Curriculum I INTRODUCTION Curriculum, systematically organized course of teaching and learning. Some definitions of curriculum focus narro!

ly on the arrangement of su"#ects o$er a se%uence of grades& others include e$erything that students and teachers do. Curriculum schemes are found in e$ery system of education, "ut in most countries, es'ecially in continental (uro'e, )atin *merica, and many 'arts of *sia, the !ord curriculum is unfamiliar. Reference is made instead to 'rogrammes of study and instruction. II +ISTORIC*) ORI,INS *ND CONT(-.OR*R/ ISSU(S ($en 'reliterate societies had a curriculum0 cultural 1no!ledge and $ocational s1ills !ere transmitted in an order corres'onding to the maturity of the students. Classical ,ree1, Chinese, and -uslim systems of education !ere "ased on a study of the !ritten !ord, "ut shared !ith oral +indu traditions a 'rogression of study that reser$ed higher le$els for a selected minority. Of these many rich historical traditions, the +ellenic scheme has had the greatest contem'orary influence. .lato "egan !ith gymnastics, follo!ed "y dance, singing, and 'oetry. The higher le$els !ere mathematics, to de$elo' rational thought, and 'hiloso'hy, to em"race the morality re%uired "y the good ruler. This scheme !as refined some centuries later in the Se$en )i"eral *rts, !hich !ere the "asis of later (uro'ean education and of the curriculum that 're$ails throughout most of the contem'orary !orld. The first stage2the tri$ium2consisted of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic. This !as follo!ed "y the %uadri$ium of arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and music. The 34th5century 6estern curriculum se'arated 'rogrammes for 'rimary 7or elementary8, secondary, and higher education. .rimary schools concentrated on reading and !riting in local or national languages, together !ith arithmetic, religion, history, geogra'hy, and sometimes science and 'hysical5'ractical education. -ost modern curricula ha$e de$elo'ed from this core, though religious education is still e9cluded from state schools in :rance and the United States. Secondary schools in (uro'e and North *merica in the 34th century had concentrated on Classical ,ree1 and )atin languages and literature. Ne! su"#ects "egan to emerge, nota"ly national history and literature, modern foreign languages, science, and, !ith greater em'hasis, mathematics. In the course of the ;<th century, Classical languages declined and, as secondary education "ecame more uni$ersally a$aila"le, $arious technical and $ocational su"#ects !ere added. The curricula of elite schools !ere literary and theoretical, !hile in other institutions there !as more em'hasis on 'ractical or $ocational s1ills. *s lo!er secondary schools "ecame uni$ersal in the later ;<th century, the distinction "et!een lo!er secondary education, !ith a "roadly common curriculum, and more s'ecialized u''er secondary education "ecame more 'ronounced. Tensions occurred "et!een s'ecialization in a limited range of areas and the co$erage of a "road range of su"#ects in the u''er le$els. In some countries "readth too1 'recedence o$er de'th, !hile, else!here, s'ecialization !as encouraged. Other tensions occurred in $ocational and higher education o$er ho! much attention should "e gi$en to a curriculum that 're'ared the student for a s'ecific career.

