T T u
c u v k
x y y y

| | | |
+ = +
| |

\ \
72
Boundary Layer Similarity
As applied to the boundary layers, the principle of similitude is based on
determining similarity parameters that facilitate application of results obtained
for a surface experiencing one set of conditions to geometrically similar surfaces
experiencing different conditions. (Recall how introduction of the similarity
parameters Bi and Fo permitted generalization of results for transient, one-
dimensional condition).
Dependent boundary layer variables of interest are:
and or
s
q h
For a prescribed geometry, the corresponding independent variables are:
Geometrical: Size (L), Location (x,y)
Hydrodynamic: Velocity (V)
Fluid Properties:
Hydrodynamic: ,
Thermal : ,
p
c k

( )
( )
Hence,
, , , , ,
, , , ,
s
u f x y L V
f x L V

=
=
( )
( )
and
, , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
p
p
T f x y L V c k
h f x L V c k

=
=
Key similarity parameters may be inferred by non-dimensionalizing the momentum
and energy equations.
Recast the boundary layer equations by introducing dimensionless forms of the
independent and dependent variables.
* *
* *
* s
s
x y
x y
L L
u v
u v
V V
T T
T
T T
Neglecting viscous dissipation, the following normalized forms of the x-momentum

and energy equations are obtained: * * * 2 *
* *
* * * *2
* * 2 *
* *
* * *2
1
Re
1
Re Pr
L
L
u u dp u
u v
x y dx y
T T T
u v
x y y

+ = +

+ =

73
Reynolds Numbe Re the
Pr
r
Prandtl Number the
L
p
VL VL
v
c
v
k
=
=
For a prescribed geometry,
( )
* * *
, , Re
L
u f x y =
*
*
*
0 0
s
y y
u V u
y L y

= =
| |
= =
|

\
The dimensionless shear stress, or local friction coefficient, is then
*
*
2 *
0
2
/ 2 Re
s
f
L
y
u
C
V y
( )
*
*
*
*
0
, Re
L
y
u
f x
y
=
( )
*
2
, Re
Re
f L
L
C f x =
What is the functional dependence of the average friction coefficient, C
f
?
How may the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers be interpreted physically? 0 Pr > n
n
t
For a prescribed geometry,

( )
* * *
, , Re , Pr
L
T f x y =
( )
( ) * *
* *
0
* *
0 0
/
f
y f f s
s s
y y
k T y
k k T T T T
h
T T L T T y L y
=

= =

= = = +

The dimensionless local convection coefficient is then
( )
*
*
*
*
0
, Re , Pr
L
f
y
hL T
Nu f x
k y
=
= =
local Nusselt number Nu

What is the functional dependence of the average Nusselt number?
How does the Nusselt number differ from the Biot number?
74
Boundary Layer Transition
How would you characterize conditions in the laminar region of boundary layer
development? In the turbulent region?
What conditions are associated with transition from laminar to turbulent flow?
Why is the Reynolds number an appropriate parameter for quantifying transition
from laminar to turbulent flow?
Transition criterion for a flat plate in parallel flow:
,
critical Reynolds number Re
c
x c
u x

location at which transition to turbulence begins
c
x
5 6
,
~ ~
10 Re 3 x 10
x c
< <
Why does it increase
significantly with transition to turbulence, despite the increase in the boundary layer
thickness?
What may be said about transition if Re
L
< Re
x,c
? If Re
L
> Re
x,c
?
Effect of transition on boundary layer thickness and local convection coefficient:
Why does transition provide a significant increase in the boundary layer thickness?
Why does the convection coefficient decay in the laminar region?
Why does the convection coefficient decay in the turbulent region?
75
The Reynolds Analogy
Equivalence of dimensionless momentum and energy equations for
negligible pressure gradient (dp*/dx*~0) and Pr~1:
Advection terms Diffusion
* * 2 *
* *
* * *2
1
Re
T T T
u v
x y y

+ =

* * 2 *
* *
* * *2
1
Re
u u u
u v
x y y

+ =

Hence, for equivalent boundary conditions, the solutions are of the same form:
* *
* *
* *
* *
0 0
Re
2
y y
f
u T
u T
y y
C Nu
= =
=

=

=
With Pr = 1, the Reynolds analogy, which relates important parameters of the velocity
and thermal boundary layers, is
2
f
C
St =
or, with the defined as Stanton number ,
p
h Nu
St
Vc Re Pr
=
Modified Reynolds (Chilton-Colburn) Analogy:
An empirical result that extends applicability of the Reynolds analogy:
2
3
Pr 0.6 Pr 60
2
f
H
C
St j = < <
Colburn j factor for heat transfer
Applicable to laminar flow if dp*/dx* ~ 0.
Generally applicable to turbulent flow without restriction on dp*/dx*.
76
Problem 6.28: Determination of heat transfer rate for prescribed
turbine blade operating conditions from wind tunnel data
obtained for a geometrically similar but smaller
blade. The blade surface area may be assumed to be
directly proportional to its characteristic length . ( )
s
A L
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Constant properties, (3) Surface area A is
directly proportional to characteristic length L, (4) Negligible radiation, (5) Blade shapes are
geometrically similar.
ANALYSIS: For a prescribed geometry,

( )
L
hL
Nu f Re , Pr .
k
= =
The Reynolds numbers for the blades are

( ) ( )
2 2
L,1 1 1 1 1 L,2 2 2 2 2
Re V L / 15m / s Re V L / 15m / s . = = = =
Hence, with constant properties ( )
1 2
v v = ,
L,1 L,2
Re Re . = Also,
1 2
Pr Pr =
Therefore,

2 1
Nu Nu =
( ) ( ) 2 2 2 1 1 1
h L / k h L / k =
( )
1 1 1
2 1
2 2 1 s,1
L L q
h h
L L A T T
= =
The heat rate for the second blade is then

( )
( )
( )
s,2
1 2
2 2 2 s,2 1
2 1 s,1
T T
L A
q h A T T q
L A
T T
= =

( )
( )
( )
s,2
2 1
s,1
T T 400 35
q q 1500 W
T T 300 35

= =

2
q 2066 W. =
COMMENTS: (i) The variation in from Case 1 to Case 2 would cause Re
L,2
to differ from
Re
L,1
. However, for air and the prescribed temperatures, this non-constant property effect is
small.
(ii) If the Reynolds numbers were not equal
( ) ,1 2
Re Re ,
L L
knowledge of the specific form of
( ) ,
Re Pr
L
f would be needed to determine h2.
77
Problem 6.35: Use of a local Nusselt number correlation to estimate the
surface temperature of a chip on a circuit board.
KNOWN: Expression for the local heat transfer coefficient of air at prescribed velocity and
temperature flowing over electronic elements on a circuit board and heat dissipation rate for a 4 4 mm
chip located 120mm from the leading edge.
FIND: Surface temperature of the chip surface, T
s
.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Power dissipated within chip is lost by convection
across the upper surface only, (3) Chip surface is isothermal, (4) The average heat transfer coefficient
for the chip surface is equivalent to the local value at x = L.
PROPERTIES: Table A-4, Air (Evaluate properties at the average temperature of air in the boundary
layer. Assuming T
s
= 45C, T
ave
= (45 + 25)/2 = 35C = 308K. Also, p = 1atm): = 16.69
10
-6
m
2
/s, k = 26.9 10
-3
W/mK, Pr = 0.703.
ANALYSIS: From an energy balance on the chip,

conv g
q E 30mW. = =
&

Newtons law of cooling for the upper chip surface can be written as

s conv chip
T T q / h A
= + (2)
where
2
chip
A . = l
Assuming that the average heat transfer coefficient ( )
h over the chip surface is equivalent to the local
coefficient evaluated at x = L, that is, ( )
chip x
h h L , the local coefficient can be evaluated by
applying the prescribed correlation at x = L.

0.85
1/ 3 x
x
h x Vx
Nu 0.04 Pr
k
(
= =
(

0.85
1/ 3
L
k VL
h 0.04 Pr
L
(
=
(

78
( )
0.85
1/ 3 2
L
-6 2
0.0269 W/m K 10 m/s 0.120 m
h 0.04 0.703 107 W/m K.
0.120 m
16.69 10 m / s
( (
= =
(
(

From Eq. (2), the surface temperature of the chip is
( )
2 -3 2
s
T 25 C 30 10 W/107 W/m K 0.004m 42.5 C. = + =
o o

COMMENTS: (1) The estimated value of T
ave
used to evaluate the air properties is reasonable.
(2) How else could
chip
h have been evaluated? Is the assumption of
L
h h = reasonable?
External Flow: External Flow:
The Flat Plate in Parallel Flow The Flat Plate in Parallel Flow
79
Physical Features
As with all external flows, the boundary layers develop freely without constraint.
Boundary layer conditions may be entirely laminar, laminar and turbulent,
or entirely turbulent.
To determine the conditions, compute
and compare with the critical Reynolds number for transition to turbulence,
Re
L
u L u L

= =
,
Re .
x c
,
laminar flow t Re Re hroughout
L x c
<
, ,
transition to turbulent flow Re Re at / Re Re /
L x c c x c L
x L >
s
T
s
q
Surface thermal conditions are commonly idealized as being of uniform
temperature or uniform heat flux .
Is it possible for a surface to be
concurrently characterized by uniform temperature and uniform heat flux?
,
Re
x c
Value of depends on free stream turbulence and surface roughness.
Nominally,
5
,
5 10 Re .
x c

If boundary layer is tripped at the leading edge
and the flow is turbulent throughout.
,
Re 0
x c
=
Thermal boundary layer development may be delayed by an unheated
starting length.
Equivalent surface and free stream temperatures for and uniform
(or ) for .
x <
s
T
s
q . x >
80
Similarity Solution for Laminar,
Constant-Property Flow over an Isothermal Plate
Based on premise that the dimensionless x-velocity component, ,
and temperature, , can be represented exclusively in
terms of a dimensionless similarity parameter
/ u u
( ) ( )
*
/
s s
T T T T T
(

( )
1/ 2
/ y u x
Similarity permits transformation of the partial differential equations associated

with the transfer of x-momentum and thermal energy to ordinary differential
equations of the form
3 2
3 2
2 0
d f d f
f
d d
+ =
( ) where / / ,
u u df d
and
2 * *
2
Pr
0
2
+ =
d T dT
f
d d
Similarity Solution for Laminar,
Constant-Property Flow over an Isothermal Plate
81
Subject to prescribed boundary conditions, numerical solutions to the momentum
and energy equations yield the following results for important local boundary layer
parameters:
( )
1/ 2
- with / 0.99 at 5
5.0 5
R
. ,
e
/
0
x
x
u
u
vx
u
= =
= =
2
2
0 0
- with /
s
y
u d f
u u vx
y d

= =
= =
2 2
0
and / 0.332, d f d
=
=
, 1/ 2
, 2
0.664Re
/ 2
x
s x
f x
C
u
=
( ) ( )
1/ 2
* *
0 0
- with / / / /
x s s
y
h q T T k T y k u vx dT d

= =
= = =
* 1/ 3
0
and / 0.332 Pr for Pr 0.6, dT d
=
= >
1/ 3

r
and
P
t
=
1/ 2 1/ 3
0.332 Re Pr
x
x x
h x
Nu
k
= =
How would you characterize relative laminar velocity and thermal boundary layer
growth for a gas?
An oil? A liquid metal?
How do the local shear stress and convection coefficient vary with distance from
the leading edge?
Average Boundary Layer Parameters:
, 0
1
x
s x s
dx
x

1/ 2
,
1.328 Re
x
f
x
C

=
0
1
x
x x
h
x
h dx =

1/ 2 1/ 3
0.664 Re Pr x
x
Nu =
The effect of variable properties may be considered by evaluating all properties
at the film temperature.
2
s
f
T T
T

+
=
82
( )
4 / 5 1/ 3
0.037 Re 871 Pr L
L
Nu =
Turbulent Flow
Local Parameters:
1/ 5
,
4 / 5 1/ 3
0.0592 Re
0.0296 Re Pr
f x x
x x
C
Nu
=
=
Empirical
Correlations
How do variations of the local shear stress and convection coefficient with
distance from the leading edge for turbulent flow differ from those for laminar flow?
Average Parameters:
( ) 1 0
1
c
c
x L
L am turb x
h h dx h dx
L
= +

Substituting expressions for the local coefficients and assuming
5
x, c
Re 5 10 , =
, 1/ 5
0.074 1742
Re Re
f L
L L
C =
( )
, ,
1/ 5
,
4 / 5 1/ 3
For Re 0 or Re Re ,
0.074 Re
0.037 Re Pr
x c c L x c
f L L
L
L
L x
C
Nu
=
=
=

Special Cases: Unheated Starting Length (USL)
and/or Uniform Heat Flux
For both uniform surface temperature (UST) and uniform surface heat flux (USF),
the effect of the USL on the local Nusselt number may be represented as follows:
( )
0
1/ 3
0
1 /
Re Pr
x
x b
a
m
x x
Nu
Nu
x
Nu C
=
=
=
(

=
4/5 4/5 4/5 4/5 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 m m
0.0308 0.0308 0.0296 0.0296 0.453 0.453 0.332 0.332 C C
1/9 1/9 1/9 1/9 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 b b
9/10 9/10 9/10 9/10 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4 a a
USF USF UST UST USF USF UST UST
Turbulent Turbulent Laminar Laminar
Sketch the variation of h
x
versus for two conditions:
What effect does an USL have on the local convection coefficient?
( ) x 0 and 0. > =
83
UST:
( )
s x s
q h T T
=
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) 2 / 2 1
2 1 / 2 2
0
lamina
1 /
1 for throughout
= 4 for througho
r flow
turbulent

w u flo t
p p
p p
L L
L
Nu Nu L
L
p
p
+
+ +
=
(
=

=
1
laminar/turbulent flow numerical integration f
1
or
c
c
L
x L
L am turb x
h
h h dx h dx
L

(
= +

USF:
s
s
x
q
T T
h
= +
s s
q q A =
Treatment of Non-Constant Property Effects:
Evaluate properties at the film temperature.
2
s
f
T T
T

+
=
( )
=
L s s
q h A T T
Problem 7.21: Preferred orientation (corresponding to lower heat loss) and the
corresponding heat rate for a surface with adjoining smooth and
roughened sections.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Surface B is sufficiently rough to trip the boundary layer when in the upstream position
(Configuration 2); (2)
5
5 10
,
Re for flow over A in Configuration 1.
x c

