Bus 8

Chapter 8: Foundations of Individual Behavior
1. One of the challenges in understanding organizational behavior is that it addresses issues that aren't obvious. True False Answer:
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 240 Objective: 8.1
2. Organizational behavior is primarily concerned with group interactions. Answer: True False
3. The goals of OB are to explain, predict, and understand behavior. Answer: True False
4. Attitudes are evaluative statements concerning objects, people, or events. True False Answer:
5. Individuals try to reconcile attitudes and behavior so they are both rational and consistent. True False Answer:
6. Cognitive dissonance arises when people feel that their behavior and attitudes are consistent. False Answer: True
7. The discomfort that results from high dissonance can be reduced when an individual feels that she has a choice in the matter. False Answer: True
8. Research shows that high job satisfaction correlates with high productivity. Answer: True False
9. Personality is defined as a unique combination of behavioral, emotional, and thinking patterns that each person has.
Answer:
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 246-247 Objective: 8.3
True
False
10. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator test can identify thousands of different basic personality types. False Answer: True
11. In the Big Five model, emotional security was positively related to job performance. False Answer: True
12. The ability to control one's own emotions is an important component in emotional intelligence. True False Answer:
13. Emotional intelligence and academic intelligence are virtually identical. False Answer: True
14. A worker with an external locus of control would tend to blame failure on himself. False Answer: True
15. A high Mach person tends to think that ends justify means. True False Answer:
16. Employees with high self-esteem tend to be more satisfied with their jobs than low SEs. Answer: True False
17. A low self-monitoring employee would be likely to be a good poker player. Answer: True False
18. A person who is risk-averse might do well as a stock trader.
Answer:
True
False
19. According to John Holland, the key to job success is how well an individual's personality matches his or her job. True False Answer:
20. According to John Holland's theory, a realistic personality type might be well -suited to be an economist. Answer: True False
21. People from the Middle East tend to believe that life is not predetermined and they can control their own destiny. False Answer: True
22. U.S. workers, more than Iranian workers, would likely have an external locus of control. False Answer: True
23. A fundamental idea of perception is that all people interpret and distort reality in some way. True False Answer:
24. Distortion of perception can only come from the person who is perceiving. False Answer: True
25. Attribution theory is primarily concerned with identifying one's own behavior. False Answer: True
26. Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays a behavior in many situations or whether it's particular to one situation. True False Answer:
27. The fundamental attribution error states that individuals tend to overestimate the influence of external factors in others. False Answer: True
28. Individuals tend to attribute their own successes to external factors. Answer: True False
29. In stereotyping, observers use group characteristics to judge individuals. Answer: True False
30. Perceptual shortcuts are not necessarily distorted. True False Answer:
31. Operant behavior deals only with learned behavior. True False Answer:
32. In operant conditioning, if behavior is positively reinforced it is less likely to repeat. False Answer: True
33. Skinner would argue that a dog responding to a whistle is an innate or unlearned behavior. False Answer: True
34. Classical conditioning predicts that hearing music from a familiar horror movie might cause a person to feel anxious. True False Answer:
35. Social learning theory maintains that models who are different from ourselves have the greatest influence on our behavior.
Answer:
True
False
36. When a manager praises an employee for a job well done, she is providing positive reinforcement. True False Answer:
37. Negative reinforcement penalizes an individual for an undesired behavior. False Answer: True
38. Negative reinforcement is the withdrawal of something unpleasant. True False Answer:
39. Gen Y individuals are those people who were born after 1997. False Answer: True
40. Gen Y individuals tend to be comfortable with new types of electronic technology. False Answer: True
41. Which of the following best defines organizational behavior? A) the study of the workplace B) the study of organizations C) the study of the actions of people at work D) the actions of organizations in the workplace Answer: C
42. Hidden aspects of an organization that OB provides insight into include ________. A) strategies B) objectives C) structure D) attitudes Answer: D
43. Which of the following is a visible aspect of an organization? A) objectives B) interpersonal conflicts C) attitudes D) intergroup conflicts Answer: A
44. Organizational behavior focuses on ________. A) group behavior only B) neither group behavior nor individual behavior C) individual behavior only D) individual behavior and group behavior Answer: D
45. Which of the following are the goals of organizational behavior? A) to predict, understand, and change behavior B) to control and influence behavior C) to explain, predict, and influence behavior D) to explain, understand, and control behavior Answer: C
46. When managers influence employee behavior they ________. A) predict what employees will do B) try not to change a behavior C) understand why a behavior occurs D) steer it in a particular direction Answer: D
47. All of the following are included in the six behaviors that managers try to explain, predict, and influence EXCEPT ________. A) workplace misbehavior and turnover B) organizational citizenship behavior and job satisfaction C) workplace attitudes and perceptions D) productivity and absenteeism Answer: C
48. This "behavior" is really an attitude.
A) workplace misbehavior B) job satisfaction C) employee productivity D) turnover Answer: B
49. Of the six behaviors that managers focus on, which behavior is typically the most troubling to an organization? A) employee productivity B) absenteeism C) organizational citizenship behavior D) workplace misbehavior Answer: D
50. ________ is a performance measure of both efficiency and effectiveness of employees. A) Turnover B) Job satisfaction C) Employee productivity D) Organizational citizenship behavior Answer: C
51. The three elements that make up an attitude are its ________ components. A) affective, effective, and defective B) behavioral, cognitive, and misbehavioral C) cognitive, component, and affective D) cognitive, affective, and behavioral Answer: D
52. The component of attitude that is made up of knowledge and information is ________. A) behavioral B) cognitive C) affective D) practices Answer: B
53. When you stand at attention during the playing of the national anthem you are revealing which component of your attitude toward your country? A) affective
B) cognitive C) behavioral D) metacognitive Answer: C

