Unit 1: What is Biology?

Unit 2: Ecology Unit 3: The Life of a Cell Unit 4: Genetics Unit 5: Change Through Time Unit 6: Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and Fungi Unit 7: Plants Unit 8: Invertebrates Unit 9: Vertebrates Unit 10: The Human Body

Unit 1: What is Biology? Chapter 1: Biology: The Study of Life Unit 2: Ecology Chapter 2: Principles of Ecology Chapter 3: Communities and Biomes Chapter 4: Population Biology Chapter 5: Biological Diversity and Conservation Unit 3: The Life of a Cell Chapter 6: The Chemistry of Life Chapter 7: A View of the Cell Chapter 8: Cellular Transport and the Cell Cycle Chapter 9: Energy in a Cell

Unit 4: Genetics Chapter 10: Mendel and Meiosis Chapter 11: DNA and Genes Chapter 12: Patterns of Heredity and Human Genetics Chapter 13: Genetic Technology Unit 5: Change Through Time Chapter 14: The History of Life Chapter 15: The Theory of Evolution Chapter 16: Primate Evolution Chapter 17: Organizing Lifes Diversity

Unit 6: Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and Fungi Chapter 18: Viruses and Bacteria Chapter 19: Protists Chapter 20: Fungi Unit 7: Plants Chapter 21: Chapter 22: Chapter 23: Chapter 24: What Is a Plant? The Diversity of Plants Plant Structure and Function Reproduction in Plants

Unit 8: Invertebrates Chapter 25: What Is an Animal? Chapter 26: Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms, and Roundworms Chapter 27: Mollusks and Segmented Worms Chapter 28: Arthropods Chapter 29: Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates

Unit 9: Vertebrates Chapter 30: Fishes and Amphibians Chapter 31: Reptiles and Birds Chapter 32: Mammals Chapter 33: Animal Behavior Unit 10: The Human Body Chapter 34: Protection, Support, and Locomotion Chapter 35: The Digestive and Endocrine Systems Chapter 36: The Nervous System Chapter 37: Respiration, Circulation, and Excretion Chapter 38: Reproduction and Development Chapter 39: Immunity from Disease

Ecology
Principles of Ecology Communities and Biomes Population Biology Biological Diversity and Conservation

Chapter 2 Principles of Ecology 2.1: Organisms and their Environment 2.1: Section Check 2.2: Nutrition and Energy Flow 2.2: Section Check Chapter 2 Summary Chapter 2 Assessment

What Youll Learn

You will describe ecology and the work of ecologists. You will identify important aspects of an organisms environment. You will trace the flow of energy and nutrients in the living and nonliving worlds.

Section Objectives:
Distinguish between the biotic and abiotic factors in the environment. Compare the different levels of biological organization and living relationships important in ecology. Explain the difference between a niche and a habitat.

Sharing the World

What affects the environment also affects you. Understanding what affects the environment is important because it is where you live.

Studying nature
The study of plants and animals, including where they grow and live, what they eat, or what eats them, is called natural history. These data reflect the status or health of the world in which you live.

What is ecology?
The branch of biology that developed from natural history is called ecology. Ecology is the study of interactions that take place between organisms and their environment.

Ecological research
Scientific research includes using descriptive and quantitative methods. Most ecologists use both descriptive and quantitative research. They obtain descriptive information by observing organisms.

Ecological research
They obtain quantitative data by making measurements and carrying out controlled experiments in the field and in the laboratory.

The Biosphere
The biosphere is the portion of Earth that supports living things. It extends from high in the atmosphere to the bottom of the oceans.

The Biosphere
Although it is thin, the biosphere supports a diverse group of organisms in a wide range of climates. Living things are affected by both the physical or nonliving environment and by other living things.

The nonliving environment: Abiotic factors

The nonliving parts of an organisms environment are the abiotic factors. Examples of abiotic factors include air currents, temperature, moisture, light, and soil.

The nonliving environment: Abiotic factors

Ecology includes the study of features of the environment that are not living because these features are part of an organisms life. Abiotic factors have obvious effects on living things and often determine which species survive in a particular environment.

