The Making of a City of Culture: William Roscoe's Liverpool

John C. Whale
Eighteenth-Century Life, Volume 29, Number 2, Spring 2005, pp. 91-107
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Published by Duke University Press
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The Making of a City of Culture:

William Roscoes Liverpool
John !hale
Univcrsity ol Lccds
I
n Junc acc Livcrpool won thc nomination to bc uropcan Capi
tal ol Culturc in acc. !n this cssay, ! locus on thc rolc ol Villiam Ros
coc (., ..) as an organizcr, patron, and supportcr ol thc arts in thc
samc city somc two hundrcd ycars carlicr.
1
Thc ninctccnthccntury lcgacy
ol Roscoc and his associatcs is visiblc in Livcrpool today as it makcs its
twcntyrstccntury bid lor culturc undcr thc slogan Thc Vorld in nc
City.
2
Undcr thc watchwords crcatc, participatc, and rcgcncratc, thc
succcsslul application promiscd a ncw cxprcssion ol twcntyrstccntury
8ritish culturc, a culturc dcncd through participation, and a city madc
wholc through cultural cxprcssion.
3
cspitc its comparably patrician con
ccntration on thc arts, Roscocs own lashioning ol a latc Gcorgian city ol
culturc is also, as wc shall scc, intcrnationalist and various in its naturc. At
thc lorclront ol a group ol libcral, mostly disscnting, intcllcctuals and mcr
chants in this rapidly cxpanding Atlantic scaport that by thc sccond hall
ol thc cightccnth ccntury had bccomc hcavily involvcd in thc slavc tradc,
Roscoc crcatcd widcranging projccts that providc an illuminating cxamplc
ol how commcrcc, cducation, and thc nc arts could combinc succcsslully
cvcn in a politically conictcd cnvironmcnt. As an abolitionist Unitarian,
Roscoc was oltcn in robust, somctimcs violcnt, conict with thc domi
Eighteenth-Century Life
\olumc a, Numbcr a, Spring acc acc by ukc Univcrsity Prcss
9 1
nant commcrcial and political lorccs ol his homc town.
4
!n thcsc rcspccts,
his institutionalization ol thc arts in Livcrpool providcd a usclul modcl
lor Amcrican admircrs laccd with similar challcngcs in thcir own rapidly
cxpanding castcrn citics.
Accounts ol Roscocs cultural milicu havc variously tcrmcd it a cotc
ric, cvcn a salon.
5
!n his immcdiatc circlc wcrc Jamcs Curric (.,6 .c),
a mcdical practitioncr who produccd an cdition and a biography ol 8urns,
Villiam Rathbonc (.,, .c), a mcmbcr ol onc ol thc towns wcalth
icst Quakcr mcrchant lamilics, and thc Rcvcrcnd Villiam Shcphcrd
(.,6 .,), who prcsidcd at thc Unitarian Chapcl in Gatcacrc. Anothcr
ol his closc associatcs was Thomas Traill (.,. .6a), cditor ol thc cighth
cdition ol thc Encyclopaedia Britannica, who also playcd an important rolc
in cstablishing thc Athcnacum Club and thc Livcrpool Royal !nstitution.
Although this cssay locuscs on Roscocs most cclcbratcd and, at timcs,
sccmingly prccmincnt rolc in Livcrpools cultural activitics, thc inucncc
ol this grouping ol libcral and likcmindcd intcllcctuals should not bc
undcrcstimatcd.
Two vcry dicrcntly incctcd carlyninctccnthccntury litcrary dcscrip
tions ol Roscocs rolc in thc cultural history ol Livcrpool arc providcd by
Thomas dc Quinccy and Vashington !rving. c Quinccys lorms thc Lit
crary Conncxions or Acquaintanccs part ol his utobiography of an En glish
Opium-Eater, publishcd by Taits Maga.ine in .,. !t is an aggrcssivc and
not altogcthcr rcliablc dcscription, writtcn with thc rctrospcct ol morc than
thirty ycars and colorcd by his bclligcrcnt Toryism, ol his bricl introduction
as a prccocious tccnagcr to a Vhig cotcric that hc bclittlcs on thc politi
cal lront by comparison with 8urkc and ridiculcs on thc litcrary lront lor
its supposcdly outdatcd, prcVordsworthian tastc in poctry.
6
Vashington
!rvings much morc cclcbratory account lorms part ol The Sketch Book of
Georey Crayon, Gent (z8z, :c) that, undcr covcr ol its pscudonym, rccounts
cxpcricnccs ol a voyagc to uropc bctwccn .. and ... Crayon dcscribcs
his arrival at thc port ol Livcrpool and his chancc cncountcr with its lorc
most litcrary cclcbrity who is charactcristically cnsconccd in his homc tcrri
tory ol thc Athcnacum Club:
As ! was oncc visiting this haunt ol thc lcarncd my attcntion was attractcd
to a pcrson just cntcring thc room. Hc was advanccd in lilc, tall, and ol
a lorm that might oncc havc bccn commanding, but it was a littlc bowcd
by timc pcrhaps by carc. Hc had a noblc Roman stylc ol countcnancc, a
hcad that would havc plcascd a paintcr, and though somc slight lurrows on
9 2 Eighteenth-Century Life
Vi l l i am Roscocs Li vcr pool 9 3
his brow shcwcd that wasting thought had bccn busy thcrc, yct his cyc still
bcamcd with thc rc ol a poctic soul. Thcrc was somcthing in thc wholc
appcarancc that indicatcd a bcing ol a dicrcnt ordcr lrom thc bustling
racc around him.
! inquircd his namc and was inlormcd that it was Roscoc. ! drcw
back with an involuntary lccling ol vcncration. This thcn was an Author
ol cclcbrity, this was onc ol thosc mcn, whosc voiccs havc gonc lorth
to thc cnds ol thc carth, with whosc minds ! havc communcd cvcn in
thc solitudcs ol Amcrica. Accustomcd as wc arc in our country to know
uropcan writcrs only by thcir works, wc cannot conccivc ol thcm, as ol
othcr mcn, cngrosscd by trivial or sordid pursuits, and jostling with thc
crowd ol common minds in thc dusty paths ol lilc. Thcy pass bclorc our
imaginations likc supcrior bcings, radiant with thc cmanations ol thcir
gcnius, and surroundcd by a halo ol litcrary glory.
