Topic 3 Cognitive Developmental Theories 1

Topic
3
1. 2. 3. 4.
Cognitive Developmental Theories 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: Explain the main features of cognitive learning theories; Describe Piagets theory; Apply Piagets theory in the teaching of science; Describe Bruners theories; and Apply Bruners theories in the teaching of science.
5.
INTRODUCTION
In the last topic, you have learnt about behaviourist learning theories. What do you think are the main limitation to these theories? According to behaviourist theories, the respond that we show as a result of repetitive stimuli given to us is called learning. As can be seen in Figure 3.1, this theory assumes that a learner is essentially passive in responding to environmental stimuli. The behaviour is shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement will increase the possibility that the prior behaviour will recur. Positive reinforcement indicates the application of a stimulus, while negative reinforcement indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is therefore defined as a change in behaviour in the learner. This however reduces complex human behaviour to simple cause and effect. Actually, there are a lot of factors that can influence learning other than just respond to the given stimulus. We will learn about this in this topic.
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X TOPIC 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 1
Figure 3.1: Behaviourist Learning Theory Source: http://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.com/
In this topic, we will learn about cognitive learning theory and how we can apply this theory in the teaching of science.
3.1
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
As a result of the limitation of behaviourist theory, a group of psychologists propose a new approach to explain the process of learning. This new approach is called the cognitive learning theory.
Figure 3.2: Cognitive learning theory Source: http://psybibs.revdak.com
This approach recognises the vital role of the human brain in the process of learning. Cognitive experts believed that a lot of thought processes happen in our brain that help us to interpret, organise, store and receive information before we could respond to the stimulus. These are called cognitive processes (see Figure 3.2). . As we learn, our cognitive structures in our brain are changed or modified. These structures enable us to interpret, store and retrieve information. Thus, according to Ormrod (1999), there are two main features underlying this cognitive approach: (a) (b) That the memory system is an active organised processor of information. That prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.
TOPIC 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 1 W
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Kohler, Tolman, Lewin, Piaget and Bruner are among the psychologists who contributed to the cognitive learning theory. Atherton (2011) summarised cognitive theory as theories that are interested in how people understand material. In order to fully understand this, we should also include the study on: (a) (b) (c) Aptitude and capacity to learn; Learning styles; and Constructivism as these three aspects influences how people learn.
But we are not going to discuss them in this topic as the focus in this topic is introducing you to the cognitive learning theories, specifically Piaget and Bruner learning theories..
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Explain the difference between behavioural and cognitive theory.
3.2
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY EXPONENTS
Just imagine that you are at your desk with a pen in your hand and staring at an empty book. You are wondering the best approach for a lesson on Basic needs of living things for Year 4 students. What is your basis for planning the lesson? Learning theories could be one of the things that you could use to plan an effective lesson. As a start, let us learn about Piagets learning theory.
3.2.1
Piagets Learning Theory
Jean Piaget is a Swiss biologist and psychologist. After working with Alfred Binet, Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children. Based upon his observations of his children and their processes of making sense of the world around them, he eventually developed a four-stage model of how the mind processes the new information it encountered. These four stages are illustrated in Figure 3.3.
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Figure 3.3: Piagets theory on stages of human development
Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive processes and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations. As seen in Figure 3.3, each stage is characterised by new abilities and ways of processing information. Piaget believes that, "all children pass through these stages in this order and that no child can skip a stage, although different children pass through the stages at different rates. The same individuals may perform tasks associated with different stages at the same time, particularly at points of transition into a new stage (Slavin, 2006)." You would have probably learned this theory in detail in your psychology course. If not, you can gather a lot of information from various resources to read and understand fully about this theory. This is necessary because soon we are going to look at how to apply this theory in a science classroom.