Different aims emerged in the 6estern !orld. The de"ates in (uro'e centred on humanist and rationalist 'riorities2descri"ed "y =mile Dur1heim as the difference "et!een concern for the e9treme di$ersity of feelings !hich ha$e stirred the human heart , !hich !ere studied in literature and history, and the 'rocedures !here"y human reason has 'rogressi$ely ta1en control of the !orld , !hich !ere "est de$elo'ed through mathematics and sciences. Rationalism !as also lin1ed to encyclo'edism, !hich re%uired that all su"#ects should "e studied for as long as 'ossi"le "y all students and that the curriculum should "e standard and e9ternally determined. *nother de"ate had its origins in the distinction made "y >ean5>ac%ues Rousseau in the late 3?th century "et!een education for the citizen and that for man in nature . The latter included education "ased on the instincts of the gro!ing child as !ell as education related to the intimate 'hysical and social !orlds of children. Naturalist education ignored traditional su"#ects and focused instead on learning that !as rele$ant to the student@s needs or to the needs of the local community. The 'ragmatic mo$ement in the United States from the 34th century encouraged coo'eration "et!een students to ac%uire 1no!ledge not for its o!n sa1e "ut for its use in local communities. The systematic study of the curriculum to aid 'lanning emerged in the United States, !here the great $ariations "et!een schools encouraged early ;<th5century educationists such as >ohn :ran1lin Ao""itt to try to identify standard aims and o"#ecti$es e$en though a uniform content !as no longer 'ossi"le or desira"le. Ralf Tyler suggested in 34B; that these aims and o"#ecti$es should "e constructed !ith reference to the demands of society, the characteristics of students, the 'otential contri"utions !hich $arious fields of learning may ma1e, the social and educational 'hiloso'hy of the school or college and !hat !e 1no! from the 'sychology of learning as the attaina"ility of $arious ty'es of o"#ecti$es . This 'lan !as sim'lified further into a se%uential model of aims, o"#ecti$es, content, "oo1s and other materials, teaching methods, and assessment. This a''roach has the ad$antage that it is a''lica"le to curriculum 'lanning in all countries, !hate$er the differences of "asic 'hiloso'hy. III CURRICU)U- DI::(R(NC(S A(T6((N N*TIONS Curricula in different countries may "e controlled centrally and standardized for each institution, or they may $ary "et!een regions, localities, and institutions. Traditions of !hich ty'es of 1no!ledge are $ie!ed as most !orth!hile differ "et!een cultures. In some countries the curriculum is "ased on con$entional su"#ects, !hile in others cross5curricular themes and to'ics 're$ail. In some countries teaching tends to address the !hole class and is theoretical in a''roach, !hile in others it encourages o"ser$ation and indi$idual student acti$ity. *ssessment of students may "e e9ternal or teacher5controlled. 6hile fe! countries are found at the e9tremes of total uniformity or com'lete di$ersity, :rance and much of southern (uro'e, >a'an, eastern (uro'e 7"efore 344<8, and many countries outside the industrial !orld tend to!ards standardization, !hile the curricula of the United States, Canada, and, "efore 34??, the United Cingdom ha$e encouraged differences "et!een schools. Other countries ha$e occu'ied an intermediate 'osition.

The national curriculum in most countries consists of a list of su"#ects 'rescri"ed for each grade of education, each !ith an allotted num"er of hours 'er !ee1 or year. The o$erall aims for each le$el are suggested, together !ith the o"#ecti$es and content for each su"#ect. The 344< curriculum in :rance, for instance, suggested the general aim that0 (lementary school education is to ensure the ac%uisition of the "asic elements and tools of 1no!ledge0 oral and !ritten e9'ression, reading, and arithmetic. It stimulates the de$elo'ment and im'ro$ement of a child@s intelligence, emotional de$elo'ment, artistic sensi"ility, manual and 'hysical s1ills. In this curriculum, :rench and social studies !ere allotted "et!een 3< and 3D hours !ee1ly& mathematics, science, and technology E to 3< hours& and 'hysical and artistic education E to ? hours. The fle9i"ility of hours allo!ed the introduction of a foreign language into many schools. The standardized and su"#ect5"ased curriculum in :rance is reinforced "y school assessment of students, !hich determines !hether they !ill "e 'romoted to the ne9t grade. *"out 3< 'er cent of all students re'eat the first grade of 'rimary school. This assessment gi$es greatest em'hasis to :rench and mathematics. -ethods tend to "e of the teacher5centred, !hole5class ty'e. Teaching