The Human Body parts, Fungi, and Algae

Submitted by: Chaiwenson M. Bernales Grade 7 Competence

Submitted to: Mrs. Olivia Amores Date: Aug. 11, 2013

The Human Body parts

Introduction Man is the most intelligent and technologically advanced living thing on earth. By giving a brain, gift of speaking and a special body, nature has made human very special than all other animals. Most of mans major achievements have become possible only because of the special design and structure of his body. Man himself has not been able to construct more complex and more advanced mechanism than a human body till now. When we say that we know our body, most of the time we refer to the outer body. But it is very important to know and understand what is inside your body. This chapter will help you to get answers for questions like how many organs, systems are working inside our body, how do they function, what do they do etc. Objective In this lesson, we are going to understand what human anatomy is and what physiology is. We will learn about structure and function of a human body and important systems of a human body. Anatomy Anatomy is the science which deals with the study of normal structure, shape, size and location of various parts of the body. When the study relates to human body it is called human anatomy. For example, when we look at our body we can easily see that it has one face, two hands, two legs etc. and there is skin that completely covers the body. If you see inside the body, you will see that internally it is composed of various organs, blood, muscles, bones etc. So, in short, human anatomy is the study of structure of human body. There are two main levels in human anatomy: macroscopic level and microscopic level. In macroscopic level, structure of human body is studied as seen by our naked eyes. It is also called as Gross Anatomy. In microscopic level, structure of various organs and tissues of human body is studied under a microscope. It is known as Histology.

Physiology Physiology is a branch of biological science which deals with the study of functions of various organs of the living organism. That is why we have plant physiology, bacterial physiology, animal physiology, human physiology etc. Human physiology deals with the study of functioning of various organs in human body i.e. how each and every part of the body and body as a whole perform its function. It also includes interaction between our cells, organs, muscles with each other.

Introduction to the body as a whole Human being is a multi-cellular organism. The smallest functional unit of its body is cell. The cells of the body are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Groups of cells which have same physical characteristics tend to have similar functions. A large number of cells grouped together to perform same functions are called as tissues. An organ is a collection of various tissues to form a structure and to serve a specific function. An organ system consists of various organs which coordinately perform a major function of the body. Each system contributes to one or more of the vital functions of the body. However, because of specialization of cells, none of the systems can exist in isolation. To summarize above information, in our body there are various systems which work in coordination to perform important functions. Each system is composed of different organs which work together to perform a specific function. Each organ is made up of various tissues and different tissues have number of cells, which is the smallest functional unit of the body. Human Body Organ system Organs Tissues Cells In this chapter, we will study nine, important systems of human body in detail. These systems are: 1. Skeletal system 2. Muscular system 3. Digestive system 4. Respiratory system 5. Circulatory system 6. Excretory system 7. Endocrine system 8. Nervous system 9. Reproductive system

The Skeletal system What would happen if we didnt have any bones? We wouldnt be sitting, standing and walking around. We would look like a puddle of skin lying on the floor. These are the bones and joints which make us able to do all the physical activities. A new born human baby will have more than 300 bones. Over the time many bones fuse together leaving an adult with 206 bones. Bones perform to different functions. One function is to provide structure to the body, e.g. Backbone. And another one is to protect some delicate organs in the body, e.g. skull which protects brain, rib cage to protect heart and lungs. The skeletal system (also called as the Bony system) is a biological system which provides support to human body. It consists of bones and cartilage. Bones have great tensile strength, almost as high as that of cast iron. Joints give movements to the bones.

Functions of skeletal system The skeleton system performs following functions: 1. Gives hard framework to the body. 2. Gives shape and posture to the body. 4. Protects soft and delicate organs like heart, lungs, brain etc. 5. Stores calcium and other minerals necessary for functioning of the body. 6. Permits necessary movements and locomotion of the body.

Fig. 1-A - The Skeleton

Fig. 1-B - Joints of human body

Do you know? The longest bone in our body is the thigh bone, the femur. It is about 1/4th of our height. The smallest bone in our body is the stirrup bone in the ear which is about 1/10th of an inch.