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3.2.2
Identifying the Stages of Development
There are four stages of human development as mentioned by Piaget. This means that as a teacher, the first thing that you need to do is to identify at what stage your students are. This is important because it allows you to plan suitable and appropriate teaching and learning activities for your students. Do you know how to identify your students stage of development? One way is to look at the characteristics of your student and compare them to the list given in Figure 3.3. You could also conduct simple experiments as Piaget had done when he was doing his research. Take time to do Activity 3.1 to understand the experiments that could be used to identify your students' stage of development.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Study the following situations. Determine the stage of development described by the situation.
Situation 1 2 Play with a child and then, "disappear" behind the paper. The child becomes distressed at your disappearance. Show a child four marbles in a row, then, spread them out. The child says that there are now more marbles than before. What stage?
If you take four one-inch square pieces of felt, and lay them on a six-by-six cloth together in the centre, and then, the same square spread out in the corner, the child says that the squares cover the same area in both cases.
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A set of cards have letters on one side and numbers on the other. If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side. Take a look at the cards below and tell me, which cards do I need to turn over to tell if this rule is actually true?
You have two five inch sticks laid parallel to each other, and then, move one of them a little. She says the two sticks are still having the same length even though it now extends beyond the other.
Fill a tall glass of water and a short glass of water of the same volume and ask which glass has more. The child says the tall glass. Source: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/piaget.html
Answers: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sensorimotor period Pre-operational period Concrete operational period Formal operational period Concrete operational period Pre-operational period
By looking at the stages, we could see that generally children in Year 1 and Year 2 could probably be still in the pre-operational stage, while Year 3 till Year 5 students would be in the concrete operational stage. By Year 6, they would start to be in their formal operational stage. So, what should you do to teach them?
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SELF-CHECK 3.2
What are the four stages of human development according to Piaget?
ACTIVITY 3.2
Do you think the classification of ages by Piaget still apply in the present time? Discuss with your coursemates.
Now, read the following guidelines which could help you to develop suitable tasks based on Piagets theory. What would your classroom look like if you apply Piagets theories in your teaching and learning?
3.2.3
Applications of Piagets Theory in Teaching Children at Various Stages of Development
Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures or schemes. Children learn by observing and try to understand their experiences by comparing their experiences to their existing schemes in their mind. When children encounter a new experience in their environment, they will try to explain their experience based on their cognitive structures or schemes. If their new experience is similar to their schemes, they will add the new information into their previously existing schemes. This process is called assimilation. However, if the new experience is different from their existing schemes (according to their perception), they would alter their existing schemes or new schemes may also be developed during this process. When the existing scheme is modified or altered, then learning has also taken place. The process whereby children has to modify the new experiences before incoprorating it into their scheme is called accomodation. This procceses is summarised in Figure 3.4.
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Figure 3.4: Reaching equilibrium through assimilation and accommodation processes Source: http://eprints.oum/edu.my/411/1/enriching_nantha.pdf
In short, you as the teacher should present the new knowledge as close as possible to the childrens prior knowledge. As a result, the children could assimilate rather than take time to accomodate the new experiences or information in order for learning to take place. Bearing in mind on the principles mentioned earlier, you could use the following guidelines or tips so that your childrens schemes will develop through time. Let us start with the pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage and finally, formal operational stage.
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Pre-operational Stage (Age 2 - 7 years) 1. Provide natural objects such as leaves, stones, twigs and real animals for the children to manipulate. This is important at this stage as children learn through their senses. Provide opportunities for the children to begin grouping things into classes, such as, living/non-living and animal/plant. When doing this, they are studying the attributes of the objects and noting the similar and different attributes at the same time. Provide experience that gives children an opportunity to lessen some of their geocentricism. For example, have them listen to other childrens stories about what was observed on a trip to the zoo. Use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible as the aids help the children to 'see what you try to explain. Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words. For example, add one spoonful of salt to the beaker of water. Then stir. Be sensitive to the possibility that children may have different meanings for the same word or different words for the same meaning. Children may also expect everyone to understand words they have invented. Plan a lot of hands-on activities so that they have enough practice with the skills that will serve as building blocks for more complex skills. For example, make sure you give them plenty of practice in observing as observation is the most basic science process skill but this is the foundation for all subsequent skills. Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language. This is important as different children have different learning styles.
