1.

2 The Industrial Revolution and Dickens works The Industrial Revolution greatly impacted Charles Dickens novels as he attacked its nature and effects on humanity. Pat Hudson defined this technological phenomenon as a shift from agrarian and rural ased occupations to predominantly ur an! ased industrial and service employments. . ." #hich resulted in radical shifts in social relations" $%&. Charles Dickens and other authors of his time' #rote in a period of gro#ing competition and industrial unrest #hich resulted from the divorce of la our from the land and the rise of proletarianised #age la our" $()&. It is elieved that the Industrial Revolution #as caused y an outgro#th of social and institutional changes rought y the end of feudalism in *ritain after the +nglish Civil ,ar in the seventeenth century $-shton ./&. The *ritish -gricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less la our intensive' forcing those #ho lost their 0o s into cottage industries such as #eavers. Henceforth these industries spanned into ne#ly developed factories. The change from agricultural to technological production ena led the economy to immensely support an increasing non!agricultural #orkforce $Hart#ell' 1td. y Hudson /&. 2overnment grants of limited monopolies to inventors and increase in the rate of capital formation under a developing patent #ere considered an influential factor $Hart#ell 1td. y Hudson /&. The effects of patents of the development of industriali3ation are illustrated in the history of the steam engine. In return' for pu licly revealing the operations of an invention' the patent system re#arded inventors y allo#ing inventors such as 4ames ,att to monopoli3e the production of the first steam engines. Therefore' the technological revolution #as a result of an autonomous increase in kno#ledge and its application #hich led to the transformation of the machine and a more productive organisation of industry $/&. -dditionally for 2reat *ritain' the Industrial Revolution #as spanned y the increase in #orld trade and the influ5 of natural or financial resources that *ritain received from its numerous overseas colonies and the profits from the *ritish slave trade et#een -frica and the Cari ean #hich helped fuel industrial investment $Hart#ell 1td. y Hudson /&. The greater li erali3ation of trade from a large merchant ase could have allo#ed *ritain to produce and utili3e emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries #ith stronger monarchies such as China and Russia. This #as evidenced y the fact that *ritain emerged from the 6apoleonic #ars as the only +uropean nation not ravaged y financial plunder and economic collapse. The sta le political situation in *ritain and the societys greater receptiveness to change is also another factor that favoured the Industrial Revolution $7melser 8)&. Due to the enclosure movement in the eighteenth century' #hich #as a process entailing the privati3ation of property' the peasantry #as destroyed as significant source of resistance to industriali3ation and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in the advancement of the gro#th of capitalism. 9urthermore' the increasing use of industrial or fi5ed capital instead of merchant or circulating capital' led to a ne# type of profit generation $Hudson /&. Conse1uently' capitalism emerged as one of the key elements of production during the Industrial Revolution. Capitalism is a social system ased on the recognition of individual rights' including property rights in #hich all property is privately o#ned $Capitalism"&. It is also fundamentally individualistic ecause the each person is the centre of capitalist endeavour $Capitalism"!The +uropean +nlightenment&. The concept of capitalism is dra#n from the +nlightenment ideology on individuality that all individuals should e free to pursue their o#n interests. It is evident that capitalism played a ma0or role in Dickens #orks particularly in 2reat +5pectations as noted through Pips desire for #ealth and gentility and the centrality of money #ithin the novel itself as evidenced y characters like :iss Havisham' her father and the greedy Compeyson $House&. In Hard Times' one encounters the ank o#ner

:r. *ounder y #ho rose from poverty to ecome a self!made industrialist $Dickens ()&. It is evident that capitalism' as one of the effects of the Industrial Revolution' shaped the literary #orks of the nineteenth century #riters such as Charles Dickens. The parody employed y Dickens in descri ing :r. *ounder y is an indication of his repugnance to#ards capitalism; - ig' loud man' #ith a stare' and a metallic laugh. - man made out of coarse material' #hich seemed to have een stretched to make so much out of him. - man #ith a great puffed head and forehead' s#elled veins in his temples' and such a strained skin to his face that it seemed to hold his eyes open' and lift his eye ro#s up. - man #ith a pervading appearance on him of eing inflated like a alloon' and ready to start." $()& :r. *ounder y is a representative of capitalism and Dickens attitude to#ards him is synonymous to his approach to entrepreneurship. :r. *ounder ys description influences the reader to dislike him' in the same #ay that Dickens dislikes capitalism. *ounder y is characterised as a po#erful individual driven y greed and guided y a distorted vie# of human nature" and he is a self serving capitalist< rather than an insightful for#ard!looking crafter of a ne# industrial age'" thus representing all that is #rong #ith capitalism" $=ldham&. *ounder y is a typical industrialist #ho vie#s his employees as mere factors of production' not much different from the machines they operate" and his insensi le manner to#ards the #orkers demonstrates the middle class efforts to avoid fraternisation and social contact #ith the lo#er classes." $=ldham&. 7imilar to Dickens' 2erman socialist >arl :ar5 also critici3ed capitalism for its oppression of the poor leading to the term :ar5ism'" a theory ased on the suggestion that industriali3ation polari3ed society into the ourgeois and the much larger proletariat' #ho are the #orking class leading to a conflict et#een the t#o classes as noted in The Communist :anifesto #hich he co!authored #ith 9riedrich +ngels; The modern ourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done a#ay #ith class anatagonisms. It has ut esta lished ne# classes' ne# conditions of oppression' ne# forms of struggle in place of the old ones." :ar5 sa# the industriali3ation process as the logical dialectical progression of feudal economic codes' necessary for the full development of capitalism $7o#ell )?(&. :ar5ism sympathi3es #ith the #orking class or proletariat and espouses the elief that the ultimate interest of #orkers est matches those of humanity in general. :ar5ists are committed to a #orkers revolution as a means of achieving human emancipation and enlightenment. The theory of :ar5ism promotes socialism #hich is a political and economic system in #hich everyone has an e1ual right to a share of a countrys #ealth and main industries #hich are o#ned and controlled y the government $Heil roner&. ,ritten during the same period as the development of :ar5ism and socialist thought' Charles Dickens #orks #ere also concerned #ith the relationships et#een the #orkers and the industrialists' and the poor and the rich. In addition to :ar5ism' other theories such as Charles Dar#ins Theory of +volution $(?/8& also emerged during the Industrial Revolution in #hich Dar#in claimed there is a variation in every organism #hich competes for limited resources' resulting in a struggle for survival. Dar#ins concept that organisms compete for survival is noted in a capitalist society in #hich the capitalists are the only ones #ith access to economic resources #hile the poor are deprived. Therefore' the lo#er class struggles to survive y resorting to crime' the #omen are reduced to prostitutes #hile children and men are su 0ected to lo# paying 0o s such as factory #orkers' dustmen and chimney s#eepers. Dar#ins concept that there is a struggle for survival has een translated into survival of the fittest" also kno#n as 7ocial Dar#inism" a

theory developed y nineteenth century philosopher Her ert 7pencer $(?)@!(8@.& y applying the theory of natural selection to social' political and economic issues' #hich #as further adopted y Aictorian #riters such as 2eorge +lliot' or even earlier in the century' authors like 4ane -usten also adopted the theory and incorporated it into their novels. 7ocial Dar#inism" also played a ma0or role in the development of naturalism and its application in literature. -s noted in most naturalists #orks' the ma0or focus is on the lo#er class #ho o viously struggle to survive in an economically competitive #orld. The capitalist environment impacts their #ell eing y su 0ecting them to e5ploitation' un eara le living conditions leading to diseases and death. The fittest poor manage to survive y resorting to crime' other#ise the capitalist environment #ill s#allo# them up. It is evident that during the Industrial Revolution' the environment favoured the capitalist #hile the socially disadvantaged suffered< a phenomenon #hich has e5tended to our contemporary #orld. ,riting during the Industrial Revolution' all the theories and ideas e5pounded during this period o viously impacted Charles Dickens #ho is applauded for his application of naturalism into his #orks. -part from the intellectual and scientific theories and developments during the Industrial Revolution' industriali3ation led to the creation of the factory system #hich #as largely responsi le for the rise of the modern environment' due to the rural B ur an migration of people in search of employment. The Industrial Revolution appeared to e a positive phenomenon' ut it also had a negative impact on society as it created a rapid population increase in the cities leading to an escalation in slum communities. Civing conditions varied from the splendour of the middle class to the s1ualor of the lo#er class la ourers. 7ocial commentators such as Toyn ee' the ,e s' the Hammonds and novelists such as Charles Dickens stressed the rapidity of change and the terri le effects of industrial transformation upon the living standards of the masses" $Hudson ()&. In contrast to the middle class grandeur' the lo#er class lived in small overcro#ded houses #here poor sanitation led to fatal diseases such as cholera' typhoid and small po5. - large num er of the #orking class also died from chest infections caused y the dust from mines and smoke from factories #hile some children and men died at the factories due to accidents' mutilations and poisonous chemicals. Dickens novels' particularly *leak House and Hard Times' specifically illustrate the living conditions of the #orking class. 9ortunately' the standards of living for the poor egan to advance after the government passed pu lic health acts in (?D) #hich controlled sanitation' hygiene and setting of oundaries on construction of homes. :oreover' human relations #ere definitely altered y the peoples preoccupation #ith the accumulation of #ealth during the Industrial Revolution as noted y Thomas Carlyle in (?)E; . . . ho# #ealth has more and more increased and at the same time gathered itself more and more into the masses' strangely altering the old relations and increasing the distance et#een the rich and poor." $1td. y Hudson (@& The kindness' good#ill' trust and communalism that e5isted during the pre!industrial era' #as replaced y enmity' suspicion and distrust" et#een masters and #orkers $Tufnell 1td. y Hudson (@&. Conse1uently' as noted y Carlyle that the rich and poor ecome more separated' the masters do not personally ac1uaint #ith the #orkers as evidenced y Dickens in Hard Times #here y the la ourers are also called the Hands" #hich confirms the indifference of the capitalists to#ards their employees. During the Industrial Revolution' there #ere limited educational opportunities for children< therefore' it #as etter for them to #ork. Child la our #as an integral part of the system as the children #ere far paid less than adults $Candes /D&. They #orked under terri le conditions such as long hours #ith poor lighting' deficient ventilation and lack of protective clothing.