54. The ________ component of attitude is based on emotions. A) affective B) behavioral C) action D) cognitive Answer: A
55. Wendy spent several hours looking over an architect's plans and forming an impression for a new building design. Which component of attitude did she carry out? A) behavioral B) affective C) emotive D) cognitive Answer: D
56. After carefully examining the architect's plans yesterday, today Wendy has decided that she loves the new design. Which component of forming an attitude did she carry out today? A) behavioral B) informational C) cognitive D) affective Answer: D
57. After deciding that she likes the architect's new building design this morning, this afternoon Wendy has decided to go ahead with the project. Which component of attitude did she use this afternoon? A) behavioral B) affective C) emotive D) cognitive Answer: A
58. In everyday parlance, the term attitude refers only to the ________ component of attitude. A) informational
B) affective C) cognitive D) behavioral Answer: B

59. A manager would most likely be interested in employees' attitudes about which of the following? A) family responsibility B) past jobs C) personal responsibility D) job satisfaction Answer: D
60. The degree to which an employee identifies with his or her job or actively participates in it refers to the employee's ________. A) organizational commitment B) global commitment C) job involvement D) job satisfaction Answer: C
61. An employee who brags about her company to friends and recommends all company products as gifts is likely to have high ________. A) organizational commitment B) organizational citizenship C) job involvement D) personal commitment Answer: A
62. With respect to employee engagement in a job, this seems to be the most important factor to employees around the world. A) benefits B) base pay C) respect D) type of work Answer: C
63. The country that seems to value respect more than any other country is ________. A) China
B) France C) the United States D) the United Kingdom Answer: D