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3.
4. 5. 6.
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8.
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Concrete Operational Stage 1. Reinforce and continue using concrete and hands-on materials. Prepare a lot of concrete teaching aids to help the children to understand the concept. For example, give children the opportunities to observe real animals when you want to explain about physical characteristics of animals. Bring fish, butterfly or bird to the class so that the students could use their senses to observe the physical characteristics of these animals. You should not be satisfied by just bringing in animal pictures and ask students to study the pictures and learn about the physical characteristics of animals. They can manipulate ideas mentally, but they need props as the ideas presented to them continue to become more abstract. Organise the materials and concepts presented. Give short and precise instructions when you want them to do the activities. The experimental procedures must consist of only a few steps. If the procedures are long, break them up into a few sections. Be concise and brief when you are explaining concepts. The attention span of these students is longer than for pre-operational children, but they often want to focus on something new. Always allow students to relate their prior experiences before presenting a new topic. For example, if you want to introduce the concept of food chain, you should use animals familiar to your students, so that they know the types of food that those animals eat. Then only, can they build a food chain. When they have understood the concept of food chain, you can extend or elaborate with other less familiar animals. Let the children classify or group things. Use graphic organisers like matrices, charts, diagrams and table to make it easier. This would improve and develop their logical ability. You could also use crossword puzzles and word mazes. Give more divergent questions rather than convergent questions because the former give children more opportunity to think and stimulate imagination. Give them opportunities to classify objects and ideas into increasingly complex groupings. Without doing this, they would never become formal operational. Offer children many experiences to use their acquired abilities with respect to the observation, classification and arrangement of objects according to some property. Any science activities that include observation, collection and sorting of objects should be able to be done with some ease. You should use activities involving living things and non-living things that are familiar and concrete to them. You should be able to successfully introduce many physical science activities that include more abstract concepts such as space, time and number.
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4.
5.
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6.
Use familiar objects and ideas to explain more complex concepts. They need practice at logical thinking as well as motivation towards starting really abstract thinking. Present problems that require logical thinking of a relatively nonabstract level. They need practice dealing with abstractions. What they cannot do is abstractions on abstractions.
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Formal Operational Stage (Age 11 through Adulthood) 1. Even if at this stage the students can visualise abstract concepts, you could still continue to use strategies that are effective with concrete operational thinkers. Why? Reason for this is because at this stage concrete thinking is still easier. Let say, you ask someone to describe to you how to go from your school to the shopping mall. Would you be able to visualise the route or would you get a map so that you could reach the mall easily without getting lost? Build abstractions upon solidly understood concrete concepts. Abstractions are essential for complex ideas, but the concrete ideas would help in the early stage of transition from concrete to formal operational stage. Give them opportunities to explore hypothetical questions. Students at this stage could formulate their own hypothesis on problems that they encounter and plan investigations to test their hypothesis. If you do not give them opportunities and encouragement, the students would not be able to progress beyond concrete operational stage to formal operational stage. In other words, you should give them the opportunities to experiment on their own rather than conducting experiments that you have planned. Give them opportunities to solve problems that seem impossible to solve. Students take pride and build self-confidence when they are able to solve problems that they could not solve when they were less mature. Integrate concrete concepts with broad concepts and encourage them to apply concepts in numerous settings. This could be done by encouraging them to generalise the conclusions from their experiments by linking the concepts in real life setting. In this way, the learning is meaningful and more importantly, they will apply their learning in their lives, as that is the purpose of learning science.
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6.