Ho#ever #ith social outcry and reports of child a use' la#s prohi iting child la our and the factory acts in (?E% stipulated that no child under the age of t#elve #as to e employed as a factory #orker. Ho#ever' it is unfortunate that some of these reforms #ere implemented long after people like Charles Dickens had already een forced into the gruesome and traumati3ing factory #ork at his age. +ven though the Industrial Revolution rought an economic oom to the middle class segment of 2reat *ritain and the rest of +urope through the emergence of the capitalists' it crushed the poor #hose e5istence #as overshado#ed y the success of the middle class. Dickens novels e5pose the slums and filth of Condon and its surroundings y realistically depicting the corruption of its society. Thus the Industrial Revolution evoked sympathy and a desire for social change in #riters like Charles Dickens. 1.3 The Victorian Society The Aictorian society is marked y Fueen Aictorias reign from (?.D to (8@(< thus' it is referred to as the Aictorian era. Fueen Aictorias si5ty four year reign is the longest in *ritish history and the cultural' political' economic' industrial and scientific changes that occurred during her reign #ere remarka le. ,hen Aictoria ascended to the throne' *ritain #as essentially agrarian and rural' ut y the time of her death' the country #as vastly ur ani3ed and largely industriali3ed. During the Industrial Revolution' the Aictorian society consisted of a hierarchical structure comprising of the upper class' follo#ed y the middle class' the #orking class and the impoverished under class $Cody&. These different social classes could e distinguished y ine1ualities in areas such as politics' authority' #ealth' education' culture' #orking and living conditions. :em ers of the lo#er class #ere perceived as irrational' immature' superstitious' rutal' e5cessively se5ual and filthy $,ohl&. Due to the po#erlessness of the lo#er class mem ers' they #ere su 0ugated to e5ploitation and treatment similar to that of animals. =ne prominent feature of the Aictorian society #as the a undant poor. *ecause of poverty' children #ere forced into child la our and forced to #ork as chimney s#eepers and they could cra#l up the t#elve y fourteen inch chimneys' some as small as seven inches s1uare' so that they #ould clean out the annual average of forty gallons of soot that #as deposited there. 7ome oys ecame rat catchers and they #ere re1uired to use arsenic to poison the rats' ut as this could e e5pensive' they could also use a ferret to flush the rats out and kill them $>elsey (&. Children could also ecome messengers and it #as 1uite common for a gentleman to ask a near y street urchin to run errands for him. Charles Dickens depicts 4o in *leak House' as a street urchin and he is asked y Cady Dedlock for some information concerning 6emo. 7ome children could also #ork as mud larks #hich meant that they had to #ade into the Thames River at lo# tide to scrounge for its of coal' rope' ones and copper nails' ut they had to e careful so that they #ould not cut their are feet. Gr an overpopulation resulted in the poor living in appalling and overcro#ded housing conditions. Improvement in the sanitation meant increased rent #hich most of the #orkers could not afford. :ore living space per family #ould increase the distance et#een home and #ork' therefore it meant that more families #ould live further a#ay from #ork. The solution #as to overcro#d the cramped s1ualid living 1uarters as portrayed y Charles Dickens in *leak House' Tom ! -ll ! -lones and the Coketo#n inha itants in Hard Times. In the early nineteenth century' there #as a high rate of prostitution #hich came to e kno#n as the great social evil. *et#een (?%? and (?D@' there #ere a lot of institutions #orking to reclaim" these fallen #omen" from the streets and at the same time restraining them from entering the respecta le society y forcing them to #ork as domestic servants. The theme of prostitution and the fallen #oman" ecame a staple feature of Aictorian literature and politics. Prostitution #as perceived as a social pro lem rather than 0ust a fact of ur an life.

Prostitutes #ere often presented as victims in sentimental novels such as +li3a eth 2askells :ary *urton and Charles Dickens =liver T#ist. The emphasis on the purity of #omen led to the portrayal of the prostitute as soiled' corrupt and in need of cleansing. 7ympathetic #riters raised economic deprivation as a ma0or cause of prostitution. The emphasis on female purity #as allied to the importance of the homemaking role of #omen' #ho' y her domesticity' helped to create a space free from pollution and corruption from the city. The prostitute came to have sym olic significance as the em odiment of the violation of that divide. The anonymity of the city led to the increase in prostitution and unsanctioned se5ual relationships. -ltick attests that Dickens and other #riters of his time associated prostitution #ith the mechani3ation of modern life' portraying prostitutes as human commodities consumed and then thro#n a#ay like refuse" $)/&. The status of #omen in the Aictorian era is often seen as a discrepancy et#een +nglands national po#er and #ealth and #hat many' then and no#' consider its appalling social conditions. During this period' difficulties escalated for #omen ecause of the vision of the ideal #oman shared y the society. ,omen could not vote and they could not ecome property o#ners. The role of #omen #as to have children and they could not hold a professional 0o unless it #as that of eing a teacher or a domestic servant. 9urthermore' #omen #ere only confined to the domestic sphere and their duty #as to e in charge of servants and to organi3e parties #hich #ould promote the prestige of their hus ands and ena le them to meet ne# people and esta lish economically important relationships. #oman #as also re1uired to e good tempered'" compassionate to#ards the suffering and #ell mannered and clean $*urton /@&. +ducation #as vie#ed as the economic necessity of men only. The attitude to#ards #omen and education #as that education need not e of the same e5tended' classical and commercial characteristic as that of men. ,omen #ere supposed to e educated in issues that involved domesticity. 7u 0ects such as history' geography and general literature #ere important' ut not Catin and 2reek. ,omen #ho #anted to study la#' physics' engineering or medicine #ere satiri3ed and dismissed. The Aictorian society deemed it unnecessary for #omen to attend university. Ho#ever' the Aictorian society appeared to e a sta le society ecause of the lavish lifestyle of the aristocracy and the enormous profits gained y the middle class' yet the emergence of the ourgeoisie" also meant a massive increase in poverty and ur an overpopulation due to the rural B ur an migration. 9urthermore' #omen #ere also oppressed as they #ere confined to the domestic sphere and they #ere not #elcome in the masculine pu lic domain of politics and usiness. Children #ere also e5ploited as they #ere su 0ected to child la our and they #orked under harsh conditions. The Aictorian society' particularly the middle class' upheld strong moral values and morals' yet they did little to help the poor or change their condition. 1.4 The Victorian Novel The nineteenth century #as the great age of the novel' #hich is descri ed y Henry 4ames as an intricately in#rought aesthetic and psychological design' and a su tle alancing of formal and moral tensions" $1td. y Pykett (.&. The term novel did not arise until the end of the eighteenth century although the content itself had een een formed earlier in the century y Defoe' Richardson' 9ielding and 7molett $>arl E&. Ian ,att further attests to this point y stating that Richardson and 9ielding #ere the founders of a ne# form #riting $8&. This form of literary art #as ound to flourish since there #as an increase in literacy as the middle class rose in po#er and importance $Daiches ?8@&. -s industrialisation spread throughout *ritain' it #as common that the novel ecame a means of portraying life and its social and moral values familiar to the readers. Thus' the Aictorian novel ecame greatly kno#n for its concern for the social pro lems of the time.

The ma0or Aictorian novelists are Charles Dickens $(?()!(?D@&' ,illiam :akepeace Thackeray $(?(( B (?E.& and 2eorge +lliot $(?(8 B (???&. Charles Dickens like Thomas Hardy' depicts the conflicts et#een individuals and society' and also criticises the nineteenth century social structure $Peck and Coyle ((.&. The early Aictorian novelists accepted middle class values such as decorum' gentility' purity and property #hich #ere important during that time. In most Aictorian novels' class pre0udice is also a ma0or concern. To many of his contemporaries' Dickens #as Hemphatically the novelist of his age'" in #hose novels posterity #ill read more clearly than in any age of contemporary records' the character of our nineteenth century life" $Pykett ?&. D.-. :iller' a critic' contended that Dickens novels are oth a symptom and a criti1ue of the disciplinary society< they are the site of the first appearance in +nglish fiction of a massive themati3ation of social discipline" $1td. y Pykett (?&. 9urthermore' *ar ara Cecker also suggested that the social criti1ue of Dickens early novels develops' after mid!career' into a more comprehensive vision of Aictorian +ngland" $E8(&. Dickens novels #ere landmarks of literature in +nglish and of +nglish culture in the nineteenth century< thus' he is similar to the other Aictorian novelists in the sense that he is a le to address the middle class values through satiri3ing them $Pykett .&. He critici3es the middle class for placing so much value on morality' yet it is the same people #ho e5ploit the poor' therefore his Aictorian novel challenges the middle class value of morality. Cionel Trilling and Harold *loom say; If the middle class is properly to e descri ed in a harsh fashion' then it is a parado5 or an anomaly that the national culture #hich this class dominated should have given so much hearty a response to #riters for #hom the indictment of the failings of the middle class #as a chief part of their enterprise. :any of the individual mem ers should themselves turn a 1uestioning eye upon its ethos and seek to repudiate or meliorate those unamia le traits that #ere commonly ascri ed to it." $E& 7imilarly' Thackeray in Aanity 9air is mainly concerned #ith the contrast et#een human pretentions and human #eakness and he portrayed the middle class social stratum and its hypocrisy. Dickens is e1ually a#are of the precariousness or vulnera ility of the ne# respecta le social conception of the self and the uried life that is hidden eneath the veneer of polite manners $Peck and Coyle D)&. Dorothy Aan 2hent' one of the t#entieth century critics' has identified characteri3ation as a specific response to the nineteenth century processes of reification and alienation in #hich people #ere ecoming things and things #ere ecoming more important than people" $1td. y Peck and Coyle ()?&. It is true that #ith the influ5 of industrialisation' people ecame like machines as noted in the description of the #orkers in Charles Dickens Hard Times; The #earisome heads #ent up and do#n at the same rate' in hot #eather and cold' #et #eather and dry' fair #eather and foul. The measured motion of their shado#s on the #alls' #as the su stitute Coketo#n had to sho# for the shado#s of rustling #oods. . . . $88& The motion of the #orkers is monotonous and automated like that of a machine. In this passage' Charles Dickens sho#s that the #orkers have ecome synonymous to the machines as their actions are similar to that of a machine. The Hands are not regarded as individuals anymore< ut' they are considered as automotives; 9or the first time in her life' Couisa had come into one of the d#ellings of the Coket#on Hands< for the first time in her life she #as face to face #ith anything like individuality in