84
PROPERTIES: Table A-4, Air (T
f
= 333K, 1 atm): = 19.2 10
-6
m
2
/s, k = 28.7 10
-3

W/mK, Pr = 0.7.
ANALYSIS: Since Configuration (2) results in a turbulent boundary layer over the entire
surface, the lowest heat transfer is associated with Configuration (1).
Find

6
L
-6 2
u L 20 m/s 1m
Re 1.04 10 .
19.2 10 m / s

= = =

Hence in Configuration (1), transition will occur just before the rough surface (x
c
= 0.48m).
( ) L,1
4 / 5
6 1/3
Nu 0.037 1.04 10 871 0.7 1366
(
= =
(

For Configuration (1):
L,1
L,1
h L
Nu 6
k
. 136 = =
Hence

( )
3 2
L,1
h 1366 28.7 10 W/m K /1m 39.2 W/m K
= =
1568 W = <
( ) ( )( )
2
1 L,1 s
q h A T T 39.2 W/m K 0.5m 1m 100 20 K
= =
Comment: Note that
( )
( )
L,2 L,1
4 / 5
1/ 3 6
Nu 0.037 1.04 10 0.7 2139 Nu . = = >
External Flow: External Flow:
Flow over Bluff Objects Flow over Bluff Objects
(Cylinders, Sphere) (Cylinders, Sphere)
85
The Cylinder in Cross Flow
Conditions depend on special features of boundary layer development, including
onset at a stagnation point and separation, as well as transition to turbulence.
Stagnation point: Location of zero velocity and maximum pressure. ( ) 0 u
=
Followed by boundary layer development under a favorable pressure gradient
and hence acceleration of the free stream flow . ( ) / 0 dp dx < ( ) / 0 du dx
>
As the rear of the cylinder is approached, the pressure must begin to increase.
Hence, there is a minimum in the pressure distribution, p(x), after which boundary
layer development occurs under the influence of an adverse pressure gradient
( ) / 0, / 0 . dp dx du dx
> <
Separation occurs when the velocity gradient reduces to zero.
0
/
y
du dy
=
and is accompanied by flow reversal and a downstream wake.
Location of separation depends on boundary layer transition.
Re
D
VD VD

=
86
What features differentiate boundary development for the flat plate in
parallel flow from that for flow over a cylinder?
Force imposed by the flow is due to the combination of friction and form drag.
The dimensionless form of the drag force is
( )
2
Figure 7.8
/ 2
D
D
f
F
C
A V
=
Heat Transfer Considerations
87
Heat Transfer Considerations
5
Re 2 10
D
< x
How does the local Nusselt vary with
5
for Re 2 10 ? >
D
x
The Local Nusselt Number:
How does the local Nusselt number vary with for ?
What conditions are associated with maxima and minima in the variation?
What conditions
are associated with maxima and minima in the variation?
The Average Nusselt Number
( )
/ : D Nu hD k
Churchill and Bernstein Correlation:
( )
4 / 5
5/ 8
1/ 2 1/ 3
1/ 4
2 / 3
0.62Re Pr Re
0.3 1
282, 000
1 0.4/ Pr
D D
D Nu
(
| |
= + + (
|
\ ( (
+

Cylinders of Noncircular Cross Section:
1/ 3
Re Pr
m
D
D
Nu C =
, Table 7.3 C m
0.805 0.027 410
4
410
5
0.618 0.193 410
3
410
4
0.466 0.683 40 410
3
0.385 0.911 4 40
0.330 0.989 0.4 4
m C Re
D
Flow Across Tube Banks
A common geometry for
two-fluid heat exchangers.
max
S
T
V V
S D
T
=
Aligned and Staggered Arrays:

Aligned:
Staggered:
( ) ( )
if 2
max
S
T
V V S D S D
D T
S D
T
=
( )
( ) ( )
if 2
max
2
S
T
V V S D S D
D T
S D
D
=
or,
88
Flow Conditions:
How do convection coefficients vary from row-to-row in an array?
How do flow conditions differ between the two configurations?
Why should an aligned array not be use for S
T
/S
L
< 0.7?
Average Nusselt Number for an Isothermal Array:
( )
1/ 4
0.36
2 , max
Re Pr Pr/ Pr
m
D
D s
Nu C C
(
=

2
, Table 7.7
Table 7.8
C m
C
All properties are evaluated at except for Pr

s
. ( ) / 2
i o
T T +
0.84 0.022 210
5
- 210
6
0.60 0.40 10
3
- 210
5
(S
T
/ S
L
> 2)
0.60 0.35 (S
T
/ S
L
)
1/5
10
3
- 210
5
(S
T
/ S
L
< 2)
Aproximado por um tubo
isolado
10
2
10
3
0.40 0.90 10 - 10
2
Tubos
desfasados
0.84 0.021 210
5
- 210
6
0.63 0.27
10
3
- 210
5
(S
T
/S
L
<
0.7)*
Aproximado por um tubo
isolado
10
2
10
3
0.40 0.80 10 - 10
2
Tubos alinhados
m C Re
D,max
Geometria
0.99 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.84 0.76 0.64 Desfasados
0.99 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.92 0.90 0.86 0.80 0.70 Alinhados
16 13 10 7 5 4 3 2 1 N
L
89
Fluid Outlet Temperature (T
o
) :
s o
s i T T p
T T DNh
exp
T T VN S c
| |

= |
|

\
T L
N N N = x
What may be said about T
o
as ? N
Total Heat Rate:
s m
q hA T =
l
( )
s
A N DL =
( ) ( )
s i s o
m
s i
s o
T T T T
T
T T
n
T T

=
| |
|
\
l
l
Pressure Drop:
2
max
2
L
V
p N f
| |
=
|
\
, Figures 7.13 and 7.14 f
90
The Sphere
Flow over a sphere
Boundary layer development is similar to that for flow over a cylinder,
involving transition and separation.
( ) ( )
1/ 4
1/ 2 2 / 3 0.4
2 0.4Re 0.06Re Pr / D
D D s
Nu = + +
Figure 7.8
D
C
Problem: 7.78 Measurement of combustion gas temperature with a spherical
thermocouple junction.
KNOWN: Velocity and temperature of combustion gases. Diameter and emissivity of thermocouple
junction. Combustor temperature.
FIND: (a) Time to achieve 98% of maximum thermocouple temperature rise for negligible radiation, (b)
Steady-state thermocouple temperature, (c) Effect of gas velocity and thermocouple emissivity on
measurement error.
SCHEMATIC:
91
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Validity of lumped capacitance analysis, (2) Constant properties, (3) Negligible
conduction through lead wires, (4) Radiation exchange between small surface and a large enclosure (parts b
and c).
PROPERTIES: Thermocouple: 0.1 1.0, k = 100 W/mK, c = 385 J/kgK, = 8920 kg/m
3
; Gases:
k = 0.05 W/mK, = 50 10
-6
m
2
/s, Pr = 0.69.
ANALYSIS: (a) If the lumped capacitance analysis may be used, it follows from Equation 5.5 that

( )
i
s
T T Vc D c
t ln ln 50
T T hA 6h

= =
.
Neglecting the viscosity ratio correlation for variable property effects, use of V = 5 m/s with the Whitaker
correlation yields
( )
( )
1/ 2 2 / 3 0.4
D D D
Nu hD k 2 0.4Re 0.06Re Pr = = + +
( ) ( )
( )
( )
1/ 2 2 / 3 0.4 2
0.05W m K
h 2 0.4 100 0.06 100 0.69 328W m K
0.001m
(
= + + =
(

Since Bi = ( )
o
h r 3 k = 5.5 10
-4
, the lumped capacitance method may be used.
( )
( )
3
2
0.001m 8920kg m 385J kg K
t ln 50 6.83s
6 328W m K
= =

(b) Performing an energy balance on the junction, qconv = qrad.
Hence, evaluating radiation exchange from Equation 1.7 and with = 0.5,

( )
( )
4 4
s s c
hA T T A T T
=
( ) ( )
8 2 4
4 4 4
2
0.5 5.67 10 W m K
1000 T K T 400 K
328W m K

(
=
(

T = 936 K
Parametric calculations to determine the effects of V and yield the following results:

0 5 10 15 20 25
Velocity, V(m/s)
900
950
1000
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
(
K
)
Emissivity, epsilon = 0.5

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Emissivity
890
910
930
950
970
990
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
(
K
)
Velocity, V = 5 m/s

92
Since the temperature recorded by the thermocouple junction increases with increasing V and decreasing ,
the measurement error, T
- T, decreases with increasing V and decreasing . The error is due to net

radiative transfer from the junction (which depresses T) and hence should decrease with decreasing .
For a prescribed heat loss, the temperature difference ( T
- T) decreases with decreasing convection

resistance, and hence with increasing h(V).

COMMENTS: To infer the actual gas temperature (1000 K) from the measured result (936 K),
correction would have to be made for radiation exchange with the cold surroundings.
What measures may be taken to reduce the error associated with radiation effects?
Internal Flow: Internal Flow:
General Considerations General Considerations
93
Entrance Conditions
Must distinguish between entrance and fully developed regions.
Hydrodynamic Effects: Assume laminar flow with uniform velocity profile at
inlet of a circular tube.
Velocity boundary layer develops on surface of tube and thickens with increasing x.
Inviscid region of uniform velocity shrinks as boundary layer grows.
Does the centerline velocity change with increasing x? If so, how does it change?
Subsequent to boundary layer merger at the centerline, the velocity profile
becomes parabolic and invariant with x. The flow is then said to be
hydrodynamically fully developed.
How would the fully developed velocity profile differ for turbulent flow?
Thermal Effects: Assume laminar flow with uniform temperature, , at
inlet of circular tube with uniform surface temperature, , or heat flux, .
( ) , 0
i
T r T =
s i
T T
s
q
Thermal boundary layer develops on surface of tube and thickens with increasing x.
Isothermal core shrinks as boundary layer grows.
Subsequent to boundary layer merger, dimensionless forms of the temperature
profile become independent of x. ( ) for and
s s
T q
Is the temperature profile invariant with x in the fully developed region?
94
For uniform surface temperature, what may be said about the change
in the temperature profile with increasing x?
For uniform surface heat flux, what may be said about the change in the
temperature profile with increasing x?
How do temperature profiles differ for laminar and turbulent flow?
The Mean Velocity and Temperature
Absence of well-defined free stream conditions, as in external flow, and hence a
reference velocity or temperature , dictates the use of a cross-
sectional mean velocity and temperature for internal flow.
( ) u
( ) T
( )
m
u ( )
m
T
( )
or,
,
c
A c
m u r x dA =
( )
Hence,
,
c
A c
m
c
u r x dA
u
A
=
( )
2
2
,
o
r
m
o
o
u u r x r dr
r
=
Linkage of mean velocity to mass flow rate:
m c
m u A =
For incompressible flow in a circular tube of radius , o

r
95
Linkage of mean temperature to thermal energy transport associated with flow
through a cross section:
c
t
A c m
E uc T dA mc T

=

Hence,
c
A c
m
uc T dA
T
mc
For incompressible, constant-property flow in a circular tube,

( ) ( )
0 2
2
, ,
o
r
m
m o
T u x r T x r r dr
u r
=

Newtons Law of Cooling for the Local Heat Flux:
( )
s s m
q h T T =
What is the essential difference between use of for internal flow and
for external flow?
m
T T
Hydrodynamic and Thermal Entry Lengths

Entry lengths depend on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, which, in turn,
depend on Reynolds number.
Re
m h
D
u D
The hydraulic diameter is defined as

4
c
h
A
D
P
in which case,
4
Re
m h
D
u D m
P
For a circular tube,

4
Re
m
D
u D m
D

= =
96
Onset of turbulence occurs at a critical Reynolds number of
,
Re 2300
D c

Fully turbulent conditions exist for
Re 10, 000
D

Hydrodynamic Entry Length
( )
,
Laminar Flow: / 0.05Re
fd h D
x D
( )
,
Turbulent Flow: 10 / 60
fd h
x D < <
For laminar flow, how do hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths compare for a gas?
An oil? A liquid metal?
( )
,
Laminar Flow: / 0.05 Re Pr
fd t D
x D
Thermal Entry Length
( )
,
Turbulent Flow: 10 / 60
fd t
x D < <
Fully Developed Conditions
Assuming steady flow and constant properties, hydrodynamic conditions, including
the velocity profile, are invariant in the fully developed region.
What may be said about the variation of the mean velocity with distance from the
tube entrance for steady, constant property flow?
The pressure drop may be determined from knowledge of the friction factor
f, where,
( )
2
/
/ 2
m
dp dx D
f
u

Laminar flow in a circular tube:
64
Re
D
f =
Turbulent flow in a smooth circular tube:
( )
2
0.790 1n Re 1.64
D
f

=
97
Turbulent flow in a roughened circular tube:
Pressure drop for fully developed flow from x
1
to x
2
:
( )
2
1 2 2 1
2
m
u
p p p f x x
D
= =
and power requirement
pm
P p
= =
Requirement for fully developed thermal conditions:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
,
,
0
s
s m
fd t
T x T r x
x T x T x
(
=
(

Effect on the local convection coefficient:
( )
/
o
o
r r
s
s m s m
r r
T r
T T
f x
r T T T T
=
=

| |
=
|

\
Hence, assuming constant properties,
( )
/
s
s m
q k h
f x
T T k
( ) h f x
Variation of h in entrance and fully developed regions:
98
Determination of the Mean Temperature
Determination of is an essential feature of an internal flow analysis.
( )
m
T x
Determination begins with an energy balance for a differential control volume.
( )
conv m p m
dq md c T p mc dT
= +

Why is the second equality in the foregoing expression considered to be approximate?
Integrating from the tube inlet to outlet,
( )
, ,
(1)
conv p m o m i
q mc T T =
A differential equation from which may be determined is obtained by

substituting for
( )
m
T x
( ) ( ) .
conv
s s m
dq q Pdx h T T Pdx = =
( ) ( ) 2
m s
s m
p p
dT q P P
h T T
dx
mc mc
= =

Special Case: Uniform Surface Heat Flux
( )
m s
p
dT q P
f x
dx
mc
( )
,
s
m m i
p
q P
T x T x
mc
= +
Why does the surface temperature vary with x as shown in the figure?
In principle, what value does T
s
assume at x=0?
Total heat rate:
conv s
q q PL =
99
Special Case: Uniform Surface Temperature
( )
From Eq. (2), with
s m
m
p
T T T
d T d T P
h T
dx dx
mc

