RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Sagar Naik, PT
Respiratory system includes respiratory airways leading into (& out of) lungs plus the lungs
themselves.
s Pathway of air:

.
Nasal cavities (or oral cavity)

ll..
Pharynx

C
Trachea O
N
D
Primary bronchi (right & left) U
C
4a Secondary bronchi

Tertiary bronchi
T
I
N
G

Z
Terminal bronchi O
N
sio
E
Lobular bronchiole

Terminal bronchiole
R
E
Respiratory bronchiole S
P
y

I
Alveolar duct R
A
ph

T
Atrium O
R
Y
Alveolar sac
Z
O
Alveoli (site of gas exchange) N
E
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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

.
ll..
4a Respiration

External Respiration Internal Respiration

sio
External respiration means absorption of
O2 and removal of CO2 from the body as a
whole.
(i.e., exchange of gas between air in the
alveoli of the lung & blood).
Internal respiration means utilization of O2
and production of CO2 by cells and the
gaseous the cells and their fluid medium.
(i.e., exchange of gas between blood &
body cells).

Hence the fundamental goals of respiration are to provide O2 to the tissues and to remove CO2.
To achieve this respiration can be divided into four major functional events:
y

• Pulmonary Ventilation (which means inflow and outflow of air between the atmosphere and
the alveoli)
• Diffusion of O2 & CO2 between the alveoli and the blood
• Transport of O2 & CO2 in the blood and the body fluids to from the cells
ph

• Regulation of ventilation

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

s Mechanics of Pulmonary Ventilation:

Respiration

Inspiration Expiration

.
During normal quiet breathing, inspiration During normal quiet breathing, expiration
is the active process during which there is is a passive process during which the

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enlargement of thoracic cage and thoracic cage and lungs decrease in size
expansion of lungs due to inhalation of and attain the preinspiratory position due
air into the lungs. to exhalation of air from the lungs.

< Muscles of Respiration:

• Primary Inspiratory Muscles: Diaphragm
4a External Intercostal muscles
• Primary Expiratory Muscles: Internal Intercostal muscles

• Accessory Inspiratory Muscles: Sternocleidomastoid

Scalenei
Pectorals
Serratus anterior
Trapezius
sio
Subclavis
• Accessory Expiratory Muscles: Transverse abdominis
Internal Abdominal Oblique
External Abdominal Oblique
Rectus Abdominis
Quadratus Lumborum

< Respiratory Pressures:

y

h Intrapleural pressure (intrathoracic pressure):

Intrapleural pressure is the pressure of fluid existing in pleural cavity, i.e., in between
the visceral and parietal layers of pleura.
ph

Normal values:
During inspiration: - 6 mm Hg
During expiration: - 2 mm Hg

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

h Intraalveolar pressure (intrapulmonary pressure):

Intraalveolar pressure is the pressure of air inside the lung alveoli.
Normal values:
During inspiration: - 4 mm Hg
During expiration: + 4 mm Hg

h Transpulmonary Pressure:

.
Transpulmonary pressure is the pressure difference between the alveolar pressure and

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the pleural pressure.

< During Normal Inspiration following events occurs:

Diaphragm & external intercostal muscle contracts

4a
Increase in vertical & anteroposterior diameter

Decrease in pleural pressure

Decrease in intrapulmonary pressure

sio
Expansion of lungs (Inspiration)
y
ph

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

< During Normal Expiration following events occurs:

Relaxation of external intercostal muscles &
diaphragm

.
Return of diaphragm, ribs, & sternum to resting
position

ll..
Restores thoracic cavity to preinspiratory volume

Increases pressure in lungs

Elastic recoil of the lungs

4a Air is exhaled (Expiration)

< Compliance:
The terminal bronchioles and alveoli contain elastin fibers, which stretch as the lung
inflates during inspiration.
The ability of the lungs and thorax to expand or the expansibility of lungs and thorax
sio
is called the compliance. It is defined as the change in volume per unit change in the pressure.
Compliance = change in volume / change in pressure.
h Factors that affect Compliance:
• Elastic Fibers in the alveoli
• Pulmonary Surfactant in the alveolar fluid. Surfactant reduces the surface tension of the
alveoli and prevents them from coalescing.
h HIGH COMPLIANCE: The lungs have trouble deflating because they have lost their
y

elasticity, as in Emphysema.
• Occurs with destruction of elastic fibers in lung, such as emphysema.
• There is great difficulty in exhaling but no inhaling.
h LOW COMPLIANCE: Occurs with overproduction of collagen as in Restrictive Lung
ph