conne5ion #ith them. 7he kne# of their e5istence y hundreds and y thousands. 7he kne# #hat results in #ork a given num er of them #ould produce in a given space of time." $(%(& Couisa identifies the #orkers through their #ork and not their individual identity. Her perception sho#s that the #orkers are no# compara le to machines' #hich society identifies for their roles. +ach #orker has lost his or her individuality ecause of their synonymy to the machine. In this #ay' Dickens fits into the nineteenth century mode of #riting #hich placed much emphasis on the condition of humanity placed against the ackdrop of industrialisation' a tradition learnt from the late eighteenth century #riters #ho dramatised the ur an life and human character #ith a keen eye for the changes #hich the Industrial Revolution rought into +ngland in his lifetime" $Daiches (@/@&. Dickens artistic a ility to represent characters placed in a modernised environment affirms him as one of the most successful authors #hose central position in *ritish and -nglophone culture derives in large part from his continuing appeal to the general or Hcommon reader" $Pykett %&. 9urthermore' Raymond ,illiam claims that Dickens #as a representative of a ne# kind of perceiving the #orld' and sho#ing the cro#d' the city' modern social forms and institutions' and the po#er of industrialism $1td. y Pykett&. In some instances' the Aictorian novel continued #ith the literary canon of depicting the protagonist as a virtuous person. The hero is al#ays a representation of moral earnestness and #holesomeness' including crusades against social evils. 9or e5ample' Charles Dickens portrays =liver T#ist as a character #ho maintains his virtue despite the corrupt #orld in #hich he finds himself. He is 0u5taposed against a tainted society< yet' he remains pure. constant conflict is #aged et#een goodness and evil' innocence and corruption. The idea of 0u5taposing good and evil is also prevalent in the eighteenth century #ritings of *lake and ,ords#orth #ho #rote in and transitional age of the pre!industrial era and the modern #orld. 7imilarly' ,illiam :akepeace Thackeray' one of the reno#ned Aictorian novelists' also depicts in his novel Aanity 9air' ho# the demands of society operate on human character" $1td. y Daiches (@E@&. ,hile Dickens focuses on the poor and their struggle to survive in a demanding #orld' Thackerays places much focus on the characters and scenes of the upper classes. :oreover' a ne# #ay of characteri3ation #as noted in the Aictorian novel. Instead of the #riter introducing or descri ing the character' the reader could no# learn a character through their speech $>arl )@&. -lthough the Aictorian novel lacked the t#entieth centurys suita le method of the use of psychoanalysis' and revelations y the inner man'" the nineteenth century novelist relied on vernacular conversation to disclose the conscious $)@&. Dialogue' therefore' ecame a common feature of the novel. In addition' Dickens novels also ear some theatrical elements in the #ay in #hich certain characters deliver their speeches' #hich sho#s that the conventions of the theatre have een a sor ed or replaced y the novel $(@D&. The conversational idiom attracted large audiences' even the illiterate' #ho could hear their o#n accents as noted through :ag#itch and 4oe in 2reat +5pectations' 7leary and 7tephen in Hard Times' 9agin and his cre# in =liver T#ist' and 4o and the mem ers of Tom!-ll!-lones in *leak House. The po#er of language in a novel is attested y :ichael 9oucalt #ho a solutely vie#s language as perfomative and operative; language does not merely represent the #orld' ut it does #ork in the #orld" $1td. y Pykett (D&. -ccording to Ian ,att; The actors in the plot and the scenes of their actions had to e placed in a ne# literary perspective; the plot had to e acted out y particular people in particular circumstances' rather than' as had een common in the past' y general human types against a ackground primarily determined

the appropriate literary convention." $()& Ian ,atts description of the novel led to the development of realism and the impulse to descri e the everyday #orld that the reader can recogni3e as an element of the Aictorian novel. This ne# literary genre re0ected the romantic idealism and dependence on esta lished moral truths and ecame a philosophy that #as greatly pessimistic and deterministic. -s realist novels' Dickens #orks challenge the inhumanity of ne# social legislation. Dickens also accurately depicts the lo#er class trying to survive in the ne# ur an society as more people migrated from the rural landscape to an ur ani3ed society. ,ith the tide of industriali3ation' a ne# sense of individualism #as ushered in and people had to find #ays of fending for themselves in an impersonal ur an #orld. Dickens #orks depict the ourgeoisie e5ploiting the #orkers in an effort to gain more profit' #hile the lo#er class mem ers #ere forced to engage in crime. 2eorge +lliots novel 7ilas :arner' for instance' depicts the selfishness of the ourgeoisie and the struggle to survive of the poor. 7imilarly' Dickens learnt from his o#n circumstance and o servations' com ining an e5traordinary relish for the odd' the colourful and the dramatic in ur an life and in human character #ith a keen eye for the changes #hich the Industrial Revolution rought into +ngland. -s a realist #riter' Dickens novels such as =liver T#ist and Hard Times depict the impact of ur ani3ation on the poor leading to the emergence of a criminal class and the u i1uity of commerciali3ation and the profit motive and its dissolving effects upon family and friendships. Therefore' the Aictorian novel confronts the reader #ith grim depictions of human suffering and misery. :oreover' Aictorian #riters agree that the machine principle' the manifest antithesis to the spirit' #as corrupting the life of +ngland $Trilling and *loom D&. Its grossest and most readily o serva le effect #as the dehumani3ation of the #orker' #ho had ecome a mere' disposa le element in the process of production' an o 0ect and ra# material to e used as needed' his cost as a source of energy reckoned in no different #ay than that of coal $D&. 9urthermore' the Aictorian novel also ventures into social realms and deals #ith su classes of humanity' focusing on gender' class and empire. There is fre1uent attention on the upper middle class +nglishmen in Condon and its environs' yet ehind and around these men #ere #omen' #orkers and servants. The Aictorian society #as a patriarchal society< the men #ere the ones #ho #ere economically empo#ered' #hile the #omen #ere forced to depend on men for financial sta ility. In addition' the Aictorian society #as particular a out class and any form of interaction et#een classes #as not permissi le and inter B class marriages #ere not accepted in society. Aictorian novels depict #omen #ho are usually confined to the domestic sphere and forced conform to societal norms. If at any point a female character is re ellious' she is punished until she ecomes docile as she is e5pected. 7trong images and sym ols also characterised the nineteenth century novel< thus' the novelists often created layers of comple5 sym olic meaning that reached far deeper than the superficial pattern of social action suggested to the casual reader. 9or e5ample' in *leak House' Dickens uses images such as fog social in0ustice and moral decadence; 9og every#here. 9og up the river' #here it flo#s among the tiers of shipping' and the #aterside pollutions of a great $and dirty& city. 9og on the +sse5 marshes' fog on the >entish heights. . . fog in the stem and o#l of the afternoon pipe of the #rathful skipper' do#n in his close ca in< fog cruelly pinching the toes and fingers of his shivering little prentice oy on deck." $(& The fog is representative of the corruption in the city of Condon' and its effects on some mem ers of society such as the Hprentice oy. The repetition of the #ord Hfog signifies the

intensity of vice in the society. The Aictorian novel e5poses social ills through strong images that realistically depict societys neglect of the poor and corrupt am ition to elong in the middle class and the division et#een classes. The prison is representative of ones confinement to their social class as evidenced in 2reat +5pectations. Pip is confined to his social class until a mysterious enefactor' #ho later turns out to e the criminal :ag#itch' fulfils his dream of ecoming a gentleman so that he can e a mem er of the middle class. The Aictorian novel #as a vehicle #hich #riters used to deliver social criticism. It #as a source that gave the reading pu lic a clear picture of #hat #as happening during the nineteenth century. Thus it can e concluded that the Aictorian novel #as a realistic depiction of +ngland and the rest of *ritain in the industrial era. The novel #as a ne# form that #as developed from drama' and Dickens novels have some theatrical elements such as dialogue #hich ena les the reader to identify the personalities of the characters in the te5ts and to understand the sym olic role of each character. Therefore' the Aictorian novel' through its realistic depiction of characters and the Aictorian society in general' ena led the readers to understand #hat #as going on in +ngland at that time. !"#T$R T!R$$% The #oor in &ers&ective 3.1. The #oor 'aw "ct The Poor Ca# -ct of (?.% #as a system of la#s #hich #as introduced in +ngland and the rest of *ritain to provide pu lic relief under a system #hich re1uired that all those #ho re1uired assistance such as the #ido#s' the sick and the unemployed' had to e accommodated at the #orkhouses. -ccording to the Poor Ca# -ct itself' there is no section #hich stipulated that the poor #ere to e harshly treated' ut the commissioners of the Poor Ca#s #ere the ones #ho created the policy of rutality. Ro erts stated; These commissioners' three in num er and #ith e5tensive po#ers to form and supervise the ne#ly created poor la# unions' #ished local guardians to give relief to a le B odied paupers only if they entered a #orkhouse" $8?&. This raises concern for the sick #ho #ere most likely forced into la our despite their physical condition. ,orkhouses #ere institutions in #hich the poor #ere housed and they #orked in order to receive some relief' thus it #as called indoor relief" $Ro erts 8?&. -t the #orkhouses one could find men' #omen' children' the old and sick #ho #ere allocated the specific #orkhouses y the parishes in the districts to #hich they elonged. 9or e5ample' a poor man or family living in *oston #as e5pected to e admitted to a *oston #orkhouse as directed y a parish council or eadle." The rise of capitalism rought nota le prosperity #ithin the middle class' yet the Industrial Revolution #as a period of immense poverty among the ma0ority of the +nglish citi3ens. Despite claims that industriali3ation created employment' one should also ear in mind that the transition from rural to ur ani3ation could also economically affects a lot of people' as there is high competition to survive in a capitalist society. 7ome people managed to ecome mem ers of the middle class or the ourgeoisie' #hile others ecame skilled artisans' tradesmen and professionals. Ho#ever' every mem er of society did not elong to the middle class' there #ere people #ho elonged to the lo#er class #ho #ere mostly unemployed' and the Aictorian middle class la elled them paupers." This #as a class of people #ho #ere receiving the poor relief as stipulated y the poor la#. These paupers" #ere usually people #ho #ere not only unemployed or sick' ut received insufficient #ages. Prior to the Poor Ca# -mendment -ct' relief #as distri uted to the poor citi3ens of the +nglish society #hether they #ere employed or not. Ho#ever' in (?.%' the -ct implemented a ne# dimension #here y anyone #ho needed relief #as re1uired to ecome a mem er of a #orkhouse and they had to #ork in order to receive assistance. Ho#ever' it is stated that outdoor relief still continued and the Royal Commission on the Poor Ca#s of (?.) B (?.% emphasi3ed that outdoor relief to the a le B odied poor #as a master evil of the present