64. In this country, the type of work one does is valued above all other factors with respect to employee engagement. A) Japan B) India C) China D) France Answer: D
65. Cognitive dissonance theory states that a person feels ________ when his attitudes and actions don't match. A) confused B) uncomfortable C) confident D) comfortable Answer: B
66. The cognitive dissonance theory proposes that the factors that can mitigate the discomfort caused by dissonance are ________. A) influence, rewards, and goals B) influence, reinforcement, and rewards C) importance, influence, and rewards D) importance, goals, and status Answer: C
67. A person who is being hypocritical about something that has high importance in her life would be likely to experience ________ discomfort from cognitive dissonance. A) high B) no C) minimal D) low Answer: A
68. A person who is experiencing cognitive dissonance might have his discomfort from the dissonance reduced if he has ________ control over his actions.
A) some B) almost total C) little or no D) total Answer: C
69. Taking a job in a repressive country that you disapprove of politically might cause discomfort from dissonance unless ________. A) the job offers enormous pay B) the job suits you well C) the job does not suit you well D) the job offers little pay Answer: A
70. After the disappointment of not getting a new position, an employee states, "That job looks like a real headache, anyway." This is an example of ________ to reduce discomfort from dissonance. A) increasing influence B) reducing importance C) increasing importance D) reducing influence Answer: B
71. Which of the following are typically the most important reasons for why managers want to increase positive job attitudes? A) higher rates of turnover and absenteeism B) to decrease worker unhappiness C) lower rates of turnover and absenteeism D) to increase worker happiness Answer: C
72. Studies show that the statement, "Happy workers are productive workers" is ________ A) completely false B) largely false C) completely true D) fairly true Answer: D
73. To reduce dissonance in the workplace, managers are advised to hold ________ responsible for the causes of
the
dissonance. A) fellow workers B) employees C) external forces D) both employees and management Answer: C
74. Rather than try to make employees happy, managers might do well to focus on making work ________. A) easy to accomplish B) simple rather than complex C) challenging and interesting D) challenging and difficult Answer: C
75. ________ is the unique combination of psychological traits that describe a person. A) Personality B) Character C) Behavior D) Intelligence Answer: A
76. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is based on ________ that are revealed in a 100-item questionnaire. A) two dichotomies B) four dichotomies C) eight personality types D) four personality types Answer: B
77. The extroversion versus introversion scale on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator determines whether a person is oriented ________. A) outwardly or inwardly B) toward planning or flexibility C) toward gathering data or the big picture D) logically or emotionally Answer: A
78. The judging versus perceiving scale on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator determines whether a person is
oriented ________. A) logically or emotionally B) outwardly or inwardly C) toward gathering data or the big picture D) toward planning or flexibility Answer: D
79. The thinking versus feeling scale on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator determines whether a person is oriented ________. A) toward gathering data or the big picture B) outwardly or inwardly C) toward planning or flexibility D) logically or emotionally Answer: D
80. The sensing versus intuition scale on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator determines whether a person is oriented ________. A) toward planning or flexibility B) outwardly or inwardly C) logically or emotionally D) toward gathering data or the big picture Answer: D
81. If you are a person who dislikes making plans, you would probably score high on which aspect of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator? A) more introvert than extrovert B) more extrovert than introvert C) more judging than perceiving D) more perceiving than judging Answer: D
82. If you are a person who prefers to focus on the big picture when you make a decision, you would probably score high on which aspect of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator? A) thinking more than feeling B) intuition more than sensing C) sensing more than intuition D) feeling more than thinking Answer: B
83. The Big Five model of personality includes all of the following exceot ________. A) extroversion B) intuitiveness C) conscientiousness D) agreeableness Answer: B
84. Job studies show that this Big Five personality dimension was consistently important for success no matter what the job type. A) conscientiousness B) emotional stability C) openness to experience D) extraversion Answer: A
85. Surprisingly, studies show that emotional security is ________. A) positively related to job performance B) not positively related to job performance C) not positively related to happiness D) positively related to job type Answer: B
86. Emotional intelligence includes all of the following EXCEPT ________. A) self-management B) self-awareness C) social skills D) cognitive skills Answer: D
87. This dimension of emotional intelligence allows people to sense and understand how others are feeling. A) social skills B) self-management C) empathy D) self-awareness Answer: C
88. A person who takes full responsibility in both his successes and failures is likely to be high in this emotional
intelligen ce dimension. A) empathy B) self-management C) self-motivation D) self-awareness Answer: C

89. The Bell Labs and Air Force studies have shown that emotional intelligence is ________ job performance. A) more important than academic intellect in B) not important to C) equally important as academic intellect in D) almost as important as as academic intellect in Answer: A
90. If you believe that you control your own destiny, then your personality would be described as having a(n) ________. A) internal locus of control B) high Mach score C) external locus of control D) low Mach score Answer: A
91. A tennis player who blames a loss on windy conditions would be likely to have ________. A) no locus of control B) an internal locus of control C) an external locus of control D) high self-esteem Answer: C
92. A person who believes that "the ends justify the means" would be likely to have a high level of which personality trait? A) social skills B) Machiavellianism C) empathy D) self-awareness Answer: B
93. This kind of individual might be most likely to have legal problems.
A) high Mach B) risk-averse C) low self-esteem D) low Mach Answer: A
94. High self-esteem individuals tend to ________. A) make excuses for themselves B) take risks C) avoid making excuses for themselves D) avoid risks Answer: B
95. ________ individuals tend to be dependent on positive evaluation from others. A) High Mach B) High self-esteem C) Low self-esteem D) Internal locus of control Answer: C
96. A high self-monitoring individual would tend to ________. A) have no skill in hiding her feelings B) have no experience in hiding her feelings C) have no skill in playing different roles D) be good at playing different roles Answer: D
97. A low self-monitoring individual would tend NOT to pursue a career as ________. A) an engineer B) an actor C) an accountant D) a scientist Answer: B
98. A manager who takes very little time to make a decision probably has the trait of ________. A) low self-monitoring B) high risk-taking C) high self-esteem
D) external locus of control Answer: B

