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INRODUCTION:
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements, material characterization, and more.
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The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves.
When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen.
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IP BE
plate
delamination
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Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:
It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities. The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other NDT methods. Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
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It is high accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.
As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which include:
Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound. Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods. It normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound energy into test specimen.
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Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect. Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise. Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected. Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration, and characterization of flaws.
Applications:
Ultrasonic inspection is used for quality control and materials inspection in all major industries. Ultrasonic inspection is used for finding flaws in production of metallic and composite materials. It is used in fabrication of structures such as airframes, piping and pressure vessels, ships, motor vehicles, machinery , jet engines and submarines.
In-service ultrasonic inspection for preventive maintenance is used for detecting the impending failure of rails, rolling-stock axils, mill rolls, mining equipment and nuclear systems.
And also used for thickness measurement in refinery and chemical pressure vessels
And many more in medical , rail track inspection, liquid height measurements, material analysis. Etc..
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HISTORY:
UT is the discovery of Curie the brothers in 1880 that the quartz crystal cut in a certain way produces an electric potential subjected to pressure. In 1881 Lippmann theorized that the effect might work in reverse. In 1929 Russian physicist sokolov experimented with the techniques of passing the vibration to metals to find the flaws. The first flaw detector was made by D O Sproule in 1942.
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Prior to World War II, sonar, the technique of sending sound waves through water and observing the returning echoes to characterize submerged objects, inspired early ultrasound investigators to explore ways to apply the concept to medical diagnosis. in 1931, obtained a patent for using ultrasonic waves, using two transducers to detect flaws in solids. Firestone (1940) and Simons (1945) developed pulsed ultrasonic testing using a pulse-echo technique.
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Shortly after the close of World War II, researchers in Japan began to explore medical diagnostic capabilities of ultrasound. The first ultrasonic instruments used an Amode presentation with blips on an oscilloscope screen. That was followed by a B-mode presentation with a two dimensional, gray scale imaging. Japan was also the first country to apply Doppler ultrasound, an application of ultrasound that detects internal moving objects such as blood coursing through the heart for cardiovascular investigation.
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BASICS:
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Examples of oscillation
ball on a spring pendulum rotating earth
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Oscillation
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In vibratory motion the motion in which a body moves to and fro repeatedly in a fixed interval of time about a fixed point is called mean position. Mean position is also called equilibrium position or zero position.
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The deviation of a vibrating or oscillating body from the mean position of oscillation with time is called displacement.
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Ball = atom
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T
distance travelled
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Frequency:
Number of oscillations for second Its measured in Hertz(Hz)
1 OSCILATION
2 OSILATIONS
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FREQUENCY
1sec 1 cycle=1Hz
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One vibration in one second is called One Hertz Ten vibration in one second is called Ten Hertz One thousand vibrations in one second is called One Kilohertz( kHz) One million vibrations in one second is called One Megahertz ( MHz)
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The distance travelled by a wave at one complete cycle is called wave length. Wave length is denoted by lambda().
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The minimum time taken to complete one complete vibration is called time period. Time period is denoted by T.
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The force which tends the vibrating particles towards its mean position is called restoring force of vibrating particles.
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VELOCITY = (mts/sec)
WHERE
If we want to know the wavelength of a 2 Megahertz compression wave traveling through steel, we can use the formulae as we know compression sound speed of sound in steel is, 5920 meters per second.
DAY 2
TOPICS 1. PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES 2.MODES OF SOUND ENERGY 3.PRINCIPAL OF UT 4.REFLECTION ,TRANMISION , , DIFRACTION 5.SNELLS LAW
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RAREFRACTION
SPECTROM OF SOUND:
Frequency range Hz Description Example
0 - 20 20 - 20.000
Earth quake
Speech, music
> 20.000
Ultrasound
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General we are using 0.5 M Hz to 10 M Hz Ultrasonic Frequencies. In special testing's we go for up to 25 M Hz also(Immersion Testing) For high thickness, high grain size materials we are using low frequencies bcoz low frequencies travels more distances and less attenuation.
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High frequencies are give good sensitivity and resolution But these high frequencies are more attenuated due to high grain sizes and more thickness.