system" $Royal Commission on the Poor Ca#s Report )D8&. 9rom the orthodo5 poor la# administrators perspective' aid in the form of #ages #as a serious crime ecause some of these people #ere employed< henceforth it upset the la our market $Rose E@D&. The Royal Commission stipulated that outdoor relief #as to e stopped and assistance #as to e given in #ell regulated #orkhouses" $Royal Commission on the Poor Ca#s Report )E)&. The 1uestion still remains #hether this #as a plausi le solution and esides' outdoor relief still continued' #hich sho#s the central authority for poor la# administrations failure to stop it. Ho#ever' even though the allo#ance system continued' it #as no# relief in aid of small and irregular earnings" $Rose E@8&. The #ithdra#al of outdoor relief #as further enforced y the government and the task #as given to political Poor Ca# Commissioners #ho issued orders to *oards of 2uardians' #ho #ere the custodians of poor relief. -fter a 2eneral =rder #as issued as the =utdoor Relief Prohi itory =rder in (?%%' every a le B odied male or female #as to receive relief only in the Gnion #orkhouse $2len )@?&. +very person #ho received relief #as not allo#ed to e employed any#here else other than the #orkhouse. Ho#ever' the 1uestion still remains #hether the disa led and the old #ho #ere also re1uired to #ork at the #orkhouses. The *oard of 2uardians stated that it #as more e5pensive to keep a pauper" in a #orkhouse ecause they also ecame responsi le of all the costs and need of the rest of the family' #hereas outdoor relief consisted of lo#er #ages #hich could e supplemented y other earnings from other private charities $2len )@8&. 7uch a situation e5poses the mistreatment and starvation to #hich the poor #ere su 0ected at the #orkhouses ecause there #ere not enough funds to cover clothing and food re1uirements for all the people in these shelters. :oreover' the allo#ance system demorali3ed the poor ecause those #ho applied for reliefs #ere invaria ly given a meagre pittance #hich oth they and the 2uardians kne# #as insufficient to maintain them" $Rose E)@&. Thus' the poor la# has also een descri ed as a harsh' repressive system shot through #ith notions of social control" $,e and ,e %8&. -fter receiving their dole' the poor had to find other means of surviving such as #orking long hours for lo# #ages and unpleasant tasks' or #orse' egging and stealing. 7uch circumstances raised concerns on the governments duty to cur such a 0ect poverty as the relief received y the poor #as insufficient. Ho#ever' some guardians 0ustified the stringent conditions at the #orkhouses y claiming that the resources of the ratepayers #ere insufficient $>ing .EE&. The most critici3ed aspect of the Poor Ca# -ct #as the administration of the #orkhouses. Ro erts commented' The principal cruelty of the 6e# Poor Ca# #as the #orkhouse" $8?&. Cife in the #orkhouse #as 1uite harsh as most of the *oard of 2uardians did not provide ade1uate care for the poor. The #orkhouse inmates #ere not given enough clothing and the clothes they received on arrival #ere the same ones they #ore every day of their lives' #hether #orking or sleeping. *elo# is a sketch sho#ing children in a #orkhouse during meal time; Picture (; +ye ,itness -ccounts" 9rom the a ove dra#ing' one can also notice that most of the children #ere shoeless and their clothes #ere ragged. This realistic depiction of arefooted children eing fed on read and gruel reveals the lack of care that #as given to #orkhouse inmates' especially the vulnera le children. -s noted from the picture' these assaila le children #ere not provided #ith ade1uate clothing to protect them from the cold +nglish #inter' #hich left them suscepti le to austere living conditions. 7uch a representation is also an appeal to society to recogni3e the governments failure to improve the unpleasant living conditions of the #orkhouse inmates. The follo#ing is a testimony y an inmate 7arah Carpenter #ho #as intervie#ed y The -shton Chronicle on ). 4une in (?%8; =ur common food #as oatcake. It #as thick and coarse.

This oatcake #as put into cans. *oiled milk and #ater #as poured into it. This #as our reakfast and supper. =ur dinner #as potato pie #ith oiled acon it' a it here and a it there' so thick #ith fat #e could scarce eat it' though #e #ere hungry enough to eat anything. Tea #e never sa#' nor utter. ,e had cheese and ro#n read once a year. ,e #ere only allo#ed three meals a day though #e got up at five in the morning and #orked till nine at night." $+ye ,itness -ccounts"& =ther than eing inade1uately clothed' it is evident that the #orkhouse inmates #ere also malnourished' #hich further confirms the notion that the government #as not providing enough funds to feed the poor' or they #ere misused y the *oard of 2uardians. =ne of the popular ne#spapers in the nineteenth century' The Times' #as #ell kno#n for its criticism of the poor la# administration and the treatment of the #orkhouse inmates' and one of the ne#spaper correspondents #rote; Is it not 7ir' horri le' that you cannot no# take up a ne#spaper on any day #ithout finding one or more accounts of starvation" $1td. y Ro erts 8?&. The ne#spaper also reported that at the *ridge#ater #orkhouse a meagre diet and congestion killed off %( percent of the average num er of inmates" $1td. y Ro erts 8?&. :oreover' it #as also discovered that at the ,esthampnett #orkhouse t#o children died of starvation and another #as forced to eat a mouse as there #as no food $8?&. *elo# is a testimony from one of the Poor Ca# 2uardians' +mmeline Pankhurst #ho further su stantiated the unpleasantness and harshness to #hich the inmates #ere su 0ected; ,hen I came into office I found that the la# #as eing very harshly administered. The old oard had een made up of the kind of men #ho are kno#n as rate savers. They #ere guardians' not of the poor ut of the ratesI 9or instance' the inmates #ere eing very poorly fed. I found the old folks in the #orkhouse sitting on ackless forms' or enches. They had no privacy' no possessions' not even a locker. -fter I took office I gave the old people comforta le ,indsor chairs to sit in' and in a num er of #ays #e managed to make their e5istence more endura le." $:y =#n 7tory" 1td. in (?.% Poor Ca#"& The inmates #ere treated inhumanely y the authorities and their survival could only e sustained y some of the 2uardians #ho #ere sensitive and merciful like the reno#ned +mmeline Pankhurst. Ho#ever the poor administration of the #orkhouses is also an indication of the lack of proper management y the oard mem ers #ho #ere the overseers of the #orkhouses. This also raises 1uestions on the role of the +nglish government in fending for the poor and its failure to administer the proper care for the poor. Joung inmates #ere even more vulnera le to malnutrition and #inter diseases as their #orkhouse uniforms #ere not designed to #ithstand harsh +nglish #inters. +mmeline Pankhursts auto iography further reinforces this point as she descri es the condition of the young children and the uniforms they #ore; The first time I #ent into the place I #as horrified to see little girls seven and eight years on their knees scru ing the cold stones of the long corridors. These little girls #ere clad' summer and #inter' in thin cotton frocks' lo# in the neck and short sleeved. -t night they #ore nothing at all' night dresses eing considered too good for paupers. The fact that ronchitis #as epidemic among them most of the time had not suggested to the guardians any change in the fashion of their clothes." $1td. in (?.% Poor Ca#"&

Discrimination is also very evident in this passage as it sho#s that eing young and also poor' su 0ects the children to cruelty and deprivation of asic needs such as #arm clothing in #inter' thus they suffered from illnesses such as ronchitis and #orse still' pneumonia. 6ot only #ere #orkhouse inmates victims of starvation' ut they #ere also flogged and detained as if they #ere in prison. It is reported that at a #orkhouse in *radford' a #oman #as ared to her #aist and #hipped" #hile at Crediton' t#o inmates' Cock and Dart' #ere confined to an unheated' damp' #indo#less' floorless' edless outhouse and #ere' one day' taken to the courtyard' stripped naked and mopped #ith cold #ater" $Ro erts 8?&. =ne #onders #hy life in the #orkhouses #as harsh and rutal and the ans#er is provided y one of the assistant poor la# commissioners' 4ames >ay #ho said; =ur intention is to make the #orkhouse as like prisons as possi le" $Hansard (@(%&. *elo# is a picture of t#o little oys' Ro ert ,ithers and 4onathan Cooke' #ho #ere punished for ed #etting and they #ere placed in a punitive outhouse; Picture ); 9areham B ,orkhouse" -s one can see' the outhouse' #as a stunted room' #ith grass or stra# as the floor. It almost appears like an animal house and not meant for humans. The oys #ere also kept in the outhouse for ten days and pro a ly #ithout food and or lanket$s& in the evening for cover and #armth $The 9areham ,orkhouse 7candal"&. This account is not fictional' ut it is a true incident ecause the evidence #as e5tracted from the ,est ury :anor :useum as an archives. =ne can also note that the #orkhouses #ere not as charita le as they #ere meant to e' ut rather shocking to every principle of reason and every feeling of humanity" $,e and ,e 1td. y Halevi )?%&. >arl Polanyi also called them places of horror" $1td. y Trevelyan E%(&. The Poor Ca# -ct #as after all' a harsh la# #hich on the surface appeared as if it provided for the poor' yet it su 0ected them to dehumani3ation. -lthough it may have seemed as if the poor #ere sufficiently accommodated at the #orkhouses' they #ere actually oppressed #hile those #ho #ere not living in the #orkhouses #ere forced to #ork and they could no longer e provided #ith any aid. The authorities elieved that the paupers #ere la3y and idle' yet they failed to understand that they #ere poor ecause of lack of employment and if they did find any #ork at all' it #as al#ays lo# paying petty #ork like s#eeping or repairing roads. +ven though the Poor Ca#s #ere enacted to assist the poor' they did nothing to change their plight or improve their situation. -s evidenced y the testimonies' the poor #ere further e5ploited through physical and emotional a use. 3.2 The 'ivin( conditions o) the &oor During the Industrial Revolution' the poor #ere living under s1ualid conditions' despite the economic oom that segments of the +nglish society #as e5periencing. The early nineteenth to mid nineteenth century #as a period in #hich the poor' as the lo#est mem ers of society and providers of the re1uired la our' they did not enefit from the profit #hich they managed to generate through their hard #ork and toil. - great emphasis has een placed on the positive impact of industriali3ation' ut one cannot ignore the distress and social an5iety among the poor. It #as the middle class or rather the H ourgeoisie" #ho consumed the profit #hile the #orking class sacrificed their humanity. It is also important to note that ur ani3ation due to industrial developments #as a dou le edged s#ord ecause of the presence of a 0ect poverty and its contrast #ith the affluence of the relatively rich' of the seeming degradation of the physical environment and massing of people into overcro#ded cities< and of the #orsening of relationships et#een poor and the rich..." $-ltick /D&. It #as only to#ards the end of the century that the lives of the poor greatly improved as there #ere la#s that monitored their living conditions and the health acts #hich improved the sanitation at the #orkers houses and these shall e discussed later in the last chapter of this research paper.

,ith the tide of the Industrial Revolution' to#ns gre# very rapidly as factories encouraged rural B ur an migration from different parts of +urope. It is estimated that in :anchester in the (?.@s' et#een forty thousand and fifty thousand people lived in cellars due to lack of sufficient housing to accommodate the increasing num ers of inha itants in the ur an areas $-ltick %%&. -s demand for accommodation vastly increased' houses #ere hurriedly uilt #ith poor standards and little regard for hygiene as stated y Richard -ltick; ...#ere long ro#s and locks' ne#ly uilt #ith the cheapest of materials' or su divided old houses' all designed to cram the most people into the least space. In Civerpool as late as the si5ties' there #ere EE' @@@ men' #omen and children for every s1uare mile. ...These teeming slums #ere the sites of almost unimagina le degradation. $%.& The living conditions of the poor raises concern on the +nglish government and its efforts to improve the housing system of the poor. -lticks comment implies that little land #as allocated for the use of uilding houses for the #orkers #hile the rest of it #as for economic purposes such as uilding more factories. Poor housing system for factory #orkers did not only e5ist #ithin the Aictorian society' ut it also e5ists #ithin modern society #here the industrial #orkers live in small shelters #ith poor sanitation ecause that is #hat they can afford. 7imilarly in the contemporary 7outh -frican society' for e5ample in +ast Condon' areas like Duncan Aillage are s#armed #ith factory #orkers and the accommodation is e5tremely elo# su standard yet afforda le. Thus' factory #orkers are considered as non! entities #ho do not deserve lu5urious living conditions as their purpose in life is to e factory #orkers and to increase production. It is 1uite o vious that the slums are simply uilt specifically for the poor; Here live the poorest of the poor' the #orst paid #orkers #ith thieves and the victims of prostitution indiscriminately huddled together..." $+ngels D@&. In their homes' the factory #orkers and their families led lives #hich lacked privacy; Carge families' even t#o or three families' occupied a single room. -s many as seven or eight persons B children and adults of oth se5es B slept in one ed $or' more likely' on a filthy collection of rags&...." $-ltick %.&. Industrial #orkers led lives #hich #ere no etter than that of animals as a #hole family or even more could e cramped into a minuscule room. =ne #onders a out ethics and the need for privacy if parents and children sleep in the same room' #hich is also noted in -ngelas -shes y 9rank :cCourt; Dad and :am lay at the head of the ed' :alachy and I at the ottom' the t#ins #herever they could find comfort $/8&. In many cities' large slums appeared in #hich houses #ere small' roads #ere narro# and services such as ru ish collection' se#age #orks and asic #ashing facilities #ere none5istent; Cesspools' #here they e5isted' constantly overflo#ed. +fficient se#er piping had not yet een invented' and even if it had' there #as no supply of continuously flo#ing #ater to carry a#ay the #aste. =pen B air drains therefore sent the #alk#ays and unpaved streets a#ash #ith filth' thus creating monstrous enlargements of the disease B reeding conditions #hich had prevailed in to#ns..." $-ltick %%&. The poor #ere victims of un eara le living conditions ecause of their vulnera ility and desperation to survive in an ur an #orld #hich they elieved #as a place of opportunities for them. :oreover' they could not afford supplies such as clean #ater; If #ater #as availa le at all' it came from a common tap in the courtyard #hich dre# on a supply that #as turned on only an hour or so every day' and it #as usually the runs off from the drains and cesspools' reused #ithout the intermediate enefit of