99. A NASCAR race car driver would be a good occupational match for which personality type? A) risk averse B) low self-esteem C) low Mach D) risk taker Answer: D
100. John Holland's theory assumes all of the following EXCEPT ________. A) people in jobs that suit their personality are likely to be more satisfied B) different types of jobs are suited to different personalities C) people in jobs that suit their personality make more money D) there are intrinsic personality differences in people Answer: C
101. A person who rates high on Holland's social scale would probably find a good match with which of the following jobs? A) farmer B) teacher C) mathematician D) painter Answer: B
102. A person rating high on the investigative personality type would have the best job match for which job? A) counselor B) reporter C) mechanic D) nurse Answer: B
103. According to Holland's social scale, becoming a lawyer would be a good job match for someone with this personality type. A) realistic B) enterprising C) conventional D) investigative
Answer: B
104. Which of the following pairs would be a good match in Holland's scheme? A) artistic: chemist B) investigative: golf pro C) social: coach D) realistic: psychologist Answer: C
105. Chinese workers tend to value ________ than Americans. A) agreeableness more B) agreeableness less C) conscientiousness less D) hard work more Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 243, 251 Objective: 8.3
106. North Americans seem to be much more likely to have ________ than people from Middle Eastern countries. A) an external locus of control B) a variable locus of control C) no locus of control D) an internal locus of control Answer: D
107. Managers in Germany and the United States would probably agree that the most important factor for job performance is ________. A) conscientiousness B) social skills C) emotional stability D) agreeableness Answer: A
108. ________ is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory impressions to give meaning to the environment. A) Learning B) Perception C) Attribution D) Selection Answer: B
109. Different people typically have ________. A) different perceptions of the same situation B) an undistorted perception of a situation C) the same perception of different situations D) the same perception of a single situation Answer: A
110. Which three factors act to shape and sometimes distort perception? A) past experiences, context, location B) temperature, time, location C) attitudes, past experiences, expectations D) the perceiver, target, context Answer: D
111. Factors that can influence the perceiver of a situation include ________. A) attitudes, past experiences, expectations B) temperature, time, location C) size, shape, color D) lighting, place, date Answer: A
112. Which situation would be an example of the target influencing a perception? A) near dark conditions B) viewing a dog when you are exhausted C) a dog barking D) viewing a dog through binoculars Answer: C
113. Attribution theory is primarily concerned with explaining ________. A) the behavior of groups B) the behavior of others C) one's own perceptions D) the perceptions of others Answer: B
114. In attribution theory, ________ behavior is largely beyond an individual's control. A) inconsistent B) internally caused C) consistent D) externally caused Answer: D
115. In attribution theory, if everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behavior shows ________. A) high distinctiveness B) medium distinctiveness C) low distinctiveness D) consensus Answer: D
116. In attribution theory, if a person is conscientious in five separate tasks, but in the sixth task fails to be conscientious, this task is said to have ________. A) low consensus B) high distinctiveness C) high consensus D) low distinctiveness Answer: B
117. In attribution theory, the behavior of an individual who shows low distinctiveness and low consensus is likely to be attributed as ________. A) internally caused B) externally caused C) not his fault D) beyond his control Answer: A
118. In attribution theory, the behavior of an individual who shows high distinctiveness and low consistency is likely to be attributed as ________. A) externally caused B) her responsibility C) internally caused D) under her control Answer: A
119. If a person who is always late for work is late once again and blames it on a traffic jam, coworkers would probably attribute that person's lateness to ________. A) an internal source B) traffic C) an external source D) his car Answer: A
120. Which pairing is correct? A) low consistency internal cause of behavior B) low distinctiveness external cause of behavior C) high distinctiveness internal cause of behavior D) high consensus external cause of behavior Answer: D
121. Which pairing is NOT correct? A) low consistency external cause of behavior B) low consensus internal cause of behavior C) low distinctiveness external cause of behavior D) high consensus external cause of behavior Answer: C
122. The fundamental attribution error causes people to tend to attribute ________. A) their own successes to external factors B) successes of others to external factors C) failures of others to external factors D) their own failures to internal factors Answer: B
123. The self-serving bias causes people to tend to attribute ________. A) their own failures to internal factors B) their own successes to internal factors C) failures of other to external factors D) successes of others to external factors Answer: B
124. When people judge someone on the basis of the perception of a group they are a part of, they are using the
shortcut called ________. A) selectivity B) the halo effect C) assumed similarity D) stereotyping Answer: D
125. By using ________, we form an impression about a person based on a single characteristic, such as intelligence or appearance. A) stereotyping B) the halo effect C) selectivity D) assumed similarity Answer: B
126. Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience is known as ________. A) intrinsic behavior B) learning C) reflex D) instinctual behavior Answer: B
127. Operant conditioning is any behavior that occurs as a result of ________. A) coincidence B) reinforcement from reward or punishment C) reinforcement from reward only D) an innate behavior program Answer: B
128. Social learning theory involves learning through ________. A) systematic study of books and manuals B) observing models C) instinct D) logical inference Answer: B
129. The amount of influence a model has begins with the ________ process of becoming aware of the model. A) motor reproduction
B) attentional C) retentional D) reinforcement Answer: B