7
!rvings initial rcsponsc to litcrary cclcbrity is to vicw it as thc cmbodimcnt
ol individual gcnius. Vc sccm to bc promiscd a protoromantic account ol
Roscoc as a solitary, giltcd individual at odds with trivial or sordid pur
suits and thc crowd ol common minds. Vhat sounds likc a story ol dis
advantagc ovcrcomc, howcvcr, turns into a particularly pointcd intcgration
ol acsthctics and cconomics. As thc portrait ol cclcbrity continucs, it bcgins
to dcnc Roscoc as thc product ol his surroundings and to articulatc thc
importancc ol his cxamplc in spccically transatlantic tcrms. !rvings attcn
tion appcars to bc rmly locuscd on thc comparison with thc lastdcvcloping
ports on thc castcrn scaboard ol thc Unitcd Statcs. Vhat hc sccs is an cmi
ncntly suitablc uropcan modcl ol how commcrcc and thc arts can work
happily togcthcr. Thc valuc ol Roscoc lics prcciscly in thc lact that hc is
not a uniquc gcnius whosc work cannot bc rcproduccd, but a promotcr and
organizcr ol arts institutions:
To nd, thcrclorc, thc clcgant historian ol thc Mcdici, mingling among
thc busy sons ol tra c at rst shockcd my poctical idcas, but it is lrom thc
vcry circumstanccs and situation in which hc has bccn placcd, that Mr.
Roscoc dcrivcs his highcst claims to admiration. . . .
. . . 8orn in a placc apparcntly ungcnial to thc growth ol litcrary
talcnt, in thc vcry markct placc ol tradc, without lortunc, lamily
conncxions or patronagc, scll promptcd, scll sustaincd and almost scll
taught, hc has conqucrcd cvcry obstaclc, achicvcd his way to cmincncc, and
having bccomc onc ol thc ornamcnts ol thc nation, has turncd thc wholc
lorcc ol his talcnts and inucncc to advancc and cmbcllish his nativc town.
. . . 8ut his privatc lilc is pcculiarly worthy thc attcntion ol thc
citizcns ol our young and busy country, whcrc litcraturc and thc clcgant
9 4 Eighteenth-Century Life
arts must grow up sidc by sidc with thc coarscr plants ol daily ncccssity,
and must dcpcnd lor thcir culturc, not on thc cxclusivc dcvotion ol timc
and wcalth, nor thc quickcning rays ol titlcd patronagc, but on hours and
scasons snatchcd lrom thc pursuit ol worldly intcrcsts, by intclligcnt and
public spiritcd individuals.
Hc has shown how much may bc donc lor a placc in hours ol lcisurc,
by onc mastcr spirit, and how complctcly it can givc its own imprcss to
surrounding objccts. Likc his own Lorcnzo c Mcdici, on whom hc sccms
to havc xcd his cyc as on a purc modcl ol antiquity, hc has intcrwovcn
thc history ol his lilc with thc history ol his nativc town. Vhcrcvcr you go
in Livcrpool you pcrccivc traccs ol his lootstcps in all that is clcgant and
libcral. (a.)
!rvings account is alcrt to thc scllmadc naturc ol Roscocs achicvcmcnt
and hclplully pcrccptivc in highlighting his rolc in dcvcloping structurcs
and organizations that can rcach bcyond thc individual.
Roscocs importancc to thc cntcrprisc ol culturc in latccightccnth
ccntury and carlyninctccnthccntury Livcrpool can bc mcasurcd by his
involvcmcnt in a numbcr ol rclatcd projccts: thc Livcrpool Socicty lor Pro
moting Painting and csign (which hcld cxhibitions in ., and .,,),
thc Athcnacum Club, thc Litcrary and Philosophical Socicty, thc Livcr
pool Library, thc 8otanic Gardcn that opcncd in .ca, and thc Livcrpool
Royal !nstitution, opcncd in ..,.
8
Thc Livcrpool Royal !nstitution bcst
charactcrizcs Roscocs vision ol thc arts. !t rcprcscnts thc culmination and
consolidation ol his various projccts, incorporating within onc organiza
tion lacilitics and opportunitics lor art, litcraturc, scicncc, and cducation.
9

According to its prcsidcnt in thc carly .acs, 8. A. Hcywood, thc idca lor
such an institution had bccn around sincc thc .,,cs and an acadcmy lor
thc promotion ol scicncc and nc arts had thcn opcncd in Livcrpool, only
to closc shortly altcrwards lor want ol cncouragcmcnt. Thc vcry com
prchcnsivc naturc ol thc !nstitution, thc grcat varicty and cxtcnt ol its
objccts, sccms to havc bccn sccn as somcthing ol a risk, but onc takcn on
thc undcrstanding that it was possiblc lor thc arts and scicncc to providc
mutual guidancc and support. As cvcr, thc commcrcial point ol vicw
was an intcgral part ol thc cntcrprisc in which thc cultivation ol thc nc
arts may bc considcrcd as supplying a sourcc ol cmploymcnt and incrcas
ing thc stock ol productivc labour.
10
Thc dcgrcc to which Roscoc was synonymous as !rvings account
suggcsts with thc aspirant cultural organization ol his homc town also
points to a ccrtain vulncrability in its structurc. Roscoc and his collcagucs
Vi l l i am Roscocs Li vcr pool 9 5
sccm to havc bccn acutcly awarc ol thc dangcr ol such cntcrpriscs rcsting
solcly on thc corts ol an individual, no mattcr how talcntcd and cncrgctic
hc might bc. Thc prccariousncss ol his promincncc in most ol thcsc orga
nizations was somcthing that contributcd to thc lounding ol thc Livcrpool
Royal !nstitution in ..,. !ts cstablishmcnt was thought ol as sccuring thc
luturc ol thc divcrsc cntcrpriscs in which hc had oltcn takcn thc lcad. n
his dcath in .a thc addrcss ol thc gcncral mccting ol proprictors by thc
Rcvcrcnd Jonathan 8rooks in Fcbruary ol that ycar condcntly prcdicts
that, dcspitc his bcing takcn lrom us, . . . thc litcraturc ol Roscoc will long
bc associatcd with thc commcrcial opulcncc ol Livcrpool and that prc
ciscly bccausc ol his succcsslul contribution . . . in cstablishing institutions
lor promoting litcraturc and thc arts, . . . altcr agcs will long continuc to
discovcr his guiding hand in thc many monumcnts ol improvcmcnt and
cxquisitc tastc which hc has lclt bchind.