The Muscular system Every move of our body is possible because of muscles. Whenever you bend, jump or leap, muscles contracts or get stretched accordingly. Muscles are made up of bundles or packages of cells and stretchable fiber like material. These fibers are made up of many small strands, known as fibrils. Each fiber is controlled by a nerve. Muscles always act in a group. There are two types of muscles in our body: voluntary muscles and involuntary muscles. Voluntary muscles are striated or skeletal muscles which can be consciously contracted while involuntary muscles contract at certain times or without any conscious at all time. Best example of involuntary muscles is our heart; we dont have to use our brain to tell it what to do, it just beats. There are three different types of muscle tissues in muscular system: Cardiac muscles, skeletal muscles and smooth muscles.

Do you know? There are a large number of muscles (about 600) that help in movement of our body. The muscles bring about movement and locomotion of various organs and parts of the body.
Cardiac muscles: These are the muscles of heart. They make the walls of the heart. These muscles are specialized involuntary muscles. Cardiac muscles are highly resistant to fatigue. Skeletal muscles: These are made up of long muscle fibers. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and facilitate the movement of our skeleton. Because of their appearance (strip-like markings) they are also known as striated muscles. These muscles

are controlled by our nervous system and so many times they are automatic. However we still can control these muscles through nervous impulses from our brains sending messages to these muscles. So these muscles are sometimes called voluntary muscles. Smooth muscles: These muscles are found in the urinary bladder, gallbladder, veins, arteries etc. Many of our internal organs, and especially whole digestive track is made up of smooth muscles. These muscles are involuntary muscles since they are controlled by our nervous system and hormones. It has slow, rhythmic contractions used in controlling internal organs such as moving the food along esophagus etc.

Fig. 2 Muscles of body

Functions: The main functions of muscles are: 1. They help in movement and locomotion of various organs and parts of the body. 2. They give shape to the body. 3. They provide protection to the internal organs of the body, for example - muscles of the abdomen form a strong muscular anterior wall of the abdominal cavity. 4. Muscles help in various important internal processes of the body like respiration, urination, circulation, changing facial expression etc. 5. Muscles store glycogen, which is used as energy during movements of the muscles.

The Digestive system To do any kind of work our body needs energy. This energy comes from the food that we eat. But this food is not in the form that body can use as nourishment. It has to be changed into smaller molecules of nutrients before it can be absorbed in the blood and carried to the cells throughout the body. It is done through a series of changes which release its constituent nutrients i.e. proteins are converted into amino acids, carbohydrates into starch and fats into fatty acid. These changes occur with the help of enzymes, which are secreted into the alimentary canal by special glands. Enzymes are chemical substances that causes, or speeds up a chemical change in other substances without itself being changed. The process of digestion can be defined as the breakdown of big and complex food particles into smaller and simpler form so that it is suitable for absorption.

Fig. 3 Organs of the digestive system Organs of the digestive system: Digestive system mainly consists of alimentary canal, which is a long tube like structure through which food passes. It begins at the mouth and terminates at the anus. Various organs of digestive system are: Mouth (food is taken in by mouth) Oesophagus (or food pipe)

Stomach (Digestion of food takes place with the help of gastric juice which is secreted from the stomach) Small intestine (Further breakdown or digestion of food takes place with the help Of bile and some enzymes Large intestine (The digested food particles are absorbed in the blood and some of the water and electrolytes are removed from the food) Rectum (The solid waste material is temporarily stored here) Anus (It is an opening from where waste materials are excreted out as faeces.)

Do you know?
In an average person, it takes 8 seconds for food to travel down the food pipe, 3-5 hours in small intestine and 3-4 days in the large intestine. Liver is the largest and heaviest internal organ of the body and weighs about 1.6 kilos. A healthy liver processes 720 liters of blood per day.

The Respiratory System Respiration means breathing. When we breathe, we inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. So, primary function of breathing or respiration is to provide oxygen to the body and take away carbon dioxide. The respiratory system provides the route through which oxygen which is present in the atmosphere, enters inside the body and carbon dioxide is excreted out from the body. The exchange of gases between the blood and the lungs is called external respiration and that between the blood and the cells is known as internal respiration.