Respect and encourage lateral thinking that involves insightful hypothetical reasoning. Even when they are incorrect, their attempt at hypothetical thinking may be a productive step in the right direction. Model effective formal operational thinking to them. You are probably capable of formal operational thinking yourself and children can use you as a productive model while developing their own skills.
7.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
Imagine that you want to introduce the concept of transparent, translucent and opaque materials to your students. What are some example of objects that you will use?
ACTIVITY 3.3
1. Select a topic from Year 1, Year 3 and Year 6 from a primary science curriculum specification and discuss two learningteaching activities that suit Piagetians learning theory. Compare the activities for the different steps of human development. How are they different? Give reasons based on Piagets theory. Share your answer with your classmates.
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3.3
BRUNERS THEORIES
"We teach a subject not to produce little living libraries on that subject, but rather to get a student to think . . . for himself, to consider matters as an historian does, to take part in the process of knowledge-getting. Knowing is a process, not a product." (Bruner, 1966)
Jerome Bruner is another influential psychologist who introduced many theories that could be applied in the science classroom. In this subtopic, we are going to discuss some of his theories and how to apply them in the science classroom.
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Bruner introduced many ideas in explaining the process of learning. His work includes the significance of categorisation in learning, the ideas of "readiness for learning", motivation for learning, intuitive and analytical thinking, inductive thinking, discovery learning and spiral curriculum. We are not going to discuss all of his ideas. Instead, we are only going to discuss his theory on discovery learning, inductive thinking and the three stages of cognitive growth.
3.3.1
Discovery Learning
The notion of discovery learning had been discussed by Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Dewey. Nevertheless, modern discovery learning environments were initiated by Jerome Bruner (Mukerji, 2002). He believes that for learning to be meaningful, students must actively be engaged in identifying principles and rules for themselves, rather than relying on the teacher's explanations. Therefore, learning environments must provide situations, in which students are called upon to question, explore or experiment. In typical discovery learning environments, information and examples are presented to students and the students work with the information and examples until they "discover" the interrelationships. As a result, students may be more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own. Models that are based upon discovery learning includes: (a) Guided Discovery The student receives problems to solve, but the teacher provides hints and directions about how to solve the problem to keep the student on track. Guided discovery may require more or less time depending on the task, but tends to result in better long term retention and transfer as the students are involve actively while learning takes place. Unlike true discovery, the instructor directs what problems the learners will learn and sets the pace that they will learn at. The students do, however, have to figure out how to solve the problems that they are given. Generally, the students first discover specific topics and then move to more general ones. Problem-based Learning Problem-based learning (PBL) is an approach that challenges students to learn through engagement in a real problem. It challenges students to seek solutions to real-world (open-ended) problems by themselves or in groups, rather than learn primarily through lectures or textbooks. You are going to learn this approach in detail later.
(b)
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(c)
Simulation-based Learning Simulation is a technique to replace and amplify real experiences that mirror substantial aspects of the real world in a fully interactive fashion. Simulation makes imitated situations available to the learner to practice and refine necessary skills, rather than having them jump right into the real experience. It also provides an immersive learning experience, where skills, process, and knowledge can all be enhanced in a way reality cannot. Case-based Learning Using a case-based approach engages students in discussion of specific situations, typically real-world examples. This method is learner-centered, and involves intense interaction between the participants. Case-based learning focuses on the building of knowledge and the group works together to examine the case. The instructor's role is that of a facilitator and the students collaboratively address problems from a perspective that requires analysis. Much of case-based learning involves learners striving to resolve questions that have no single right answer. Incidental Learning Incidental learning describes the process in which a child's knowledge is gained from interactions with the environment. This learning process lacks a formal structure or objectives, and is guided by real-world experiences. Through incidental learning, children learn fundamental skills that they will use throughout life.