= =
Integrating from x=0 to any downstream location,

( )
,
exp
s m
x
s m i
p
T T x Px
h
T T
mc
| |
|
=
|
1
x x
x
o
h h dx
x
=
Overall Conditions:
,
,
exp exp
s m o o s
i s m i
p p
T T T h A PL
h
T T T
mc mc
| | | |

| |
= = =
| |

\ \

conv s m
q hA T =
l
( )
( ) 3
1n /
o i
m
o i
T T
T
T T

=

l
Special Case: Uniform External Fluid Temperature
,
,
1
exp exp
m o o s
i m i
p p tot
T T T UA
T T T
mc mc R
| | | |

| |
= = =
| |

\ \

m
s m
tot
T
q UA T
R
= =
l
l
Eq. (3) with replaced by .
m s
T T T

l
Note: Replacement of by T
s,o
if outer surface temperature is uniform. T
100
Problem 8.17: Estimate temperature of water emerging from a thin-walled
tube heated by walls and air of a furnace. Inner and outer
convection coefficients are known.
KNOWN: Water at prescribed temperature and flow rate enters a 0.25 m diameter, black thin-walled
tube of 8-m length, which passes through a large furnace whose walls and air are at a temperature of
Tfur = T = 700 K. The convection coefficients for the internal water flow and external furnace air are
300 W/m
2
K and 50 W/m
2
K, respectively.
FIND: The outlet temperature of the water, T
m,o
.
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions; (2) Tube is small object with large, isothermal surroundings; (3)
Furnace air and walls are at the same temperature; and (3) Tube is thin-walled with black surface.
PROPERTIES: Table A-6, Water: c
p
4180 J/kgK.
ANALYSIS: The linearized radiation coefficient may be estimated from Eq. 1.9 with = 1,
( )
( )
2 2
rad t fur t
fur
h T T T T + +
where
t
T represents the average tube wall surface temperature, which can be estimated from an energy balance
on the tube.
As represented by the thermal circuit, the energy balance may be expressed as

m t t fur
cv,i cv,o rad
T T T T
R 1/ R 1/ R

=
+
The thermal resistances, with A
s
= PL = DL, are

cv,i i s cv,o o s rad rad
R 1/ h A R 1/ h A R 1/ h = = =
101
and the mean temperature of the water is approximated as

( ) m m,i m,o
T T T / 2 = +
The outlet temperature can be calculated from Eq. 8.46b, with T
fur
= T
,

T T
1
exp
T T
mc R
m,o
m,i
p tot
| |
|
|
=
|
|
\

where

tot cv,i
cv,o rad
1
R R
1/ R 1/ R
= +
+

with
5 4 4
cv,i cv,o rad
R 6.631 10 K/ W R 3.978 10 K/ W R 4.724 10 K/ W

= = =
it follows that

m t
T 331 K T 418 K = =
m,o
T 362 K =
Internal Flow: Internal Flow:
Heat Transfer Correlations Heat Transfer Correlations
102
Fully Developed Flow
Laminar Flow in a Circular Tube:
The local Nusselt number is a constant throughout the fully developed
region, but its value depends on the surface thermal condition.
( )
s
q Uniform Surface Heat Flux :
4.36
D
hD
Nu
k
= =
( )
s
T Uniform Surface Temperature :
3.66
D
hD
Nu
k
= =
( )( )
( ) ( )
1/ 2
2 / 3
/ 8 Re 1000 Pr
1 12.7 / 8 Pr 1
D
D
f
Nu
f
=
+
The effects of wall roughness and transitional flow conditions
may be considered by using the Gnielinski correlation:
( ) Re 3000
D
>
( ) Re 10, 000
D
>
Turbulent Flow in a Circular Tube:
For a smooth surface and fully turbulent conditions , the
Dittus Boelter equation may be used as a first approximation:
4 / 5
0.023Re Pr
n
D D
Nu =
( )
( )
0.3
0.4
s m
s m
n T T
n T T
= <
= >
Smooth surface:
( )
2
0.790 1n Re 1.64
D
f

=
Surface of roughness : 0 e >
Figure 8.3 f
Noncircular Tubes:
Use of hydraulic diameter as characteristic length:
4
c
h
A
D
P
Since the local convection coefficient varies around the periphery of a tube,
approaching zero at its corners, correlations for the fully developed region
are associated with convection coefficients averaged over the periphery
of the tube.
Laminar Flow:
The local Nusselt number is a constant whose value (Table 8.1) depends on
the surface thermal condition and the duct aspect ratio. ( )
s s
T or q
Turbulent Flow:
As a first approximation, the Dittus-Boelter or Gnielinski correlation may be used
with the hydraulic diameter, irrespective of the surface thermal condition.
103
Effect of the Entry Region
The manner in which the Nusselt decays from inlet to fully developed conditions
for laminar flow depends on the nature of thermal and velocity boundary layer
development in the entry region, as well as the surface thermal condition.
Laminar flow in a
circular tube.
Combined Entry Length:
Thermal and velocity boundary layers develop concurrently from uniform
profiles at the inlet.
Thermal Entry Length:
Velocity profile is fully developed at the inlet, and boundary layer development
in the entry region is restricted to thermal effects. Such a condition may also
be assumed to be a good approximation for a uniform inlet velocity profile if
Pr 1. >> Why?
Average Nusselt Number for Laminar Flow in a Circular Tube with Uniform
Surface Temperature:
Combined Entry Length:
( ) ( )
1/ 3 0.14
Re Pr/ / / 2 :
D s
L D > (

0.14
1/ 3
Re Pr
1.86
/
D
D
s
Nu
L D
| |
| |
=
| |
\
\
( ) ( )
1/ 3 0.14
Re Pr/ / / 2 :
D s
L D < (

3.66 D Nu =
Thermal Entry Length:
( )
( )
2 / 3
0.0668 / Re Pr
3.66
1 0.04 / Re Pr
D
D
D
D L
Nu
D L
= +
+ (

104
Average Nusselt Number for Turbulent Flow in a Circular Tube :
Effects of entry and surface thermal conditions are less pronounced for
turbulent flow and can be neglected.
For long tubes : ( ) / 60 L D >
,
D
D fd
Nu Nu
For short tubes : ( ) / 60 L D <
( ) ,
1
/
D
m
D fd
Nu C
Nu
L D
+
1
2/ 3
C
m
Noncircular Tubes:
Laminar Flow:
depends strongly on aspect ratio, as well as entry region and surface
thermal conditions.
h
D Nu
When determining for any tube geometry or flow condition, all
properties are to be evaluated at
D Nu
( )
, ,
/ 2 m
m i m o
T T T +
Why do solutions to internal flow problems often require iteration?
Turbulent Flow:
As a first approximation, correlations for a circular tube may be used
with D replaced by .
h
D
105
The Concentric Tube Annulus
Fluid flow through
region formed by
concentric tubes.
Convection heat transfer
may be from or to inner
surface of outer tube and
outer surface of inner tube.
Surface thermal conditions may be characterized by
uniform temperature or uniform heat flux .
( )
, ,
,
s i s o
T T ( ) ,
i o
q q
Convection coefficients are associated with each surface, where
( )
, i i s i m
q h T T =
( )
, o o s o m
q h T T =
i h o h
i o
h D h D
Nu Nu
k k

Fully Developed Laminar Flow
Nusselt numbers depend on and surface thermal conditions (Tables 8.2, 8.3) /
i o
D D
Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
Correlations for a circular tube may be used with replaced by . D
h
D
h o i
D D D =
106
Convec Convec o o Natural Natural
Consideraes Gerais
A conveco natural tem lugar quando h movimento de um fluido
resultante de foras de impulso.
A impulso tem lugar num fluido onde h gradientes de densidade e uma
fora mssica (por exemplo, fora gravtica) proporcional densidade.
Em transmisso de calor, os gradientes de densidade so devidos a
gradientes de temperatura e a fora mssica a fora gravtica.
Gradientes de temperatura estveis e instveis
107
Escoamentos sem superfcie adjacente (esteira, jacto, camada de mistura)
Ocorre num meio (em princpio, infinito), em repouso (velocidade
nula longe da origem do escoamento).
Plumas e jactos com impulso:
Escoamentos com superfcie adjacente (camada limite)
Escoamento de camada limite numa superfcie quente ou fria
induzido por foras de impulso.
( )
s
T T
Placas verticais
Desenvolvimento da camada limite numa placa vertical aquecida
Escoamento ascendente com velocidade mxima dentro da camada limite e
velocidade nula na superfcie da placa e na extremidade (y = ).
Quais as diferenas relativamente a conveco forada?
Quais as diferenas relativamente a uma placa arrefecida (T
s
< T
) ?
108
Equao de balano de quantidade de movimento na direco x
(escoamento laminar)
2
2
1
y
u
g
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
limite camada da fora limite camada da dentro

x
p
x
p
|
|
\
|
=
|
|
\
|
g
x
p
( )
2
2
y
u g
y
u
v
x
u
u
+ =
T T T
p

|
|
\
|
1 1
( )
2
2
y
u
T T g
y
u
v
x
u
u
+ =

Equao de balano de quantidade de movimento na direco x
(escoamento laminar)
( )
2
2
u u u
u g T T
x y y

+ = +

Foras de inrcia Fora de impulso Fora viscosa
Dado que u (x,y) depende de T (x,y), a soluo desta equao tem de ser
obtida juntamente com a soluo para a equao de camada limite da
energia T (x,y).
2
2
T T T
u
x y y

+ =

As solues esto acopladas.
109
Adimensionalizao das equaes
L
x
x = *
L
y
y = *
o
u
u
u = *
o
u
v
v = *
=
T T
T T
T
s
*
( )
2
2
2
*
*
Re
1
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
y
u
T
u
L T T g
y
u
v
x
u
u
L o
s
2
2
*
*
Pr Re
1
*
*
*
*
*
*
y
T
y
T
v
x
T
u
L

( ) ( )
2
3
Re
2
2
2
L T T g L u
u
L T T g
Gr
s o
o
s
L

= |
\
|
=
43 42 1
2
2
2
*
*
Re
1
*
Re *
*
*
*
*
*
y
u
T
Gr
y
u
v
x
u
u
L
L
+ =
( )
viscosas Foras
impulso de Foras L T T g
Gr
s
L
~
2
3
=
Parmetros adimensionais relevantes
Nmero de Grashof:
Rayleigh Number
( )
3
Pr
s
L L
g T T L
Ra Gr

= =
Gs perfeito: = 1/T (K)
Lquidos: Tabelas A.5, A.6 de Incropera e de Witt
Coeficiente de expanso trmica da superfcie (propriedade
termodinmica do fluido
1
p
T
| |
=
|
\
L: dimenso caracterstica da superfcie
110
M M todo integral todo integral
Equa Equa o de balan o de balan o integral de quantidade de movimento: o integral de quantidade de movimento:
( )
0
0
2
0
=
|
|
\
|
= |
\
|

y
y
u
dy T T g dy u
x d
d

Equao de balano integral de energia:
( )
0
0
=
|
|
\
|
y
y
T
dy u T T
x d
d
Exemplo de aplicao: placa vertical isotrmica

Vamos assumir um perfil de velocidades cbico
0 ) 0 , ( = x u ( ) 0 , = x u
0 =
|
|
\
|
= y
y
u
( )
=
=
|
|
\
|
T T g
y
u
s
y

0
2
2
( )
( )
2 2
2
1 1
4
|
\
|
= |
\
|

y y
x u
y y T T g
u
o
s
e um perfil de temperaturas quadrtico
T(x,0)=T
s
T(x,)=T
0 =
|
|
\
|
= y
y
T
Perfis de velocidades e de temperatura
2
1 |
\
|
=
y
T T
T T
s
Substituindo nas equaes de balano integral e integrando resulta
( ) ( )

o
s o
u
T T g u
x d
d
=

3
1
105
1
2
( )
2
30
1
=
o
u
x d
d
111
Vamos assumir que u
o
e so funes do tipo
( )
m
o
x C x u
1
=
( )
n
x C x
2
=
( )
n m n
s
n m
x
C
C
x T T g
C
x C C
n m

+
=
+

2
1 2 1 2
2
2
1
3 105
2
n n m
x
C
x C C
n m
+
=
+
2
1
2 1
2
30
daqui resulta
Para as equaes estarem dimensionalmente correctas, o expoente de x tem de
ser o mesmo em todos os termos de cada equao, de onde resulta
n m n n m = = + 1 2
n n m = + 1
m=1/2, n=1/4
Logo
( )
2 1
2
2 1
1
Pr
21
20
17 . 5
(
\
|
+ =

T T g
C
s
( )
2 1
4 1
2
4 1
2
Pr Pr
21
20
93 . 3

\
|
+ =
T T g
C
s
( )
2 1 2 1
Gr Pr 952 . 0 17 . 5
x
o
x
u
+ =
( )
4 1 4 1 2 1
Gr Pr 952 . 0 Pr 93 . 3

+ =
x
x
Obtm-se ento
pelo que
( )
4 1 4 1 2 1 0
Gr Pr 952 . 0 Pr 508 . 0
2
Nu
x
s
y
x
x
k
x
T T
y
T
k
k
x h
=
+ = =
|
|
\
|
= =
ou, de modo equivalente,

4 1
4 1
Pr 952 . 0
Pr
Ra 508 . 0 Nu |
\
|
+
=
x x
Por sua vez,
4 1
4 1
Pr 952 . 0
Pr
Ra 68 . 0 Nu |
\
|
+
= =
L
L
k
L h
Esta soluo est em bom acordo com a soluo exacta e com dados
experimentais
112
Soluo de semelhana
Usando a seguinte varivel de semelhana, a equao de balano
de quantidade de movimento na direco x pode ser transformada de
uma equao com derivadas parciais (em x e y) numa equao
diferencial ordinria expressa exclusivamente em termos de .
1/ 4
4
x
Gr y
x
| |
|
\
Equaes de balano de quantidade de movimento e energia
( )
2
3 2 0 f ff f T
+ + =
3Pr 0 T fT