recycling. $%%&. 7uch conditions led to disease and ultimately to high death rates. It is estimated that out reaks of cholera killed si5teen thousand' four hundred and thirty seven people in +ngland #hile si5teen thousand died in Condon $%% B %/&. It is 1uite o vious that the poor #ould die from #ater orne diseases ecause of lack of funds to afford treatment and if the free hospitals #ere ever availa le' it is 1uite de ata le if the underprivileged mem ers of society #ere properly attended at all. Considering such unhealthy living conditions' one tends to 1uestion the factory o#ners and the governments role in providing suita le accommodation for the poor. It is also very alarming to learn that in an economically ooming society such as +ngland' #here the middle class en0oyed lavish lifestyles' one could also find a great num er of people living in a 0ect poverty. Ho#ever' one also has to ear in mind that in a capitalist society' individualism is highly noted and there is high competition among the ourgeoisie #ho are out to use the poor to gain more profit. 9rom a naturalist perspective' one can clearly note the influence of environment on human ehaviour. The factory #orkers #ere mainly confined to their slums and the only forms of recreation #ere rothels and gin shops; ... ecause the more the cities gre# around them' the less chance they had to flee' on a 7unday or holiday' to open spaces. There #ere no parks or playgrounds until the middle of the century' and the only places to #hich they could repair for recreation of a sort #ere the taverns' gin shops' rothels' occasional cockfights..." $-ltick %/& The only activities that the poor are e5posed to are drinking alcohol and e5posure to prostitution at the rothels. -lcoholism defeats psychological gro#th and also causes lack of am ition as the alcohol drinker is al#ays in a state of drunkenness. The poor lack a road vie# of life as they are not e5posed to opportunities such as education' ecause their lives revolve around the factory' the slum and the ar. They are not motivated to attain a etter social status and if they fail to secure employment at the factories' they resort to ecoming thieves and the #omen ecome prostitutes. It is evident that the living conditions of the poor during The Industrial Revolution #ere unpleasant and un eara le. :ost of the #orking class people #ere e5posed to disease and early death due to the poor sanitary and housing facilities at their s1ualid 1uarters. 7ome may argue that the Industrial Revolution greatly improved the lives of the poor' #hich is only noted to#ards the ends of the nineteenth century due to the social reforms that the government implemented in order to ring fairness and order to the living conditions of the poor. Ho#ever' one cannot ignore the fact that prior to these reforms' the poor lived in overcro#ded slums #ith poor ventilation leading to disease and starvation. 3.3 The &oor in Dickens works Charles Dickens is one of the greatest Aictorian #riters that ever lived and he is greatly admired for his a ility to realistically depict the poor during the Industrial Revolution. DickensK novels such as Hard Times' =liver T#ist' 2reat +5pectations and *leak House' clearly illustrate the condition of the lo#er class 0u5taposed against the lavish lives of the middle class and the aristocracy. Dickens uses fiction as an outlet for his enduring fascination #ith the darker side of human nature. The treatment of crime y Dickens #as far more than an authorial device< it #as a focal point for his deep concern #ith social pro lems and played a vital role in his attempt to understand these social ills. Dickens novels are not only a out crime' ut they also raise 1uestions on the Poor Ca# system and the living conditions of the #orking class.

Charles Dickens depicts the plight of the poor and their treatment at the #orkhouses particularly in =liver T#ist. =liver T#ist is orphaned at his irth and he immediately ecomes a parish child. -t the age of eight' he is removed from the church and taken to the poor house. The conditions at the #orkhouses #ere o viously un eara le as evidenced y =livers first e5perience; . . . on a rough hard ed' he so ed himself to sleep. ,hat a no le illustration of the tender la#s of this favoured countryL They let the paupers go to sleepL" $(.& The description of the ed is a confirmation of the rigorousness of the poor houses as attested y the poor house *oard of 2uardians; The #orkhouse conditions should e as harsh and less tolera le as those of a prison" $1td. y 2rant (@&. The passage is also ironic ecause Dickens uses sarcasm y commending the tender la#s" of a favoured country'" yet' he is criticising the government for its e5ploitation and treatment of the poor as marginal mem ers of society. :oreover' the passage evokes empathy in the reader as one visualises an innocent child suffering at the hands of the cruel. In this #ay' Dickens fulfils his aim< to emotionally engage the readers' so that they #ould e a#are of the intensity of the conditions at the #orkhouses. -dditionally' #orkhouse inmates #ere also malnutritioned; I =liver T#ist and his companions suffered the tortures of slo# starvation for three months< at last they got so voracious and #ild #ith hunger' that one oy' #ho #as tall for his age' and hadnt een used to that sort of thing' $for his father had kept a small cooks shop'& hinted darkly to his companions that unless he had another asin of gruel per diem' he #as afraid he should some night eat the oy #ho slept ne5t to him' #ho happened to e a #eakly youth of tender age." $(%& =liver T#ist is chosen y his companions to ask for more food #hich indicates starvation and lack of sufficient food to sustain the #orkhouse inmates. He is punished for this act and one of the authorities is so horrified at the impertinence that he keeps saying that he #ill e hung. Hunger #as prevalent in the #orkhouses as #ell as at the parish houses; =liver T#ists eighth irth!day found him a pale' thin child' some#hat diminutive in stature' and decidedly small in circumference" $D&. =livers stunted gro#th is o viously caused y under nourishment. The po#erful pathos and visual imagery #hich Dickens uses in descri ing =liver is a masterful creation to intensify the gravity of the circumstances in #hich =liver finds himself. This further su stantiates the harsh reality that the #orkhouse inmates #ere starving. The starvation of the poor at the #orkhouses #as also a reflection of the hunger encountered y the paupers outside the poor houses ecause after the passing of the Poor Ca# -ct of (?.%' they #ere no longer receiving any aid from the parishes unless they #ere inmates. Thus' in (?%)' there #as an attack on the #orkhouse at 7tockportt and elo# is an image of the illustration in the Condon 6e#s; Picture .; -ttack on the ,orkhouse at 7tockportt" 7uch a stampede and scram le for food reflects a serious social pro lem. - #hopping cro#d of a out t#enty thousand unemployed people attacked the #orkhouse at 7tockportt in search of food $Clapham /?/&. The protestors lamed the present state of the poor and the unemployed on the state and the Church of +ngland and its *ishops $/?/&. 9rom 7tockportt' it is said that the enormous pack turned out the #orkers from the hat B making mills and print #orks and #ent on to attack the Gnion #orkhouse in 7ha# B Heath #here they stole si5 hundred and seventy t#o loaves of read and a large num er of copper coins $/?/&. 7uch an incident serves to reinforce that Dickens presentation of social pro lems #as not mere fiction' ut an undenia le record of real life events.

Charles Dickens does not only depict the harshness of the Poor Ca# -ct' ut also illustrates the #orking conditions at the factories. The novel Hard Times is set in the industrial north of +ngland and its apparent o vious thesis is its opposition to industrialisation and capitalism $Pykett (.8&. Dickens vividly descri es the conditions at the Coketo#n factory; 7tokers emerged from lo# underground door#ays into factory yards' and sat on steps' and posts' and palings' #iping their s#arthy visages' and contemplating coals. The #hole to#n seemed to e frying in oil. There #as a stifling smell of hot oil every#here. The steam!engines shone #ith it' the dresses of the Hands #ere soiled #ith it' the mills throughout their many stories oo3ed and trickled it. The atmosphere of those 9airy palaces #as like the reath of the simoom; and their inha itants' #asting #ith heat' toiled languidly in the desert." $88& $Italics mine& The description of the #orkers' #hose faces are lack #ith the oil and the effect of heat on them' is an indication of the inade1uate facilities needed to create a conducive #orking environment. This is a description of the factories in #hich the #orking class la oured each day #here they #ere deafened y the noise of the steam engines and the clattering machinery and stifled in air that not only #as laden #ith dust' ut in the a sence of ventilation #as heated to as high as eighty five degrees" #hich is revelatory of the physiological de ilitation $-ltick %.&. This is further confirmed in Hard Times; as killing airs and gases #ere ricked in" $/E&. -part from the unpleasant #orking conditions to #hich the poor #ere su 0ected' they also lived under s1ualid conditions. Therefore' the living 1uarters #ere as ad as the factories they #orked in' esides' they #ere oth located in the same area to avoid long distances et#een the houses and the factories. Ho#ever' such an arrangement #as inhuman ecause the houses #ere too small and they #ere located #ithin the industrial site such that the area #as al#ays cloudy #ith the smoke from the factories. The poor could not do anything to change their plight ecause they #ere desperate for accommodation as #ell as employment and they had to endure every sort of rutality to #hich they #ere su 0ected. In *leak House' the standards of living of the poor #ere also very appalling; . . . it #as one of a cluster of #retched hovels in a rick!field' #ith pigsties close to the roken #indo#s' and misera le little gardens efore the doors' gro#ing nothing ut stagnant pools. Here and there' an old tu #as put to catch the droppings of rain!#ater from a roof' or they #ere anked up #ith mud into a little pond like a large dirt!pie." $(@E& The intense description of the rick makers house is an illustration of the horrid lifestyle they led #hich #as completely dissimilar and separate from that of the upper classes. The living 1uarters are surrounded y filth and carelessness. Humans and pigs share the same living 1uarters' #hich is an indication that the social status of the poor #as no etter than that of animals. The #orkers are po#erless to protest against their condition ecause they are grateful and content that they are employed and also have accommodation' #hich is pro a ly etter than living in the streets and eing unemployed. The #orking class em races the inhumanity and e5ploitation' to #hich they are su 0ected ecause they are a#are of the fact that they may lose their 0o s at the #ill of the employer as indicated y +ngels; He kno#s that every ree3e that lo#s' every #him of his employer' every ad turn of trade may hurl him ack into the fierce #hirlpool from #hich he has temporarily saved himself' and in #hich it is hard and