High frequency
low frequency
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The propagation of ultrasound in a material I depend on the density elastic properties of the material and type of the wave transmitted. The test material grain size Attenuation( scattering, absorption) Acoustic impedance of the material Characteristic impedance of inclusion Diffraction Lack of homogeneity Anisotropic material
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Attenuation of Sound Wave o When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance. In idealized materials, sound pressure (signal amplitude) is only reduced by the spreading of the wave. o Natural materials, however, all produce an effect which further weakens the sound. This further weakening results from two basic causes, o which are scattering and absorption.
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Scatter: This is the major cause of attenuation and is the redirection of the sound waves reflecting off grain boundaries, porosity and non-metallic inclusions, etc., And becomes more apparent on the inspection when the size of grain become of the wavelength of the search unit being employed.
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ABSORPTION: As the sound travel through a material a small amount of the energy is used up by the interaction of the particles, as they vibrate, causing friction which is dissipated as heat. As the frequency of the sound is increased the attenuation increases due to more particle vibration and increased sensitivity to small reflectors which is related to the wavelength of the sound. Materials such as castings and austenitic stainless steel are highly attenuative due to their coarse grain structures, etc., The attenuation factor of material can be measured and is expressed in db/mm.
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Natural attenuation also occurs due to the divergence of the beam in the far zone, i.e. assuming compression probe use, the amplitude of the backwall echo will be halved(-6db) every time the distance from the probe is doubled.
Materials such as castings and austenitic stainless steel are highly attenuative due to their coarse grain structures, etc., The attenuation factor of material can be measured and is expressed in db/mm. natural attenuation also occurs due to the divergence of the beam in the far zone, i.e. assuming compression probe use, the amplitude of the backwall echo will be halved(-6db) every time the distance from the probe is doubled.
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=s+a
where is attenuation constant s scattering constant a absorption constant
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Reflection, Transmission:
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Reflection: How much sound energy coming back while hitting an interface. Transmission: How much energy transmitted from one medium to another medium.
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Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries where there is a difference in acoustic impedances (Z) of the materials on each side of the boundary. (See preceding page for more information on acoustic impedance.) This difference in Z is commonly referred to as the impedance mismatch. The greater the impedance mismatch, the greater the percentage of energy that will be reflected at the interface or boundary between one medium and another.
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T= 1-R
R= Parentage of reflection coefficient T= Percentage of Transmission coefficient Where Z= pV p= Density of material V=Sound velocity in that material
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As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material characteristics e.g. the surface of a workpiece, or an internal inclusion, wave propagation will change too:
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Behaviour at an interface
Medium 1 Medium 2
Incoming wave
Transmitted wave
Reflected wave
Interface
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Incoming wave
1,0 0,87
Transmitted wave
Reflected wave
Perspex
Steel
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0,13
Perspex
Steel
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Copper - Steel
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UT Principle
Acoustic Impedance Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure. Because molecules or atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one another, the excess pressure results in a wave propagating through the solid. The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the product of density (p) and acoustic velocity (V) of that material. Z = pV
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Acoustic impedance is important in The determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at the boundary of two materials having different acoustic impedance The design of ultrasonic transducers. Assessing absorption of sound in a medium.
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BACK WALL ECHO AMPLITUDE DISCONTINUITY INDICATION INITIAL PULSE TRANSDUCER HORIZONTAL SWEEP
MATERIAL
DISCONTINIUITY
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Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic testing
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Wave Types in Solids Longitudinal Transverse (Shear) Surface - Rayleigh Plate Wave Lamb
Particle Vibrations
Parallel to wave direction Perpendicular to wave direction Elliptical orbit - symmetrical mode
Sezawa
Antisymmetric mode
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Reflection ,Rarefaction
When an ultrasound wave passes through an interface between two materials at an oblique angle, and the materials have different indices of refraction, it produces both reflected and refracted waves. Refraction takes place at an interface due to the different velocities of the acoustic waves within the two materials.
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VL1 VL2
Where: is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1. is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.
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Mode Conversion When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be transformed into another form. For example, when a longitudinal waves hits an interface at an angle, some of the energy can cause particle movement in the transverse direction to start a shear (transverse) wave. Mode conversion, occurs when a wave encounters an interface between materials of different acoustic impedance and the incident angle is not normal to the interface.
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MEDIUM - 1
INTERFACE
MEDIUM - 2
SNELLS LAW
VL Sin1 = VS Sin3 = CL Sin4 = CS Sin2
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Where: VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1. VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2. VS1 is the shear wave velocity in material 1. VS2 is the shear wave velocity in material 2.