130. When a young basketball player copies the free throw style of an NBA player, he is using his ________. A) reinforcement processes B) attentional processes C) retention processes D) motor reproduction processes Answer: D
131. Which of the following is NOT thought to be a tool that managers can use to shape behavior? A) positive reinforcement B) punishment C) attentional processes D) negative reinforcement Answer: C
132. When a manager gives an employee a bonus for a job well done, which behavior-shaping method is the manager using? A) positive reinforcement B) punishment C) negative reinforcement D) extinction Answer: A
133. When a football coach makes the team run laps because it can't get a play right, he is using which behavior-shaping method? A) extinction B) positive reinforcement C) negative reinforcement D) punishment Answer: D
134. When a football coach cancels a grueling "meat-grinder drill" because the team is performing well, he is using which behavior-shaping method? A) extinction
B) punishment C) positive reinforcement D) negative reinforcement Answer: D

135. In an attempt to get employees to stop congregating, a manager decides to remove free bagels from the company snack bar. Which behavior-shaping method is she using? A) negative reinforcement B) punishment C) positive reinforcement D) extinction Answer: D
136. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Gen Y workers? A) high expectations B) seek out creative challenges C) goal oriented D) little interaction with colleagues Answer: D
137. Which of the following is a common way in which Gen Y workers differ from workers in other generations? A) showing respect B) office attire C) ability to focus D) ability to work hard Answer: B
138. Which of the following is on the rise in today's organizations? A) use of good manners B) amicable relations C) hostility and aggression D) respectful behavior Answer: C
139. Describe the focus and goals of organizational behavior that are covered in this chapter. Answer: Organizational behavior is a field of study that is concerned specifically with the actions of people at work. This chapter focuses primarily on two areas of organizational behavior, individual behavior and group behavior.
Individual behavior includes topics such as attitudes, personality, perception, learning, and
motivation. Group behavior includes norms, roles, team building, leadership, and conflict. The goals of organizational behavior are to explain, predict, and influence behavior. Managers need to be able to explain why employees engage in some behaviors rather than others, predict how employees will respond to various actions the manager might take, and influence how employees behave.
140. In a short essay, define what an attitude is. Answer: Attitudes are evaluative statements either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people, or events. Attitudes reflect how an individual feels about something. When a person says, "I like work that is challenging," he or she is expressing an attitude about work.
141. In a short essay, identify and discuss the three components of an attitude. Answer: The three components that make up an attitude are cognition, affect, and behavior. The cognitive component of an attitude is made up of the beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information held by a person. The belief that "I am underpaid" illustrates cognition. The affective component of an attitude is the emotional or feeling part of an attitude. The affective component of an attitude would be reflected by the statement, "I am angry that I am underpaid." Finally, affect can lead to behavioral outcomes. The behavioral component of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. For instance, "I will quit my job unless I get a raise" is an example of the behavioral component of an attitude.
142. In a short essay, list and discuss the five personality traits of the Big Five Model of personality. Answer: Extraversion the degree to which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive. Agreeableness the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.
Conscientiousness the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented. Emotional stability the degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure about who he or she is (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure about who he or she is (negative). Openness to experience intellectual. the degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and
The Big Five provide more than just a personality framework. Research has shown that important relationships exist between these personality dimensions and job performance.
143. In a short essay, discuss how locus of control can help explain individual behavior in organizations. Answer: People who believe that they are in control of their own lives have an internal locus of controlthey see themselves as having agency over events. They see their own efforts being the primary reasons for why they succeed or fail. People with an external locus of control see themselves as pawns, believing that what happens in their lives is due to outside forces and events over which they have little control or influence. These forces and events include both powerful institutions (the state, the culture) as well as such random things as luck or chance. Locus of control is largely a cultural phenomenon. In western societies, locus of control tends to be internal; people feel that what they do matters. In societies such as those in the Middle East, locus of control tends to be externalpeople feel that they have little control over what happens in their lives.
144. In a short essay, discuss how Machiavellianism can help explain individual behavior in organizations. Answer: An individual who is high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. High Mach individuals understand power and the way to get it. Believing that ends justify means for a high Mach individual can result in corners sometimes being cut and ethics given short shrift or even ignored in favor of the goal that the person is seeking. In jobs that require bargaining skills or that have substantial rewards for winning, high Machs are productive. In jobs in which ends do not justify the means or that lack absolute measures of performance, high Machs can vary in performance. One can imagine that high Machs are good at manipulating others and acquiring power in very aggressive, highly competitive "dog eat dog" organizations and circumstances.