11
Thc idcntity ol Livcrpools cmcrgcnt cultural institutions is dctcr
mincd in part by its prospcrous commcrcial naturc. Vhat charactcrizcs thc
various statcmcnts about thc institutions is thc condcnt and lrcqucntly
asscrtcd symbiosis ol commcrcc and thc nc arts.
12
Thc impctus to institu
tionalizc also sccms to bc produccd out ol thc bclicl that disscminating thc
bcncts ol thc arts to as widc a public as possiblc will bc productivc both
acsthctically and cconomically.
Roscocs ddress, deli.ered before the Proprietors of the Botanic Garden, in
Li.erpool, pre.ious to opening the Garden, May z8c: is indicativc in a num
bcr ol ways ol thc principlcs and prcssurcs inlorming his idca ol an arts
institution. Altcr paying tributc to thc unanimity, spirit, and libcrality
ol thosc who havc committcd lunds as proprictors, hc lccls it ncccssary to
justily thc projcct no lcss to |thc| public than to oursclvcs. Thcrc lollows
a lcngthy dclcnsc against thc idca that botany might bc sccn as a triing
cmploymcnt, and thc rst vindication comcs in thc lorm ol cvidcncc ol
divinc crcation or, as Roscoc puts it in kccping with his dcvout Unitari
anism, dccisivc and ocular dcmonstration . . . and unanswcrablc prool ol
thc cxistcncc, thc wisdom, and goodncss ol God.
13
This is latcr supportcd
by a morc worldly cducational conccrn: that thc disciplincd and rcgulatcd
obscrvation ol naturc cncouragcs thc inculcation ol habits ol ordcr and
arrangcmcnt dccmcd propcr lor youth. Morc particularly, this prompts
Roscoc to think ol onc ol his lavoritc idcas: that a skill can bc spccializcd
to thc dcgrcc that it challcngcs or at lcast qucstions traditional notions ol
gcnius. For cxamplc, thc visual powcrs ol obscrvation and discrimination
9 6 Eighteenth-Century Life
ncccssary in botany lcad him to considcr not only thc cxccptionally pcn
ctrating vision ol Linnacus, but also thc compcnsatory spccialization ol
onc Mr Gough lrom Kcndal who, although wholly dcprivcd ol sight,
has improvcd his othcr scnscs, his touch, his smcll, and his tastc, to such
an cxtcnt, as to distinguish all thc nativc plants ol this country, with an
accuracy not attaincd by many ol thosc who havc thc advantagcs ol sight,
and which justly cntitlcs him to rank with thc rst botanists ol thc king
dom (.6 .). Thc powcr ol a limitcd, but acutc skill is somcthing that
lascinatcs him throughout his carccr and is cvidcnt as much in his cham
pioning ol thc powcrlul Lorcnzo di Mcdici, as wc shall scc, as in his curi
osity and support lor thc Vclsh shcrman turncd multilinguist, Richard
Robcrts Joncs.
14
!n addition to ocring thcsc tangcntial cducational opportunitics, thc
gardcn itscll is also gcarcd to social utility with many ol thc plants choscn
lor and dcncd by thcir mcdicinal and agricultural usclulncss. Thc main
idca ol social utility in this instancc, howcvcr, lics in thc vcry lact ol thc
8otanic Gardcn bcing a public institution rathcr than a privatc collcc
tion. n this rcsts its capacity not only lor acccssibility, but lor disscmi
nation, and as wc havc sccn in Vashington !rvings account, its powcrlul
ability to cncouragc imitation:
Thc grcat supcriority ol a public institution ovcr a privatc collcction,
in promoting botanical scicnccs, will bc su cicntly apparcnt, lrom thc
considcration, that thc lattcr dcpcnds upon thc tastc, thc nanccs, or
thc capricc ol an individual, and il it bc cncouragcd and lostcrcd during
his lilc, is lrcqucntly dispcrscd at his dcath. . . . That privatc collcctions
arc in gcncral ol di cult acccss, whcrcas thc vcry cnd and objcct ol our
cstablishmcnt is to rcndcr it as cxtcnsivcly usclul as possiblc. Thc joint
cncouragcmcnt and patronagc ol so many ol whom havc conncxions in
lorcign parts, which may cnablc thcm to rcndcr this inlant institution
thc most csscntial scrviccs, ccrtainly aord us thc most attcring
prospccts ol succcss. And it is with plcasurc ! can communicatc to you,
that this cxamplc has alrcady cxcitcd a spirit ol cmulation in somc ol thc
principal towns ol thc kingdom, whcrc proposals havc bccn publishcd lor
institutions on a similar plan. Thc intcrcoursc to which it is to bc hopcd
thcsc cstablishmcnts will givc risc, and thc lrcc communication ol cvcry
intcrcsting discovcry or improvcmcnt, cannot lail ol diusing a morc
gcncral attcntion to studics ol this naturc, and cvcntually ol contributing
in a high dcgrcc to thc wcllarc ol thc community at largc. (Roscoc, Botanic
Garden, a .)
Vi l l i am Roscocs Li vcr pool 9 7
Livcrpools situation as a ccntcr lor intcrnational tradc, its conncxions with
lorcign parts, makc it sccm almost providcntially suitcd to scrvc as thc
cxcmplum lor thc institutionalization and disscmination ol this particular
lorm ol knowlcdgc. 8ut such a positivc vision ol thc ports rolc in a progrcs
sivist, mcrcantilc history and its conncction with thc prool ol thc cxistcncc,
thc wisdom and thc goodncss ol God was not always possiblc lor Roscoc.
Thc commcrcial prospcrity ol his homc town was, most obviously, impli
catcd in thc Atlantic slavc tradc, and his conccrtcd and sustaincd promotion
ol cnlightcncd cultural cntcrprisc throughout his carccr might bc construcd,
at lcast in part, as an attcmpt at historical rcdcmption, at thc vcry lcast as an
attcmpt to turn tradc to morc positivc moral account.
15
Thc di culty laccd by Roscoc in joining Livcrpools rising commcr
cial prospcrity with a libcral progrcssivcncss in thc arts can bcst bc sccn in
his mcditativc, locodcscriptivc pocm, Mount Plcasant, writtcn at thc
agc ol ninctccn, but not publishcd until .,,,, which uscs thc prospcct ol his
nativc hamlct on an cmincncc abovc thc lastgrowing port in ordcr to ocr
a critiquc ol commcrcc, luxury, and thc slavc tradc. Though cnamorcd ol
Livcrpool, Roscocs pocm is prcdicatcd lrom its outsct on rural rctrcat and
pastoral critiquc, aligning itscll with Popcs Vindsor Forcst (.,.), John
ycrs Grongar Hill (.,a6), and Richard Jagos dgchill (.,6,). Vith
lcarlul lascination, it ocrs a sccnc ol busy industry on thc banks ol thc
rivcr Mcrscy:
How numcrous now hcr thronging buildings risc!