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Diffraction: This occurs when sound waves pass the tip of a narrow reflector. Some of the sound scatters off tip causing waves in different directions that reinforce or cancel out the original waves. This results in a series of high and low intensity waves radiating out from the tips, gives imperfection of sound bending around the edges of the defect.
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LONGITUDINAL WAVES:
In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the direction of wave propagation. In compression and dilatational forces are active in these waves. They are also called pressure or compression waves. They are also sometimes called density waves because their particle density fluctuates as they move.
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Compression waves can be generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the atomic structure by a series of compression and expansion (rarefaction) movements. These waves are high velocities compare to other waves, less sensitive and less attenuated. Compression waves can be generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the atomic structure by a series of compression and expansion (rarefaction) movements. These waves are high velocities compare to other waves, less sensitive and less attenuated.
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Sound propagation
Longitudinal wave
Direction of oscillation
Direction of propagation
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SHEAR WAVES: In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or transverse to the direction of propagation. shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective propagation and therefore are not effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or gasses. Shear wave are relatively weak when compared to longitudinal waves in fact, shear waves are usually generated in materials using some of the energy from longitudinal waves.
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Sound propagation
Transverse wave
Direction of oscillation
Direction of propagation
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These waves are high sensitive compare to all other waves. These wave velocities are approximately 90% of shear waves in solids.
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Surface waves are formed when shear waves refract to 90 degrees. Particle vibration is elliptical motion by changing direction at the interface with surface. Penetration depth is 1 wave length only. Their velocity is approximately 90% of shear waves of that material. These are high sensitive .
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Lamb waves are the most commonly used plate waves in NDT.
Lamb waves are a complex vibrational wave that travels through the entire thickness of a material. Propagation of Lamb waves depends on density, elastic, and material properties of a component, and they are influenced by a great deal by selected frequency and material thickness.
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With Lamb waves, a number of modes of particle vibration are possible, but the two most common are symmetrical and asymmetrical
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Direction of oscillation
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Day 3
Topics Ultra sonic Sound generation Piezo electric materials Types of probes UT equipment
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Natural
Artificial Grown
Manufactured Ceramics
Quartz Crystals
Lithium Sulphate
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Lithium Sulphate
Soluble in water
Barium Titanate
Lead Zirconate
Good piezo electric properties Good transmitter and Round properties Poor silvering
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Crystal Thickness
Frequency depends on the thickness of the crystal, according to the formula :
t = v 2f
Where t=crystal thickness, v= sound velocity in crystal, f= frequency
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The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing.
The active element is the heart of the transducer as it converts the electrical energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa.
The active element is basically a piece polarized material
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Piezoelectric Effect
+
Battery
Piezoelectric Effect
Piezoelectric Effect
+
The effect inverses with polarity change
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Piezoelectric Effect
Sound wave with frequency f
U(f)
Piezoelectric Effect
Electrical energy
Piezoelectrical crystal
Ultrasonic wave
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Highly damped Short pulse length Less dead zone Good resolution
Low damping Longer pulse length More dead zone Poor resolution
Poor penetration
Good penetration
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Beam
Accoustical axis
Angle of divergence
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D0
Near field
Far field
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Since the ultrasound originates from a number of points along the transducer face, the ultrasound intensity along the beam is affected by constructive and destructive wave interference These are sometimes also referred to as diffraction effects in the NDT world. This wave interference leads to extensive fluctuations in the sound intensity near the source, known as the near field.
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Because of acoustic variations within a near field, it can be extremely difficult to accurately evaluate flaws in materials when they are positioned within this area. The pressure waves combine to form a relatively uniform front at the end of the near field. The area beyond the near field where the ultrasonic beam is more uniform is called the far field. In the far field, the beam spreads out in a pattern originating from the center of the transducer
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The energy in the beam does not remain in a cylinder, but instead spread out as it propagates through the material. The phenomenon is usually referred to as beam spread but is sometimes also referred to as beam divergence or ultrasonic diffraction.
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Where:
= Beam divergence angle from centerline to point where signal is at half strength.
V = Sound velocity in the material. (inch/sec or cm/sec)
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Low frequency Long wavelength More beam spread Shorter near zone Better penetration Less attenuation Longer dead zone
HIGH FREQUENCY Short wavelength Less beam spread Longer near zone Less penetration More attenuation Shorter dead zone
Less sensitivity
Higher sensitivity
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Transducers:
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing. The active element is the heart of the transducer as it converts the electrical energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa. The active element is basically a piece polarized material
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Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are generally hand manipulated.