+ =
( ) ( )
1/ 2
2
x
s
T T df
x
f Gr u T
d T T
A integrao numrica das equaes conduz aos seguintes resultados

para f () e T*:
Espessura da camada limite hidrodinmica
( ) 5 for Pr 0.6 >
( )
1/ 4
1/ 4
1/ 4
Pr 0.6 : 5 7.07
4
x
x
Gr
x
x x
Gr
| |
> = =
|
\
113
Nmeros de Nusselt
( )
and : L
x
Nu Nu
( )
1/ 4 1/ 4
0
Pr
4 4
x x
x
Gr Gr
hx dT
Nu g
k d
=
| | | |
= = =
| |
\ \
( )
( )
( )
1/ 2
1/ 4
1/ 2
0.75 Pr
Pr 0 Pr
0.609 1.221 Pr 1.238 Pr
g = < <
+ +
1 4
3
L
L
L o
h hdx Nu Nu
L
= =
Transio para regime turbulento

A ampliao de perturbaes
depende do valor relativo das foras
de impulso e das foras viscosas
A transio ocorre para o seguinte
nmero de Rayleigh crtico:
( )
3
9
, ,
Pr 10
s
x c x c
g T T x
Ra Gr

= =
Correlaes empricas (Churchill e Chu)
Escoamento laminar
( )
9
10 :
L
Ra <
( )
1/ 4
4 / 9
9 / 16
0.670
0.68
1 0.492/ Pr
L
L
Ra
Nu = +
(
+

Todas as condies
( )
2
1/ 6
4 / 9
9 / 16
0.387
0.825
1 0.492/ Pr
L
L
Ra
Nu

= +
`
(
+
)
114
Placas inclinadas
Componente da acelerao gravtica paralela placa: g cos
T
s
< T
T
s
> T
Quando o fluido se mantm junto parede, as correlaes de Churchill e

Chu podem ser usadas, desde que 0 60 e substituindo g por g cos
Quando o fluido tem tendncia a afastar-se da parede, o coeficiente de
conveco aumenta e as correlaes apresentadas no so vlidas
Placas Horizontais
A fora de impulso normal s placas
O escoamento e a transmisso de calor dependem de a placa estar
aquecida ou arrefecida e de a troca de calor se dar na face superior ou
inferior.
Face superior de placa aquecida ou Face inferior de placa arrefecida
s
T T
> s
T T
<
( )
1/ 4 4 7
0.54 10 10 L
L L
Nu Ra Ra = < <
( )
1/ 3 7 11
0.15 10 10 L
L L
Nu Ra Ra = < <
Como que varia com L quando h
3 1
L
L Ra Nu
115
Face inferior aquecida ou face superior arrefecida
s
T T
>
s
T T
<
( )
1/ 4 5 10
0.27 10 10 L
L L
Nu Ra Ra = < <
Por que razo estas condies conduzem a uma menor taxa de
transmisso de calor do que as do slide anterior?
Problem 9.31: Convection and radiation losses from the surface of a
central solar receiver.
KNOWN: Dimensions and emissivity of cylindrical solar receiver. Incident solar flux.
Temperature of ambient air.
FIND: (a) Heat loss and collection efficiency for a prescribed receiver temperature, (b) Effect
of receiver temperature on heat losses and collector efficiency.
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state, (2) Ambient air is quiescent, (3) Incident solar flux is
uniformly distributed over receiver surface, (4) All of the incident solar flux is absorbed by the
receiver, (5) Negligible irradiation from the surroundings, (6) Uniform receiver surface
temperature, (7) Curvature of cylinder has a negligible effect on boundary layer development,
(8) Constant properties
116
PROPERTIES: Table A-4, air (Tf = 550 K): k = 0.0439 W/mK, = 45.6 10
-6
m
2
/s, =
66.7 10
-6
m
2
/s, Pr = 0.683, = 1.82 10
-3
K
-1
.
ANALYSIS: (a) The total heat loss is
( )
4
rad conv s s s s
q q q A T hA T T

= + = +
With RaL = g (Ts - T)L
3
/ = 9.8 m/s
2
(1.82 10
-3
K
-1
) 500K (12m)
3
/(45.6 66.7 10
-12

m
4
/s
2
) = 5.07 10
12
, the Churchill and Chu correlation yields
( )
{ }
2
1/ 6
2 2 L
8/ 27
9 / 16
0.387 Ra 0.0439 W/ m K k
h 0.825 0.825 42.4 6.83W/ m K
L 12m
1 0.492 / Pr
= + = + =
+

`
(
( )
Hence, with As = DL = 264 m
2

( ) ( )
4 2 8 2 4 2 2
q 264m 0.2 5.67 10 W/ m K 800K 264m 6.83W/ m K 500K
= +
6 5 6
rad conv
q q q 1.23 10 W 9.01 10 W 2.13 10 W = + = + =
With
7
s s
A q 2.64 10 W, = the collector efficiency is
( )
( )
7 6
s s
7
s s
2.64 10 2.13 10 W
A q q
100 100 91.9%
A q
2.64 10 W

| |
= = =
|
\
(b) As shown below, because of its dependence on temperature to the fourth power, qrad
increases more significantly with increasing Ts than does qconv, and the effect on the efficiency is
pronounced
600 700 800 900 1000
Receiver temperature, K
0
1E6
2E6
3E6
4E6
5E6
H
e
a
t r
a
te
, W
Convection
Radiation
Total
600 700 800 900 1000
Receiver temperature, K
75
80
85
90
95
100
C
o
lle
c
to
r
e
ffic
ie
n
c
y
, %
COMMENTS: The collector efficiency is also reduced by the inability to have a perfectly
absorbing receiver. Partial reflection of the incident solar flux will reduce the efficiency by at
least several percent.
117
Cilindro horizontal
Desenvolvimento da camada limite e variao do nmero de Nusselt
local para um cilindro aquecido:
Nmero de Nusselt mdio:
( )
2
1/ 6
12
8/ 27
9 /16
0.387
0.60 10
1 0.559/ Pr
D
D
D
Ra
Nu Ra

= + <
`
(
+
)
Como variam as condies para um cilindro arrefecido?
Esferas
Nmero de Nusselt mdio:
( )
1/ 4
4 / 9
9 /16
0.589
2
1 0.469/ Pr
D
D
Ra
Nu = +
(
+

O que sucede quando Ra
D
0 ?
118
Conveco entre placas paralelas
L/S pequeno: camadas limites no chegam a coalescer e cada placa
comporta-se como se estivesse isolada
L/S elevado: h interaco entre camadas limites
Correlaes de Elenbaas
a) Placas isotrmicas mesma temperatura, T
s
4 3
Ra
35
exp 1 Ra
24
1
Nu
(
|
|
\
|
=
L S L
S
s
s
s
k
S
T T
A q
s
s
= Nu
( )

3
S T T g
Ra
s
s
=
No limite de escoamento completamente desenvolvido, S/L 0:
L
S
s
fd s Ra
24
1
Nu , =
b) Uma placa isotrmica temperatura T
s,1
e a outra isolada; para a placa
isotrmica tem-se
L
S
s
fd s Ra
12
1
Nu , =
119
c) Placas com fluxo constante e igual nas superfcies:
2 1
*
s , ,
Ra 144 . 0 Nu |
\
|
=
L
S
fd L s
k
S
T T
q
L s
s
L s

=
,
,
Nu

k
S q g
s
4
*
s
Ra

=
d) Uma placa com fluxo fluxo constante e a outra isolada:
2 1
*
s , ,
Ra 204 . 0 Nu |
\
|
=
L
S
fd L s
Correlaes de Bar.Cohen e Rohsenow:
(iv)
(iii)
(ii)
(i)
Caso
4.77 2.51 24
Uma placa com fluxo constante e
uma isolada
1.71 2.87 144 Uma placa isotrmica e uma isolada
4.77 2.51 48
Placas com fluxo constante
1.71 2.87 576
Placas simtricas isotrmicas,
T
s,1
=T
s,2
S
max
/S
opt
Sopt C
2
C
1
Condies de fronteira
( )
5 1
4
51 . 2

L S Ra
s
( )
4 1
3
71 . 2

L S Ra
s
( )
5 1
4 *
12 . 2

L S Ra
s
( )
4 1
3
15 . 2

L S Ra
s
2 , 1 , s s
q q =
( ) ( )
2 1
2 1
2
2
1
Ra Ra
Nu
+ =
L S
C
L S
C
s s
s
( )
2 1
5 2
2
*
s
1
Ra Ra
Nu
+ =
L S
C
L S
C
s
s
(a) Condies isotrmicas
Casos (i) e (iii)
(b) Condies isotrmicas
Casos (ii) e (iv)
2
+
=
T T
T
s
2
,
+
=
T T
T
L s
120
Placas isotrmicas
S diminui diminui, mas n placas pode aumentar
Logo, existe S
opt
que maximiza a taxa de transmisso de calor
S
max
a distncia entre placas que maximiza o calor trocado em
cada placa
s Nu
Placas com fluxo constante
S diminui diminui a taxa de t.c. por unidade de volume; Ts aumenta
Como T
s
no pode aumentar indefinidamente, existe S
opt
que maximiza
a taxa de t.c. por unidade de diferena de temperatura T
s
(L) - T
S
max
a distncia entre placas que, para um dado fluxo, minimiza a
temperatura da superfcie
Cavidades
Cavidades Rectangulares
Paredes opostas a temperaturas diferentes e restantes paredes
perfeitamente isoladas
( )
3
1 2
L
g T T L
Ra

( )
1 2
q h T T =
Cavidade horizontal 0, 180deg =
Cavidade vertical 90 deg =
121
Cavidades horizontais
Aquecimento na base
( ) 0 =
,
1708:
L L c
Ra Ra < =
Camada de fluido termicamente estvel
1 L
hL
Nu
k
= =
4
L
1708 Ra 5 10 : < <
Instabilidade trmica provoca correntes de conveco regulares de
forma celular
5 9
3 10 7 10 :
L
Ra < <
O escoamento passa a turbulento
1/ 3 0.074
0.069 Pr L
L
Nu Ra =
Aquecimento no topo ( = 180)
Camada de fluido incondicionalmente estvel
1 L Nu =
Cavidades verticais ( = 90)
3
10 :
L
Ra <
3
10 :
L
Ra >
Forma-se uma clula primria, com a
velocidade na regio central da cavidade
cada vez menor, e desenvolvem-se clulas
secundrias junto aos cantos medida que
Ra
L
aumenta
Correlations for Eqs. (9.50) - (9.53). L Nu

1 L Nu =
Correlaes para ver Eqs. (9.50) (9.53) do livro de Incropera e
de Witt
L Nu
122
Cavidades inclinadas
Relevante para colectores solares planos
A taxa de transmisso de calor depende do ngulo de inclinao
relativamente a um ngulo de inclinao crtico *, cujo valor
funo de H/L (Tabela 9.4).
A taxa de transmisso de calor depende tambm de Ra
L
relativo a um
valor crtico
,
1708/cos .
Lc
Ra =
Correlaes: Eqs. (9.54) (9.57).
Cavidades anulares
Cilindros concntricos
( )
( )
2
1n
eff
i o
o i
k
q T T
D D
=
Numero de Rayleigh crtico:
( )
( )
4
*
5
3 3/ 5 3/ 5
1n /
o i
c L
i o
D D
Ra Ra
L D D

(

=
+
( ) / 2
o i
L D D
k
eff
: condutibilidade trmica efectiva
123
*
100 :
/ 1
c
eff
Ra
k k
<
=
( )
( )
* 7
1/ 4
1/ 4
*
100 10 :
Pr
0.386
0.861
c
eff
c
Ra
k
Ra
k Pr
< <
=
+
Esferas concntricas
( )
i o
eff i o
DD
q k T T
L
| |
=
|
\
Nmero de Rayleigh crtico:
( )
( )
*
4 5
7 / 5 7 / 5
/
L
s
o i
i o
Ra
L
Ra
D D
D D

(
(
=
(
+

*
100 : / 1
s eff
Ra k k < =
( )
( )
* 4
1/ 4
1/ 4
*
100 10 :
Pr
0.74
0.861 Pr
s
eff
s
Ra
k
Ra
k
< <
=
+
Regime misto conveco forada conveco natural
Os efeitos de conveco forada e natural so ambos importantes se
Correlaes para transmisso de calor por conveco em regime misto
n n n
FC NC
Nu Nu Nu
3 n
( ) ( ) 1 O Re
2
>>
L L
Gr
( ) ( ) 1 O ~ Re
2
L L
Gr
O efeito de conveco natural dominante se
O efeito de conveco forada dominante se ( ) ( ) 1 O Re
2
<<
L L
Gr
+ : Fora de impulso actua no mesmo sentido ou
perpendicularmente ao escoamento
- : Fora de impulso actua no sentido oposto ao do escoamento
124
Problem 9.74: Use of saturated steam to heat a pharmaceutical in a batch reactor.
KNOWN: Volume, thermophysical properties, and initial and final temperatures of a
pharmaceutical. Diameter and length of submerged tubing. Pressure of saturated steam
flowing through the tubing.
FIND: (a) Initial rate of heat transfer to the pharmaceutical, (b) Time required to heat the
pharmaceutical to 70C and the amount of steam condensed during the process.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Pharmaceutical may be approximated as an infinite, quiescent fluid of
uniform, but time-varying temperature, (2) Free convection heat transfer from the coil may be
approximated as that from a heated, horizontal cylinder, (3) Negligible thermal resistance of
condensing steam and tube wall, (4) Negligible heat transfer from tank to surroundings, (5)
Constant properties.
PROPERTIES: Table A-4, Saturated water (2.455 bars): Tsat = 400K = 127C, hfg = 2.183
10
6
J/kg. Pharmaceutical: See schematic.
ANALYSIS: (a) The initial rate of heat transfer is ( )
s s i
q hA T T , = where As = DL = 0.707
m
2
and h is obtained from Eq. 9.34.
125
With = /Pr = 4.0 10
-7
m
2
/s and RaD = g (Ts Ti) D
3
/ = 9.8 m/s
2
(0.002 K
-1
) (102K)
(0.015m)
3
/16 10
-13
m
4
/s
2
= 4.22 10
6
,
( )
( )
( )
D
2 2
1/ 6
6
1/ 6
D
8/ 27 8/ 27
9 /16 9 / 16
0.387 4.22 10
0.387Ra
Nu 0.60 0.60 27.7
1 0.559/ Pr 1 0.559/10

= + = + =
` `
( (
+ +
( (
) )
Hence,
2
D
h Nu k / D 27.7 0.250W/ m K/ 0.015m 462W/ m K = = =

and ( ) ( )
2 2
s s i
q hA T T 462W/ m K 0.707 m 102 C 33, 300 W = = =

(b) Performing an energy balance at an instant of time for a control surface about the liquid,