Vhat varicd objccts strikc thc wandcring cycs!
Vhcrc risc yon masts hcr crowdcd navics ridc,
And thc broad rampirc chccks thc bcating tidc,
Along thc bcach hcr spacious strccts cxtcnd,
Hcr arcas opcn, and hcr spircs asccnd,
!n loud conlusion minglcd sounds arisc,
Thc docks rccchoing with thc scamans crics,
Thc massy hammcr sounding lrom alar,
Thc bcll slowtolling, and thc rattling car,
And thundcring olt thc cannons horrid roar,
!n lcsscning cchocs dics along thc shorc. (ll. a. a)
16
Though hc marvcls and approvcs such signs ol cncrgy and cntcrprisc, thc
narrators cnthusiasm lor thc commcrcial spirit is mitigatcd by thc rural
cscapc ocrcd in thc nostalgic opcning lincs: Frccd lrom thc carcs that
9 8 Eighteenth-Century Life
daily throng my brcast, / Again, bcncath my nativc shadcs ! rcst. Roscoc
opcratcs at a slight, but signicant rcmovc lrom thc ccntcr. And this gco
graphical positioning mirrors his scnsc ol thc acsthctic that dcrivcs lrom
commcrcc, but that constitutcs itscll as lcisurc. Likc many othcr similar
pocms, Mount Plcasant uscs thc historical pcrspcctivc ol thc ruin ol
cmpircs to invokc thc nccd lor cthical tradc. Not surprisingly, thc grcat
cst disturbancc to thc pocms cclcbration ol his nativc town is providcd by
slavcry, and thc pocms lcast convincing mancuvcr is thc way it movcs into
a cataloguc ol Livcrpools cultural achicvcmcnts. Typically, thcsc consist ol
cultural institutions in thc widcst civic scnsc: thc opcning ol thc Thcatrc
Royal as a rcsult ol subscriptions, thc public inrmary, thc almshouscs, and
thc 8luccoat Hospital lor orphans. Vhilc thc pocm outlincs a prclcrrcd,
hcalthy lorm ol commcrcc, it ocrs no commcnt on thc way in which such
achicvcmcnts might bc taintcd by collusion with thc worst tradc ol all. Thc
pridc ol Mcrscys spacious tidc riscs, according to this middlc passagc ol
thc pocm, bccausc thc ARTS havc hcrc choscn thcir blcst rctrcat (ll. ,,
,6). Providcncc, cconomic progrcss, and thc cthical possibility ol history
arc hcrc prcscnt in uncasy and undcncd combination.
II
Roscocs main claim to lamc, as Vashington !rving rccognizcd in ..,
was his Life of Loren.o de Medici, rst publishcd in two volumcs in .,6,
a historical biography whosc subjcct is a giltcd individuals ccntral rolc in
thc promotion ol thc arts in a city rcpublic.
17
His account cmphasizcs thc
importancc ol pcacc lor thc dcvclopmcnt ol tradc and thc nontyrannical,
strongly rcprcscntativc naturc ol govcrnmcnt in thc ourishing ol thc arts.
!mprovcmcnt works in conjunction with a principlc ol rational libcrty.
Lorcnzos achicvcmcnts arc brought about by thc authority ol rcason
rathcr than thc lorcc ol tyranny, and his strcngths, according to Roscoc,
arc prudcncc and modcration, thc two charactcristics that allow gcncral
cultural improvcmcnt to takc placc. Lorcnzos importancc lics not in bcing
an original gcnius in his own right (though Roscoc, as cvcr, is conccrncd
by thc varicty ol gcniuss manilcstations), but rathcr in his sctting up ol thc
cultural institutions lrom which art can bc gcncratcd. Lcarncd socictics
and librarics, Roscoc strcsscs, arc thc sccds lor thc owcring ol this !talian
Rcnaissancc city ol culturc. !n this way, Lorcnzo can justiably bc tcrmcd
Vi l l i am Roscocs Li vcr pool 9 9
a bcncccnt gcnius whosc urbanity pcrmcatcs through thc ranks ol
socicty whilc gcncrally improving and rclorming tastc.
18
!n thc prclacc to his biography, Roscoc dcncs thc idca that scizcd his
imagination:
!n tracing thc risc ol modcrn litcraturc, ! soon pcrccivcd that cvcry thing
grcat and cstimablc in scicncc and in art, rcvolvcd round Lorcnzo dc
Mcdici, during thc short but splcndid acra ol his lilc, as a common ccntrc,
and dcrivcd lrom him its invariablc prcscrvation and support. (.:xv)
Thc naturc ol Roscocs improvcmcnts can bc gaugcd lrom his portrait ol
Lorcnzo as somconc who distinctly saw thc bcacon ol thc public wcllarc
through thc thick mist ol popular lcars and prcjudiccs (a:a6). Thc morc
gcncral social utility, howcvcr, sits uncasily alongsidc thc notion ol gcnius.
Ncar thc cnd ol thc rst volumc ol thc biography, Roscoc claims that tal
cnt may lollow and improvc, cmulation and industry may polish and rcnc,
but gcnius alonc can brcak thosc barricrs that rcstrain thc throng ol man
kind in thc common track ol lilc (.:.c). Yct hc is lorccd to admit that
gcnius assimilatcs not with thc charactcr ol thc agc. Homcr and Shakc
spcarc havc no imitators, and arc no modcls. Thc cxamplc ol such tal
cnts, hc spcculatcs, is pcrhaps upon thc wholc unlavourablc to thc gcn
cral progrcss ol improvcmcnt, and thc supcrlativc abilitics ol a lcw, havc
morc than oncc dampcd thc ardour ol a nation (a:). Vith this in mind,
hc is lorccd to makc out a spccial casc lor Michclangclos gcnius as onc that
was pcculiarly susccptiblc to popular cmulation.