often impossi le to keep his head a ove #ater. He kno#s that' though he may have the means of living today' it is very uncertain #hether he shall tomorro#." $D@& Therefore' the precarious condition of the #orkers is inevita le ecause of the poverty that leaves them vulnera le and desperate for any form of survival. Ho#ever' the vulnera ility of the factory employees #as to e removed #ith the introduction of 9actory -cts and trade unions' as shall e discussed in the later chapters of this research. -lthough the #orkers are defenceless' Dickens portrays in Hard Times' employees #ho are conscious of their plight through the gathering y the Coketo#n #orkers; =H my friends' the do#n!trodden operatives of Coketo#nL =h my friends and fello#!country' the slaves of an iron!handed and a grinding despotismL =h my friends and fello#!sufferers' and fello#!#orkmenL I tell you that the hour is come' #hen #e must rally round one another as =ne united po#er' and crum le into dust the oppressors that too long have attened upon the plunder of our families' upon the s#eat of our ro#s' upon the la our of our hands' upon the strength of our sine#s' upon the 2od!created glorious rights of Humanity' and upon the holy and eternal privileges of *rotherhoodL" $().& The passage conforms to socialist #riting as it involves the #orkers ecoming conscious of the oppression to #hich they are su 0ected. 4u5taposed against an evil environment' the poor are presented as good people. 7tephen *lackpool in Hard Times #as a good po#er!loom #eaver' and a man of perfect integrity" $/D&. He has no choice ut to #ork #ithin a degrading system that has e5cluded him from his employer and fello# #orkmates $>arl (//&. Cike 7t. 7tephen in the *i le' 7tephen ecomes a martyr to all that is ad in society and his refusal to e involved in Trade Gnionism is an indication of his a ility to choose in a society that limits personal choice $(//&. -lthough he is a 0ust man' he is also a victim of industrialisation' and the coal pit #hich had s#allo#ed hundreds" $(//&. Due to his failure to either 0oin capitalism or fight industrialisation' 7tephen is defeated y the society in #hich he lives. The mem ers of 7learys circus are also poor yet good natured and innocent. The description of 7learys community is loaded #ith overtones of art and entertainment #hich appeal directly to the heart" $>arl (/@&. Despite its physical dirtiness and ignorance' their #orld is innocent and fulfilling ecause it is outside the industrialised and mechanistic life of Coketo#n $(/@&. Its #orld is synonymous to childrens' in the sense that it is filled #ith naivety. In addition' 4oe in 2reat +5pectations is also another e5ample of a poor person' untainted y the vice that characterises the nineteenth century; 4oe #as a fair man' #ith curls of fla5en hair on each side of his smooth face' and #ith eyes of such a very undecided lue that they seemed to have someho# got mi5ed #ith their o#n #hites. He #as a mild' good natured' s#eet!tempered' easy going . . . $(E& 4oe is innocent and gentle like the mem ers of 7learys circus. 4oes lue eyes and the #hite colour are sym ols of peace and purity therefore' his humility' gentility of the heart and innocence is a reinforcement of the possi ilities of peace' transparency and 0ustness in an industrialised #orld. The 0u5taposition of Dickens characters from the lo#er class against a corrupt and industrialised #orld is an assertion that the #orld still has people #ho are not influenced y the evil of industrialisation. 7ome people have managed to maintain the pre!industrial virtues

instilled in human nature. Dickens use of pathos in presenting his characters evokes the reader to e sympathetic and seek social 0ustice for the oppressed. !"#T$R *+,R% hildren in -isery 4.1 hild 'a.our Child la our is the employment of children under the age of eighteen #orking under conditions #hich harm them physically' mentally' morally and deprive them access to education $Child Ca or; 9re1uently -sked Fuestions"&. -le5ander 2anse and Da in Chang' descri ed child la our as the employment of children in industries $Industrial Child Ca our in *ritain"&. It #as also a rutal system ecause it increased illiteracy' poverty and also caused diseased and crippled children $Child Ca our"&. Child la our has een perceived as a product of the Industrial Revolution in *ritain< massive industrial gro#th and productivity re1uired a large amount of human la our and the cheapest availa le manpo#er #as children #ho could easily e underpaid. In +ngland' most of the child la ourers #ere orphans or from poor families assigned to the #orkhouses. Conse1uently' child la ourers #ere su 0ect to e5ploitation' physical in0uries and even death. In (?.@' Richard =astler vehemently #rote against Child Ca our in The Ceeds :ercury; Thousands of our fello# creatures are at this very moment e5isting in a 7tate of slavery more horrid than are the victims of that hellish system Colonial 7lavery. These innocent creatures dra#l out unpitied their short ut misera le e5istence. The very streets of our to#ns are every morning #et #ith the tears of innocent victims at the accursed shrine of avarice' #ho are compelled not y the cart #hip of the negro slave driver' ut y the dread of the e1ually appalling thong or strap of the overlooker' to hasten half B dressed' . . . to those maga3ines of *ritish infantile slavery' the #orsted mills of the to#n of *radford." $1td. in 7tyal :ill" D& The cruelty of child la our paralleled slavery' a system #hich rutally treated its su 0ects. It is evident that children #ere e5ploited; chained' elted' harnessed like dogs . . . lack' saturated #ith #et' and more than half B naked' cra#ling upon their hands and knees' and dragging their heavy loads ehind them" $Jancey .%&. During the Industrial Revolution' most of the child la ourers #ere forced to #ork in factories at the insistence of their parents or #orkhouse guardians $Hammond and Hammond (%.&. -s an industrially developing nation' *ritain needed an e5pansive amount of cheap human la our despite the age and gender' in order to ring productivity and development to the country. -lthough the *ritish economy needed a oost' it #as nevertheless inhumane to use child la our as a source of economic gro#th. Richard =astler #as sympathetic to the factory childrens victimi3ation; Poor infantsL ye are indeed sacrificed at the shrine of avarice . . . . $1td. y Driver %.&. In addition' it is evident that Hchildhood #as eing sacrificed to the e5pansion of *ritains te5tile industries" $6ardinelli D%@&. The Hammonds also claimed that during the first phase of the Industrial Revolution the employment of children on a vast scale ecame the most important social feature of +nglish life' and the prosperity of the +nglish manufacturers #as ased upon MchildrensN helpless misery" $(%.&. During the Aictorian period' most of the lo#er class mem ers of the +nglish society #ere marred y poverty such that children from the poor families #ere either forced' or felt o liged to #ork in the factories in order to supplement the familys income. =ne should also note that economic conditions forced poor children into #orking' sometimes as hard and long as their parents" $Cody&. :oreover' the *ritish 2overnment also supported child la our as -ltick conceded that the Parliament claimed; . . . a child #as more useful to his family #orking" $)%8&. :oreover' once the minors #ere employed at the factories' they #ere onded; most children egan #orking at seven years of age and #ere not allo#ed to leave the factory until

they #ere t#enty B one. The children had to sign contracts called indentures that virtually made them the property of the factory o#ner" $7tyal :ill" %& The emergence of the Industrial Revolution in *ritain rought the need for large la our pool in order to increase industrial development in the nation. During the Aictorian period' children #ere good sources of la our as many factory o#ners elieved that child la ourers provided them #ith cheap la our. :inors #ere a significant part of the la our force ecause they could e paid lo#er #ages" $Cody&. :ost of these children #ere orphans #ho #ere taken from #orkhouses and they could e apprenticed y the factory o#ners; To encourage factory o#ners to take #orkhouse children' people like 2reg #ere paid et#een t#o pounds and four pounds y the #orkhouse for each child they employed" $7tyal :ill" /&. :oreover' it #as 1uite easy to underpay the children ecause they #ere po#erless and #ould not revolt" $Jancey ..&. 7u se1uently' the factory o#ners e5penditure #as 1uite insignificant to the revenue generated y the employees. - minor #orking at cotton mills' usually as a scavenger'" #hose task #as to rush and s#eep under the spinners and the piecers' #as under the danger of eing run over or caught y the #heels of the machines. In addition' the 0o of chimney s#eeper" re1uired a child to clim up the narro# tunnels of chimneys and s#eep out the trapped dust and smoke; 7o your chimneys I s#eep and soot I sleep" $,illiam *lake&. It is evident from *lakes poem The Chimney 7#eeper" that young children #ere employed to clear the soot from chimneys. Cike scavengers"' chimney s#eepers" had to e small enough to fit into confined space. 7ome of the 0uveniles #ho #orked in mines #here they #ere sent do#n to haul up loads of coal from crammed passages $Jancey ..&' #ere under the risk of cave B ins and e5plosions" $)D&. It #as 1uite appalling to some citi3ens #hen it #as reported that young children #ere employed at mines; - shocked +ngland learned' . . . that tiny children #orked side y side #ith adults in the narro# corridors of coal mines< that five year old oys and girls #ere kept in solitary darkness' t#elve hours a day' opening and shutting the doors upon #hich the miners safety depended $-ltick %E&. *esides chimney s#eeping and mining' youngsters #ere also employed in te5tile industries as su stantiated y 6ardinelli; . . . the most important eing piecing together roken threads' could e performed efficiently y children" $D%%&. *elo# is a ta le sho#ing the num er of children employed in the te5tile industry from early nineteenth century to late nineteenth century; Ta le (; CHICDR+6 +:PC=J+D I6 7IC> 9-CT=RI+7 Jear Percent Jear Percent (?./ )8./ (?ED ((.8 (?.? )%.E (?D( (%.. (?%D (D./ (?D/ (/.( (?/@ (E.? (?D? (@.% (?/E (%.% (??/ D.% (?E( (..% (?8@ D.@ 7ource; Parliamentary Papers' Reports of the Inspector of 9actories' (?./!D?< Report of the Chief Inspector of 9actories' (?D?!8@. $+5tracted from 6ardinelli D%%&. The ta le a ove is a statistical presentation of the percentage of children employed in silk factories from (?./ to (?8@. In the early nineteenth century' as illustrated y the ta le a ove' )8./O of the la ourers #ere children' #hich is more than a 1uarter of the num er of la ourers. Ho#ever' to#ards the end of the century' it is evident that child la our declined due to reforms that prohi ited this rutal system' o viously due to criticisms of the rutal system y authors like Charles Dickens. The #orking conditions #hich the child la ourers #ere forced to endure #ere 1uite un eara le. In the early eighteenth century to nineteenth century' minors as old as five or si5