in :rench stresses that all children should ac%uire a 1no!ledge of grammatical structures as !ell as 'recision in !ritten and oral e9'ression 7De'artment of (ducation and Science, 34438. Teachers su''ort these $alues and often resist central ad$ice to focus on the indi$idual student. In contrast to ,ermany and the United States, te9t"oo1s are not 'rescri"ed "y the state. *ssessment is mainly controlled "y teachers, though decisions must "e #ustified to a council of teachers in the school. National testing, introduced in 34?4, aims to 'ro$ide more information for teachers and 'arents rather than to construct 'u"lic league ta"les of school 'erformance. In :rench lo!er secondary schools, the national curriculum 'rescri"es :rench, mathematics, a foreign language, historyFgeogra'hyFeconomics, ci$ics 7the study of citizenshi'8, "iology, 'lastic arts 7for e9am'le, scul'ture or ceramics8, music, technology, and 'hysical education, !ith 'hysics and chemistry added for the last t!o grades. There is a choice "et!een )atin, ,ree1, a second foreign language and e9tra classes in the first foreign language, and, in the last t!o grades, "et!een different "ranches of technology. In u''er secondary school, the same ten su"#ects 7e9ce't for arts and music8 are com'ulsory for all courses and are included in the national e9aminations leading to state certificates. Students !ill also ta1e s'ecialist courses in an area of general education, including literary studies, social studies, and sciences, or in technological or $ocational fields. The 'o!er of the rationalist 'hiloso'hy has made the science area the most 'restigious. The science taught, ho!e$er, is hea$ily mathematical and theoretical rather than "ased on o"ser$ation, e9'eriment, and 'ractice. This 1ind of curriculum is re'licated in many 'arts of the !orld, although !ith significant $ariations. National curricula for 'rimary schools are 'ermissi$e in countries such as Denmar1 and the Netherlands, !here the 'arents and teachers of each school can dra! u' their o!n 'lans !ithin the "road frame!or1 of the national curriculum. In ,ermany, each of the 3E states has its o!n curriculum, though there are mo$es to harmonize across the !hole country. In northern ,ermany there are stronger traditions of child5centred teaching using a greater range of materials and e9'eriences in 'rimary schools than in the southern 'arts of the country.

In >a'an, the curriculum has "een as standardized and e9ternal as any in the !orld, !ith 'rescri"ed te9t"oo1s as !ell as national content, though, as in :rance, student assessment is left to teachers. -oral education has "een im'ortant. There has "een a mo$ement to encourage more indi$iduality and student choice since 344; !ith the introduction of life en$ironment studies in 'rimary schools to encourage creati$ity and inde'endent learning. *s in :rance and ,ermany, u''er secondary education courses must co$er all "asic areas, including >a'anese, history, geogra'hy, ci$ics, mathematics, science, art, and foreign languages, as !ell as offering s'ecialist o'tions. The di$erse curriculum has "een found 'articularly in the United States and, "efore 34??, in (ngland and 6ales. The curriculum of *merican schools reflects the local origins of 34th5 century education. (ach school has com'lete control o$er its curriculum, though not o$er the te9t"oo1s used. There is no official system of e9ternal e9aminations for the !hole country. The teaching in 'rimary schools may "e little different from that of other countries, "ut in the #unior and senior high schools the com'rehensi$e curriculum 're$ails !ith social, recreational, and $ocational, as !ell as academic su"#ects. * senior high school, ty'ically, may offer o$er 3<< courses, from !hich a student !ill follo! 3G to ;< o$er four years. The main com'laint has "een that too many *merican high5school students choose recreation, s'orts, and social studies to'ics to the neglect of the more demanding academic courses. The *merican high5school course leads to the high5school certificate, !hich is a!arded "y the school. .u"lic de"ate a"out standards in *merican schools in the late 34G<s and again in the early 34?