Disease.
• There is great difficulty in inhaling, expanding the lung.
• Also occurs with lack of surfactant as in Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome (IRDS).
< Collapsing tendency of lungs:
Lungs are under constant threat of collapsing even under normal condition because of
following reasons:
• The elastic property of lung tissues, which induces the recoiling tendency of lungs

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

• Surface tension over the surface of the alveoli of lungs (it is the tension exerted over
the alveolar membrane, by fluid secreted by the alveolar epithelium)
h Following are the factors preventing the collapsing tendency of lungs:
• Intrapleural pressure as it is negative
• Surfactant, which reduces surface tension

< Surfactant:

.
Any surface acting material or agent that is responsible for lowering the surface

ll..
tension of a fluid is called surfactant.
h The surfactant present in the alveoli of lungs is known as pulmonary surfactant.
h It is a phospholipid, which reduces surface tension of fluid lining the alveoli and prevents the
collapsing tendency of lungs.
h It is secreted by type II alveolar epithelial cells (surfactant secreting alveolar cells or
pneumocytes).
h Composition of surfactant: phospholipids, other lipids, proteins, and ions.
h Function:
• The surfactant reduces the surface tension in the alveoli of lungs and thereby
4a prevents the collapsing tendency of lungs.
• The surfactant is responsible for stabilization of the alveoli, which have the
tendency to deflate.
• It plays an important role in the inflation of lungs during birth.
h The deficiency of surfactant causes respiratory distress syndrome or hyaline membrane disease
(in infants) and adult respiratory distress syndrome (in adults).

< Work of breathing:

sio
The energy generated by the respiratory muscles to overcome the resistance in the
thorax and respiratory tract is known as work of breathing.
h During the respiratory processes, inspiration is active process and expiration is passive process,
so during quiet breathing, respiratory muscles perform work only during inspiration and not
during expiration.
h Work of inspiration can be divided into three fractions:
• Compliance work or Elastic work required expanding the lungs against the lung and
chest elastic forces
• Tissue resistance work required overcoming the viscosity of the lung and chest wall
y

structures
• Airway resistance work required overcoming airway resistance during the movement
of air into the lungs
ph

< Pulmonary volumes & capacities:

Pulmonary volumes and capacities can be measured with the help of spirometer.

Û Pulmonary volumes:
Tidal volume (TV):
The volume of air inspired or expired with each normal breath is called tidal volume.
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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

h Normal value: 500 ml

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV):

The maximum extra volume of air that can be inspired over and above the normal tidal
volume is called inspiratory reserve volume.
h Normal value: 3000 ml

.
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV):

ll..
The maximum extra volume of air that can be expired by forceful expiration after the
end of a normal tidal expiration is called expiratory reserve volume.
h Normal value: 1100 ml

Residual volume (RV):

The volume of air remaining in the lungs after the most forceful expiration is called
residual volume.
h Normal value: 1200 ml
4a
Û Pulmonary capacities:
Inspiratory capacity (IC):
This is the amount of air a person can breathe in, beginning at the normal expiratory
level and distending the lungs to the maximum amount.
h Normal value: IC = TV + IRV (3500 ml)

Functional residual capacity (FRC):

sio
This is the amount of air that remains in the lungs at the end of normal expiration.
h Normal value: FRC = ERV + RV (2300 ml)

Vital capacity (VC):

This is the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs forcefully after a
maximal deep inspiration.
h Normal value: VC = IRV + TV + ERV (4600 ml)
y

Total lung capacity (TLC):

This is the maximum amount of air present in the lungs after a maximal deep
ph

inspiration.
h Normal value: TLC = IRV + TV + ERV + RV (5800 ml)

Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV) or Timed Vital Capacity:

The amount of air, which can be expired forcefully in a given unit time after deep
inspiration is called forced expiratory volume or timed vital capacity or forced expiratory vital
capacity.

• FEV1 – Amount of air expired forcefully in 1st second (83% of TVC)

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

• FEV2 – Amount of air expired forcefully in 2nd second (94% of TVC)

• FEV3 – Amount of air expired forcefully in 3rd second (97% of TVC)
• After 3rd second – 100% of TVC

h Significance of FEV: Decreased greatly in obstructive diseases & slightly decreased in

restrictive diseases.