The nonliving environment: Abiotic factors

This graph shows how the plants glucose (food) production is affected by temperature.
Food production (mg of glucose/hr)

Food Production in Salt Bush 15 10 5 10 20 30 40 50

Temperature (C)

The living environment: Biotic factors

A key consideration of ecology is that living organisms affect other living organisms. All the living organisms that inhabit an environment are called biotic factors. All organisms depend on others directly or indirectly for food, shelter, reproduction or protection.

Levels of Organization
Ecologists study individual organisms, interactions among organisms of the same species, interactions among organisms of different species, as well as the effects of abiotic factors on interacting species. Ecologists have organized the living world into levelsthe organism by itself, populations, communities, and ecosystems.

Organism
An individual living thing that is made of cells, uses energy, reproduces, responds, grows, and develops.

Interactions within populations

A population is a group of organisms, all of the same species, which interbreed and live in the same area at the same time.

Interactions within populations

Members of the same population may compete with each other for food, water, mates, or other resources. Competition can occur whether resources are in short supply or not.

Interactions within communities

Just as a population is made up of individuals, several different populations make up a biological community.

Interactions within communities

A biological community is made up of interacting populations in a certain area at a certain time.

Interactions within communities

A change in one population in a community may cause changes in the other populations. Some of these changes can be minor, such as when a small increase in the number of individuals of one population causes a small decrease in the size of another population.

Interactions within communities

Other changes might be more extreme, as when the size of one population grows so large it begins affecting the food supply for another species in the community.

Ecosystem
Populations of plants and animals that interact with each other in a given area and with the abiotic components of that area.

Biotic and abiotic factors form ecosystems

An ecosystem is made up of interacting populations in a biological community and the communitys abiotic factors. There are two major kinds of ecosystems terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic ecosystems.

Biotic and abiotic factors form ecosystems

Table 2.1 Examples of Ecosystems Aquatic Other Sites for Terrestrial Ecosystems Ecosystems Ecosystems Human body Freshwater Forest Skin Old farm field Pond Intestine Lake Meadow Mouth Stream Yard Buildings Estuary Mold in walls, Garden plot floors, or basement Salt water Empty lot (marine) Ventilation systems Compost heap Ocean Bathrooms Food Estuary Volcano site Any moldy food Aquarium Rotting log
Refrigerator

Terrestial ecosystems are those located on land.

Biotic and abiotic factors form ecosystems

Table 2.1 Examples of Ecosystems Aquatic Other Sites for Terrestrial Ecosystems Ecosystems Ecosystems Human body Freshwater Forest Skin Old farm field Pond Intestine Lake Meadow Mouth Stream Yard Buildings Estuary Mold in walls, Garden plot floors, or basement Salt water Empty lot (marine) Ventilation systems Compost heap Ocean Bathrooms Food Estuary Volcano site Any moldy food Aquarium Rotting log
Refrigerator

Aquatic ecosystems occur in both fresh- and saltwater forms.

Biotic and abiotic factors form ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems include ponds, lakes, and streams.

Biotic and abiotic factors form ecosystems

Saltwater ecosystems, also called marine ecosystems, make up approximately 70 percent of Earths surface.

Organisms in Ecosystems
A habitat is the place where an organism lives out its life.

Organisms in Ecosystems
Habitats can change, and even disappear. Habitats can change due to both natural and human causes.

Niche
Although several species may share a habitat, the food, shelter, and other essential resources of that habitat are often used in different ways. A niche is the role or position a species has in its environmenthow it meets its specific needs for food and shelter, how and where it survives, and where it reproduces in its environment.

Niche
A species niche, therefore, includes all its interactions with the biotic and abiotic parts of its habitat. It is thought that two species cant exist for long in the same community if their niches are the same.

Symbiosis
The relationship in which there is a close and permanent association between organisms of different species is called symbiosis. Simbiosis means living together. Three kinds of symbiosis are recognized: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.

Mutualism
A symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit is called mutualism.

Commensalism
Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor benefited.

Parasitism
Some interactions are harmful to one species, yet beneficial to another. A symbiotic relationship in which a member of one species derives benefit at the expense of another species (the host) is called parasitism.