They have elements protected in a rugged casing to withstand sliding contact with a variety of materials. These transducers have an ergonomic design so that they are easy to grip and move along a surface.
They also often have replaceable wear plates to lengthen their useful life.
Coupling materials of water, grease, oils, or commercial materials are used to remove the air gap between the transducer and the component inspected.
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Ultrasonic Probes
socket crystal Damping Delay / protecting face Electrical matching Cable
TR-probe
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Delay line transducers provide versatility with a variety of replaceable options. Removable delay line, surface conforming membrane, and protective wear cap options can make a single transducer effective for a wide range of applications. As the name implies, the primary function of a delay line transducer is to introduce a time delay between the generation of the sound wave and the arrival of any reflected waves. This allows the transducer to complete its "sending" function before it starts it "listening" function so that near surface resolution is improved.
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Angle beam transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material. Transducers can be purchased in a variety of fixed angles or in adjustable versions where the user determines the angles of incident and refraction. In the fixed angle versions, the angle of refraction that is marked on the transducer is only accurate for a particular material, which is usually steel.
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The angled sound path allows the sound beam to be reflected from the back wall to improve delectability of flaws in and around welded areas.
They are also used to generate surface waves for use in detecting defects on the surface of a component
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Normal incidence shear wave transducers are unique because they allow introduction of shear waves directly into a test piece without the use of an angle beam wedge. Careful design has enabled manufacturing of transducers with minimal longitudinal wave contamination. Paint brush transducers are used to scan wide areas. These long and narrow transducers are made up of an array of small crystals that are carefully matched to minimize variation of performance and maintain uniform sensitivity over the entire area of the transducer. Paint brush transducers make it possible to scan a larger area more rapidly for discontinuities.
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TEST PARPMETERS
CAST IRON & COARSE GRAIN MATERIALS REFINED GRAIN STEELS, SMALL DISCONTINUITIES, (BURST,FLAKING,PIPE) LARGE FORGINGS SMALL FORGINGS MICROSCOPIC DEFECTS, FATIGUE CRACKS ETC.
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SELECTION OF PROBES
TYPE OF PROBE NORMAL BEAM PROBE SIZE
LARGE DIAMETER D
APPLICATION / ADVANTAGE
USED FOR THICKER SECTION MAXIMUM BEAM COVERAGE
D
PASSES
LOW BEAM SPREAD SMALL DIAMETER LESS THICK SECTION BEAM SPREAD IS MORE DESIRABLE FOR RANDOMLY ORIENTED FLAW
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Couplant:
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen.
Couplant is generally necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch between air and solids, such as the test specimen, is large and, therefore, nearly all of the energy is reflected and very little is transmitted into the test material
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The couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get more sound energy into the test specimen so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be obtained. In contact ultrasonic testing a thin film of oil, glycerin or water is generally used between the transducer and the test surface.
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IP
screen
BE
horizontal
sweep clock pulser
probe
work piece
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The pulse generator:It is also known as clock or timer. It generates electrical signal frequencies. The time base generator:It is also known as sweep generator. It controls the voltage or charge on the X-plate causing beam on the CRT to sweep across in a linear motion.
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The pulse transmitter:- It is also called a pulsar circuit. This circuit burst the electrical energy to activate the probe. The receiving amplifier:- This circuit amplifies the incoming electrical signal. The attenuator:- It is also called a gain control circuit. It reduces the amplification from the amplifier by controlling the voltage on the Y-plate in CRT , which will control the signal heights
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Cathode is an out put device which shows the flaws of the job material. Let us see the cross sectional view of CRT.
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Modes of displays:
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different formats. The three most common formats are know in the NDT world as A-scan B-scan C-scan
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A-Scan Presentation
The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic energy as a function of time. The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the vertical axis and elapsed time . In the A-scan presentation, relative discontinuity size can be estimated by comparing the signal amplitude obtained from an unknown reflector to that from a known reflector. Reflector depth can be determined by the position of the signal on the horizontal sweep
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The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the a test specimen. In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound energy is displayed along the vertical and the linear position of the transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis.
B-Scan Presentation
From the B-scan, the depth of the reflector and its approximate linear dimensions in the scan direction can be determined.