.
< Alveolar Ventilation:

ll..
The rate at which new air reaches the alveoli, alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts, and
respiratory bronchioles is called alveolar ventilation. Thus, alveolar ventilation is defined as the
amount of air utilized for gaseous exchange every minute.

< Dead Space:

The part of the respiratory tract, where gaseous exchange does not take place is called
the dead space. The air present in the dead space is called dead space air.
h The upper portions of respiratory tract namely trachea, bronchi and bronchioles upto
respiratory bronchioles serve only as the passage for air movement and no gaseous exchange
4a
occurs so these portions are known as dead space.
h The normal dead space air in a young adult man is about 150 ml, which slightly increases with
age.

Dead Space

Anatomical Dead Space Physiological Dead Space

Anatomical dead space includes Physiological dead space includes the
sio
respiratory tract from nose upto terminal anatomical dead space plus additional
bronchiole. volume of air in the non-functioning
alveoli and in those alveoli, which do not
receive adequate blood flow (some
respiratory disorders).

< Ventilation Perfusion Ratio:

y

The ventilation perfusion ratio is the ratio of alveolar ventilation (VA) and the amount of
blood that perfuses (Q) the alveoli.
ph

Normal ventilation perfusion ratio = VA / Q

where, VA = (tidal volume – dead space) ¯ respiratory rate
= (500 – 150) ¯ 12
= 4200 ml/min
and Q = 5000 ml/min
Thus, VA = 0.84

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

s Diffusion of Gases Through Respiratory Membrane:

h Diffusion of the gas will occur from the high concentration area toward the low concentration
area.
h Respiratory unit comprises of respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts, atria, and alveoli.
h Respiratory membrane is formed by epithelium of respiratory unit and endothelium of pulmonary

.
capillaries.

ll..
< Diffusion Capacity:
The ability of the respiratory membrane to exchange a gas between the alveoli and the
pulmonary blood can be expressed in terms of respiratory membrane’s diffusing capacity, which is
defined as the volume of a gas that will diffuse through the membrane each minute for a
pressure of difference of 1 mm Hg.
h The factors affecting diffusion capacity (D) are as follows:
• Thickness of the membrane (d)
• Surface area of the membrane (A)
• Diffusion coefficient of the gas in the substance of the membrane [Diffusion
4acoefficient of gas depends on gas’s solubility in the membrane (S) & molecular weight
(MW)]
• Pressure difference of the gas between the two sides of the membrane (ΔP)
D α ( ΔP ¯ A ¯ S) / (d ¯ MW )

Û Diffusion of Oxygen in lungs:

sio
Atmosphere Alveoli Blood
Diffusion Diffusion
Partial pressure of Partial pressure of Partial pressure of
O2 is 159 mm Hg O2 is 104 mm Hg O2 is 40 mm Hg
55 mm Hg 64 mm Hg
y

Û Diffusion of Carbon Dioxide in lungs:

ph

Blood Alveoli Atmosphere

Diffusion Diffusion
Partial pressure of Partial pressure of Partial pressure of
CO2 is 45 mm Hg CO2 is 40 mm Hg O2 is 0.3 mm Hg
5 mm Hg

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

Û Diffusion of Oxygen at tissue level:

Blood Tissue
Diffusion
Partial pressure of Partial pressure of

.
O2 is 95 mm Hg O2 is 40 mm Hg
55 mm Hg

ll..
Û Diffusion of Carbon Dioxide at tissue level:

Tissue Blood
Diffusion
4a
Partial pressure of
CO2 is 46 mm Hg
6 mm Hg
Partial pressure of
CO2 is 40 mm Hg

< Respiratory Exchange Ratio:

sio
The respiratory exchange ratio is the ratio between the amount of oxygen consumed and
amount of carbon dioxide evolved.
h When a person utilizes only carbohydrates for body metabolism – 1.00
h When a person utilizes only fat for body metabolism – 0.7
h When a person utilizes only protein for body metabolism – 0.803

s Transport of Respiratory Gases in Blood:

y

< Transport of Oxygen:

ph

Normally, about 97% of the oxygen transported from the lungs to the tissues is carried
in chemical combination with hemoglobin in the RBC. The remaining 3% is transported in the
dissolved state in the water of the plasma and cells.
h Thus, under normal conditions, oxygen is carried to the tissues almost entirely by hemoglobin.
h 1 gram of hemoglobin carries 1.34 ml of oxygen. This is called the oxygen carrying capacity
of hemoglobin.
h When fully saturated with oxygen, hemoglobin (at a normal concentration of 15 g per 100 ml of
blood) will carry about 19 ml of oxygen per 100 ml of blood.
Hb + O2 = HbO2
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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

h Only another 0.3 ml of the gas per 100 ml of blood will be transported dissolved in the plasma.

