TECTONIC SETTING OF SANDSTONE-MUDSTONE SUITES INFERRED THROUGH GEOCHEMICAL DATA

INTRODUCTION Geochemical analysis of clastic sedimentary rocks provides important sources of information in terms of major, minor and trace elements (Liu et al., 2007). The immobile oxides such as Al2O3, Fe2O3, TiO2, Th, Sc, Co, Zr and trace elements such as rare earth elements (REEs) are thought to be carried in the particulate load have been found to be useful indicators of source terrain, weathering, tectonic, and environmental evolution (Roser and Korsch, 1988; McLennan, 1989). Being immobile phases in aqueous systems, these elements retain the original source concentration within the rocks (Bhatia, 1983). Mudstone/shale chemistry reflects the average composition of the continental crust (Sahraeyan and Bahrami, 2012). Because of the fine grained nature and impermeability, mudrocks retain most of the mineral constituents of the source rocks. The whole rock geochemistry is a useful tool for analyzing a tectonically complex region (Bhatia, 1983; Liu et al., 2007). Discriminant models have been developed to determine the tectonic setting of ancient basins after detailed petrographic studies of sandstones from several sedimentary sequences as well as geochemical studies (Roser et al., 1986 and references there in). Studies on modern sediments of known plate tectonic setting have been done by Roser et al. (1986) and different tectonic environments are well established by characteristic modal compositions for sandstones, particularly from SiO2 content and K2O/Na2O ratio. Diagenesis can change the original chemistry of rocks, which themselves are related to plate tectonic environments, but the bulk composition still reflects tectonic setting. Thus chemically-based discriminants can be developed (Siever, 1979; Maynard et al., 1982; Bhatia, 1983; Roser et al. 1986). OBJECTIVES Geochemical approaches are equally applicable to coarse-grained and fine-grained sedimentary rocks. This is different from petrographical approaches which are used for coarse grained but very fine grained sediments are difficult to study. So the objective of my studies is to infer the origin and history of sediments by identifying major, minor and trace elements. METHODOLOGY Methods used to study geochemistry of samples include whole-rock geochemistry analysis having Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry (Ahmedali, 1989; Liu et al., 2007; Sahraeyan and Bahrami, 2012). ICP-MS analysis is done for the major and trace elemental study including rare earth elements (Jenner et al., 1990; Liu et al., 2007). Chemical analysis data of sedimentary rocks is plotted on 6 tectonic setting discrimination diagrams of Bhatia (1983), and Roser and Korsch (1986). These are

Fe2O3* + MgO TiO2 plot Fe2O3* + MgO K2O/Na2O plot Fe2O3* + MgO Al2O3 /SiO2 plot Fe2O3* + MgO Al2O3/ (CaO + Na2O) plot Discriminant function diagram SiO2log(K2O/Na2O) plot

Accuracy and precision should be estimated and monitored. TECTONIC SETTING OF SANDSTONE-MUDSTONE SUITES Middleton (1960) studied the chemistry of sandstones by K 2O/ Na2O ratios and found that eugeosynclinal greywackes were distinctive with K2O/ Na2O ratios <1, but samples from more stable settings have ratios >1. Crook (1974) divided greywackes into three classes and assigned each to a major plate tectonic environment. Crook's groups are: 1. Quartz-poor greywackes, with <15% framework quartz, average 58% volatile-free SiO2, and K2O/Na2O<<1. They are of basic volcanic provenance in magmatic island arcs. 2. Quartz-intermediate; 15-65% quartz, average 68-74% SiO2, and K2O/Na2O<1. Provenance is mixed, and rocks of this class are typical of evolved active continental margins. 3. Quartz-rich; >65% quartz, average 89% SiO2, and K2O/Na2O>1. They are deposited at passive continental margins and in plate interiors. Maynard et al., (1982) studied data from major tectonic settings and found that passive margin sediments were chemically distinct from those of the active settings. Among all sands from forearc basins of island arcs were distinctive. Studies show that compositions of the remaining active settings overlapped. ANCIENT SEDIMENTS AND THEIR TECTONIC SETTING Literature analysis of sandstones and argillites/shales from ancient sedimentary sequences of inferred tectonic setting can be used to establish a tectonic classification. Individual data may be used rather than averages so that trends can be highlighted. Most of the studies used include data for both sandstones and argillites, and some also give modal framework compositions. Several depositional settings are possible within different divisions (Roser and Korsch, 1986). The categories are: 1. Passive Continental Margin (PM): Mineralogically mature (quartz-rich) sediments are deposited in plate interiors at stable continental margins or intracratonic basins. This category is equivalent to the trailing edge tectonic setting of Maynard et al., (1982). Hence sediments in this category may be derived from stable continental areas and can be deposited in sites away from active plate boundaries.