years of age could e made to #ork t#elve to si5teen hours a day' si5 days a #eek" $HChild Ca our&. Richard =astler also critici3ed the factory o#ners for su 0ecting the 0uveniles to long #orking hours; . . . ye are compelled to #ork as long . . . . or the cold looded avarice of your #orse than ar arian masters may demandL . . . Je are doomed to la our from morning to night for one #ho cares not ho# soon your #eak and tender frames are stretched to reakingL" $1td. y Driver %.&. - report pu lished in (?.. stated; ...most factories #ere dirty< lo# roofed< ill B vented< ill B drained< no conveniences for #ashing or dressing< no contrivance for carrying off dust and other effluvia" $1td. in 7tyal :ill" (E&. :ost of the employers neither took any precautions nor cared a out the dangers to #hich the children #ere su 0ected. 7ir -nthony Carlile' a doctor at ,estminster Hospital stated; la our is undergone in an atmosphere heated to a temperature of seventy to eighty degrees and up#ards" and also pointed out that; from a very hot room into damp cold air #ill inevita ly produce inflammations of the lungs" $1td. in 7tyal :ill" (E&. =ther than long #orking hours' child la ourers #ere also su 0ected to physical a use such as flogging $see -ppendi5 ( adapted from 7tyal :ill"&. Poor #orking conditions often resulted in accidents #hich led to physical in0uries and even death; . . .#hy many people opposed child la our #as the num er of accidents #hich killed and maimed children. They argued that many of these accidents occurred ecause the children #ere too tired and none of the machines had guards. Dr :ichael ,ar visited Cever 7treet 7chool and found that forty seven of one hundred and si5 children had een in0ured y machines in factories" $7tyal :ill" (D&. *elo# is a picture of some of the oys #ho sustained disa ilities due to accidents; Picture %; +5tracted from 7tyal :ill" 4ohn -len also reported that some minors lost their lim s or sustained other fatal in0uries as a result of gruesome accidents encountered at the factories #hen he #as intervie#ed y :ichael 7adler and The House of Commons Committee on )( :ay (?.); I #as an eye #itness of one. - child #as #orking #ool' that is' to prepare the #ool for the machine< ut the strap caught him' as he #as hardly a#ake and it carried him into the machinery< and #e found one lim in one place' one in another' and he #as cut to its< his #hole ody #ent in' and #as mangled" $1td. in 7tyal :ill" ()&. -nother report of a young girl named :ary Richards #as also stated in 4ohn *ro#ns - :emoir of Ro ert *lincoe' #ho #as caught y a shaft and crushed to death $1td. in 7tyal :ill ()' see -ppendi5 )&. *esides in0uries' child la ourers #ere also prone to lung diseases' ecause of the smoke and dust they inhaled. The dust from fla5 and the flue from cotton" inhaled y the 0uvenile la ourers led Dr. Charles -ston >ey to tell :ichael 7adler and The House of Commons Committee on (E 4uly (?.) that; this impure air reathed for a great length of time must e productive of disease' or e5ceedingly #eaken the ody" $1td. in 7tyal :ill" (E&. Reports of common occupational health risks and their principals causes #ere also made and these #ere; eye inflammation from the use of tallo# and -rgand lamps' lung disease from reathing into cotton dust in adly ventilated rooms' deafness from long e5posure to noisy machinery' cancer of the groin from the oil on the mule spindles' cancer of the mouth. . . . $7tyal :ill" )%&. In addition' 4ohn Reed #ho #as a minor employee at -rk#rights Cromfords factory stated; I gradually ecame a cripple' till at the age of nineteen I #as una le to stand at the machine' and I #as o liged to give up. The total amount of my earnings #as a out (.@ shillings' and for this sum I have een made a misera le cripple as you can see' and cast off y those #ho reaped the enefit of my la our' #ithout a single penny" $7tyal :ill" (D&. 7uch a testimony reflects the parado5 of the capitalist system #hich simultaneously empo#ered the middle class society yet destroyed the lives of many children.

Child la our #as indeed a rutal and gruesome system #hich ro ed 0uveniles of their childhood' health and even their lives. Reports of the unpleasant encounters of accidents' physical a use and e5ploitation leave the reader sympathetic to#ards children #ho lived in nineteenth century *ritain. :oreover' most of these children #ere also orphans and also mem ers of the lo#er class' therefore they #ere economically desperate and they #ere forced to endure any means of survival' even if it meant accepting maltreatment. Ho#ever' #ith the numerous complaints a out child la our and the #ide readership' particularly of novels y Charles Dickens' #ho vehemently denounced child la our' sympathetic mem ers of the Aictorian society implemented ne# reforms against child la our and other forms of child e5ploitation. 4.2 De&rivation o) education to the &oor child +ducation is vital for every human eing as they go through the stages of development. +very minor has a mandatory right to receive education as this fosters mental and psychological child development as stated y 4oseph 9. >ett; 7chooling then' #ould ultimately introduce into the family #age economy a po#erful ne# element in the sociali3ation of children B for schooling defined and regulated childhood and youth as discrete' se1uenced phases of preparation for adulthood" $1td. in Cassonde ?%@&. In Aictorian +ngland' it #as elieved that the training to e o tained in primary and grammar school #as thought to inhere as much in attitude as in the ac1uisition of skills fundamental to future employment" $?%@&. Ho#ever' not every child has the opportunity to go to school or receive at least some form of education. Poverty is one of the ma0or causes that deprives children the right to education. In the nineteenth century in *ritain' there #as a su stantial num er of children from poor families ecause the fees #ere too e5pensive. 9or e5ample' there #as a school #hich had only eighteen scholars' half of #hom came from outside Hernhill. The fees #ere Ed. a #eek for reading< (.s. /d. a 1uarter $or a out (s a #eek& for reading' #riting and arithmetic" $Reay (@(&. :oreover' fe# la ouring families chose $or #ere a le& to pay for the education of their children; of fifty Dunkirk families intervie#ed y Ciardet only ten paid for the schooling of their young" $1td. in Reay (@.&. :oreover' the education system offered to the poor #as 1uite inefficient as illustrated y Charles Dickens in 2reat +5pectations; :r ,opsles great aunt kept an evening school in the village< that is to say' she #as a ridiculous old #oman of limited means and unlimited infirmity' #ho used to go to sleep from si5 to seven' in the society of youth #ho paid t#opence per #eek each . . . . . and :r ,opsle had the room upstairs' #here #e students used to overhear him reading aloud in a most dignified and terrific manner. . . ." $%8& The parody of :r ,opsles great aunts evening school is a satire of the education provided for the lo#er class. Pip also comments that he learnt the alpha et from *iddy and neither from :r ,opsle nor his aunt #hich indicates that neither of them #ere doing their duty of educating the keen learners. -nother reason many children #ere unschooled is that the lo#er class generally did not ackno#ledge the importance of education; To many #orking class parents' ho#ever' schooling appeared as a kind of idleness incongruous #ith the organi3ing principle of family life in the nineteenth century . . ." $:odell et al 1td. in Cassonde ?%@&. The Aictorian society' particularly the lo#er class mem ers' elieved that education #as not needed" $-ltick )%8&. :oreover' There #as a feeling that school education' ook learning' did little to mould a potential agricultural la ourer. 7chool might e a udding agriculturalists Hgeneral education' ut la our #as his Hspecial education" $Reay (@%&. It is 1uite evident that most of the children #ere deprived of education ecause their parents did not perceive schooling as a

priority' ut rather preferred that their offspring ecame la ourers. - survey #as carried out in 2lasgo# #hich revealed that most oy la ourers and learners $as opposed to ound apprentices& passed through at least si5 0o s et#een fourteen and t#enty one' more often the figure #as t#elve 0o s' #hile figures of t#enty to thirty #ere not unheard of" $Childs D8(&. :ost youth during their adolescent years had een employed more than five years' #hich indicates that most of these 0uveniles never got the chance to attend school as they spent most of their time moving from one occupation to another. -lthough some children #ent to school' their attendance al#ays fluctuated as the oys #ould leave the classroom to earn money #hile the girls #ould do domestic chores. The nineteenth century *ritish child #as deprived of education ecause he or she #as removed #henever a 0o of #ork can e found for him. . ." $Ciardet 1td. y Reay (.@&. This caused pro lems such as forgetting #hat he or she learnt efore #hile fe# children had more than t#o or three years of schooling and in (?%@ only )@O of the youth population had any schooling at all" $Cody&. In the nineteenth century' there #as a minimum num er of children #ho #ent to school ecause they elieved that #orking earned them money #hile school earned them nothing" $-ltick )/@&. =ut of forty t#o la ourers children under the age of fourteen #ho attended school' only si5 could read and #rite' thirteen could read fluently #hile nine read very little and the rest could not read at all $Reay (.(&. This #as a survey from the Hernhill census in (?D( calculated from the 7chool Cog *ook in the nineteenth century. 7uch statistics reveal the level of literacy #ithin the children of the lo#er class mem ers of society #ho #ere deprived of education due to poverty and insufficient funds to pay the school fees. 6evertheless' lack of education often perpetuates poverty #ithin the circle of the socially disadvantaged. - poor child #ill never live a life etter than his or her parents if one is deprived of formal education. :oreover' it is also difficult to e elevated in society if illiterate and uneducated; Children #ithout proper education #ill dim the future of their country. -nd as for children themselves' they #ill suffer from poverty and ill condition of the society after they gro# up #ithout any formal education. .... #ithout proper education' the poor cannot change their social status and #ill e the less privileged group" $4iang )(&. Due to deprivation of education' most of the socially disadvantaged people are conse1uently forced to e involved in crime and prostitution as means of survival as evidenced y =liver T#ists criminal friends' 9agin and his cre#. In the early nineteenth century' education #as not accessi le to the poor until the later half of the century #hen the +ducation -cts #here implemented. :ost of the pauper children #here residents at the #orkhouse' #here they did not receive formal education like the middle class offspring. The only education that the poor child received #as either that of eing eaten into su mission y the #orkhouse authorities or employers; In =liver T#ist' the reproach on childrens education is e5tremely apparent. =liver' #hen raised y :rs. :ann almost receives no education at all. ,hat he kno#s is only to o ey the elder lady" if =liver hopes to escape from her cruel Hhands and sticks " $4iang )(&. The education that the paupers received #as that of apprenticeship only' meaning that they #ere taught a out the trade in #hich they #ere involved such as chimney s#eeping' lacksmith or a locksmith' 0ust as Pip #as to e apprenticed to 4oe. The Aictorian society laid a clear cut oundary et#een the paupers and the children from middle class families #ho attended schools' and had governesses and tutors at home. 9urthermore' in most parts of +ngland there #as no state!funded schooling availa le' especially for the poor' resulting in many of the lo#er class children not receiving any formal education or they attended evening school #hich #as often not properly administered. +ducation is important for psychological and even economic gro#th in every individual. Gnfortunately' the poor are constantly caught in the #e of poverty ecause of illiteracy #hich is caused y lack of proper and formal education. The poor child cannot live a etter