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C-Scan Presentation
The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of the location and size of test specimen features. The plane of the image is parallel to the scan pattern of the transducer. C-scan presentations are produced with an automated data acquisition system, such as a computer controlled immersion scanning system.
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DAY 4
Ultrasonic Testing Techniques Calibration blocks Weld scan
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Contact Testing:
In Contact Testing the Transducer is on contact with testing object with the help of couplet. Pulse Echo Testing: .In which single Transducer is used .From the reflected echo I to be considered. .It is mostly used industrial UT technique. . In which avoid lack of coupulant, which causes improper contact .
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CONTACT TESTING
SIDE - 1
SIDE - 2
SIDE - 3
SIDE - 4
ADVANTAGES
IT IS PORTABLE.
RECEIVER
HIGH FREQUENCY GENERATOR
TRANSMITTER
IMMERSION TESTING
ANGLE PROBE
Near zone and Dead zone are major draw backs in this technique.
In which from the reflected echo we will estimate depth, size, shape and type of defect. For weld scanning angle beams are used in this technique.
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In which separate Transducer and Receiver is used. In which both side accessible is important. Tx, Rx are in same axis. It mostly used for less thickness plate scanning. Only normal probes and delay line probes are used. Depth of defect is not possible. Initial pulse is not appear, dead zone and near field effects are eliminated.
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INTENSITY METER
HIGH FREQUENCY GENERATOR
AMPLIFIER
0 100% INTENSITY
AMPLIFIER
25% intensity due to partial energy being received because of the discontinuity DISCONTINUITY
ADVANTAGES
CAPABILITY OF TESTING THICKER TEST SPECIMENS DEFECTS VERY NEAR TO THE SURFACE CAN BE DETECTED DEFECT LOCATION IS NOT POSSIBLE.
LIMITATIONS
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Through transmission
Immersion testing
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Probe
Flaw
Work piece
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Plate testing
IP BE
plate
delamination
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IP = Initial pulse
F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo
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s
s
Corrosion
10
200
R
0 2 4 6 8 10
Flaw
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Immersion testing
1
surface = sound entry backwall IP
2
water delay flaw
IE
1
BE
IP
IE
2
BE
F
10
10
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velocity of water min water path= --------------------- X thickness velocity of job material
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The main disadvantage of this method is shocking problem. The main advantage of this method is near field is minimized.
In this we use high frequency probes are used around 25 Mhz. In this object we can generate all type of incident angles, generally it is used in automatic testing or hydro testing.
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Weld inspection
a = s sin
F
s
0 20 40 60 80 100
= probe angle s = sound path a = surface distance a = reduced surface distance d = virtual depth d = actual depth T = material thickness
a a' s
Lack of fusion
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Time (distance)
No reflected echo
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Reflection
Transmitter / Receiver
Time (distance)
Reflected echo
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Reflection
Transmitter / Receiver
Reflection
Transmitter / Receiver
Reflection
Transmitter / Receiver
No reflected echo
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Raster Scan
Transducer moved into and away from weld while being
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Line Scan
Transducer moved along the weld Fixed distance from weld Manual or automated, encoded for position
Fast
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Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy of measurement equipment. In ultrasonic testing, several forms of calibration must occur 1. The electronics of the equipment must be calibrated to assure that they are performing as designed. This operation is usually performed by the equipment manufacturer . 2.This user calibration is necessary because most ultrasonic equipment can be reconfigured for use in a large variety of applications.
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Calibration Methods
The user must "calibrate" the system, which includes the equipment settings, the transducer, and the test setup, to validate that the desired level of precision and accuracy are achieved. In ultrasonic testing, there is also a need for reference standards. Reference standards are used to establish a general level of consistency in measurements and to help interpret and quantify the information contained in the received signal. Reference standards are used to validate that the equipment and the setup provide similar results from one day to the next and that similar results are produced by different systems.
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Reference standards also help the inspector to estimate the size of flaws. In a pulse-echo type setup, signal strength depends on both the size of the flaw and the distance between the flaw and the transducer. The inspector can use a reference standard with an artificially induced flaw of known size and at approximately the same distance away for the transducer to produce a signal.
By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that received from the actual flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw size.