Û Oxygen Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve:

Oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve demonstrates the relationship between the
partial pressure of oxygen and the percentage saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen.

.
ll..
4a
sio
h Normally in the blood, hemoglobin is saturated with oxygen only upto 95%.
h The saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen depends upon the partial pressure of oxygen.
When the partial pressure of oxygen is more, hemoglobin accepts oxygen and when the
partial pressure of oxygen is less, hemoglobin releases oxygen.
h Under normal conditions, the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is ‘S’ shaped or sigmoid
shaped.
y

h The lower part of curve indicates dissociation of oxygen from hemoglobin.

h The upper part of the curve indicates the acceptance of oxygen by hemoglobin depending
upon the partial pressure of oxygen.
ph

Partial Pressure of O2 Saturation of hemoglobin

25 mm Hg 50 % (P50)
40 mm Hg 75 %
100 mm Hg 95 %

h Factors affecting oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve are as follows:

• Shift to left indicates acceptance (association) of oxygen by hemoglobin
1) In fetal blood, as fetal hemoglobin has got more affinity for oxygen
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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

2) Decrease in hydrogen ion concentration and increase in pH (alkalinity)

• Shift to right indicates dissociation of oxygen from hemoglobin
1) Decrease in partial pressure of oxygen
2) Increase in partial pressure of carbon dioxide (Bohr Effect)
3) Increase in hydrogen ion concentration and decrease in pH (acidity)
4) Increased body temperature
5) Excess of DPG (2,3 Diphosphoglycerate)

.
[Bohr Effect:

ll..
h In the tissues, due to continuous metabolic activities, the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide is very high and the partial pressure of oxygen is low.
h Due to pressure gradient, carbon dioxide enters the blood and oxygen is released from
the blood to the tissues.
h The presence of carbon dioxide decreases the affinity of hemoglobin or oxygen and
enhances further release of oxygen to the tissues and oxygen dissociation curve is
shifted to right. This is known as Bohr effect.]

< Transport of Carbon Dioxide:

4a The blood from tissues to the alveoli transports carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is
transported in the blood in the following ways:
• As dissolved form (7% of total CO2, i.e., 3 ml)
• As carbonic acid (negligible)
• As bicarbonates (63% of total CO2)
• As carbamino compounds (30% of total CO2)
Û Transport of CO2 as Dissolved form:
h Carbon dioxide diffuses into blood and dissolves in the fluid of plasma forming a simple
sio
solution.

Û Transport of CO2 as Carbonic Acid:

h Part of dissolved carbon dioxide in plasma, combines with the water to form carbonic acid.
h Though carbon dioxide is transported in this form, this reaction is very slow and it is
negligible.

Û Transport of CO2 as Bicarbonate:

y

h From plasma, the CO2 enters the RBC where it combines rapidly with water to form
carbonic acid due to presence of enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
h As carbonic acid is very unstable, most of it formed in RBC dissociates into bicarbonates
ph

and hydrogen ions.

h Increase in bicarbonate concentration in the cell causes diffusion of bicarbonates through
the cell membrane into the plasma.
h In plasma, there is plenty of sodium chloride, which dissociates into sodium and chloride
ions.
h When the negatively charged bicarbonate ions move out of RBC into plasma, to maintain
the electrolyte equilibrium the negatively charged chloride ions move into the RBC. This
is called chloride shift or Hamburger Phenomenon.
h The hydrogen ions are buffered by hemoglobin inside the cell.
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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

h The bicarbonate ions combine with sodium ions in the plasma and form sodium
bicarbonate, which is transported in the blood. This has to be reconverted back into
carbon dioxide to be expelled out.
h When the blood reaches the alveoli, sodium bicarbonate in the plasma dissociates into
sodium and bicarbonate ions.
h Bicarbonate ion moves into RBC causing chloride ion to move out of the RBC back into
plasma where chloride ion combines with sodium to form sodium chloride. This is called

.
reverse chloride shift.
h At the same time, oxygen also enters the RBC displacing hydrogen from hemoglobin. The

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hydrogen ion combines with bicarbonate ion to form carbonic acid, which dissociates
into water and carbon dioxide is expelled out.