2. Active Continental Margin (ACM): Quartz-intermediate sediments derived from tectonically active continental margins on or adjacent to active plate boundaries. Such sediments can be deposited at a complicated continental margin where both subduction and strike-slip processes are active. Hence this category includes complex active margins including material derived from continental margin magmatic arcs (and deposited in a variety of basin settings including trench, forearc, intraarc, and backarc) and material derived from uplifted areas associated with strike-slip faults and deposited in pull-apart basins. 3. Island Arc (ARC): Quartz-poor volcanogenic sediments derived from oceanic island arcs. Sediments derived from an andesitic island arc source may be deposited in forearc basin, and in a trench adjacent to an active volcanic arc are of this category. Hence sediments in this category may be derived from an island arc source and are deposited in a variety of settings including forearc, intraarc, and backarc basins and trenches. Care is needed while studying the tectonic setting of sediments deposited in basins related to active plate boundaries because these basins (trench, forearc, intra-arc, backarc) can be related to either a continental margin magmatic arc (ACM) or an island arc (Roser and Korsch, 1986; Armstrong and Verma, 2005). DISCUSSION Several studies have shown that the chemical compositions of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are significantly controlled by plate tectonic settings of their provenances and depositional basins, and as a result, the siliciclastic rocks from different tectonic settings posses terrain-specific geochemical signatures (Moosavirad et al., 2012 and references there in). To infer the tectonic setting of provenance of ancient siliciclastic sedimentary rocks, several rare earth element based discrimination diagrams have been proposed (Maynard et al. 1982; Bhatia, 1983; Moosavirad et al., 2012). Among the various tectonic setting discrimination diagrams, the major element based discrimination diagrams of Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch (1986) are widely used (Figure1). In the discrimination diagrams of Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch (1986) the bivariates, including discriminant functions, are based on immobile and variably mobile major elements, including Na2O and K2O. Van de Kamp and Leake (1985) observed variations in tectonic settings inferred from the fields proposed by Bhatia (1983). Armstrong and Verma (2005) tested the functioning of 6 major element based tectonic setting discrimination diagrams and found to yield inconsistent results. According to them, the tectonic discrimination fields shown in several major element based discrimination diagrams may not be fully representative of world-wide siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. Therefore, these diagrams must not be used to infer tectonic setting of ancient basins. There is still an urgent need of new and efficient discrimination diagrams in sedimentary geochemistry. CONCLUSIONS

The chemistry of fine-grained members of ancient sedimentary suites from differing tectonic settings is as distinctive as companion sands. The reflection of provenance in the chemistry allows effective discrimination into broad categories, although transitions between the environments are to be expected. Dat a for modern sediments dont fully support the model and the general discriminant fields proposed. But it reveals that sandmud pairs in forearc basin settings are distinctive from the other environments (PM, ACM). A large volume of data from terranes of well established tectonic setting and provenance offer further confirmation of the discriminant and the distinctive forearc compositions. REFERENCES Ahmedali, S. T., 1989. X-ray fluorescence analysis in the geological science: Advances in methodology. Geol. Assoc. Can., Short Course 7, 308 pp. Armstrong-Altrin, J. S., Verma, S. P., 2005. Critical evaluation of six tectonic setting discrimination diagrams using geochemical data of Neogene sediments from known tectonic settings. Sed. Geol. 177, 115129. Bhatia, M. R., 1983. Plate tectonics and geochemical composition of sandstones. J. Geol. 91, 611-627. Crook, K. A. W., 1974. Lithogenesis and geotectonics: the significance of compositional variation in flysch arenites (graywackes), in Dott, R. H., and Shaver, R. H., eds., Modern and ancient geosynclinal sedimentation: SEPM Spec. Pub. 19, 304-310. Jenner, G. J., Longerich, H. P., Jackson, S. E., 1990. ICP-MS a powerful tool for high precision trace-element analysis in earth sciences: evidence from analysis of selected U.S. G. S. reference samples. Chem. Geol. 83, 133148. Liu, S., Lin. G., Liu, Y., Zhou. Y., Gong. F., Yan. Y., 2007. Geochemistry of Middle OligocenePliocene sandstones from the Nanpu Sag, Bohai Bay Basin (Eastern China): Implications for provenance, weathering, and tectonic setting. Geochem. Jour. 41, 359378 Maynard, J. B., Valloni, R., and Yu, H. S., 1982. Composition of modern deep-sea sands from arc-related basins: in Leggett, J. K., ed., Trench-forearc geology: sedimentation and tectonics on modern and ancient active plate margins: Geol. Soc. London Spec. Pub. 10, 551-561. McLennan, S. M., 1989. Rare earth elements in sedimentary rocks: influence of provenance and sedimentary processes. Rev. Min. Geochem. 21,169 200. Middleton, G. V., 1960. Chemical composition of sandstones: Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 71, 1011-1026. Moosavirad, S. M., Janardhana ,M. R., Sethumadhav, M. S., Narasimha, K. N. P., 2012. Geochemistry of Lower Jurassic Sandstones of Shemshak Formation, Kerman Basin,

Central Iran: provenance, source weathering and tectonic setting. Geol. Soc. Ind. 79, 483-496 Roser, B. P., Korsch, R. J., 1986. Determination of tectonic setting of sandstonemudstone suites using SiO2 content and K2O/Na2O ratio. J. Geol. 94, 635650. Roser, B.P., Korsch, R.J.,1988. Provenance signatures of sandstone-mudstone suites determined using discriminants function analysis of major-element data. Chem. Geol. 67, 119-139. Sahraeyan, M., Bahrami, M., 2012. Geochemistry of Sandstones from the Aghajari Formation, Folded Zagros Zone, Southwestern Iran: Implication for Paleoweathering condition, Provenance, and Tectonic Setting. Int. J. App Sci., 4, 390-407. Siever, R., 1979. Plate-tectonic controls on diagenesis: J. Geol. 87, 127-155. Van de Kamp P. C., Leake B. E., 1985. Petrography and geochemistry of feldspathic and mafic sediments of the North-eastern Pacific margin. Trans R. Soc. Edinb. Earth Sci. 76, 411 49.

Figure1. Tectonic setting discrimination diagrams based on major element composition of sandstones. (a) (Fe2O3T + MgO) wt.% versusTiO2 wt.% diagram, (b) (Fe2O3T + MgO) wt.% versus Al2O3/SiO2, (c) (Fe2O3T + MgO) wt.% versus K2O/Na2O diagram, (d) Bivariate discriminant functions diagram (Bhatia, 1983).