145. In a short essay, discuss how self-esteem can help explain individual behavior in organizations. Answer: Self-esteem (SE) refers to the degree to which people like or dislike themselves. The research on self-esteem offers some interesting insight into organizational behavior. For example, self-esteem is directly related to expectations for success. High SEs believe that they possess the ability needed to succeed at work. Individuals with high SEs tend to take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs than are people with low SEs. A number of studies confirm that high SEs are more satisfied with their jobs than are low SEs.
146. In a short essay, discuss how self-monitoring can help explain individual behavior in organizations. Answer: Self-monitoring refers to an individual's ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability in adjusting their behavior. They are highly sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in different situations. An individual high in self-monitoring can adopt one mode of behavior when, for example, dealing with high-level managers, and a completely different behavior mode when in the company of rank-and-file workers. Low self-monitors, on the other hand, seem unable to adjust their behavior according to situation. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every situation, and therefore would seem less capable of deception and less likely to try to indulge in deception.
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 249
Objective: 8.3
147. In a short essay, discuss how risk-taking can help explain individual behavior in organizations. Answer: People differ in their willingness to take chances. Differences in the propensity to assume or to avoid risk have been shown to affect how long it takes individuals to make a decision and how much information they require before making their choice. To maximize organizational effectiveness, managers should try to align employee risk-taking propensity with specific job demands. For instance, high risk-taking propensity may lead to effective performance for a commodities trader in a brokerage firm because this type of job demands rapid decision making. On the other hand, an accounting job for a person who must be responsible for the financial well-being of an entire organization might be better suited to a conservative, non-risk-taking individual.
148. In a short essay, list and discuss three shortcuts frequently used in judging others. Answer: In assumed similarity, the observer's perception of others is influenced more by the observer's own characteristics than by those of the person observed. For example, a middle manager may be focused on getting a promotion, so he will assume that other managers share his preoccupation in advancing in the organization. When someone is judged on the basis of our perception of a group he or she is part of, we use the shortcut called stereotyping. Racial, ethnic, and gender stereotyping typically are the most harmful form of stereotyping. However, even "innocent" stereotyping, like assuming an individual from a particular group is a "hard worker" can create problems within an organization. When individuals form a general impression about a person on the basis of a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance, the halo effect is the influencing factor. For example, a manager may attribute a disproportionate amount of responsibility on an employee who is a superb golfer, even though that person's golf abilities might not translate at all to the workplace.
149. In a short essay, define learning and then explain operant conditioning. Answer: Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that is not innate; it occurs as a result of experience. Operant conditioning contends that people learn a behavior to get something they want or to avoid something they don't want. The tendency to repeat learned behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement that happens as a result of the behavior. For example, when a sales manager knocks herself out to exceed all previous sales totals in a successful sales drive, she might receive reinforcement from a variety of places: praise from her boss, recognition from the corporation, a promotion, a bonus, admiration from colleaguesall of which strengthen and fortify the notion for the manager to put in extra work. The manager learned from her experience that extra effort pays off.
150. In a short essay, describe social learning. Answer: The belief that people can learn both through observation and direct experience is called social
learning theory. The influence of others is central to the social learning viewpoint. The amount of influence that these models will have on an individual is determined by four processes:
attentional processes; retention processes; motor reproduction processes; and reinforcement processes. Attentional processes focus on how well the model captures a person's attention. For example, a dancer would seek to emulate the moves that he sees in a popular video because they are dramatic and attractive. Retentional processes measure how well the observer can remember the model and its key features. Motor reproduction processes focus on how well the observer is able to emulate the model physically. Reinforcement processes focus on how strong the incentives are for the observer to want to emulate the behavior.
151. In a short essay, explain how managers can shape behavior using positive and negative reinforcement. Answer: There are four ways to shape behavior: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, or extinction. When a behavior is followed by some kind of reward, such as when a manager praises an employee for a job well done, it's called positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement will increase the likelihood of the desired behavior being repeated. Rewarding a response with the elimination or withdrawal of something unpleasant is called negative reinforcement. A manager who promises to cancel a "no Internet during work" restriction as a reward for increased production is using negative reinforcement. The manager is removing something unpleasant (the restriction) as a reward for desired behaviorincreased production.
152. In a short essay, explain how managers can shape behavior using punishment and extinction. Answer: Punishment penalizes undesirable behavior and seeks to eliminate it. Suspending an employee without pay for repeatedly coming to work late is an example of punishment. Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior is called extinction. When a behavior isn't reinforced, gradually it disappears. For example, a manager may offer rewards to encourage people to volunteer for early retirement. If too many people volunteer for early retirement, putting stress on the organization, the manager may remove the reward and try to eliminate volunteering for early retirement.