<s led to curriculum 'ro#ects funded "y federal go$ernment, encouragement for higher le$el fast5 trac1 courses, and state5le$el assessment of student com'etence. -ore 'o'ular uni$ersities demand that their entrants achie$e high mar1s in nation!ide, 'ri$ately run tests such as the S*T 7Scholastic *'titude, later *ttainment, Test8. .residents ,eorge Aush and Aill Clinton called for a national curriculum to no a$ail. The *merican school has traditionally ser$ed all young 'eo'le in one neigh"ourhood and aims to de$elo' local community a!areness and to offer the ac%uisition of 1no!ledge and s1ill in all areas rele$ant to an adult citizen. The !ell5founded 'ragmatic tradition discourages the more narro!ly academic education of other countries. IH R(C(NT CURRICU)U- C+*N,(S0 (N,)*ND *ND 6*)(S The teaching system of (ngland and 6ales "ecame famous for the autonomy of school, teacher, and student in teaching and learning. Its origins !ere $ery different. In the mid534th century financial grants from go$ernment for 'rimary schools had de'ended on the num"er of children 'assing ins'ectors@ tests on a national curriculum. *fter 34BG the only legally re%uired su"#ect for the com'ulsory school 'hase !as religious education 7from !hich 'arents had the right to !ithdra! their children8. .rimary schools de$elo'ed methods that encouraged the interest, creati$ity, and acti$e initiati$e of children. 6ith the su''ort of the 34EI .lo!den Re'ort, an integrated day !as ado'ted "y many schools in !hich a to'ic such as autumn or !ater could occu'y most of the time for se$eral !ee1s, and other su"#ects such as (nglish, mathematics, science, and art !ould "e co$ered !ithin this theme. *fter the a"olition of entrance tests to selecti$e secondary schools in the 34E<s, there !as little systematic and formal assessment of 'u'ils. The secondary school curriculum !as controlled "y e9ternal e9aminations for students aged 3E and 3?. +o!e$er, as common secondary schools gre! in the 34E<s, so some of the child5centred

methods of the 'rimary school entered secondary education. (9amination at the age of 3E also 'ermitted choice0 from 34G<, the ,eneral Certificate of (ducation 7,C(8 Ordinary )e$el could "e a!arded for 'asses in any num"er of su"#ects. Students concentrated on areas in !hich they !ere strong and ignored others. In the u''er secondary school, the ,C( *d$anced )e$el !as ta1en only in the t!o or three 7occasionally four8 su"#ects re%uired to enter higher education. S'ecialization 'roduced high standards in a limited range of su"#ects, "ut a lac1 of "readth, so that $ery fe! students !ould ha$e studied more than t!o of (nglish, a foreign language, mathematics, and a science after the age of 3E. Hocational education !as not 'ro$ided in the mainstream u''er secondary school system. The National Curriculum, introduced follo!ing the 34?? (ducation Reform *ct "y the Conser$ati$e go$ernment, a''lies to the G5to53E age grou'. The idea had "een 'ro'osed "y a )a"our go$ernment in 34IE, in res'onse to arguments that it !ould ensure greater e$enness of standards "et!een schools and !ould meet the national need for young 'eo'le !ith "roader s1ills. The 34?? *ct lin1ed the National Curriculum to a 'lan of national assessment to allo! 'arents, as customers, to #udge and choose "et!een schools to !hich to send their children. The (nglish National Curriculum differs from that of other countries "ecause it is dri$en "y assessment, rather than aims. The content of each of the ten su"#ects is e9'ressed in the 1no!ledge and s1ill a student should ac%uire at a 'articular age. Ten attainment le$els are esta"lished for each su"#ect. :or e9am'le, the a$erage I5year5old child !ould "e e9'ected to reach le$el ; in each su"#ect and an 335year5old child le$el B. *t the end of the four 1ey stages , students aged I, 33, 3B, and 3E are assessed "y national tests and the results made a$aila"le to 'arents, !hile those for the school are 'u"lished nationally. The )a"our go$ernment elected in 344I did not alter the general 'rinci'les of the 34?? National Curriculum. It recognized that raising "asic literacy and numeracy s1ills is essential to further attainment and introduced the com'ulsory literacy hour and numeracy hour in 'rimary schools in 344?53444. The Curriculum ;<<< consisted mainly of the re$ision of the content of indi$idual su"#ects. The 'rinci'al change is the introduction of Citizenshi' as a com'ulsory su"#ect from ;<<;2an inno$ation that "rings (ngland and 6ales closer to the long5esta"lished 'ractices of "oth the United States and :rance. Some older (nglish traditions sur$i$e. Unli1e most other countries, there is no recommendation on the hours that are s'ent on each su"#ect so that schools ha$e the freedom to introduce additional themes. Students do not ha$e to re'eat classes. The o$erloading associated !ith all national curricula !as reduced in 344B "y ma1ing su"#ects such as +istory, ,eogra'hy, *rt and Design, and -usic o'tional for 3B5 to 3E5year olds. The u''er secondary curriculum !as not affected "y the changes of 34??. In 344; a system of e%ui$alences !as introduced "et!een * le$els and $ocational courses 7National Hocational Jualifications, NHJs8. ,eneral National Hocational Jualifications 7,NHJs8 aim to "ridge the ga' "et!een the general and $ocational curriculum. NHJs and ,NHJs at le$el D each 'ermit entry to higher education. In ;<<< a "roader u''er secondary curriculum !as introduced. The * le$el "ecame a t!o5stage course. The *d$anced Su"sidiary 7*S8 le$el course !as de$oted to a !ider range of su"#ects 7normally fi$e8 and !as com'leted "y an e9ternal e9amination at the end of one year. Students