19
Roscoc dcscribcs Lorcnzos projcct as working with contcmporary
artists in ordcr to cxcitc among thcm, il possiblc, a bcttcr tastc and to
clcvatc thcir vicws bcyond thc lorms ol common lilc, to thc contcmpla
tion ol that idcal bcauty which alonc distinguishcs works ol art lrom mcrc
mcchanical productions (.:.6c). To this cnd, hc cstablishcs a school or
acadcmy adjaccnt to thc monastcry ol San Marco, and it is to this institu
tion, according to Roscoc, that morc than any othcr circumstanccs, wc
may, without hcsitation, ascribc thc suddcn and astonishing procicncy,
towards thc closc ol thc ltccnth ccntury, which took placc in thc arts,
and which commcncing at Florcncc, cxtcndcd itscll in conccntric circlcs to
thc rcst ol uropc (a:ac. ca). vcn thc Rcnaissancc, thcn, hcrc dcscribcd
rathcr awkwardly as manilcsting astonishing procicncy, Roscoc cxplains
in tcrms ol thc institutionalization ol art.
1 0 0 Eighteenth-Century Life
At thc cnd ol thc biography, Lorcnzo lcads Roscoc to a nal rcconsid
cration ol thc idca ol gcnius:
Thus dicd Lorcnzo dc Mcdici, a man who may bc sclcctcd lrom all
thc charactcrs ol ancicnt and modcrn history, as cxhibiting thc most
rcmarkablc instancc ol dcpth ol pcnctration, vcrsatility ol talcnt and
comprchcnsion ol mind. . . . !l thc powcrs ol thc mind arc to bcar down all
obstaclcs that opposc thcir progrcss, it sccms ncccssary that thcy should
swccp along in somc ccrtain coursc, and in onc collcctcd mass. Vhat
thcn, shall wc think ol that rich lountain which, whilst it was pourcd
out by so many dicrcnt channcls, owcd through cach with a lull and
cqual strcam: To bc absorbcd in onc pursuit, howcvcr important, is not
thc charactcristic ol thc highcr class ol gcnius, which, picrcing through
thc various combinations and rclations ol surrounding circumstanccs,
sccs all things in thcir just dimcnsions, and attributcs to cach its duc. l
thc various occupations in which Lorcnzo was cngagcd, thcrc is not onc
in which hc was not cmincntly succcsslul, but hc was most particularly
distinguishcd in thosc which justly hold thc rst rank in human
cstimation. (a:ac .)
cspitc thc various institutions on which Roscoc has placcd so much
cmphasis, thc salutary history lcsson to bc lcarncd lrom ltccnthccntury
Florcncc is that having an individual as thc common ccntrc or rich loun
tain ol thc citys cultural activity is prccarious. Vith thc dcath ol Lorcnzo
comcs suddcn dcclinc: All that thc assiduity and thc richcs ol Lorcnzo
and his anccstors had bccn ablc to accumulatc in hall a ccntury, was dis
sipatcd or dcmolishcd in a day (a:a). Lorcnzo di Mcdicis individualism
also ocrs a pcrtincnt rcmindcr ol Roscocs longtcrm commitmcnt to thc
lricnds ol pcacc: without thc political stability and powcr to guard against
war and intcrnal strilc, thc lragilc cdiccs ol thc arts and thc progrcss ol
thcir improvcmcnt arc soon laid wastc.
20
III
!n a discoursc dclivcrcd at thc Livcrpool Royal !nstitution in ..,, Roscoc
lays out in morc cxtcndcd lorm his principlcs rcgarding thc nc arts.
21

Most ttingly lor thc audicncc bclorc him, composcd as it was ol Livcr
pools notablc worthics, mcn making lortuncs cithcr dircctly in tradc or
morc indircctly as nancicrs likc himscll, Roscoc sccs thcsc arts as an intc
Vi l l i am Roscocs Li vcr pool 1 0 1
gral part ol thc commcrcial spirit, capablc ol producing thc wcalth ol thc
nation, il givcn thc opportunity by a statc ol gcncral tranquility, that is,
by thc abscncc ol war and a lack ol govcrnmcnt intcrlcrcncc. cspitc using
thc dcsignation nc arts, Roscoc rcluscs any conncction with luxury: lor
him, thcsc arts posscss an indispcnsablc utility. Vhcrc thcy arc discour
agcd, . . . no country must cxpcct to obtain its lull advantagc, cvcn in a
lucrativc point ol vicw, much lcss to arrivc at a high dcgrcc ol civilization
and prospcrity, and to signalizc itscll in thc annals ol mankind. !n Ros
cocs vision thc nc arts might rcquirc support (his word might bc culti
vation), but only bccausc, in thc long run, thcy would pay you back. Hc
writcs ol a rccupcrablc invcstmcnt, not ol subsidy:
!l you will protcct thc arts, thc arts will, and ought to rcmuncratc you.
To supposc that thcy arc to bc cncouragcd upon somc abstract and
disintcrcstcd plan, lrom which all idca ol utility shall bc cxcludcd, is to
supposc that a building can bc crcctcd without a loundation. Thcrc is not
a grcatcr crror, than to think that thc arts can subsist upon thc gcncrosity
ol thc public. Thcy arc willing to rcpay whatcvcr is dcvotcd to thcir
advantagc, but thcy will not bccomc slavcs. . . . Thc arts can only ourish
whcrc thcy command. . . . Vhat should wc think ol giving a prcmium to
thc author ol a worthlcss pocm, by way ol cncouraging poctry: (a.)
At thc hcart ol his discoursc is a scllconscious support lor what hc knows
to bc thc distinctly unlashionablc principlc ol utility. At this crucial stagc
in his argumcnt Roscoc lalls back on an dcnic pastoral and his idca ol
thc lullhandcd gilts ol thc Crcator in ordcr to justily thc prcscncc ol
plcasurc alongsidc improvcmcnt and rationality. Roscocs union ol utility
and thc nc arts conrms his bclicl in sclldctcrmination, thc capacity and
rcsponsibility ol choicc that is thc birthright ol our divincly cxaltcd status.