(d)
(e)
Discovery learning is a learning method that encourages students to ask questions and formulate their own tentative answers, and to deduce general principles from practical examples or experiences (Thorsett, 2002). It is a learning situation in which the principal content of what is to be learned is not given but must be independently discovered by the student. In other words, discovery learning can be defined simply as a learning situation in which the principal content of what is to be learned is not given, but must be independently discovered by the learner, making the student an active participant in his learning. Ormrod (2000) defines discovery learning as an approach to instruction through which children interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments. There are certain principles that you need to follow if you want to use discovery learning in your class and make it work. Among others, the instructions: (a) Must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
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(b) (c)
Must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organisation). Should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and/or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).
If the principles are not adhered to, it would only: (a) (b) (c) (d) Cause confusion to the student if no initial framework is available. Lead to inefficiency and be time consuming. Result in student frustration. Make you fail to detect problems and misconceptions.
ACTIVITY 3.4
In a group, discuss the meaning of: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Guided discovery; Problem-based learning; Simulation-based learning; Case-based learning; and Incidental learning.
3.3.2
Inductive Thinking
Bruner believes classroom learning should take place through inductive reasoning. This reasoning is done by forming generalisations based on the specific examples given. This is an important cognitive strategy in discovery learning environments. It encourages students to actively use their intuition, imagination and creativity. It also relies more on providing students with a range of experiences, which gradually increase their familiarity with new concepts before attempting to draw them together into a coherent understanding of the new concept. If you are going to teach concepts inductively means you do not define or explain the concept in the beginning of the lesson. You should provide various activities so that the students will use their reasoning to gradually understand the concept that you want the students to form. This can be seen in Figure 3.5.
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Figure 3.5: Inductive approach to instruction
For example, if the students are presented with enough examples of triangles and non-triangles (as shown in Figure 3.6), they will eventually find out what the basic properties of a triangle must be.
Figure 3.6: Forming a concept a triangle Source: http://academics.rmu.edu/~tomei/ed711psy/c_bruner.htm
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Do you realise that discovery learning encompasses the scientific model? Children identify problems, generate hypotheses, test each hypothesis against collected data and apply conclusions to new situations. Due to this reason, discovery learning should be used in the teaching and learning of science as it fits to the nature of science itself. We have already discussed about scientific method and the nature of science in Topic 1 of this module.
ACTIVITY 3.5
Discuss the concept of discovery learning by using a mind map.
3.3.3
Stages of Cognitive Growth
In the previous subtopic, we have identified the stages of cognitive development suggested by Piaget. According to him, we progress from sensorimotor to preoperational, concrete operational and finally formal operational. Like Piaget, Bruner believes in stages of instruction based on development. There are three stages according to Bruners theory as can be seen in Table 3.1 below.
Table 3.1: The Three Stages of Cognitive Growth According to Bruner's Theory Stage Enactive (birth to age 3) Description In this stage, children learn by observing and manipulating real or concrete objects. For example, if you want to teach about flowers, you must let children observe real flowers so that they can see, touch and smell the flowers. Knowledge is acquired through senses. This is also true if you want to teach a new skill. Let say you want to teach students on how to use a thermometer. Get a thermometer and let them touch and observe the apparatus. In this stage, knowledge is represented by using models and pictures. So, if you want to teach them about flowers, you can use pictures of flowers for the children to list the components of a flower and classifying flowers based on their characteristics. If you want to teach about how the lungs work, you could use a model to explain how the size of lung changes when we breathe in and out. In short, you do not need to show them the real object as cognitively they are ready to understand the concepts with the help of pictures or models.
Iconic (age 3 to 8)
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Symbolic (from age 8)
Learners can think in abstract form. So, abstract terms and symbol systems can be used to represent knowledge like numbers, mathematical symbols, letters, music and language. The precise timing of when to use it depends on the child, particularly his or her language ability. For the first time, the child can categorise, think logically and solve problems.
Each stage as shown in Figure 3.7 is dominant at different phases of development but they are always present and accessible (Johnson, et al.).