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100
PROBE NO. - 1
PROBE NO. - 2
80
60
40
20
10
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
10
SAME REFLECTOR, SAME DISTANCE & GAIN SETTING PROBE N0 - 2 IS MORE SENSITIVE
IIW V1 Block:
1). Material: carbon steel 2). Dimensions: 300mmL*100mmW*25mmT. 3). Application: Used for calibration of shear , longitudinal transducers, verification of shear wedge exit point and refracted angle. Can also be used for resolution and sensitivity checking. Includes a 100mm radius on one end . Also includes a 50mm diameter and a 1.5mm diameter hole. In accordance with International Institute of Welding and ASTM E164
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RESOLUTION
ABILITY TO SEPARATE ECHOES FROM TWO OR MORE DISCONTINUITIES LOCATED CLOSE TOGETHER IN DEPTH
100
80
60
40
20
10
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
10
GOOD RESOLUTION
POOR RESOLUTION
KNOB
DELAY
CONTROL
RANGE
CONTROL
KNOB
1ST BACK WALL ECHO (BWE)
20
40
60
80
10
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IIW V1 BLOCK
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
10
1ST BWE
100
2ND BWE
INITIAL ECHO
100
60
40
20
20
40
60
INITIAL ECHO
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80
10
10
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Description: 12.5mm thick, small calibration block For on-site checking of miniature shear wave probe index, time base, beam angle , Sensitivity(1.5 mm) Includes a 25mm and 50 mm radius, 1.5mm hole engraved reference mark scales from 35 to 75 degrees. In accordance with BS EN 27963:1992, ISO 7963 Cal block No. 2, Fig. 1.
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Meet the requirements of ASME Section V, Article 5, Fig. T-542.8.1.1 and contain EDM notches at 10% of nominal wall on both OD and ID oriented longitudinally and transversely.
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The RC Block is used to determine the resolution of angle beam transducers per the requirements of AWS Engraved Index markers are provided for 45, 60, and 70 degree refracted angle beams.
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Step and tapered calibration wedges come in a large variety of sizes and configurations. Step wedges are typically manufactured with four or five steps but custom wedge can be obtained with any number of steps.
Tapered wedges have a constant taper over the desired thickness range.
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Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks
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Distance/area amplitude correction blocks typically are purchased as a ten-block set, as shown above. Aluminum sets are manufactured per the requirements of ASTM E127 and steel sets per ASTM E428. Sets can also be purchased in titanium. Each block contains a single flat-bottomed, plugged hole. The hole sizes and metal path distances are as follows: 3/64" at 3" 5/64" at 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 11/2", 3", and 6" 8/64" at 3" and 6"
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DAY 5
DAC CURVE DGS CURVE
DAC Curve:
Acoustic signals from the same reflecting surface will have different amplitudes at different distances from the transducer. Distance amplitude correction (DAC) provides a means of establishing a graphic reference level sensitivity as a function of sweep distance on the A-scan display. The use of DAC allows signals reflected from similar discontinuities to be evaluated where signal attenuation as a function of depth has been correlated. Most often DAC will allow for loss in amplitude over material depth (time), graphically on the A-scan display but can also be done electronically by certain instruments
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A distance amplitude correction curve is constructed from the peak amplitude responses from reflectors of equal area at different distances in the same material. Reference standards which incorporate side drilled holes (SDH), flat bottom holes (FBH), or notches whereby the reflectors are located at varying depths are commonly used
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While drawing DAC 1st echo set to 80% FSH, and note down the gain . Which is Actual gain or Actual dB. And trace the next 2 or 3 indications, and make a curve. While scanning on job increase gain to(DAC+6dB), which is called as scanning dB. If any echo touches DAC curve reduce gain by 6dB, still it is touches then mark as defect at that place.
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DGS curve:
DGS Distance Gain Size is a method of setting sensitivity or assessing the signal from an unknown reflector based on the theoretical response of a flatbottomed hole reflector perpendicular to the beam axis. The DGS system was introduced by Krautkramer in 1958 and is referred to in German as AVG. A schematic of a general DGS diagram is shown in the Figure. The Y-axis shows the Gain and X-axis shows the Distance from the probe.
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In a general DGS diagram the distance is shown in units of Near Field and the scale is logarithmic to cover a wide range. The blue curves plotted show how the amplitudes obtained from different sizes of disc shaped reflector (equivalent to a FBH) decrease as the distance between the probe and the reflector increases.