Taking philosophical support lrom ugald Stcwarts cxamplc ol a man
ol bcncvolcncc, hc givcs divinc authority to his union ol acsthctics and
cconomics: Utility and plcasurc arc thus bound togcthcr in an indissolu
blc chain, and what thc author ol naturc has joincd, lct no man put asun
dcr (a6). thics and commcrcc arc no longcr scparatc, as thcy wcrc in thc
youthlul prospcct pocm Mount Plcasant. Thc vulncrability ol lcisurc is
hcrc ovcrcomc with thc joining togcthcr ol bcncvolcnt scnsibility and scll
dctcrmination. Thc indissolublc chain ol utility and plcasurc lrccs Ros
coc lrom thc hcllish dctcrminism ol both gcography and history:
1 0 2 Eighteenth-Century Life
To supposc that thc human racc is subjcctcd to a ccrtain and invariablc law,
by which thcy continuc cithcr to dcgcncratc or to improvc, to prcsumc that
thc progrcss ol civilization, scicncc, and tastc, is limitcd to ccrtain climatcs
and tracts ol country or to adopt thc idca that whcn thcy havc ariscn to a
ccrtain dcgrcc ol cxccllcncc, thcy must, in thc common coursc ol aairs,
ncccssarily dcclinc, is to dcadcn all cxcrtion and to subjcct thc proccss ol
thc mind to thc opcrations ol incrt mattcr, or thc uctuations ol accidcnt
and chancc. xpcricncc howcvcr dcmonstratcs that it is to thc inucncc
ol moral causcs, to thcsc dispositions and arrangcmcnts in thc aairs ol
mankind that arc particularly within our own powcr, that wc arc to scck
lor thc rcasons ol thc progrcss or dcclinc ol libcral studics. (a6)
Vith this triumph ol thc divinc lorccs ol improvcmcnt, Roscoc can con
cludc his cclcbratory discoursc in thc condcncc that thc Royal !nstitu
tion can play a lull and intcgratcd rolc in thc lilc ol all ranks in his nativc
city, that it can join in thc phcnomcnal cxpansion ol Livcrpool into a city
ol culturc:
!t is to thc union ol thc pursuit ol litcraturc with aairs ol thc world,
that wc arc to look lorwards towards thc improvcmcnt ol both, towards
thc stability and loundation ol thc onc, and thc gracc and ornamcnt ol
thc othcr, and this union is most likcly to bc ccctcd by cstablishmcnts
in thc naturc ol thc prcscnt !nstitution, loundcd in thc midst ol a grcat
commcrcial community, and holding out opportunitics ol instruction,
not only to thosc intcndcd lor thc highcr and morc indcpcndcnt ranks ol
lilc, but lor thosc who, amidst thc dutics ol an activc prolcssion, or thc
cngagcmcnt ol mcrcantilc conccrns, wish to cultivatc thcir intcllcctual
powcrs and acquircmcnts. (a6)
IV
Vashington !rving was not thc only Amcrican to rccognizc Livcrpools
particular brand ol cultural cntcrprisc as onc that might bc wcll suitcd
to thc cxpanding citics on thc oppositc sidc ol thc Atlantic. Jcllcrson
rcspondcd positivcly to Roscocs dcscription ol thc Livcrpool Royal !nsti
tution in a lcttcr lrom Monticcllo datcd a, cccmbcr .ac, claiming that
your Livcrpool institution will also aid us in thc organization ol our ncw
Univcrsity, an cstablishmcnt now in progrcss in this statc, and to which
my rcmaining days and lacultics will bc dcvotcd. That this transatlan
tic intcrchangc was alrcady a twoway dialoguc is conrmcd by thc samc
Vi l l i am Roscocs Li vcr pool 1 0 3
lcttcrs rccognition ol Roscocs trcatisc on pcnal jurisprudcncc (bascd on
thc statc prisons ol Philadclphia, Ncw York, and Massachusctts) that Ros
coc had scnt him soon altcr publication in ... Jccrson rcad thc trcatisc
with grcat plcasurc, acknowlcdging that thc grcat light you havc thrown
on thc subjcct will . . . bc usclul to our cxpcrimcnt.
22
!n lact, Roscocs cor
rcspondcncc contains an imprcssivc list ol Amcrican contacts, including
Josiah Quincy, Mayor ol 8oston, and Louis wight, Sccrctary ol 8os
tons Prison isciplinc Socicty, as wcll as Gulian C. \crplanck and Samucl
Hopkins ol Ncw York, dward Livingston ol Louisiana, and Jamcs Mcasc
and Villiam Short ol Philadclphia. Thc cxtcnt ol this corrcspondcncc and
its cxchangc ol idcas, particularly but not cxclusivcly in thc arca ol pcnal
institutions, has lcd Kathcrinc Lloyd to dcscribc thc corrcspondcnts as a
community ol rclorm.
23
Roscocs achicvcmcnt might bc said to lic in his pcrccption that com
mcrcial cntcrprisc could work in tandcm with thc ourishing ol thc arts,
cspccially whcn locatcd in an institution that, though sponsorcd by privatc
subscription lunds, opcncd itscll up to widcr public usc. Thc cxamplc ol a
lastgrowing Atlantic port, considcrcd by many to bc rcmotc lrom thc pol
ishcd mctropolitan ccntcr ol London, must havc bccn appcaling to dcvcl
oping citics likc Ncw York and 8oston. Roscocs achicvcmcnt also providcs
an opportunity to vicw urban artistic production in thc Romantic pcriod
in a ncw light. 8chind his imprcssivcly widcranging cultural activitics is
a rccvaluation ol thc individuals rolc in thc arts and a signicant rcasscss
mcnt ol thc notion ol original gcnius producing discrctc works. Roscocs
crcativity consists ol acts ol organization, collcction, patronagc, and morc
gcncrally acccssiblc lorms ol public display and cducation. Through thcsc
activitics hc was ablc to opcratc succcsslully as thc prcsiding gcnius or
mastcr spirit, as Vashington !rving puts it in his portrait ol .. ol
Livcrpools cultural aspirations at thc bcginning ol thc ninctccnth ccn
tury. 8ccausc his idcas and activitics wcrc sccurcd in viablc institutions,
his inucncc could bc lclt strongly in thc city through thc ncxt ccntury and
a hall. As Livcrpool looks with rcncwcd aspirations towards its uropcan
Capital ol Culturc status in acc, Roscoc providcs a pcrtincnt cxamplc ol
how thc latc cightccnth ccntury attcmptcd to providc thc basis ol cnduring
cultural crcativity.