could com"ine *S le$els !ith ,NHJs or could transfer to ,NHJs or other courses rather than continuing !ith three * le$el units 71no!n as the *;8 in the second year. The National Curriculum originally a''lied to (ngland and 6ales. -odified $ersions !ere later a''lied to Scotland and Northern Ireland. The change !as less dramatic in Scotland, !here a tradition of a more encyclo'edic and rational curriculum had "een entrenched for centuries. H T+( CURRICU)U- IN OT+(R COUNTRI(S The demands for measura"le standards of attainment ha$e "een found in all countries since the early 34?<s. +o!e$er, curriculum arrangements $ary considera"ly "et!een the e9tremes of centralized encyclo'edism to a local 'ragmatism or indi$idualism. .articular cultural, economic, and 'olitical factors affect each country. The Re'u"lic of Ireland is an e9am'le of a country that had a curriculum influenced "y (ngland, "ut !hich ne$er em"ar1ed u'on the e9treme localism and indi$idualism of the (nglish system in the mid5;<th century. * more natural "alance "et!een national and local demands has "een maintained, though, as in (ngland, technical5$ocational education at u''er secondary le$el remains a some!hat neglected area. *ustralia, des'ite the Aritish origins of many of its 'eo'le, is closer to the localism and 'ragmatism of the United States. (ach of its si9 states is autonomous and decides its o!n curriculum. -ost 'ermit schools to decide the details of the curriculum, !ith only "road recommendations coming from the state go$ernment. * formal, standard, su"#ect5"ased curriculum is stronger at u''er secondary le$el, !here e9ternal e9aminations 'redominate in some states, though teacher assessment is greater in others. The 'ragmatism of a 'ioneer 'eo'le in *ustralia is shared !ith Ne! Kealand. *reas of student e9'erience are therefore stressed more than su"#ects. The Ne! Kealand national curriculum statement of 34?? listed areas of rele$ant student e9'erience such as li$ing in society and health and !ell5"eing . Teachers, 'arents, students, and the local community !ere gi$en the collecti$e res'onsi"ility for the curriculum for each school. *s in *ustralia, there is also concern for a curriculum that !ill res'ect the heritage of the indigenous 'eo'les. In federal systems such as India, the curriculum is decided at state le$el. *lso in India, ho!e$er, are some schools that still follo! the $illage5centred craft5oriented "asic education of -ohandas ,andhi. In -alaysia, Singa'ore, and +ong Cong centralized curricula 're$ail, though in each country the language of instruction differs "et!een schools and ethnic communities. In South *frica, a (uro'ean5*merican curriculum !as 'ro$ided for !hites and a much more restricted range of learning for other races. .olitical change has 'roduced a search for a common curriculum, "ut at the same time one that !ill res'ect the heritage and the as'irations of each community. (astern (uro'ean curriculum change has "een in the o''osite direction to Aritain. Under Communist go$ernments, curricula !ere e$en more standardized, rationalist, and scientific than that of :rance. Students !ere re%uired to reach minimum standards and their 'arents faced 'unishments for the failings of their children. Since the 'olitical changes of the late 34?<s, education 'olicies ha$e encouraged student indi$iduality, ho!e$er, and the study of the

humanities, though old 'ractices are slo! in dying in the face of traditional attitudes of teachers and 'arents. HI :OR-S O: CURRICU)* The range of different a''roaches to the curriculum reflects the history, 'olitics, and culture of each country. /et there are also common glo"al demands. ($ery!here the need is recognized for "asic standards of achie$ement "oth to 're'are students for occu'ations in high5technology economies and to ensure that education does not 'roduce disad$antaged underclasses. There are 'ressures, then, for a common and often national curriculum. On the other hand, the range of cultural5social "ac1grounds of students and the di$ersity of their 'ersonal as'irations encourage a more indi$idualized or local curriculum. (ach country see1s a com'romise that !ill "e consistent "oth !ith traditions and 'erce'tions of the future. Contri"uted Ay0 -artin -c)ean -icrosoft L (ncarta L (ncyclo'edia ;<<;. M 344D5;<<3 -icrosoft Cor'oration. *ll rights reser$ed.