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
s s
d cT
q t h t A T T t
dt
= =

where the Rayleigh number, and hence h, changes with time due to the change in the
temperature of the liquid.
Integrating the foregoing equation numerically, the following results are obtained for the
variation of T and h with t.
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time, t(s)
25
35
45
55
65
75
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
tu
r
e
, (
C
)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time, t(s)
370
390
410
430
450
470
C
o
n
v
e
c
tio
n
c
o
e
ffic
ie
n
t, h
b
a
r
(
W
/m
^
2
.K
)
The time at which the liquid reaches 70C is

f
t 855s <
The rate at which T increases decreases with increasing time due to the corresponding
reduction in (Ts T), and hence reductions in
D
Ra , h and q.
The Rayleigh number decreases from 4.22 10
6
to 2.16 10
6
, while the heat rate decreases
from 33,300 to 14,000 W.
The convection coefficient decreases approximately as (Ts T)
1/3
, while q ~ (Ts T)
4/3
.
126
The latent energy released by the condensed steam corresponds to the increase in thermal
energy of the pharmaceutical. Hence,
c fg
m h = ( )
f i
c T T ,
and

( )
3 3
f i
c
6
fg
c T T 1100kg / m 0.2m 2000J / kg K 45 C
m 9.07kg
h
2.183 10 J / kg

= = =
<
COMMENTS: (1) Over such a large temperature range, the fluid properties are likely to vary
significantly, particularly and Pr. A more accurate solution could therefore be performed if
the temperature dependence of the properties were known. (2) Condensation of the steam is a
significant process expense, which is linked to the equipment (capital) and energy (operating)
costs associated with steam production.
Heat Exchangers: Heat Exchangers:
Design Considerations Design Considerations
127
Heat Exchanger Types
Heat exchangers are ubiquitous to energy conversion and utilization. They involve
heat exchange between two fluids separated by a solid and encompass a wide
range of flow configurations.
Concentric-Tube Heat Exchangers
Parallel Flow Counterflow
Simplest configuration.
Superior performance associated with counter flow.
Cross-flow Heat Exchangers
Finned-Both Fluids
Unmixed
Unfinned-One Fluid Mixed
the Other Unmixed
For cross-flow over the tubes, fluid motion, and hence mixing, in the transverse
direction (y) is prevented for the finned tubes, but occurs for the unfinned condition.
Heat exchanger performance is influenced by mixing.
128
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
One Shell Pass and One Tube Pass
Baffles are used to establish a cross-flow and to induce turbulent mixing of the
shell-side fluid, both of which enhance convection.
The number of tube and shell passes may be varied, e.g.:
One Shell Pass,
Two Tube Passes
Two Shell Passes,
Four Tube Passes
Compact Heat Exchangers
Widely used to achieve large heat rates per unit volume, particularly when
one or both fluids is a gas.
Characterized by large heat transfer surface areas per unit volume, small
flow passages, and laminar flow.
(a) Fin-tube (flat tubes, continuous plate fins)
(b) Fin-tube (circular tubes, continuous plate fins)
(c) Fin-tube (circular tubes, circular fins)
(d) Plate-fin (single pass)
(e) Plate-fin (multipass)
129
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
An essential requirement for heat exchanger design or performance calculations.
Contributing factors include convection and conduction associated with the
two fluids and the intermediate solid, as well as the potential use of fins on both
sides and the effects of time-dependent surface fouling.
With subscripts c and h used to designate the hot and cold fluids, respectively,
the most general expression for the overall coefficient is:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, ,
1 1 1
1 1
c h
f c f h
w
o o o o
c c h h
UA UA UA
R R
R
hA A A hA
= =

= + + + +
( )
o,
Overall surface efficiency of fin array (Section 3.6.5)
1 1
o
f
c or h f
c or h
A
A
| |
=
|
\
total surface area (fins and exposed base)
surface area of fins only
t
f
A A
A
=
Assuming an adiabatic tip, the fin efficiency is

( )
,
tanh
f c or h
c or h
mL
mL
| |
=
|
\
( )
2 /
c or h p w
c or h
m U k t =
,
partial overall coe
1
fficient
p c or h
f
c or h
h
U
hR
| |
=
|
|
+
\
2
for a unit sur Fouling fa face area ( ctor m K/W)
f
R
Table 11.1
conduction resistan Wall (K/W ce )
w
R
130
A Methodology for Heat Exchanger
Design Calculations
- The Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Method -
A form of Newtons Law of Cooling may be applied to heat exchangers by
using a log-mean value of the temperature difference between the two fluids:
1m
q U A T =
( )
1 2
1
1 2
1n /
m
T T
T
T T

=
Evaluation of depends on the heat exchanger type.
1 2
and T T
Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger:
1 ,1 ,1
, ,
h c
h i c o
T T T
T T

=
2 , 2 , 2
, ,
h c
h o c i
T T T
T T

=
Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger:
1 ,1 ,1
, ,
h c
h i c i
T T T
T T

=
2 , 2 , 2
, ,
h c
h o c o
T T T
T T

=
Note that T
c,o
can not exceed T
h,o
for a PF HX, but can do so for a CF HX.
For equivalent values of UA and inlet temperatures,
1 , 1 , m CF m PF
T T >
Shell-and-Tube and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers:
1 1 , m m CF
T F T =
Figures 11.10 - 11.13 F
131
132
Overall Energy Balance
Assume negligible heat transfer between the exchanger and its surroundings
and negligible potential and kinetic energy changes for each fluid.
( )
, , h i h o h
q m i i
=
( )
, , c c o c i
q m i i
=
fluid enthalpy i
Assuming no l/v phase change and constant specific heats,
( )
, , , p h h i h o h
q m c T T
=
( )
, , h h i h o
C T T =
( )
, , , c p c c o c i
q m c T T
=
( )
, , c c o c i
C T T =
,
Heat capacity r s ate
h c
C C
Application to the hot (h) and cold (c) fluids:
Special Operating Conditions
Case (a): C
h
>>C
c
or h is a condensing vapor ( ).
h
C
Negligible or no change in ( )
, ,
.
h h o h i
T T T =
Case (b): C
c
>>C
h
or c is an evaporating liquid ( ).
c
C
Negligible or no change in
( )
, ,
.
c c o c i
T T T =
Case (c): C
h
=C
c
.
1 2 1m
T T T = =
133
Heat Exchangers: Heat Exchangers:
The Effectiveness The Effectiveness NTU Method NTU Method
General Considerations
Computational Features/Limitations of the LMTD Method:
The LMTD method may be applied to design problems for
which the fluid flow rates and inlet temperatures, as well as
a desired outlet temperature, are prescribed. For a specified
HX type, the required size (surface area), as well as the other
outlet temperature, are readily determined.
If the LMTD method is used in performance calculations for which
both outlet temperatures must be determined from knowledge of the
inlet temperatures, the solution procedure is iterative.
For both design and performance calculations, the effectiveness-NTU
method may be used without iteration.
134
Definitions Definitions
Definitions
Heat exchanger effectiveness, :
max
q
q
=
0 1
Maximum possible heat rate:
( )
max min , , h i c i
q C T T =
min
if
or
h h c
C C C
C
<
if
c c h
C C C <
Will the fluid characterized by C
min
or C
max
experience the largest possible
temperature change in transit through the HX?
Why is C
min
and not C
max
used in the definition of q
max
?
Number of Transfer Units, NTU
min
UA
NTU
C
A dimensionless parameter whose magnitude influences HX performance:

with q NTU
135
Heat Exchanger Relations
( )
( )
, ,
, ,
h i h o h
h h i h o
q m i i
or
q C T T
( )
( )
, ,
, ,
c c o c i
c c o c i
q m i i
or
q C T T
( )
min , , h i c i
q C T T =
Performance Calculations:
( )
min max
, / f NTU C C =
C
r
Relations Table 11.3 or Figs. 11.14 - 11.19
-NTU Expressions (Table 2.2 of the book, more detail in book)
1 to 2 shell-and-
tube HEX
Cross flow, C
max
mixed and C
min
unmixed
Cross flow, C
min
mixed and C
max
unmixed
Parallel Flow
Counterflow
NTU(,C*) (NTU,C*) Type of HEX
1 to 2 shell-and-
tube HEX
Cross flow, C
max
mixed and C
min
unmixed
Cross flow, C
min
mixed and C
max
unmixed
Parallel Flow
Counterflow
NTU(,C*) (NTU,C*) Type of HEX
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ] NTU 1 exp 1
NTU 1 exp 1

=
C C
C
|
|
\
|
1
1
ln
1
1
NTU
C
C
( ) [ ] [ ] NTU 1 exp 1
1
1

+
+
= C
C
( )
(

=
C
C NTU exp 1
exp 1
( ) [ ] { } [ ] NTU exp 1 exp 1
1

= C
C
( )
)
`
)
`
|
|
\
|

+
|
|
\
|

+ +
+ +
+
=
2 / 1
2
1 NTU exp 1
2 / 1
2
1 NTU exp 1
2 / 1
2
1 1
2
C
C
C C
( ) [ ]
+ +
+
= C
C
1 1 ln
1
1
NTU
( ) [ ]
= 1 ln 1 ln
1
NTU C
C
( )
(
+ = C
C
1 ln
1
1 -ln NTU
( )
)
`
)
`
|
|
\
|

+ +
+
|
|
\
|

+
+
=
2 / 1
2
1 1 2
2 / 1
2
1 1 2
ln
2 / 1
2
1
1
NTU
C C
C C
C
136
137
Design Calculations:
( )
min max
, / NTU f C C =
Relations Table 11.4 or Figs. 11.14 - 11.19

For all heat exchangers,
with
r
C
( ) 1 exp NTU =
( )
or
1n 1 NTU =
For C
r
= 0, to all HX types. a single relation applies NTU
Radiao: Consideraes gerais
Estuda-se radiao trmica, cujas origens esto ligadas emisso da matria a
uma temperatura absoluta T>0
A emisso devida oscilaes e transies electrnicas dos muitos electres que
constituem a matria que, por sua vez, so mantidos pela energia trmica da matria
A emisso corresponde energia transferida da matria (calor) e, portanto, corresponde
reduo de energia trmica armazenada na matria.
A radiao tambm pode ser intersectada e absorvida pela matria.
A absoro resulta em transferncia de calor para a matria e, portanto, corresponde
a um amento de energia trmica armazenada na matria.
Considere um slido temperatura Ts num recinto
fechado com vcuo, cujas paredes esto temperatura Tsur
Que fenmeno ocorre se Ts > Tsur? Porqu
Que fenmeno ocorre se Ts < Tsur? Porqu
138
A emisso de gases ou slidos semi-transparentes ou lquidos um
fenmeno volumtrico.
A emisso de slidos ou lquidos opacos um fenmeno superficial (com a
emisso originria em tomos ou molculas a 1 m da superfcie).
A natureza dual da radiao:
Nalguns casos, as manifestaes fsicas da radiao podem ser explicadas
olhando-as como partculas (aka fotes ou quanta).
Noutros casos, a radiao comporta-se como uma onda electromagntica.
c
=
8
2 998 10 m/s
o
c c = = . x
Em qualquer dos casos, a radiao caracterizada por um comprimento de onda
e frequncia que esto relacionados pela velocidade de propagao da radiao
no meio em causa, c:
No vcuo:
O espectro electromagntico
139
A quantidade de radiao emitida por uma superfcie opaca varia com o
comprimento de onda, podendo falar-se em distribuio espectral em todos os
comprimentos de onda ou de componentes monocromticas/espectrais associadas a
comprimentos de onda especficos.
Efeitos direccionais
A radiao emitida por uma superfcie s-lo- em todas as
direces do hemisfrio e segundo uma distribuio direccional
A direco pode ser representada em coordenadas esfricas pelo
ngulo polar ou zenital e pelo ngulo azimutal .
140
Intensidade de radiao
A quantidade de radiao emitida por uma superfcie, dA1, e que se
propaga numa direco particular, (,), quantificada em termos
de um ngulo slido diferencial associado direco em causa.
2
n
dA
d
r

dAn elemento unitrio de superfcie de uma esfera hipottica na direco (,),
2
n
dA r d d = sin
2
n
dA
d d d
r
= = sin
O ngulo slido tem unidades steradianos (sr).
2 2
0 0
2
hemi
d d sr

= =
/
sin
Intensidade Espectral : a quantidade usada para especificar o fluxo de energia radiante
(W/m
2
) num ngulo slido unitrio numa direco prescrita (W/m
2
.sr) e num intervalo
unitrio de comprimentos de onda (W/m2.sr.m).
141
( )
( )
1
e
dq
I
dA d d

,
, ,
cos
A intensidade espectral, , associada emisso de um elemento de rea unitrio, ,
num ngulo slido, (em torno de e ),e num intervalo de comprimento de onda, ,
(em torno de ), :
e
I
, 1
dA
d d
e
I
,
O argumento para definir o fluxo radiativo em termos da rea projectada da superfcie
emerge do facto de haver superfcies para as quais, com boa aproximao,
independente da direco: superfcies difusas, e a radiao isotrpica.
( )
1
dA cos
A rea projectada como apareceria
Se observada segundo os ngulos
1
dA
,
Quanto vale a rea projectada para ? 0 =
Quanto vale a rea projectada para ? 2 = /
( )
1 e
dq
dq I dA d
d

=
,
, , cos
A taxa de calor espectral e o fluxo de calor espectral associados emisso a partir de
so, respectivamente,
1
dA
( ) ( )
e e
dq I d I d d

= =
, ,
, , cos , , cos sin
142
Relao da intensidade com poder
emissivo, irradiao e radiosidade
( ) ( )
2 2
0 0 e
E I d d

=
/
,
, , cos sin
( )
0
E E d
=
( ) ( )
e
E I

=
,
O poder emissivo espectral (W/m
2
.m) corresponde emisso espectral em todas as
direces possveis:
e
E I =
O poder emissivo total (W/m
2
) corresponde emisso espectral em todas as
direces e comprimentos de onda possveis:
Para superfcies difusas, a emisso isotrpica e:
A intensidade espectral da radiao incidente numa superfcie,
definida em termos do ngulo slido unitrio em torno da
direco de incidncia, do intervalo de comprimento de onda,
em torno de, , e da rea projectada do receptor,
i
I
,
d
1
dA cos .
( ) ( )
2 2
0 0 i
G I d d