1 0 4 Eighteenth-Century Life
Notes
.. Scc Hcnry Roscoc, The Life of !illiam Foscoe, a vols. (London: T. Cadcll,
.), Gcorgc Chandlcr, !illiam Foscoe of Li.erpool, z, z8z (London: 8atslord,
.), onald A. Macnaughton, Foscoe of Li.erpool: His Life, !ritings, and Treasures,
z, z8z (8irkcnhcad: Countyvisc, .6), and J. 8. 8ullcn, The Myth of the
Fenaissance in Nineteenth-Century !riting (xlord: xlord Univ., .), .
a. Thc collcctions ol thc Valkcr Art Gallcry and thc Picton Library, now
Livcrpool Ccntral Library, wcrc bascd in part on Roscocs collcctions whcn hc was
lorccd to scll altcr bankruptcy in ... For thc Livcrpool Athcnacum Club and thc
Livcrpool Royal !nstitution, whosc archivcs arc now hcld within thc Univcrsity ol
Livcrpool, scc http://www.athcna.lorcc.co.uk and http://sca.lib.liv.ac.uk.
. For Livcrpools rcsponsc to thc nomination and its prcparations lor acc,
scc www.livcrpoolculturc.com. For thc tcrms, aims, and proccdurcs ol thc
nomination, scc www.culturc.gov.uk/global/publications/archivc_acc/captial_
culturc_rcport.htm.
. Scc F. . Sandcrson, Thc Livcrpool Abolitionists, in Li.erpool, the frican
Sla.e Trade, and bolition, cd. Rogcr Anstcy and P. . Hair (Livcrpool: Livcrpool
Univ., .,6), .6 a, and Gcorgc Chandlcr, !illiam Foscoe of Li.erpool, ..6.
Sandcrson also notcs thc covcrt naturc ol thc Livcrpool abolitionists activitics and
thc grcatcr dangcr ol thcir ovcrt sympathizing with thc Frcnch Rcvolution. Scymour
rcschcr, in Abolition: \alucs and Forccs in 8ritain lrom thc samc volumc,
charts thc changing climatc ol opinion lrom thc latc .,cs to .c, in which thc
humanitarian argumcnt ovcrtook thc cconomic onc and suggcsts a climatc in which
social and cthical rcspcctability might havc bccn sought indircctly in thc kind ol
cultural activity promotcd by Roscoc and his associatcs (.6, 6).
. Scc Nanora Swcct, Lorcnzos Livcrpool and Corinncs Coppct: Thc
!talianatc Salon and Romantic ducation, in Lessons of Fomanticism: Critical
Companion, cd. Thomas Plau and Robcrt F. Glcckncr (urham: ukc Univ., .),
a 6c, anicl Sanjiv Robcrts, Fe.isonary Gleam: De Quincey, Coleridge, and High
Fomantic rgument (Livcrpool: Livcrpool Univ., accc), ,6 a, and Kathcrinc
M. R. Lloyd, Peace, Politics, and Philanthropy: Henry Brougham, !illiam Foscoe and
merica, z8c8 z8o8 (unpublishcd Ph.. diss., xlord Univ., .6), , .a. Swcct
locuscs hclplully on a culturc ol iscstablishmcnt in thc Roscoc circlc and draws
attcntion to its intcrnationalist charactcr (a c).
6. Scc vol. .c ol !orks of Thomas De Quincey, cd. anicl Sanjiv Robcrts
(London: Pickcring and Chatto, .c a), ., 6, and Robcrts, Fe.isionary Gleam,
,6 a.
,. Vashington !rving, The Sketch Book of Georey Crayon, Gent, lrom The
Complete !orks of !ashington Ir.ing, cd. Harkcll Springcr (8oston: Twaync, .,), .6.
. Scc Fesolutions, Feports and Bye-La.s of the Li.erpool Foyal Institution,
z8z, March z8:: (Livcrpool, .aa), Hcnry A. rmcrod, The Li.erpool Foyal
Institution: Fecord and a Fetrospect (Livcrpool: Livcrpool Univ., .), and
A. T. 8rown, Some ccount of the Foyal Institution School Li.erpool .ith a Foll of
Masters and Boys (Livcrpool: Livcrpool Univ., .a).
Vi l l i am Roscocs Li vcr pool 1 0 5
. According to Hcnry A. rmcrod in Li.erpool Foyal Institution, Roscoc may
not havc bccn thc originator ol thc idca lor such an institution, but hc playcd a
lcading part in its activitics, hcld thc post ol prcsidcnt, and was a primc movcr in a
numbcr ol thc organizations that prcccdcd it: Thc Livcrpool Royal !nstitution was
loundcd by a group ol mcn, many ol thcm mcmbcrs ol Roscocs circlc, who at thc
cnd ol thc cightccnth and in thc carly ycars ol thc ninctccnth ccntury had bccn
largcly rcsponsiblc lor thc loundation ol such institutions as thc Athcnacum, thc
Lyccum, to which thc old Livcrpool Library was translcrrcd, thc 8otanic Gardcn,
and thc Litcrary and Philosophical Socicty. !n thc crcation ol all thcsc Roscoc
himscll had playcd an important part, and thc gcncral plan ol thc Royal !nstitution
itscll rcccts his widc intcrcsts in Art, Litcraturc, Scicncc and ducation. !l thc
original idca ol thc !nstitution was not Roscocs own, hc dcvotcd himscll at an carly
stagc to thc schcmc, bccoming Chairman ol thc gcncral Committcc in .. and thc
rst prcsidcnt in .aa, |and| thc inaugural addrcss at thc o cial opcning was
dclivcrcd by him on a Novcmbcr .., ().
.c. rmcrod, Li.erpool Foyal Institution, 6 ,, ., and a, rcspcctivcly.
... Jonathan 8rooks, ddress Deli.ered at the General Meeting of Proprietors of the
Li.erpool Foyal Institution, on the zcth February z8: by the Fe.. Jonathan Brooks, !ice
President (Livcrpool: gcrton Smith, .a), ..
.a. Scc 8. A. Hcywood, ddresses Deli.ered at the Meetings of the Proprietors
of the Li.erpool Foyal Institution, on :, February, z8::, and z February, z8:, by
B. . Hey.ood, Esq. President (Livcrpool: printcd lor Harris and Co., .a): Thc
alliancc ol cxtcndcd tradc with lcarning and thc arts is illustratcd by thc history ol
all agcs. Thc carlicst rccords ol scripturc history shcw thcir cocxistcncc in thc
commcrcial citics ol Phocnicia ( .c). Hcywood gocs on to quotc Gibbon and citcs
Roscocs gurc ol Lorcnzo di Mcdici in support ol his argumcnt.