Parasitism
Parasites have evolved in such a way that they harm, but usually do not kill the host species.

Parasitism
A predator is a type of consumer. Predators seek out and eat other organisms.

Parasitism
Predation is found in all ecosystems and includes organisms that eat plants and animals. The animals that predators eat are called prey.

Question 1
The study of interactions that take place between organisms and their environment is __________. A. abiosis B. symbiosis C. ecology D. biology

The answer is C. Ecology is a branch of biology that developed from natural history.

Question 2
Which of the following is found in the biosphere? A. ozone layer B. maria C. the Sun D. constellation Orion

The answer is A. The biosphere is the portion of Earth that supports living things and extends high into Earth's atmosphere. Maria are darkcolored regions on the moon.

Question 3
Which of the following is a biotic factor? A. moisture B. soil C. earthworm D. light

The answer is C. Biotic factors are all the living organisms that inhabit an environment.

Question 4
A(n) __________ is a group of organisms, all of the same species, which interbreed and live in the same place at the same time. A. biological community B. population C. ecosystem D. habitat

The answer is B. Communities and ecosystems are comprised of more than one species. Habitat refers to the place an organism lives.

Section Objectives
Compare how organisms satisfy their nutritional needs. Trace the path of energy and matter in an ecosystem. Analyze how matter is cycled in the abiotic and biotic parts of the biosphere.

How Organisms Obtain Energy

One of the most important characteristics of a species niche is how it obtains energy. Ecologists trace the flow of energy through communities to discover nutritional relationships between organisms.

The producers: Autotrophs

The ultimate source of the energy for life is the sun. Plants use the suns energy to manufacture food in a process called photosynthesis.

The producers: Autotrophs

An organism that uses light energy or energy stored in chemical compounds to make energy-rich compounds is a producer, or autotroph. Other organisms in the biosphere depend on autotrophs for nutrients and energy. These dependent organisms are called consumers.

The consumers: Heterotrophs

An organism that cannot make its own food and feeds on other organisms is called a heterotroph. Heterotrophs include organisms that feed only on autotrophs, organisms that feed only on other heterotrophs, and organisms that feed on both autotrophs and heterotrophs.

The consumers: Heterotrophs

Heterotrophs display a variety of feeding relationships. A heterotroph that feeds only on plants is an herbivore.

The consumers: Heterotrophs

Some heterotrophs eat other heterotrophs. Animals such as lions that kill and eat only other animals are carnivores.

The consumers: Heterotrophs

Scavengers eat animals that have already died.

The consumers: Heterotrophs

Some organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, are decomposers.

The consumers: Heterotrophs

Decomposers break down the complex compounds of dead and decaying plants and animals into simpler molecules that can be more easily absorbed.

Flow of Matter and Energy in Ecosystems

Autotrophs

Third-order heterotrophs

First-order heterotrophs

Second-order heterotrophs Decomposers

Food chains: Pathways for matter and energy

A food chain is a simple model that scientists use to show how matter and energy move through an ecosystem. In a food chain, nutrients and energy move from autotrophs to heterotrophs and, eventually, to decomposers.

Food chains: Pathways for matter and energy

A food chain is drawn using arrows to indicate the direction in which energy is transferred from one organism to the next.
berries mice black bear

Food chains: Pathways for matter and energy

Most food chains consist of two, three, or four transfers. The amount of energy remaining in the final transfer is only a portion of what was available at the first transfer. A portion of the energy is given off as heat at each transfer.

Trophic levels represent links in the chain

Each organism in a food chain represents a feeding step, or trophic level, in the passage of energy and materials. A first order heterotroph is an organism that feeds on plants, such as a grasshopper.

Trophic levels represent links in the chain

A second order heterotroph is an organism that feeds on a first order heterotroph. A food chain represents only one possible route for the transfer of matter and energy through an ecosystem.

Food webs
Ecologists interested in energy flow in an ecosystem may set up experiments with as many organisms in the community as they can. The model they create, called a food web, shows all the possible feeding relationships at each trophic level in a community.