Figure 3.7: Learning stages according to Bruners theory Source: http://jaylordlosabia.blogspot.com/2010/05/constructivism-jeromebruners.html
According to Waring (2011), Bruner rejects the idea of stages as popularised by Piaget and to a lesser extent Vygotsky. Rather than looking at the ages of developmental changes, Bruner concentrates more on how knowledge is represented and organised as the child develops. For Bruner, the earlier ways of thinking are still used later in life where they can be very useful for some tasks. Teachers, according to Bruner, should be able to speed up the rate of cognitive development, primarily by improving language acquisition thereby assisting the transition from iconic to symbolic modes of representation. In short, if you plan activities in accordance to each stage as Bruner describes it, your children can learn more effectively.
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Say for instance you want to teach them about the concept of animals. If you teach younger children, you should use real animals to explain the concept. However if your students are older, you could use pictures or models of animals, and when they are in the symbolic stage, you could simply use text to teach them about animals.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
Learning subtraction by showing six items and physically removing four of them. To which stage does this classroom activity belong to?
ACTIVITY 3.6
Imagine that you want to teach about the different parts of plants. Discuss the teaching activities for each of Bruner's stage theory.
3.3.4
Application of Bruners Theories in the Teaching of Science
How do you use Bruners theory in a science classroom? Since discovery learning represents or follows the scientific method, you should always try to use this method when you teach science. The question is, which model of discovery learning should you use? Should you apply guided discovery, free discovery, problem-based learning, simulation-based learning or case-based learning? Let us look at Table 3.2 which shows some of the suggestions on how we can use Bruners theories in the science classroom.
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Table 3.2: Suggestions on How Bruners Theories Can Be Used in Science Classroom Bruners Theories 1 Present both examples and non-examples of the concepts that you are teaching. x Explanation When teaching about mammals, include people, kangaroos, whales, cats, dolphins and camels as examples. Besides that, use chicken, fish, alligators, frogs and penguins as non-examples. Ask children for additional examples and nonexamples. When presenting an explanation of the phases of the moon, have the children to observe the phases in a variety of ways. For instance, direct observation of the changing shape of the moon in the evening. A demonstration of the changes can be shown by using a flashlight and sphere, and also diagrams. Ask questions such as, What else could you call this apple? (Fruit). What do we do with fruit? (Eat). What do we call things we eat? (Food). Use diagrams, outlines and summaries to point out conclusions. Provide them with specific cases or situations. Children will need to observe, classify, making inferences and prediction in order to make conclusion based on the situation given. Children need to be given enough practice to solve problem so that they will learn the heuristics or rules of discovery. Use demonstrations that reveal basic principles. For example, demonstrate the law of magnetism by using similar and opposite poles of a set of bar magnets. Encourage children to make outlines of basic points made in textbooks or discovered in activities. Coding system helps children make connections between objects and phenomena. For example, ask the students to invent a game that requires children to classify rocks and have children to maintain scrapbooks in which they keep collected leaf specimens that are grouped according to observed characteristics.
x x
Help children see connections among concepts.
x 3 Design inductive activities. x
Design activities that are problem-oriented. Emphasise the basic structure of the new material.
Help children construct coding system.
x x
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Pose a problem to the children and let them find the answer.
Ask questions that will lead naturally to activities. For example, why do you need to wear a helmet when riding a bicycle? What are some ingredients that most junk foods have? Do a demonstration that raises a question in the childrens minds. For example, lift a washer using magnet or mix two-coloured solutions to produce a third colour. Intuitive guesses allow children to be able to build meaning, significance or structure to a problem without explicit evidence. For example, ask children to guess the amount of water that goes down the drain each time they get a drink of water from a water fountain. Give the children magazine photographs of the evening sky and have them guess the locations of some constellations. Instead of defining a particular object, tell your students, "Let us guess what it might mean by looking at the words around it." Do not comment after the first few guesses. Wait for several ideas before giving the right answer. Use guiding questions to help children focus when their discovery has led them astray.