.. Villiam Roscoc, n ddress, Deli.ered before the Proprietors of the Botanic
Garden, in Li.erpool, pre.ious to the opening the Garden, May , z8c:, to .hich are
added, the la.s of the institution, and a list of proprietors (Livcrpool: printcd by
J. MCrccry, .ca), , , and .., rcspcctivcly.
.. Scc Villiam Roscoc, Memoir of Fichard Foberts Jones, of berdaron, in the
county of Carnar.on, in North !ales; Exhibiting a Femarkable Instance of a Partial
Po.er and Culti.ation of Intellect (London: T. Cadcll and J. and A. Arch, .aa).
.. !n his Li.erpool nti-Sla.ery Society pamphlct, Declaration of the Objects of the
Li.erpool Society for Promoting the bolition of Sla.ery (Livcrpool: Jamcs Smith, .a),
Roscoc writcs: This Socicty is also induccd to hopc, that thc local advantagcs
incidcnt to a grcat commcrcial placc, and thc opportunitics it aords ol obtaining
inlormation rcspccting thc prcscnt statc ol slavcry in many parts ol thc world, and
particularly in thc 8ritish Colonics, and thc statcs ol North and South Amcrica, will
bc lound to conducc in a considcrablc dcgrcc to thc succcss ol thcir labours. Vith
such motivcs and cxpcctations, thcy havc cntcrcd upon thcir task, and imploring thc
lavour ol !\!N PR\!NC, procccd to statc thc motivcs by which thcy arc
guidcd, and thc objccts which it will bc thcir cndcavour to attain (,).
.6. Villiam Roscoc, Mount Plcasant |.,,,|, lrom Gcorgc Chandlcrs !illiam
Foscoe of Li.erpool, ll. a. a.
1 0 6 Eighteenth-Century Life
.,. Scc Villiam Roscoc, The Life of Loren.o de Medici; Called the Magnicent,
a vols. (London: A. Strahan, T. Cadcll jun. and V. avics, and J. dwards, .,6).
For an account ol thc rcccption aordcd by contcmporarics to Roscocs historical
biography, scc 8ullcn, Myth of the Fenaissance, . 8ullcn comparcs Roscocs lilc
ol Lorcnzo with that ol thc Swiss historian J. C. L. Simondc dc Sismondi, and,
whilc rccognizing that Roscocs tcxt had thc virtuc ol bcing cmincntly rcadablc, is
sharply critical ol its lack ol imaginativc brcadth, dctachcd cmpiricism, and
rsthand scholarship. 8ullcn also lamcnts thc dcgrcc to which Roscoc rcvcals his
own particular circumstanccs and his naivc rcliancc on wisc patcrnalism, libcral
humanism, and |a| bclicl in thc triumph ol lcarning ovcr commcrcc, ol rcasonablc
rcpublican govcrnmcnt, and ol scllimprovcmcnt (., ). !n drawing attcntion to
Roscocs labrication ol a myth ol bcnign individualism in Rcnaissancc Florcncc,
8ullcn undcrplays thc strong conncction bctwccn politics, commcrcc, and thc arts in
Roscocs vision ol culturc.
.. Villiam Roscoc, Life of Loren.o de Medici, .:a, a:.6c, a:.c, a:aa. Roscoc
makcs a similar casc lor Lorcnzo di Mcdicis son, Popc Lco X, in his sccond major
historical biography. Scc Villiam Roscoc, The Life and Ponticate of Leo the Tenth in
Four !olumes, vols. (London: T. Cadcll and V. avics, .c). Hcrc hc cmbarks on
anothcr history ol thc rcvival ol lcarning (ix) dcsigncd to unlold thc cvcr activc
ccct ol moral causcs on thc acquircmcnts and happincss ol a pcoplc and to raisc a
barricr against that torrcnt ol a corrupt and vitiatcd tastc that may oncc morc
ovcrwhclm thc cultivatcd nations ol uropc with barbarism and dcgradation
(xxxvi). To this cnd, hc cclcbratcs Lco X lor his municcnt cncouragcmcnt
aordcd to cvcry dcpartmcnt ol politc litcraturc and ol clcgant art (:.). Vhilc
conccding that his subjcct may not bc giltcd with thosc crcativc powcrs which arc
propcrly charactcrizcd by thc namc ol gcnius, Roscoc claims that, hc may justly bc
said to havc displaycd thc highcst spccics ol talcnt (:.a). As with thc casc ol
Lorcnzo di Mcdici, hc is kccn to cmphasizc that thc inucncc ol this highly giltcd
individual has bccn madc possiblc by a political contcxt conducivc to lrccdom ol
cnquiry and libcrty ol opinion(:).
.. Scc Roscoc, Life of Loren.o de Medici: Thc gcnius ol Michclangclo was a
lcavcn which was to opcratc on an immcnsc and hctcrogcncous mass, thc salt
intcndcd to givc a rclish to insipidity itscll, it was thcrclorc activc, pcnctrating,
cncrgctic, so not only ccctually to rcsist thc contagious cccts ol a dcpravcd tastc,
but to communicatc a portion ol its spirit to all around (a:ac).
ac. Scc J. . Cookson, The Friends of Peace: nti-!ar Liberalism in England,
z,, z8z (Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univ., .a), 6 ,, 66 c, aa. aa, a .
a.. Villiam Roscoc, On the Origin and !icissitudes of Literature, Science, and rt,
and Their Inuence on the Present State of Society. Discourse Deli.ered on the opening
of the Li.erpool Foyal Institution, : No.ember z8z, (London, Cadcll and avics,
..).
Vi l l i am Roscocs Li vcr pool 1 0 7
aa. Thc tcxt ol thc lcttcr is visiblc at thc Library ol Congrcss wcbsitc, having
bccn lcaturcd in its biccntcnary cxhibition ol Jccrson. Scc www.loc.gov/cxhibits/
jccrson/,.html. Scc also Villiam Roscoc, Obser.ations on Penal Jurisprudence, and
the Feformation of Criminals. !ith an ppendix; Containing the latest reports of the
State-Prison or Penitentiaries of Philadelphia, Ne. York, and Massachusetts; and other
documents (London: T. Cadcll and V. avics Strand and John and Arthur Arch,
..).
a. For an account ol Roscocs participation in a transatlantic community ol
rclorm, particularly in rclation to pcnal rclorm, but also signicantly inucnccd by
sharcd allcgiancc to Scottish philosophy and to rcligious nctworks ol Quakcrs and
Unitarians, scc Kathcrinc M. R. Lloyd, Peace, Politics, and Philanthropy, , .a.