=
/
,
, , cos sin
( )
0
G G d
=
A irradiao espectral vale:
( )
2
W/m m
e a irradiao total :
( )
2
W/m
Quantos e G so expressos se a radiao for difusa? G
A radiosidade de uma superfcie opaca contabiliza

toda a radiao que abandona a superfcie em todas
as direces e pode incluir as contribuies da
reflexo e emisso.
143
( ) ( )
2 2
0 0 e r
J I d d

+
=
/
,
, , cos sin
( )
0
J J d
=
Com a designar a intensidade espectral associada radiao emitida pela superfcie
e a reflexo da radiao incidente, a radiosidade espectral :
e r
I
+ ,
( )
2
W/m m
E a radiosidade total :
( )
2
W/m
Quantos e J podem ser expressos se a superfcie emitir e reflectir de forma difusa? J
Radiao de CORPO NEGRO

O Corpo Negro
Uma idealizao que fornece os limites da radiao emitida e absorvida
pela matria.
Para uma dada temperatura e um dado comprimento de onda,
nenhuma superfcie capaz de emitir mais que um corpo negro: emissor
ideal.
Um corpo negro um emissor difuso.
Um corpo negro absorve toda a radiao incidente: absorvedor ideal.
144
Radiao de CORPO NEGRO
A Cavidade Isotrmica (Hohlraum):
parede interior a temperatura uniforme.
(a) Depois de mltiplas reflexes, toda a
radiao entrada na cavidade
virtualmente absorvida corpo negro.
(b) A emisso a partir da abertura a mxima que se pode atingir, para a
temperatura associada cavidade, e difusa (independente da direco)
corpo negro.
(c) O campo radiativo no interior da cavidade (efeito acumulado da radiao emitida
e da reflectida pela parede da cavidade) tem por efeito assegurar uma irradiao
difusa (correspondente emisso de um corpo negro numa forma igual radiao emergente
pela abertura). O campo radiativo no interior da cavidade de corpo negro.
Qualquer superfcie no interior da cavidade irradiada de forma difusa:
( )
b
G E

=
,
Esta condio depende da superfcie da cavidade ser acentuadamente
reflectora ou absorvedora?
Lei da distribuio de Plank
3
2898 m K T C = =
max
( ) ( )
( )
1
5
2
1
b b
C
E T I T
C T

= =
(

, ,
, ,
exp /
A distribuio espectral do poder emissivo de um corpo negro (determinado teoricamente
e confirmado experimentalmente) (Plank):
Primeira constante:
8 4 2
1
3742 10 W m m C = . x /
Segunda constante:
4
2
1 439 10 m K C = . x
varia continuamente com e aumenta com T. b
E
,
A distribuio caracterizada por um mximo para o qual dado
pela lei deslocamento de Wien :
max
A quantidade fraccional da emisso total de corpo negro que aparece a baixos
comprimentos de onda aumenta com o aumento de T.
145
Lei de Stefan-Boltzmann
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
1 2 2 1
0
0 0 4
b o b
E d E d
F F F
T

= =
, ,
( )
( )
0
0
b
E d
F f T
T
= =
,
O poder emissivo total de um corpo negro obtido integrando a distribuio de Planck
em todos os comprimentos de onda possveis.
4
0 b b b
E I E d T
= = =
,
a lei de Stefan-Boltzmann, em que:
K

a constante se Stefan-Boltzmann, = 5,670 10
-8
W/m
2
.K
4
A fraco total da emisso de um corpo negro que est contida num intervalo de comprimento
de onda prescrito ou banda :
( )
1 2
< <
Lei de Stefan-Boltzmann fraco de
energia
K

( ) ( )
( )
1
5
2
1
b b
C
E T I T
C T

= =
(

, ,
, ,
exp /
146
Band Emission (cont)
Note ability to readily determine and its relation to the maximum intensity from
the 3
rd
and 4
th
columns, respectively.
b
I
,
If emission from the sun may be approximated as that from a blackbody at
5800K, at what wavelength does peak emission occur?
Would you expect radiation emitted by a blackbody at 800K to be discernible
by the naked eye?
As the temperature of a blackbody is increased, what color would be
the first to be discerned by the naked eye?
Problem 12.6: Evaluation of total solar irradiation at the earths surface
from knowledge of the direct and diffuse components of
the incident radiation.
KNOWN: Flux and intensity of direct and diffuse components, respectively, of solar
irradiation.
FIND: Total irradiation.
147
SCHEMATIC:

ANALYSIS: Since the irradiation is based on the actual surface area, the contribution due to
the direct solar radiation is

dir dir
G q cos . =
For the contribution due to the diffuse radiation

dif dif
G I . =
Hence

dir dif dir dif
G G G q cos I = + = +
or

2 2
G 1000 W/ m 0.866 sr 70W/ m sr = +

( )
2
G 866 220 W/ m = +

2
G 1086 W/ m . =
COMMENTS: Although a diffuse approximation is often made for the non-direct component
of solar radiation, the actual directional distribution deviates from this condition, providing
larger intensities at angles close to the direct beam.
148
Problem 12.18: Determination of the suns emissive power, temperature
and wavelength of maximum emission, as well as the
earths temperature, from knowledge of the sun/earth
geometry and the solar flux at the outer edge of the earths
atmosphere.
KNOWN: Solar flux at outer edge of earths atmosphere, 1353 W/m
2
.
FIND: (a) Emissive power of sun, (b) Surface temperature of sun, (c) Wavelength of
maximum solar emission, (d) Earth equilibrium temperature.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Sun and earth emit as blackbodies, (2) No attenuation of solar
radiation enroute to earth, (3) Earth atmosphere has no effect on earth energy balance.
ANALYSIS: (a) Applying conservation of energy to the solar energy crossing two concentric
spheres, one having the radius of the sun and the other having the radial distance from the edge
of the earths atmosphere to the center of the sun, it follows that

( )
s
2
2 e
s s s e
D
E D 4 R q .
2

| |
=
|
\

Hence

( )
( )
2
11 7 2
7 2
s
2
9
4 1.5 10 m 0.65 10 m 1353 W/ m
E 6.302 10 W/ m .
1.39 10 m

= =

(b) From the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the temperature of the sun is

1/ 4
1/ 4 7 2
s
s
8 2 4
E 6.302 10 W/ m
T 5774 K.
5.67 10 W/ m K

| |
| |
| = = =
|
|
\
\

(c) From Wiens law, the wavelength of maximum emission is

3
max
C 2897.6 m K
0.50 m.
T 5774 K
= = =
149
Hence, from the Stefan-Boltzmann law,

S
1/ 4 1/ 4
2
e
8 2 4
q
1353 W/ m
T 278 K.
4
4 5.67 10 W/ m K

| | | |
| = = = |
| |
\ \

COMMENTS: The average earth temperature is higher than 278 K due to the shielding effect
of the earths atmosphere (transparent to solar radiation but not to longer wavelength earth
emission).
(d) From an energy balance on the earths surface

( ) ( )
2 2
e e S e
E D q D / 4 . =
Processos e propriedades radiativas.
Propriedades radiativas de superfcies
( )
( )
( )
e
b
I T
T
I T
,
,
,
, , ,
, , ,
,
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0
e
b b
I T d d E T
T
E T I T d d

=

/
,
/
, ,
, , , cos sin ,
,
, , cos sin
Emissividade de uma Superfcie
Introduzindo uma propriedade especfica, (a emissividade), a radiao emitida por uma
superfcie pode ser determinada, o que contrasta com o seu comportamento ideal como corpo
negro mesma temperatura.
A definio de emissividade depende de estarmos interessados em calcular o carcter
direccional e/ou espectral da radiao emitida, em contraste com mdias em todas as direces
(radiao hemisfrica) e/ou em todos os comprimentos de onda (total).
A emissividade espectral directional :
A emissividade espectral hemisfrica (uma mdia direccional):
150
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
0 b
b b
T E T d E T
T
E T E T

=
,
, , ,
A emissividade total hemisfrica (uma mdia direccional e espectral):
Valores tpicos da emissividade total normal :
Notas:
Baixas emissividades dos metais polidos e
crescente emissividade de metais no polidos
e superfcies oxidadas.
Emissividades comparativamente elevadas
dos no condutores.
Com um boa de aproximao, a emissividade hemisfrica igual emissividade normal:
n
=
Variaes espectrais tpicas
Notar decrscimo de com o
aumento de para metais
e comportamento diferente dos no metais
n
Variaes de temperatura tpicas :

Porque que aumenta com o aumento de
para o tungstnio e no aumenta para o xido de alumnio?
n

151
ref abs tr
G G G G

= + +
, , ,
Absoro, reflexo e transmisso:
resposta radiao incidente
ref abs tr
G G G G

= + +
, , ,
Pode haver 3 respostas de um meio semi transparente irradiao:
Reflexo pelo meio
( )
ref
G
,
.
Absoro pelo meio
( )
abs
G
,
.
Transmisso atravs do meio ( )
tr
G
,
.
Balano de Radiao
O comprimento de onda da radiao incidente e a natureza do material determinam se o
material semitransparente ou opaco.
O vidro e a gua so semitransparentes ou opacos?
Contrastando com o que se disse para meios semitransparentes, efeitos volumtricos,
a resposta de um material opaco irradiao governado por fenmenos superficiais
e 0
tr
G
=
,
.
Absoro, reflexo e transmisso:
resposta radiao incidente
A menos que um material opaco esteja a uma temperatura suficientemente alta para emitir
radiao visvel, a sua cor determinada pela dependncia espectral da reflexo em resposta
irradiao visvel.
O que se pode dizer sobre a reflexo de uma superfcie branca?
E sobre uma negra?
Porque que as folhas so verdes?
152
Absorsividade de uma superfcie opaca
( )
( )
( )
i abs
i
I
I
, ,
,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0
abs i
i
G I d d
G I d d

=

/
, , ,
/
,
, , , , cos sin
, , cos sin
A absorsividade espectral hemisfrica :
Se a radiao for difusa, em que que se simplifica o resultado anterior?
E se a superfcie for difusa?
A absorsividade total hemisfrica :
Se a irradiao for de corpo negro, como se escrevem as equaes anteriores?
A absorsividade espectral direccional, desprezando dependncia de T:
A absorsividade aproximadamente independente da temperatura da superfcie,
mas se a irradiao for de corpo negro, porque que depende da temperatura
do corpo negro?
( ) ( )
( )
0
o abs
G d G
G G d

Reflectividade de uma superfcie opaca

( )
( )
( )
i ref
i
I
I
, ,
,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
0 0 ref i
i
G I d d
G I

=
/
, , ,
,
, , , , cos sin
, ,
( ) ( )
( )
0
0
abs
G d G
G G d

A absorsividade espectral hemisfrica :

Se a radiao for difusa, em que que se simplifica o resultado anterior?
E se a superfcie for difusa?
A reflectividade total hemisfrica :
A reflectividade espectral direccional, desprezando dependncia de T:
Condies limitativas de reflexo difusa e
espectral. Superfcies polidas e rugosas.
153
Notar forte dependncia de
(e
= 1-
) em
Reflectividade de uma superfcie opaca
A neve uma substncia muito reflectora? E a tinta branca?
Transmissividade
( )
tr
G
G
,
( )
( )
0
0
tr tr
G d G
G G d
,
A reflectividade total hemisfrica :
A transmissividade espectral hemisfrica ,desprezando dependncia de T:
Notar que a pequenos e elevados comprimentos de onda h mudana de
condies de semitransparente para opaco
Para um meio semitransparente,
1
1
= + +
= + +

Para um meio opaco,
1
1
= +
= +

154
Lei de Kirchhoff
=
A Lei de Kirchhoff estabelece que a emissividade total hemisfrica de uma
superfcie igual sua absorsividade total hemisfrica :
Contudo, as condies associadas sua derivao so muito restritivas:
A irradiao da superfcie corresponde emisso de um corpo negro mesma
temperatura do corpo.
Ainda assim, a lei de Kirchhoff pode aplicar-se s propriedades espectrais direccionais
sem restries:
Porque que no h restries ao uso da equao anterior?

=
, ,
Supefcies difusas/cinzentas
Com
2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0
d d
d d

=

/
,
/
cos sin
cos sin
e
2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0
i
i
I d d
I d d

=

/
, ,
/
,
cos sin
cos sin
Em que condies se pode igualar
?
Com
( )
( )
0 b
b
E d
E T

=
,
e
( )
0
G d
G

=
Em que condies se pode igualar a ?
Condies associadas com a
hiptese de superfcie cinzenta
155
Problem 12.49: Determination of the solar absorptivity and total emissivity
of a diffuse surface from knowledge of the spectral
distribution of and the surface temperature. ( )

KNOWN: Spectral, hemispherical absorptivity of an opaque surface.
FIND: (a) Solar absorptivity, (b) Total, hemispherical emissivity for Ts = 340K.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Surface is opaque, (2) = , (3) Solar spectrum has G = G,S
proportional to E,b (, 5800K).
ANALYSIS: (a) The solar absorptivity may be expressed as
( ) ( ) ( )
S , b , b
0 0
E , 5800K d / E , 5800K d .

=

The integral can be written in three parts using F(0 ) terms.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
S 1 2 3 0 0.3 0 1.5 0 0.3 0 1.5
F F F 1 F .

( (
= + +
( (

From Table 12.1,

T = 0.3 5800 = 1740 mK F(0 0.3 m) = 0.0335
T = 1.5 5800 = 8700 mK F(0 1.5 m) = 0.8805.
156
Hence,
[ ] [ ]
S
0 0.0355 0.9 0.8805 0.0335 0.1 1 0.8805 0.774. = + + =
(b) The total, hemispherical emissivity for the surface at 340K may be expressed as

( ) ( ) ( )
,b b
0
E , 340K d / E 340K .