Energy and trophic levels: Ecological pyramids

An ecological pyramid can show how energy flows through an ecosystem. The base of the ecological pyramid represents the autotrophs, or first trophic level. Higher trophic levels are layered on top of one another.

Energy and trophic levels: Ecological Pyramid of Energy pyramids

The pyramid of energy illustrates that the amount of available energy decreases at each succeeding trophic level.
Heat Heat 0.1% Consumers 1% Consumers 10% Consumers Heat 100% Producers

Heat

Energy and trophic levels: Ecological pyramids

The total energy transfer from one trophic level to the next is only about ten percent because organisms fail to capture and eat all the food energy available at the trophic level below them.

Energy and trophic levels: Ecological pyramids

Some of the energy transferred at each successive trophic level enters the environment as heat, but the total amount of energy remains the same.

Energy and trophic levels: Ecological pyramids

Pyramid of Numbers
Fox (1) Birds (25) Grasshoppers (250) Grasses (3000)

A pyramid of numbers shows that population sizes decrease at each higher trophic level.

Energy and trophic levels: Ecological pyramids

Biomass is the total weight of living matter at each trophic level. A pyramid of biomass represents the total weight of living material available at each trophic level.
Pyramid of Biomass
1 kilogram of human tissue 10 kilograms of beef 100 kilograms of grain

Cycles in Nature
Matter, in the form of nutrients, moves through, or is part of, all organisms at each trophic level. But matter is cycled and is not replenished like the energy from sunlight. There is a finite amount of matter.

The carbon cycle

From proteins to sugars, carbon is the building block of the molecules of life. Linked carbon atoms form the frame for molecules produced by plants and other living things. Organisms use these carbon molecules for growth and energy.

The nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen in the atmosphere Some excess nitrogen evaporates from soil.

Dead plant Urine from matter Decomposing animals organisms Assimilated by plants Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the nodules on roots of leguminous plants fix atmospheric nitrogen. Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria Released to the atmosphere Nitrogen compounds released into soils and acted upon by soil bacteria Decomposersbacteria and fungibreak down tissues and wastes and nitrogencontaining compounds are released.

Converted to other nitrogen compounds by soil bacteria

The phosphorus cycle

In the phosphorus cycle, phosphorus moves between the living and nonliving parts of the environment.

Question 1
Which of the following is a producer?
Chloroplast Nucleus Mitochondrion Eyespot

A. autotroph B. heterotroph C. decomposer

Flagellum Pellicle Contractile vacuole

D. herbivore

The answer is A. Organisms that make energyrich compounds are producers, or autotrophs.
Chloroplast Nucleus Mitochondrion Eyespot

Flagellum Pellicle Contractile vacuole

Question 2
In a food chain, nutrients and energy move from __________ to __________. A. autotrophs, autotrophs B. autotrophs, heterotrophs C. heterotrophs, autotrophs D. decomposers, autotrophs

The answer is B. The first level in all food chains is made up of producers.

berries mice black bear

Question 3
A model of all the possible feeding relationships at each trophic level in a community is a(n) __________. A. food pathway B. food chain C. food matrix D. food web

Chihuahuan raven

Honey mesquite (pods eaten by beetles)

Pronghorn antelope Gambel quail Jackrabbit Coyote (top carnivore) Roadrunner Kangaroo rat (seed eater) ants Texas horned lizard Red spotted toad Mojave rattlesnake Prickly pear cactus Desert tortoise

Long-tail weasel

Mexican whiptail lizard

The answer is D. A food web is a more realistic model than a food chain, because most organisms depend on more than one other species for food.

Organisms and Their Environment

Natural history, the observation of how organisms live out their lives in nature, led to the development of the science of ecology the study of the interactions of organisms with one another and with their environments.

Organisms and Their Environment

Ecologists classify and study the biological levels of organization from the individual to ecosystem. Ecologists study the abiotic and biotic factors that are a part of an organisms habitat. They investigate the strategies an organism is adapted with to exist in its niche.

Nutrition and Energy Flow

Autotrophs, such as plants, make nutrients that can be used by the plants and by heterotrophs. Heterotrophs include herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and decomposers. Food chains are simple models that show how energy and materials move from autotrophs to heterotrophs and eventually to decomposers.