Û Transport of CO2 as Carbamino Compounds:

h Carbon dioxide is transported in blood in combination with hemoglobin as carbamino
hemoglobin or carbhemoglobin and with plasma proteins as carbamino proteins, which
are together called carbamino compounds.
h The carbon dioxide binds with proteins or hemoglobin with a loose bond so that it is easily
4a
released into alveoli, where the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is low. Hence
combination of carbon dioxide with proteins and hemoglobin is a reversible one.

Û Carbon Dioxide Dissociation Curve:

The relationship between the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and the quantity of
carbon dioxide combined with blood is demonstrated by a curve called carbon dioxide
dissociation curve.
sio
y
ph

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

Partial Pressure of CO2 CO2 concentration in blood

40 mm Hg 48 ml%
48 mm Hg 52 ml%
100 mm Hg 70 ml%

h Factors affecting carbon dioxide dissociation curve are as follows:

.
h Haldane’s Effect:
• Combination of more amount of oxygen with hemoglobin, displaces carbon dioxide

ll..
from hemoglobin is called Haldane’s effect.
• So, the excess of oxygen content causes shift of the carbon dioxide dissociation curve
to the right.
• Causes:
1) Highly acidic hemoglobin has less tendency to combine with CO2 causing
carbon dioxide to displace from blood.
2) Due to acidity, hydrogen ions are released in excess, which binds with
bicarbonate ions to form carbonic acid, which in turn dissociates into
4a water and carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide is released from blood into
alveoli.
• Significance:
1) The release of carbon dioxide from blood into alveoli of lungs
2) Uptake of oxygen by the blood

s Regulation of Respiration:
Respiration is a reflex process. Voluntary control of respiration (voluntary apnea) is
possible only for a short period of about 40 seconds. Emotion and exercise increase the rate and force
sio
of respiration. But the altered pattern of respiration is brought back to normal within a short time by
some regulatory mechanisms in the body, which are as follows:
• Nervous or Neural Mechanism
• Chemical Mechanism

< Nervous Mechanism:

The nervous mechanism of respiration involves the following:
• Respiratory Centers
y

• Efferent Pathway
• Afferent Pathway
ph

Û Respiratory Centers:
h Adequate supply of oxygen to the tissues and removal of carbon dioxide from the tissues is
achieved by continuous exchange of gases between alveoli and blood, which is provided by
respiratory movements.
h The respiratory movements are controlled and maintained by coordinated activity of some
group of neurons in the brainstem i.e., bilaterally in the medulla oblongata and pons,
which are known as respiratory centers.
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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

Respiratory Centers

Medullary centers Pontine Centers

.
Inspiratory center Expiratory center Pneumotaxic center Apneustic center

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4a
sio
y
ph

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

Center Situation Function

Medullary center
Inspiratory Center • Upper part of the • Inspiration
(Dorsal group of medulla oblongata (Nucleus of tractus solitarius
respiratory neurons) • Formed by nucleus of receives sensory impulses from

.
tractus solitarius & peripheral baroreceptors,
other surrounding chemoreceptors and pulmonary

ll..
neurons receptors through vagus and
glossopharyngeal nerves helping
the center in the regulation of
respiration)
Expiratory Center • Medulla oblongata • During quiet normal breathing
(Ventral group of anterior and lateral this center is inactive.
respiratory neurons) to the inspiratory • It becomes active during forced
center breathing or when the
• Forms nucleus inspiratory center is inhibited.
4a ambiguous anteriorly
&
retroambiguous
posteriorly
nucleus

Pontine Center
Pneumotaxic Center • Dorsolateral part of • Primarily, it controls medullary
reticular formation
in upper pons
respiratory centers, particularly
the inspiratory center through
Forms nucleus apneustic center
sio
parabrachialis • It always controls activity of
inspiratory center and inhibits
the inspiratory ramp, thus
maintains duration of
inspiration
• Indirectly, pneumotaxic center
increases the respiratory rate by
reducing the duration of
inspiration (decrease in
y

duration of inspiration causes

decrease in duration of
expiration leading to increased
ph

respiratory rate)
Apneustic Center • Reticular formation • Accelerates the depth of
of lower pons inspiration by acting directly
on the inspiratory center