Encourage children to make intuitive guesses.
x x
There are many resources in the Internet if you want to use the discovery learning approach in the teaching of science. Here is just one of the websites you can use: http://www.discoverysciencelearning.com/
ACTIVITY 3.7
1. In a group, choose a topic. Describe how you would teach the topic using discovery learning. Use a suitable graphic organiser to compare and contrast Piagets and Bruners stages of cognitive growth.
2.
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Cognitive theory is a learning theory of psychology that attempts to explain human behaviour by understanding the thought processes. Piaget identified four stages in human cognitive development. They are sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operational. Piaget also explained how the cognitive structures or schemes change through the process of assimilation, accommodation and mental equilibrium. The application of Piagets stages of cognitive growth is when you plan to teach science based on students' abilities in each stage. Generally primary school students are in the concrete operational stage. Thus, concrete materials need to be used in the teaching of science concepts or skills. In Bruners discovery learning model, students involvement plays a vital role in the learning process. The teachers role is as a guide and advisor in students' quest for information rather than as a giver of information. Bruner also identified three stages of cognitive growth: enactive, iconic and symbolic. The application of Bruners stages of cognitive growth is when you plan to teach activities suited for each stage, whether to use concrete, pictures or models, or just use text or description when explaining concepts or skills.
Cognitive development growth Cognitive learning theories Cognitive structures or schemes Concrete operational Discovery learning Enactive
Formal operational Iconic Inductive reasoning Pre-operational Sensorimotor Symbolic
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Abruscato, J. (2004). Teaching children science: A discovery approach (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Atherton, J. S. (2011). Learning and teaching: Cognitive theories of learning. Retrieved May 15, 2011, from http://www.learningandteaching.info/ learning/cognitive.htm Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press. Johnson, C., Maiden, K., McDonald, R., & McGuire, A. (n.a.). Retrieved May 19, 2011, from http://tiger.towson.edu/~cjohns26/Jerome%20Bruner.ppt Learning Theories. (2008). Discovery learning (Bruner). Retrieved May 22, 2011, from http://www.learning-theories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html Lindgren, H. C., & Suter, W. N. (1985). Educational psychology in the classroom. California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Martin, R., Sexton, C., & Gerlovich, J. (2002). Teaching science for all children Methods for constructing understanding. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Ormond, J. (2000). Educational psychology: Developing learners (3rd ed). Belkapp Press. Slavin, R. E. (2006). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc. Subramaniam, N. K. (2010). Enriching blended pedagogy through Piagetian learning model: A case study. Retrieved 19 May 2011 from http://eprints.oum.edu.my/411/1/enriching_nantha.pdf Thorsett, P. (2002). Discovery learning theory. A primer for discussion. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from http://general.utpb.edu/fac/keast_d/Tunebooks/ pdf/Bruner%20and%20Discovery%20Learning.pdf Tomei, L. (2004). Learning theories: A primer exercise. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from http://academics.rmu.edu/~tomei/ed711psy/c_bruner.htm Waring, P. (2011). Cognition and development. Retrieved May 22, 2011, from http://psychology4a.com/cognitive_development.htm#Jerome_Bruner_N orthern College. (2003). Learning theories Classical conditioning. Retrieved April 27, 2011, from http://www.northern.ac.uk/learning/NC Material/Psychology/lifespan%20folder/Learningtheories.htm
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Utah State University. (2000). Positive interaction procedures. Retrieved May 8, 2011, from http://www.usu.edu/teachall/text/behavior/LRBIpdfs/ Positive.pdf Woolfolk, A. ( 2001). Educational psychology. USA: Allyn & Bacon.

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X TOPIC 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 1

Figure 3.1: Behaviourist Learning Theory Source: http://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.com/

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Figure 3.2: Cognitive learning theory Source: http://psybibs.revdak.com