life than his or her parents if deprived of education' an opportunity to step out of the frontier 3one that separates the poor and the rich. 4.3 $/a0ination o) the &li(ht o) children in Dickens novels Charles Dickens is a #riter #ho is very sympathetic to#ards his child characters. He is personally a#are of the e5ploitation to #hich the children are su 0ected ecause of his o#n history of #orkhouse incarceration' #hich parallels =livers #orkhouse e5perience $4ames ?8&. This e5plains the pathos in his novels' surrounding the uneducated and deprived orphans #hose loss of childhood is echoed through their physical e5ploitation. Dickens novels ultimately petition society to protect these assailed 0uveniles. Ho#ever' the Aictorian society is parado5ical ecause it perceived childhood as essential' yet most of its 0uveniles are not given the chance to safely e5perience gro#th and transition into adulthood. 2orham states; . . . childhood had great sym olic importance' ut many Aictorians suffered from an uncertainty a out the nature of childhood and the proper relationship of children to the structure of the family and the #ider society. In the late B Aictorian period' many people #ho #ere concerned a out the #elfare of children also found themselves uncertain a out ho# the oundaries of childhood should e defined" $.//&. Dickens characters are representations of the actual #orld as Rosen erg remarks; . . . the est Dickens characters are e5amples of verisimilitudinous representation" $(%D&. Dickens characters are not only representations of the #orld' ut also reflections of e5istent eings' . . . . and assumed' y virtually all readers' to e representations of people" $(%?&. Therefore' his child characters represent real children #ith actual e5periences and ackgrounds such as poverty' orphanage' neglect and deprivation of education. 9irstly' Dickens child characters are usually orphaned or their parentage is unclear' for e5ample Pip $2reat +5pectations&' +sther $*leak House&' =liver $=liver T#ist&' +stella $2reat +5pectations& and 7issy 4upe $Hard Times&. +stella and +sther are initially introduced as orphans' ut the reader later discovers that they are actually a andoned children as is 7issy 4upe. -ll the three characters are adopted' for e5ample +stella is adopted y :iss Havisham' #hile +sther is adopted y 4ohn 4arndyce and lastly' 7issy is adopted y :r Thomas 2radgrind. The three young ladies have a common ackground' that of lo#er class parentage' yet they are adopted y middle class guardians' therefore they eventually ecome mem ers of that class. Charles Dickens seems to suggest that a lo#er class mem er can never elong to the middle class unless the elevation into that upper class is generated y the middle class. Dickens elief is that the lo#er class dependency on the middle class is inevita le. To a larger e5tent' he is also suggesting that it is the middle class #ho can change the plight of the lo#er class and' therefore it is their responsi ility to eradicate poverty. =rphans are usually vulnera le and suscepti le to e5ploitation and neglect' #hich is the case #ith 4o' the urchin in *leak House. Gnlike other Dickens characters' 4o is the most pathetic child ecause of the a 0ect poverty in #hich he lives and his early death from small po5 makes his character even more pitia le. 4o is dehumani3ed almost to the point of non B e5istence. -s a street child' 4o is a lonely eggar #ho has een deprived of oth paternal and maternal love and the only other person #ith #hom he shares a connection is 6emo' #ho also dies. The dysfunctionality of 4os life as an orphan reflects the impaired lives of the people around him' #hich further translates into the dis0ointed social relationships of the nineteenth century Aictorian society. Ho#ever' the lack of a proper family structure in Dickens characters sho#s the fragmentation of the nineteenth century family. The degeneration of the family is a sym ol of the disintegration of the nineteenth century society' an issues greatly depicted y #riters such as T.7. +liot in his poems The Hollo# :en" and The ,aste Cand." The isolation of Dickens child characters presents the reader #ith a yearning for family and social reform $Pykett (%%&.

4os e5perience contrasts #ith Pip from 2reat +5pectations #ho lives #ith his sister and her hus and. -lthough' Pip receives familial care from his sister' she physically e5ploits him and he lives in perpetual fear of her; :y sister' :rs. 4oe' thro#ing the door #ide open' and finding an o struction ehind it' immediately divined the cause' and applied Tickler to its further investigation. 7he concluded y thro#ing me B I often served as a connu ial missile. . . . $(D&. His sisters physical a use highlights the vulnera ility of children #ho lack proper care and protection. Gltimately' he is emotionally affected ecause he feels like a urden to his sister' #hose presence appals him' yet she should e his surrogate mother; I think my sister must have had some general idea that I #as a young offender #hom an -ccoucheur Policeman had taken up $on my irthday& and delivered over to her' to e dealt #ith according to the outraged ma0esty of the la#. I #as al#ays treated on eing in opposition to the dictates of reason' religion and morality. . ." $2reat +5pectations )8&. :oreover' Pips e5perience in a dysfunctional family unit also resem les the Pockets family #hose children #ere tum ling up" due to lack of proper maternal care from their mother :rs. Pocket' #ho had surrendered the responsi ility of caring for her children to servants and child minders. Through the creation of Pip and 4o as orphaned children' Dickens portrays the dynamics and parado5es e5perienced y oth characters. 4os life is characterised y a #orld of marginalised e5istence' in an isolating society. Pip inha its an ineffectual family unit #ith a violent sister and a #eak rother in B la# #ho fails to nurture and protect him. Their ehaviour parallels the e5ploitative nature of the #orkhouse authorities #ho #ere instructed to care for the orphans under their authority. :oreover' the parish clerk' :r. ,opsle in 2reat +5pectations says; ,hat is detesta le in a pig' is more detesta le in a oy" $..&' #hich also reaffirms the harsh mentality of the church authorities #ho strongly elieved that young children #ere not to e treated etter than animals. If :r. ,opsle thinks a young oy is more un eara le than a pig' then his statement accounts for the actions of the #orkhouse oard of guardians. 9urthermore' Dickens traumatic e5periences are immensely echoed in =liver #ho is stripped of his ne# clothes ought y :r. *ro#nlo#' . . . =liver in 9agins kitchen' stripped of his Hgood clothes' deprived of *ro#nlo#s ooks' and laughed at y the urchins...." $4ames ?8&. This incident replicates Dickens o#n e5perience #hich; . . . imaginatively em odies the humiliation of the sensitive middle class Dickens amid the #orking B class fello# B employees' one of #hom #as indeed called 9agin. =n the other hand' fear of this environment #as matched y his hatred of middle class parents' #ho had so promptly a andoned him into it" $4ames ?8&. =liver T#ist also mirrors Charles Dickens ecause they oth elong to the middle class' ut are a andoned into a #orkhouse. -lthough at this point the reader is not a#are of =livers mem ership in the middle class' his innocence and failure to 0oin a gang of criminals is synchronous to Dickens e5posure to the #orking class at the factory as a young oy of t#elve. The vulnera ility of children and their su 0ection to child la our is further reflected in =liver T#ist #hen the man in the #hite #aistcoat #ants to sell =liver to 2amfield as a chimney s#eeper. Instead' =liver is later sold to :r. 7o#er erry the undertaker and assigned the role of a funeral mute. The Industrial Revolution #as a period in #hich many children #ere #orking at the #orkhouses due to poverty like the orphaned =liver #ho #as assigned to pick oakum at si5 every morning $(.&. ,hen =liver is almost sold to 2amfield as a chimney s#eeper' one is reminded of ,illiam *lakes poem The Chimney 7#eep" also echoes the effects of orphanage and child la our on 0uveniles. +ighteenth century poets such as ,illiam *lake also critici3ed child la our through his poem; -nd ecause I am happy and dance and sing'

They think they have done me no in0ury' -nd are gone to praise 2od and His priest and king' ,ho made up a heaven of our misery." $The Chimney 7#eeper"& The poem is a out a little child protesting against e5ploitation and child la our. Dickens sympathy to#ards child la ourers is also noted in *lakes use of the childs voice to e5press discontent #ith harsh treatment. 6ot only does Dickens portray young characters #ho are su 0ected to child la our' he also rings to the foreground that many children #ere deprived of education due to their social status. 4o' Pip and =liver are a andoned children #ho receive no education in their early stages of life. 4o is a street urchin throughout the course of his life< thus his life does not elevate to a level #hich transcends poverty. 4o is uneducated; It must e a strange state to e like 4oL . . . To see people read' and to see people #rite' and to see the postmen deliver letters' and not to have the least idea of all the language!to e' to every scrap of it' stone lind and dum L" $))@& Through 4o' Dickens suggests that a poor child deprived of education #ill never rise in society< in actual fact< his or her life #ill e centred on material need and struggle for survival. The H lindness" and dum ness" of 4oe is representative of his lack of psychological gro#th as a character. =n the other hand' Pip is fortunate enough to receive an opportunity to e educated. Pip is raised y his sister and her hus and 4oe #ho later apprentices the minor into the trade of lacksmith< ho#ever' it is at this point that Pips life takes a successful turn. He is informed that a enefactor is sponsoring his education to ecome a gentleman. It is 1uite apparent from this turn of events that unlike the children from the poor families' those from the middle class are educated to ecome young gentleman and ladies. Pips life shifts up#ard from lo#er class to middle class. It is through the formal education that he receives in Condon that he ecomes a gentleman' #hich is reflected through his manners. Pips access to education and resultant financial success illustrates that in order for one to defeat poverty' one has to e educated< thus' #ithout education' one #ill al#ays e poor. Ho#ever' the parado5 lies in that Pips enefactor' :ag#itch' is not a mem er of the middle class' nor is he a gentleman. He is an ordinary man #ith manners and the speech of an uncivilised lo#er class mem er' ut #ho has managed financial success to support Pip. Pips endo#ment y :ag#itch is an antithesis to =livers adoption y :r. *ro#nlo#. ,here Pip is adopted y the convict :ag#itch' =liver is rescued y a middle class mem er and ultimately it is later revealed that =livers father #as' in fact' a #ealthy man. It is assumed that =liver finally received education after his adoption y :r. *ro#nlo#. Dickens seems to suggest that the only #ay that one can access education and escape poverty is through the generosity of the middle class mem ers. =n the other hand' Dickens also proves that one does not need to e a middle class mem er to possess a munificent heart' and this is sho#n y :ag#itch #ho paves a #ay for Pip to ecome a gentleman. Jet' Dickens also challenges the drudgery of education through the parody of Thomas 2radgrind #ho continuously demands facts from the school children. His rigid system of education has eliminated the innocence in his children and they have ecome like remote controlled ro ots" #ho only act or think according to their fathers desire. 2radgrinds system of education is also a reflection of the oppression of children in institutions such as the #orkhouses and factories< hence' Dickens has created a parallelism of the t#o institutions< education and industry. :r. 2radgrinds system of education inhi its the limitation of childhood impulses and promotes that children must e 0udged y adult standards< and that feelings do not e5ist as kno#ledge and must therefore e ignored' or' etter yet' not felt" $>arl (/)&. :r. 2radgrinds philosophy on education is destructive ecause it e5ploits the child'

#hich is representative of the in0ustice of society to its individual mem ers' the in0ustice of government to its su 0ects and finally' the in0ustice of an economic system to its #orkers" $(/)&. Dickens ama3ing art of character creation can only e e5plained through his desire to reform a society that su 0ugates the 0uveniles. Children are suscepti le to e5ploitation as they are very defenceless eings and Dickens successfully portrays the a use of children in nineteenth century *ritain and evokes reader sympathy to their plight.