With = , the integral can be written in terms of the F(0 ) function. However, it is readily
recognized that since

( ) 0 1.5 m, 340K
F 0.000 at T 1.5 340 510 m K
= =

there is negligible emission below 1.5 m.
It follows that

0.1

= = =
COMMENTS: The assumption = is satisfied if the surface is irradiated diffusely or if
the surface itself is diffuse. Note that for this surface under the specified conditions of solar
irradiation and surface temperature, S . Such a surface is spectrally selective.
Problem 12.90: Determination of the emissivity and absorptivity of a coated
vertical plate exposed to solar-simulation lamps and the magnitude
of the irradiation required to maintain a prescribed plate
temperature.
KNOWN: Vertical plate of height L = 2 m suspended in quiescent air. Exposed surface with
diffuse coating of prescribed spectral absorptivity distribution subjected to simulated solar
irradiation, GS,. Plate steady-state temperature Ts = 400 K.
157
FIND: Plate emissivity, , plate absorptivity, , and plate irradiation, G.
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Ambient air is extensive, quiescent, (3)
Spectral distribution of the simulated solar irradiation, GS, , proportional to that of a blackbody at
5800 K, (4) Coating is opaque, diffuse, and (5) Plate is perfectly insulated on the edges and the
back side, and (6) Plate is isothermal.
PROPERTIES: Table A.4, Air (Tf = 350 K, 1 atm): = 20.92 10
-6
m
2
/s, k = 0.030 W/mK,
= 29.90 10
-6
m
2
/s, Pr = 0.700.
SCHEMATIC:
ANALYSIS: (a) Perform an energy balance on the plate as shown in the schematic on a per unit
plate width basis,
in out
E E 0 =
&
( )
4
s s
G T h T T L 0

=
(

where and are determined from knowledge of and h is estimated from an appropriate
correlation.
Plate total emissivity: Expressing the emissivity in terms of the band emission factor, F(0 - T),

( ) ( )
1 s 1 s
1 2 0 T 0 T
F 1 F

= +
(

[ ] 0.9 0 0.1 1 0 0.1 = + = <

where, from Table 12.1, with ,Ts = 1m 400 K = 400 mK, F(0-T) = 0.000.

158
Plate absorptivity: With the spectral distribution of simulated solar irradiation proportional to
emission from a blackbody at 5800 K,

( ) ( )
1 s 1 s
1 2 0 T 0 T
F 1 F

= +
(

[ ] 0.9 0.7202 0.1 1 0.7202 0.676 = + = <

where, from Table 12.1, with 1Ts = 5800 mK, F(0 -T) = 0.7202.
Estimating the free convection coefficient, h : Using the Churchill-Chu correlation with
properties evaluated at Tf = (Ts + T
)/2 = 350 K,

( )
3
s
L
g T T L
Ra

=

( )
2
1/ 6
L
L
8 27
9 16
0.387Ra
Nu 0.825
1 0.492 Pr
= +
+

`
(
( )
=377.6

2
L L
h Nu k L 377.6 0.030 W m K 2 m 5.66 W m K = = = <

( ) ( )
3 2
10
L
6 2 6 2
9.8m s 1 350K 100K 2m
Ra 3.581 10
20.92 10 m s 29.90 10 m s

= =

Irradiation on the Plate: Substituting numerical values into Eq. (1),

( )
4
4 8 2
0.676G 0.1 5.67 10 W m K 400K
( )
2
5.66 W m K 400 300 K 0 =

2
G 1052 W m =
159
Solar Radiation
The sun is a nearly spherical source of radiation whose outer diameter is
1.39 x 10
9
m and whose emissive power approximates that of a blackbody at 5800K.
The distance from the center of the sun to the center of the earth varies with time
of year from a minimum of 1.471 x 10
11
m to a maximum of 1.521 x 10
11
m, with
an annual average of 1.496 x 10
11
m.
Due to the large sun-to-earth distance, the suns rays
are nearly parallel at the outer edge of the earths
atmosphere, and the corresponding radiation flux is
x
S c
q f S =
( )
2
the or heat flux 1353 W/m
when the earth is at its mean dist
solar cons
ance from

th
ta
e
nt
sun.
c
S
( )
correction factor accounting for eccentricity
of the earth's orbit 0.97 < <1.03
f
f
Extraterrestrial irradiation of a surface whose normal is at a zenith angle

relative to the suns rays is
,
x x cos
S o c
G f S =
Interaction of solar radiation with earths atmosphere:
Absorption by aerosols over the entire spectrum.
Absorption by gases (CO
2
, H
2
O ( ), O
3
) in discrete wavelength bands. v
Scattering by gas molecules and aerosols.
160
Effect of Atmosphere on Spectral Distribution of Solar Radiation:
Attenuation over the entire spectrum but more pronounced in spectral bands
associated with polar molecules.
Note concentration of all radiation in the spectral region and
peak at
0 3 3 m . < <
0 5 m. .
Why is the assumption of graybody behavior often inappropriate for
surfaces experiencing solar irradiation?
Effect of Atmosphere on Directional Distribution of Solar Radiation:
Rayleigh scattering is approximately uniform in all directions (isotropic
scattering), while Mie scattering is primarily in the direction of the suns
rays (forward peaked).
Directional distribution of radiation
at the earths surface has two components.
Direct radiation: Unscattered and in
the direction of the suns rays.
Diffuse radiation: Scattered radiation
strongly peaked in the forward direction.
Calculation of solar irradiation for a
horizontal surface often presumes the
scattered component to be isotropic.
, ,
cos
S S dir S dif dir dir
G G G q I = + = +
( ) 0 1 1 0
,
. / .
S dir S
G G < <
Clear skies
Completely overcast
161
Terrestrial Radiation
Emission by Earths Surface:
4
E T =
Emissivities are typically large. For example, from Table A.11:
Sand/Soil: 0 90
Water/Ice: 0 95
Vegetation: 0 92
Snow: 0 82
Concrete/Asphalt: 0 85
.
.
.
.
.
>
>
>
>
>
Emission is typically from surfaces with temperatures in the range of
250 < T < 320K and hence concentrated in the spectral region
with peak emission at 4 40 m, < < 10 m.
Atmospheric Emission:
Largely due to emission from CO
2
and H
2
O (v) and concentrated in the
spectral regions 5 8 m and 13 m. < < >
Although far from exhibiting the spectral characteristics of blackbody emission,
earth irradiation due to atmospheric emission is often approximated by a
blackbody emissive power of the form
4
atm sky
G T =
effective sky temperatu e t r e h
sky
T
230K< 285K
sky
T <
Cold, clear sky
Warm, overcast sky
Can water in the natural environment freeze if the ambient air temperature
exceeds 273K? If so, what environmental conditions (wind and sky)
favor ice formation?
162
Surface Radiative Properties
Concentration of solar and terrestrial in
different spectral regions often precludes use of the gray surface approximation
.
( ) 0 3 3 m . < < ( ) 4 40 m < <
( )
S

Note significant differences in for the two spectral regions: snow,
human skin, white paint.
and

In terms of net radiation transfer to a surface with solar irradiation, the parameter
has special significance. Why? /
S

3.0 Evaporated Al film
1.0 Black paint
0.22 White paint
0.64 Human skin
0.29 Snow
Surface /
S

Rejection
Collection
163
Problem 12.119: Determination of preferred roof coating (Parsons Black,
Acrylic White, or Zinc Oxide White) and corresponding
heat load for prescribed operating conditions.
KNOWN: Dimensions and construction of truck roof. Roof interior surface temperature. Truck
speed, ambient air temperature, and solar irradiation.
FIND: (a) Preferred roof coating, (b) Roof surface temperature, (c) Heat load through roof,
(d) Effect of velocity on surface temperature and heat load.
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Turbulent boundary layer development over entire roof, (2) Constant
properties, (3) Negligible atmospheric (sky) irradiation, (4) Negligible contact resistance.
PROPERTIES: Table A.4, Air (Ts,o 300 K, 1 atm):
6 2
15 10 m s

= , k 0.026 W m K = ,
Pr = 0.71.
ANALYSIS: (a) To minimize heat transfer through the roof, minimize solar absorption relative
to surface emission. Hence, from Table A.12, use zinc oxide white for which S = 0.16
and = 0.93.
(b) Performing an energy balance on the outer surface of the roof,
S S conv cond
G q E q 0 + = ,
it follows that

4
S S s,o s,o s,o s,i
G h(T T ) T (k t)(T T )
+ = +
SCHEMATIC:
164
where it is assumed that convection is from the air to the roof. With

7
L
6 2
30m s(5m) VL
Re 10
15 10 m s

= = =

4 / 5 1/ 3 7 4 / 5 1/ 3
L L
Nu 0.037 Re Pr 0.037(10 ) (0.71) 13,141 = = =

2
L
h Nu (k L) 13,141(0.026 W m K/5m 68.3W m K = = = .
Substituting numerical values in the energy balance and solving by trial-and-error, we obtain

Ts,o = 295.2 K.
(d) From parametric calculations based on the foregoing model, the following results are
obtained.
(c) The heat load through the roof is

2
s s, o s,i
q (kA t)(T T ) (0.05W m K 10m 0.025m)35.2 K 704 W = = = .
5 10 15 20 25 30
Velocity, V(m/s)
280
285
290
295
300
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
tu
r
e
, T
s
o
(
K
)
5 10 15 20 25 30
Velocity, V(m/s)
500
550
600
650
700
H
e
a
t lo
a
d
, q
(
W
)
The surface temperature and heat load decrease with decreasing V due to a reduction in the
convection heat transfer coefficient and hence convection heat transfer from the air.
COMMENTS: The heat load would increase with increasing S/.
165
Trocas radiativas entre superfcies: recintos
fechados com meio no participativo
Conceitos bsicos
Recinto fechado consiste de 2 ou mais superfcies que englobam uma regio do espao
(tipicamente preenchida com gs) e que trocam energia radiativa entre si.
Um meio no participativo, num recinto fechado, no emite, no absorve,
nem sofre scattering de energia radiativa. Portanto, no produz qualquer efeito nas
trocas de radiao entre as superfcies.
Cada superfcie que limita o recinto fechado suposta ser isotrmica, opaca, difusa
e cinzenta, sendo caracterizada por radiosidade e irradiao uniformes.
i j
ij
i i
q
F
AJ
=
2
1
cos cos
i j
i j
ij i j
A A
i
F dAdA
A R

=

2
cos cos
cos
i j
i j i i i j i i i j
dq I dAd J dAdA
R

= =
O Factor de Forma
O factor de forma, , uma quantidade geomtrica correspondente fraco da
radiao que abandona a superfcie i e que intersectada pela superfcie j.
,
ij
F
Considere a troca entre duas reas diferenciais:
166
2
1
cos cos
j i
i j
ji i j
A A
j
F dAdA
A R

=

i ij j ji
AF A F =
Relaes para o Factor de Forma
Relao de Reciprocidade:
Regra da Somatrio para recintos fechados.
1
1
N
ij
j
F
=
=
Geometrias Bi-Dimensionais (Tabela 13.1). Por exemplo,
Um Plano Infinito e uma
Fileira de Cilindros
( ) ( )
1 2
1 2 2
2 2
1
2
1 1
/
/
tan
ij
D D s D
F
s s D
(
| |
= +
|
(
\

167
( )
1 2
2
2
2
2
1
4
2
1
1
/
/
/ /
ij j i
j
i
i i j j
F S S r r
R
S
R
R r L R r L

(
=
`

)
+
= +
= =
Geometrias Tri-Dimensionais (Tabela 13.2). Por exemplo,
Discos Coaxiais Paralelos
FACTORES DE FORMA MTODO DAS CORDAS
PERMITE CALCULAR REAS DE PERMUTA, A
i
F
ij
, ENTRE 2 SUPERFCIES i E j QUE
OBEDECEM S SEGUINTES CONDIES:
COMPRIMENTO MUITO MAIOR QUE A DISTNCIA QUE AS SEPARA
SECES RECTAS CONSTANTES E PERPENDICULARES AO COMPRIMENTO
DISTNCIA QUE AS SEPARA SER CONSTANTE
A1
A2
168
L
3
L
4
L
2
L
1
FACTORES DE FORMA MTODO DAS CORDAS

( ) ( )
2
2
2 1 2 1
12 1
12 1
L L L L
F A
cruzadas no cordas cruzadas cordas
F A
+ +
=
=

2
1
cos cos
i j
i j
ij i j
A A
i
F dAdA
A R

=

2
cos cos
cos
i j
i j i i i j i i i j
dq I dAd J dAdA
R

= =
FACTORES DE FORMA ENTRE RECTNGULOS DIAMETRALMENTE OPOSTOS
APLICA-SE QUANDO H SIMETRIA OU SEMELHANA NA GEOMETRIA
34 3 12 1
F A F A =

A1
A3
A2
A4
R
R
169
FACTORES DE FORMA OUTRAS RELAES
( )
=
=
n
k
ik j i
F F
1
( ) ( )
( )
( ) j
n
k
ki k
i j
n
k
ki k i j j
A
F A
F
F A F A
=
=
=
=
1
1
Trocas radiativas entre superfcies negras
Para um corpo negro, .
i bi
J E =
taxa til qual a radiao
abandona a superfcie i devido
sua interaco com j
ou taxa til qual a superfcie j
ganha radiao devido
sua interaco com i
Transferncia de radiao til da superfcie i devido a trocas com todas as (N)
superfcies num recinto fechado:
Troca de calor til entre duas superfcies
que podem ser aproximadas como corpos
negros
ij i j j i
q q q

=
ij i ij bi j ji bj
q AF E A F E =
( )
4 4
ij i ij i j
q AF T T =
( )
4 4
1
N
i i ij i j
j
q AF T T
=
=
170
Troca radiativa entre as N superfcies opacas,
difusas e cinzentas de um recinto fechado
Expresses alternativas para transferncia radiativa
til a partir da superfcie i:
Sugere uma resistencia da superfcie
radiativa da forma:
( ) 1 /
i i i
A
( ) Fig. (b)
i i i i
q A J G = (1)
( ) Fig. (b)
i i i i
q A J G = (1)
( ) Fig. (c)
i i i i i
q A E G = (2) ( ) Fig. (c)
i i i i i
q A E G = (2)
( )
Fig. (d)
1 /
bi i
i
i i i
E J
q
A
(3)
( )
Fig. (d)
1 /
bi i
i
i i i
E J
q
A
(3)
Troca radiativa entre as N superfcies opacas,
difusas e cinzentas de um recinto fechado
( )
( )
1
1 1
N N
i j
i i ij i j
j j
i ij
J J
q AF J J
AF