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

Û Efferent Pathway:
h The nerve fibers from the respiratory centers leave brainstem and descend in anterior part
of lateral columns of spinal cord.
h These nerve fibers terminate in the motor neurons in the anterior horn cells of cervical and
thoracic segments of spinal cord.
h From the motor neurons of spinal cord, two sets of nerve fibers arise which are as follows:

.
• Phrenic nerve fibers, which supply the diaphragm
• Intercostal nerve fibers, which supply intercostal muscles

ll..
h Vagus nerve also contains some efferent fibers from the respiratory centers.

Û Afferent Pathway:
h Impulses from peripheral chemoreceptors and baroreceptors are carried to the respiratory
centers by the fibers of glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
h Vagus nerve fibers also carry impulses from the stretch receptors of lungs to the
respiratory centers.
h Thus, the respiratory centers receive afferent impulses from different parts of the body and,
accordingly modulate the movements of thoracic cage and lungs through nerve fibers.
4a
Û Integration of Respiratory Centers:
Role of Medullary Centers (Inspiratory Ramp):
h Inspiratory center discharges impulses intermittently at regular intervals and are responsible
for the normal rhythm of respiration.
h The firing of these neurons is not like sudden outburst and discharge of impulses is also not
uniform.
sio
h Initially, due to activation of only few neurons, amplitude of action potential is low but as
more and more neurons are activated, amplitude of the action potential gradually increases
in a ramp fashion.
h The impulses are produced for a period of 2 seconds during which inspiration occurs.
h This type of firing from inspiratory center is called inspiratory ramp and, impulses are
called inspiratory ramp signals.
h Significance:
The significance of inspiratory ramp signals is that there is a slow and steady
inspiration so that, filling of lungs with air is also steady.
y

[After 2 seconds, the ramp signals stop abruptly and do not appear for another 3 seconds
during which expiration occurs. At the end of 3 seconds, the inspiratory ramp signals
reappear in the same pattern, and the cycle is repeated.
ph

Normally, during inspiration, the inspiratory center inhibits expiratory center and during
expiration, expiratory center inhibits the inspiratory center. Thus, the medullary respiratory
centers control each other.]

Role of Pontine Centers:

h The medullary respiratory centers are under the influence of the pontine centers.
h The apneustic center always accelerates the activity of inspiratory center and the
stimulation of this center, causes prolonged inspiration.

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

h The pneumotaxic center inhibits the apneustic center and restricts the duration of
inspiration and thus reduces period of inspiration.
h The pneumotaxic center also activates the expiratory center at the end of 2 seconds of
ramp signals.

Û Factors affecting Respiratory Centers:

.
The respiratory centers regulate the respiratory movements, by receiving impulses from
various sources.

ll..
Impulses from Higher Centers:
Impulses from higher centers like corpus callosum, olfactory tubercle and cerebral cortex
inhibits respiration. The impulses from motor area and Sylvian area of cerebral cortex causes
forced breathing.

Impulses from Stretch Receptors of Lungs (Hering-Breuer Reflex):

There are some stretch receptors on the wall of the bronchi and bronchioles of lungs,
4a
which responses to stretch of the lung tissues. So, during inspiration when there is stretching of
lung tissues due to expansion, stretch receptors are stimulated and produce impulses, which are
carried by vagal afferent fibers to respiratory centers to inhibit inspiratory center and stops
inspiration and starts expiration.
This reflex is a protective reflex because it restricts inspiration and limits over stretching
of lung tissues. This is called Hering-Breuer Inflation Reflex. It does not operate during quiet
breathing (operates only when the tidal volume reaches above 1000 ml).
When the inspiratory center is inhibited, the inspiration stops and expiration occurs
during which stretching of lungs is abolished and deflation of lungs occurs. This is called
sio
Hering-Breuer Deflation Reflex.

Impulses from ‘Juxtacapillary (J)’ receptors of Lungs:

J receptors are present on the wall of the alveoli and have close contact with the
pulmonary capillaries and few are found on wall of bronchi. The stimulation of J receptors
produces a reflex response, which is characterized by apnea, which is followed by
hyperventilation, bradycardia, hypotension and weakness of skeletal muscles.