252
253
254
255
DISCONTINUTIES
256
DEFECTS IN WELDS
ROOT DEFECTS:>LACK OF PENETRATION >LACK OF ROOT FUSION >ROOT CRACK >ROOT UNDER CUT >OVER PENETRATION >ROOT CONCAVITY
258
259
LAMINATIONS:
THESE ARE FORMED WHEN A BILLET IS FLATTENED AND SPREAD OUT MAY CAUSES LAMINATION.PIPE AND POROSITY ALSO MAY CAUSES LAMINATION.
260
INITIAL ECHO
1ST BWE
2ND BWE
100
80
60
40
20
10
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
10
NO DEFECT
DEFECT INDICATION
PLATE
261
BOND TESTING
INITIAL ECHO
FIRST ECHO FROM INTERFACE INITIAL ECHO
1ST BWE
100
80
60
40
20
10
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
10
NO DEFECT INTERFACE
DEFECT INDICATION
BABBIT METAL
262
BOND TESTING
INITIAL ECHO
FIRST ECHO FROM INTERFACE INITIAL ECHO
1ST BWE
100
80
60
40
20
10
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
10
NO DEFECT INTERFACE
DEFECT INDICATION
BABBIT METAL
263
INCULUSIONS
LINEAR INCLUSIONS:
264
SCATTERED INCLUSIONS:
265
CHANGED
INDICATION FROM SPHERICAL FLAW INITIAL ECHO BWE
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
10
SPHERICALFLAW
266
STRINGERS:
These are formed when the non metallic inclusions in the ingot.
The signal response Is like the linear Inclusion signal
In the rolling direction The BWE is still present But the signal can be Maintained along the Defects length
267
A ROLLING LAP:
This defect occurs in the rolling process.
268
DEFECTS IN WELDS
269
ROOT DEFECTS
LACK OF PENETRATIN: High amplitude corner signals both sides of the weld, rapidly decreasing in amplitude on rotational path. Plotting at plate thickness depth, the width of the root gap apart, with no cross over.
270
LACK OF PENETRATION
INDICATION FROM CORNER INITIAL ECHO
ANGLE PROBE
WELD
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
10
LACK OF PENETRATION
ROOT CRACK
It would be normal to expect a high amplitude, multifaceted reflector probably from both sides of the weld.
The vertical height of the crack was substantial, a characteristic running signal on the time base would be noted on depth scan with the angle probe.
The response would raise and fall on rotational or lateral probe moments due to crack irregularity.
272
ROOT CRACK
273
ROOT UNDERCUT
Depend on how severe the undercut is will determine the type of amplitude received.
However, associated with the undercut echo will be as signal from the root bead as well. If the undercut is only one side of the weld the root bead is examined from the opposite side.
274
ROOT UNDERCUT
275
EXCESS PENETRATION
INITIAL ECHO INDICATION FROM EXCESS PENETRATION
ANGLE PROBE
WELD
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
10
EXCESS PENETRATION
SCREEN PRESENTATION WHEN PROBE IS AT 1 ECHO MAY BE ABSENT WHEN PROBE AT 2 DEPENDING ON SURFACE CONTOUR
ROOT CONCAVITY
Low amplitude signals on both sides of the weld are plotting short of plate thickness and no cross over. If only slight concavity it is likely that it will not be observed ultrasonically.
278
ROOT CONCAVITY
INITIAL ECHO INDICATION FROM ROOT CONCAVITY
ANGLE PROBE
WELD
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
10
ROOT CONCAVITY
279
280
SLAG INCLUSION
Detectable from all accessible positions and directions due to volumetric nature. Signal contains numerous half cycles and have a rounded peak. It should be detected with any angle probe.
281
SLAG INCLUSION
282
CLUSTER POROSITY
Detectable from all accessible positions and directions due to volumetric nature.
Very low amplitude response due to signal attenuation giving multiple signal with a wide time base.
It is also called as multiple small inclusions.
283
CLUSTER POROSITY
284
MISMATCH
INITIAL ECHO INDICATION FROM MISMATCH
ANGLE PROBE
WELD
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
10
MISMATCH
STRONG ECHO INDICATION WHEN SCANNED FROM LOWER SIDE OF NO INDICATION FROM OTHER SIDE
THE WELD
285
A standard is a set of "how to" instructions for designers, manufacturers, and/or users of the equipment covered. It can run from a few paragraphs to hundreds of pages. Standards are considered voluntary because they serve as guidelines only, without the force of law. Organizations such as ASME that develop standards can publish them, and can certify manufacturers
287