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Chapter 8: Foundations of Individual Behavior

Diff: 2 Page Ref: 246-247 Objective: 8.3

18. A person who is risk-averse might do well as a stock trader.

Diff: 2 Page Ref: 250 Objective: 8.3

Diff: 1 Page Ref: 257 Objective: 8.5

48. This "behavior" is really an attitude.

Diff: 2 Page Ref: 241 Objective: 8.1

A) workplace misbehavior B) job satisfaction C) employee productivity D) turnover Answer: B

B) cognitive C) behavioral D) metacognitive Answer: C

B) affective C) cognitive D) behavioral Answer: B

B) France C) the United States D) the United Kingdom Answer: D

Diff: 3 Page Ref: 244-245 Objective: 8.2

A) some B) almost total C) little or no D) total Answer: C

intelligen ce dimension. A) empathy B) self-management C) self-motivation D) self-awareness Answer: C

Diff: 2 Page Ref: 249 Objective: 8.3

A) high Mach B) risk-averse C) low self-esteem D) low Mach Answer: A

D) external locus of control Answer: B

Diff: 2 Page Ref: 250 Objective: 8.3

Diff: 1 Page Ref: 252 Objective: 8.4

B) attentional C) retentional D) reinforcement Answer: B

B) punishment C) positive reinforcement D) negative reinforcement Answer: D

Diff: 3 Page Ref: 240-241 Objective: 8.1

Diff: 3 Page Ref: 249 Objective: 8.3

Diff: 3 Page Ref: 249-250 Objective: 8.3

Diff: 3 Page Ref: 256-257 Objective: 8.5

Diff: 3 Page Ref: 257-258 Objective: 8.5

Diff: 3 Page Ref: 257-258 Objective: 8.5

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