= =
= =
(4)
( )
( )
1
1 1
N N
i j
i i ij i j
j j
i ij
J J
q AF J J
AF

= =
= =
(4)
( )
( )
1
1 1 /
N
i j bi i
j
i i i
i ij
J J
E J
A
AF

=
(5)
( )
( )
1
1 1 /
N
i j bi i
j
i i i
i ij
J J
E J
A
AF

=
(5)
Sugere uma resistncia espacial
ou geomtrica da forma:
( )
1
i ij
AF

Igualando as Eqs. (3) e (4) corresponde a um balano de energia radiativa
superfcie i:
que pode ser representado
por um anlogo elctrico do tipo:
171
Metodologia de anlise para recintos fechados
Aplicar Eq. (4) a cada superfcie para a qual o fluxo til de radiao
connecido.
i
q
Aplicar Eq. (5) a cada uma das restantes superfcies para a qual a temperatura ,
e, portanto, , conhecida.
i
T
,
bi
E
Calcular todos os factores de forma que aparecem nas equaes
Resolver o sistema de N equaes para as radiosidades (incgnitas)
1 2
, ,...., .
N
J J J
Tratamento de superfcie virtual correspondente a abertura de rea , atravs da
as superfcies interiores de um recinto fechado trocam radiao com a envolvente
(de grandes dimenses) temperatura :
i
A
sur
T
Aproximar a abertura a um corpo negro de rea, temperatura,
e propriedades, .
,
i
A ,
i sur
T T =
1
i i
= =
Usar Eq. (3) para determinar q
i
para cada superfcie onde se conhece
T
i
e para determinar T
i
para cada superfcie onde se conhece q
i
.
Recintos fechados com duas superfcies
( )
4 4
1 2
1 2 12
1 2
1 1 1 12 2 2
1 1
1
T T
q q q
A A F A
= = =

+ +
Recinto mais simples para o qual a troca de calor por radiao se d
exclusivamente entre duas superfcies e em que uma expresso para a
troca de calor por radiao pode ser determinada directamente atravs do
anlogo elctrico.
172
A tabela 13.3 apresenta resultados para alguns casos especiais. Por exemplo:
Placas paralelas e infinitas
1 2
12
1
A A A
F
=
=
( )
4 4
1 1 2
12
1 2
1 1
1
A T T
q

=
+
Pequena superfcie plana/convexa rodeada por uma superfcie muito maior
1
0
,
=
=
sur s
sur
s
F
A
A
( )
4 4
sur s s s
T T A q =
Escudo de radiao
Superfcie com reflectividade elevada (baixo = ) colocada entre duas
superfcies cuja troca de calor por radiao se pretende reduzir
=
Considere um nico escudo de radiao num reconto fechado, tal como o caso de
duas placas planas paralelas e infinitas.
Note que, embora raramente, a emisso pode ser diferente para as duas superfcies do
escudo de radiao.
173
Anlogo elctrico
( )
4 4
1 2
12 1 2
3 1 3 2 1 2
1 1 1 13 3 1 3 3 2 3 3 32 2 2
1 1 1 1
1 1 , ,
, ,
T T
q q q
A A F A A A F A
= = =

+ + + + +
O resultado anterior pode ser facimente estendido para ter em conta mlitplos
escudos de radiao e aplicado a cilindros longos e concntricos, esferas
concntricas e placas longas e paralelas.
A superficie re-radiante
( )
( ) ( )
4 4
1 2
1 2
1 2
1
1 1 2 2
1 12 1 1 2 2
1 1
1
1 1 / /
R R
T T
q q
A A
A F A F A F
= =

+ +
+ + (

Uma idealizao para a qual: .
R R
G J =
Corresponde a superfcies que so bem isoladas de um lado e para as quais
a conveco desprezvel do lado oposto (radiante).
Recinto fechado com trs superfcies sendo uma delas re-radiante :
Portanto, and 0 .
R R bR
q J E = =
174
A superficie re-radiante
( ) ( )
1 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 / /
R R
R R
J J J J
AF A F

=
Temperatura da superfcre re-radiante pode ser determinada a partir do conhecimento
da sua radiosidade .
R
T
R
J
1 4 /
R
R
J
T
| |
=
|
\
Problem 13.88: Power requirement for a cylindrical furnace with two
reradiating surfaces and an opening to large surroundings.
KNOWN: Cylindrical furnace of diameter D = 90 mm and overall length L = 180 mm.
Heating elements maintain the refractory lining ( = 0.8) of section (1), L1 = 135 mm, at T1 =
800C. The bottom (2) and upper (3) sections are refractory lined, but are insulated. Furnace
operates in a spacecraft vacuum environment.
FIND: Power required to maintain the furnace operating conditions with the surroundings at
23C.
175
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) All surfaces are diffuse gray, and (2) Uniform radiosity over the
sections 1, 2, and 3.
ANALYSIS: By defining the furnace opening as the hypothetical area A4, the furnace can be
represented as a four-surface enclosure.
The power required to maintain A1 at T1 is q1, the net radiation leaving A1.
To obtain q1, we must determine the radiosity at each surface by simultaneously solving
radiation energy balance equations of the form

( )
N
j j
bi i
i
i i i i ij
j 1
J J
E J
q
1 / A 1/ A F
=
= =

(1,2)
However, since 4 = 1, J4 = Eb4, and only three energy balances are needed for A1, A2, and A3.
A1:
( )
b1 1 1 3 1 2 1 4
1 1 1 1 12 1 13 1 14
E J J J J J J J
1 / A 1/ A F 1/ A F 1/ A F

= + +
(3)
A2:
2 3 2 1 2 4
2 21 2 23 2 24
J J J J J J
0
1/ A F 1/ A F 1/ A F

= + + (4)
A3:
3 1 3 2 3 4
3 31 3 32 3 34
J J J J J J
0
1/ A F 1/ A F 1/ A F

= + + (5)
where q2 = q3 = 0 since the surfaces are insulated (adiabatic) and hence reradiating.
From knowledge of J1, q1 can be determined using Eq. (1).
Of the N
2
= 4
2
= 16 view factors, N(N 1)/2 = 6 must be independently evaluated, while the
remaining can be determined by the summation rule and appropriate reciprocity relations. The
six independently determined Fij are:
By inspection: (1) F22 = 0 (2) F44 = 0
176
Coaxial parallel disks: From Table 13.2,

(3) ( )
1/ 2
2 2
24 4 2
F 0.5 S S 4 r / r 0.05573 =

(
=
`
(

)

where
2 2
4
2 2 4 4
2 2
2
1 R 1 0.250
S 1 1 18.00 R r / L 45 / 180 0.250 R r / L 0.250
R 0.250
+ +
= + = + = = = = = =
Enclosure 1-2-2: From the summation rule for A2,

(4) F21 = 1 F22 = 1 0.09167 = 0.9083
where F22 can be evaluated from the coaxial parallel disk relation, Table 13.2, with R2 = r2/L1 =
45/135 = 0.333, R2 = r2/L1 = 0.333, and S = 11.00.
From the summation rule for A
1
,
(5) F
11
= 1 F
12
F
12
= 1 0.1514 0.1514 = 0.6972
From symmetry F
12
= F
12
and using reciprocity
( )( ) [ ]
12 2 21 1
F A F / A 0.090m 2 / 4 0.9083/ 0.090m 0.135m 0.1514 = = =
Enclosure 2 -3-4: From the summation rule for A
4
,
(6) F
43
= 1 F
42
F
44
= 1 0.3820 0 = 0.6180
where F
44
= 0 and using the coaxial parallel disk relation from Table 13.2, F
42
=0.3820 with R
4
=
r
4
/L
2
= 45/45 = 1, R
2
= r
2
/L
2
= 1, and S = 3.
From knowledge of the relevant view factors, the energy balances, Eqs. (3, 4, 5), can be solved
simultaneously to obtain the radiosities,

2 2 2
1 2 3
J 73, 084 W/ m J 67, 723W/ m J 36, 609 W/ m = = =
The net heat rate leaving A1 can be evaluated using Eq. (1) written as

( )
( )
( )
2
b1 1
1
2
1 1 1
75,159 73, 084 W/ m E J
q 317 W
1 / A
1 0.8 / 0.8 0.03817 m

= = =

<
where Eb1 =
4
1
T = (800 + 273K)
4
= 75,159 W/m
2
and A1 = DL1 = 0.090m 0.135m =
0.03817 m
2
.
COMMENTS: Recognize the importance of defining the furnace opening as the hypothetical
area A4 which completes the four-surface enclosure representing the furnace. The temperature
of A4 is that of the surroundings and its emissivity is unity since it absorbs all radiation incident
on it.
The View Factors: Using summation rules and appropriate reciprocity relations, the remaining 10 view
factors can be evaluated. Written in matrix form, the F
ij
are
0.6972* 0.1514 0.09704 0.05438
0.9083* 0* 0.03597 0.05573*
0.2911 0.01798 0.3819 0.3090
0.3262 0.05573 0.6180* 0*
The F
ij
shown with an asterisk were independently determined.
177
Problem 13.93: Assessment of ceiling radiative properties for an ice rink
in terms of ability to maintain surface temperature above
the dewpoint.
KNOWN: Ice rink with prescribed ice, rink air, wall, ceiling and outdoor air conditions.
FIND: (a) Temperature of the ceiling, Tc, for an emissivity of 0.05 (highly reflective panels) or
0.94 (painted panels); determine whether condensation will occur for either or both ceiling
panel types if the relative humidity of the rink air is 70%, and (b) Calculate and plot the ceiling
temperature as a function of ceiling insulation thickness for 0.1 t 1 m; identify conditions
for which condensation will occur on the ceiling.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Rink comprised of the ice, walls and ceiling approximates a three-
surface, diffuse-gray enclosure, (2) Surfaces have uniform radiosities, (3) Ice surface and walls
are black, (4) Panels are diffuse-gray, and (5) Thermal resistance for convection on the outdoor
side of the ceiling is negligible compared to the conduction resistance of the ceiling insulation.
178
PROPERTIES: Psychometric chart (Atmospheric pressure; dry bulb temperature, Tdb = T,i
= 15C; relative humidity, RH = 70%): Dew point temperature, Tdp = 9.4C.
ANALYSIS: Applying an energy balance to the inner surface of the ceiling and treating all
heat rates as energy outflows,

in out
E E 0 =
& &

o conv,c rad,c
q q q 0 = (1)
From Table 13.2 for parallel, coaxial disks

ic
F 0 672 . =
From the summation rule applied to the ice (i) and the reciprocity rule,

ic iw iw cw
F F 1 F F (symmetry) + = =

cw ic
F 1 F =
( ) ( ) ( )
wc c w cw c w ic
F A A F A A 1 F 0 410 / / . = = =
where Ac = D
2
/4 and Aw = DL.
where the rate equations for each process are

( ) o c ,o cond cond c
q T T / R R t / kA
= = (2,3)

( ) conv,c i c c ,i
q h A T T
= (4)

Since the ceiling panels are diffuse-gray, = .
( ) ( ) ( )
rad,c b c c w wc b w i ic b i
q E T A A F E T A F E T =
(5)
(b) Applying the foregoing model for 0 1 1 0 m . . , t the following result is obtained

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Ceiling insulation thickness, t (m)
5
10
15
C
e
i
l
i
n
g

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
c

(
C
)
Painted ceiling, epsc = 0.94
Reflective panel, epsc = 0.05

Using the foregoing energy balance, Eq. (1), and the rate equations, Eqs. (2-5), the ceiling
temperature is calculated using radiative properties for the two panel types,

Ceiling panel Tc (C)

Reflective 0.05 14.0
Paint 0.94 8.6 Tc < Tdp <
. Condensation will occur on the painted panel since Tc < Tdp.
b) Applying the foregoing model for 0.1 t 1.0 m the following result is obtained
179
For the reflective panel ( = 0.05), the ceiling surface temperature is considerably above the
dew point. Therefore, condensation will not occur for the range of insulation thicknesses. For
the painted panel ( = 0.94), the ceiling surface temperature is always below the dew point, and
condensation occurs for the range of insulation thicknesses.
COMMENTS: From the analysis, recognize that radiative exchange between the ice and the
ceiling has the dominant effect on the ceiling temperature. With the reflective panel, the rate is
reduced nearly 20-fold relative to that for the painted panel. With the painted panel ceiling,
condensation will occur for most of the conditions likely to exist in the rink.

Slides Transmissão de Calor

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Descrição:

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Descrição:

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Slides Transmissão de Calor

Enviado por

Descrição:

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

1

Mecanismos F Mecanismos F sicos e sicos e

= + elec conv rad

Applied Flux Insulated Surface

= + 405 K < MP = 601K. =

How does the temperature distribution change with increasing ? q

Symmetric Surface Conditions or One Surface Insulated:

Problem 3.91 Thermal conditions in a gas-cooled nuclear reactor

Operation at is clearly unacceptable since the melting point of

What would be the influence of such

What would be the influence of such

What would be the influence of such

Assuming radiation exchange with large surroundings,

Result necessitates implicit evaluation of T(t).

convection or radiation coefficient h

and the lumped capacitance method can be used.

Existence of seven independent variables:

Long rod one term approximation (Fo > 0.2):

Sphere one term approximation (Fo > 0.2):

Thermal Boundary Layer

Why does increase in the

Manifested by a surface heat

If is constant, how do and

What is the physical significance of each term in the foregoing equation?

Neglecting viscous dissipation, the following normalized forms of the x-momentum

For a prescribed geometry,

local Nusselt number Nu

The heat rate for the second blade is then

Similarity permits transformation of the partial differential equations associated

Aligned and Staggered Arrays:

All properties are evaluated at except for Pr

- T, decreases with increasing V and decreasing . The error is due to net

- T) decreases with decreasing convection

For incompressible flow in a circular tube of radius , o

For incompressible, constant-property flow in a circular tube,

Hydrodynamic and Thermal Entry Lengths

The hydraulic diameter is defined as

For a circular tube,

Requirement for fully developed thermal conditions:

A differential equation from which may be determined is obtained by

Integrating from x=0 to any downstream location,

limite camada da fora limite camada da dentro

Exemplo de aplicao: placa vertical isotrmica

ou, de modo equivalente,

A integrao numrica das equaes conduz aos seguintes resultados

Transio para regime turbulento

Quando o fluido se mantm junto parede, as correlaes de Churchill e

Correlations for Eqs. (9.50) - (9.53). L Nu

Assuming an adiabatic tip, the fin efficiency is

A dimensionless parameter whose magnitude influences HX performance:

Relations Table 11.4 or Figs. 11.14 - 11.19

A radiosidade de uma superfcie opaca contabiliza

Radiao de CORPO NEGRO

Variaes de temperatura tpicas :

Reflectividade de uma superfcie opaca

A absorsividade espectral hemisfrica :

Extraterrestrial irradiation of a surface whose normal is at a zenith angle

Você também pode gostar