Nutrition and Energy Flow

Food webs represent many interconnected food chains and illustrate pathways in which energy and materials are transferred within an ecosystem. Energy is transferred through food webs. The materials of life, such as carbon and nitrogen, are used and reused as they cycle through the ecosystem.

Question 1
Which of the following is a biological community? A. the organisms living in your backyard today B. the tadpoles living in a pond C. the abiotic factors in the environment D. the factors interacting in an aquatic ecosystem

The answer is A. A biological community consists of all the populations of different species that live in the same place at the same time and does not include abiotic factors. Changes in one of these populations may cause changes in the other populations of the community.

Question 2
A(n) __________ is the place where an organism lives out its life. A. environment B. niche C. habitat D. community

The answer is C. A species' habitat is the place where it lives and its niche is the role it plays in its environment, including interactions with abiotic factors.

Question 3
Compare commensalism and parasitism.
Fungal hypha

Haustorium

Host cell

Both commensalism and parasitism are examples of symbiosis, in which organisms of different species live in close association, benefiting one species. In parasitism, one species derives benefit at the expense of the other, but in a commensal relationship the second species is not harmed.

Question 4
Which of the following models best illustrates heat released at each trophic level of an ecosystem? A. food chain B. food web C. pyramid of energy D. pyramid of biomass

The answer is C. The pyramid of energy shows energy available. Organisms at each trophic level use some energy in food for metabolism and some is given off as heat. The total amount of energy remains the same in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.

Pyramid of Energy
Heat Heat 0.1% Consumers 1% Consumers 10% Consumers Heat 100% Producers

Heat

Question 5
Compare the amount of energy available in the biosphere to the amount of matter here.

Both energy and matter are conserved: they may be transformed, but are not destroyed. However, sunlight is the primary source of all the energy utilized and transferred in the biosphere. It is always being replenished by the sun. In contrast, there is a finite amount of matter in the biosphere, which is cycled and not replenished.

Question 6
Which of the following does not cycle into the atmosphere? A. phosphorus B. nitrogen C. carbon D. water

The answer is A. Phosphorus moves between the living and nonliving parts of the environment, but does not enter the atmosphere as a gas.

Rain washes phosphates from the land. Phosphate weathers from rock.

Phosphate enters streams and oceans from weathering rocks, runoff, and leaching, from soil. Geologic process of uplifting occurs over millions of years. Decaying materials containing phosphates settle out into streams and oceans. New rock forms from sedimentation. Phosphate becomes locked in rocks.

Plant wastes Animal wastes

Phosphates become available for plants again. Phosphates released Phosphates into soil,. leach into streams from Soil decomposers act on soil. plant and animal wastes.

Short-term Cycle

Long-term Cycle

Question 7
Which type of organism consumes both plant and animal products? A. herbivore B. carnivore C. predator D. omnivore

The answer is D. Humans are omnivores and eat a variety of foods that include both plant and animal materials. The figure shows recommended food servings for good health.

Question 8
Which of the following relationships is an example of mutualism? A. Ants feeding on nectar of acacia trees while protecting the trees from other animals. B. orchids aided by growing on large plants neither harming nor benefiting the larger plants

Question 8
Which of the following relationships is an example of mutualism? C. ticks obtaining nutrients from a host animal D. lions preying on zebras

The answer is A. Ants and acacia trees both benefit from living in close association.

Question 9
Compare a niche to a population.

Answer
A population is a group of organisms of the same species that live in the same place at the same time. A niche is the role a species has in its environment, and includes all its interactions with biotic and abiotic parts of its habitat.

Question 10
How does water on Earth's surface get back into the atmosphere?
Condensation Precipitation Runoff Evaporation Evaporation Transpiration

Oceans

Groundwater

The processes of evaporation of water in lakes and oceans and transpiration by plants both put water vapor into the air.
Condensation Precipitation Runoff Evaporation Evaporation Transpiration

Oceans

Groundwater

Photo Credits

Corbis Digital Stock Harris Biological Supplies, LTD NOAA PhotoDisc Alton Biggs

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End of Chapter 2 Show