Impulses from Irritant Receptors of Lungs:

y

The irritant receptors are situated on the wall of bronchi and bronchus of lungs.
Stimulation of irritant receptors produces reflex hyperventilation along with bronchospasm,
which prevents entry of harmful agents into the alveoli.
ph

Impulses from Baroreceptors:

Baroreceptors are situated in the carotid sinus at internal carotid artery near the
bifurcation of common carotid artery. They are also situated in the wall of arch of aorta.
Impulses from baroreceptors reach medulla oblongata when arterial blood pressure increases
and causes inhibition of respiration.

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

Impulses from Chemoreceptors:

Chemoreceptors also play important role in the regulation of respiration, which will be
discussed in chemical mechanism of respiration.

Impulses from Proprioceptors:

Proprioceptors are stimulated during muscular exercise and, send impulses to brain

.
particularly, cerebral cortex through somatic afferent nerves, which causes hyperventilation by
sending impulses to medullary respiratory centers.

ll..
Impulses from Thermoreceptors:
When body is exposed to cold, the cold receptors are stimulated, send impulses to
cerebral cortex, which in turn stimulates respiratory centers and causes hyperventilation.

Impulses from Pain Receptors:

Whenever pain receptors are stimulated, send impulses to cerebral cortex, which in turn
stimulates respiratory centers and causes hyperventilation.
4a
Cough Reflex:
This is a protective reflex caused by irritation of parts of respiratory tract beyond nose
i.e., larynx, trachea and bronchi. The irritation in any of these parts causes stimulation of
vagal verve endings and the cough occurs. Cough begins with deep inspiration followed by
forced expiration with closed glottis.

Sneezing Reflex:
sio
Sneezing is also a protective reflex, which occurs due to irritation of nasal mucus
membrane. Due to irritation of nasal mucus membrane, olfactory receptors and trigeminal
nerve endings present in nasal mucosa are stimulated leading to sneezing.

Deglutition Reflex:
During swallowing of the food, the respiration is arrested for a while, which is called
swallowing or deglutition apnea. This prevents entry of food particles into respiratory tract.
Nerve involved in this reflex is glossopharyngeal.
y

< Chemical Mechanism:

The chemical mechanism of regulation of respiration is operated through the
ph

chemoreceptors.

Û Chemoreceptors:
h The chemoreceptors are the sensitive nerve endings, which give response to change in
chemical constituents of blood.
h The chemoreceptors give response to following changes in the chemical constituents of
blood:
• Hypoxia

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Sagar Naik, PT

• Hypercapnea
• Increased hydrogen ion concentration

Chemoreceptors

.
Central Chemoreceptors Peripheral Chemoreceptors

Central Chemoreceptors:

ll..
The chemoreceptors are situated in the deeper part of medulla oblongata, close to the
dorsal group of neurons.
h Mechanism of Action:
• The main stimulant for the central chemoreceptors is the increased hydrogen ion
concentration but increased concentration in blood cannot stimulate central
chemoreceptors, as it cannot cross the blood brain barrier and blood cerebrospinal fluid
barrier.
• Carbon dioxide increases in blood, which can easily cross the blood brain barrier and
4a blood cerebrospinal fluid barrier and enters interstitial fluid of brain or CSF.
• There carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid, which is unstable and
hence immediately dissociates into hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion.
• Hydrogen ion now stimulate central chemoreceptors and send stimulatory impulses to
inspiratory center causing increased rate and force of breathing.
• This causes excess carbon dioxide to be washed out and respiration is brought back to
normal.
• Lack of oxygen does not have any significant effect on the central chemoreceptors except
that it generally depresses the overall function of brain.
sio
Peripheral Chemoreceptors:
Peripheral chemoreceptors are situated in the carotid body (present over internal carotid
artery near the bifurcation of common carotid artery into internal & external carotid arteries)
and aortic body (on the arch of aorta).
h Mechanism of Action:
• The main stimulant for peripheral chemoreceptors is reduction in partial pressure of
oxygen.
y

• When partial pressure of oxygen decreases, these receptors are activated and send
impulses to respiratory centers particularly inspiratory center and thus increases rate and
force of inspiration, which provides enough oxygen and rectifies lack of oxygen.
• The peripheral chemoreceptors are mildly sensitive to increase in the partial pressure of
ph

carbon dioxide and increased hydrogen ion concentration.

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