Fig. 4 The respiratory system

Parts of the respiratory system are: Nose: It is the first respiratory organs and through which oxygen enters in the respiratory system.

Pharynx: is a tube like structure that lies behind the nose and mouth. Larynx: It is a small chamber situated in the region of neck. It is also known as voice box, since it helps to produce sound. It is also known as windpipe and is a continuation of the larynx. It extends downward and divides or bifurcates into the right and left bronchi, one bronchus going to each lung. Trachea filters the air we breathe in and pass it on to bronchi. The two bronchi enter into right and left lungs of either side. Inside the lungs, they further divide into many smaller bronchioles and finally into alveoli. Alveoli are tiny, spongy, air-filled sacs surrounded by capillaries. There are two lungs, one lying on each side of the midline in the thoracic cavity. They are cone-shaped. Each lung is covered by a layer called pleura which contains a fluid called pleural fluid. The core part of the respiration process is carried out in the lungs. The inhaled oxygen passes into alveoli and then diffuses into arterial blood through these capillaries.

Trachea:

Bronchi:

Lungs:

Veins, carrying impure blood, comes into alveoli and releases carbon dioxide which finally taken away by the process of exhalation. Diaphragm: It is a muscle which lies across the bottom of the chest cavity. When we inhale or breathe in, diaphragm contracts and pull the air into the lungs.

Do you know?
300 million alveoli may be found in a pair of human lungs. In human beings, right lung is larger than left lung to accommodate the heart. Why do we yawn? It happens when the brain detects low oxygen levels in lungs and it triggers back the response to the body, so that it can intake large amounts of oxygen.

The Circulatory System The system which helps the circulation of blood around the body is called as circulatory system. The circulatory or the blood circulatory system consists of the heart, which acts as a pump and the blood vessels through which the blood circulates. The main blood vessels are: Arteries, veins and capillaries. Arteries are the blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Veins are the blood vessels that transport blood to the heart. The smallest arterioles break up into a number of minute vessels called capillaries. Blood circulation of the body begins from the heart. Oxygen rich blood starts travelling from left ventricle of heart and goes into aorta, the biggest artery in the body. It then goes to brain and all other parts of the body via arteries. Functioning of all the cells in our body depends on good supply of oxygen rich blood. The blood passes from the right side of the heart to the left side via the lungs. The right side of the heart deals with deoxygenated or impure blood. The left side of the heart deals with oxygenated or pure blood. Both atria contract at the same time, followed by the simultaneous contraction of both ventricles.

Fig. 5 The heart

Heart The heart is a cone-shaped hollow muscular organ. It is situated in the thoracic cavity in between the lungs, a little more to the left than the right. Interior of the heart is divided into a right and left side by the septum, so that blood cannot cross the septum from one side to the other. Each side is further divided by an atrioventricular valve into an upper chamber, the atrium and a lower chamber, the ventricle. Hence the human heart has four chambers viz. right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium and left ventricle. The size and shape of our heart is like our own fist. The main function of the heart is to maintain a constant circulation of blood throughout the body. The Excretory System (or the urinary system)

Do you know? The heart beats around 3 billion times in the average person's life. About 8 million blood cells die in the human body every second, and the same number of cells are born each second. Within a tiny droplet of blood, there are some 5 million red blood cells. It takes about 20 seconds for a red blood cell to circle the whole body. Red blood cells make approximately 250,000 round trips of the body before returning to the bone marrow, where they were born, to die. The heart beat rate of an adult person ranges from 70 to 80 heart beats per minute. .

The excretory system is a system that performs the function of excretion or process of discharging wastes. All plants and animals produce harmful substances due to a

number of metabolic activities occurring in their body. The waste material formed by the body must be removed. Hence, the process of excretion can be defined as the elimination of wastes from the body which otherwise are toxic if retained within the system. The kidney, large intestine, skin, lungs and the liver do the work of removing the waste material out of the body.

Fig. 6 The urinary system The excretory or urinary system consists of following parts: Kidneys Every human being has two kidneys which helps in the formation of urine. Kidneys are bean-shaped organs, present on the posterior abdominal wall, one on each side of the vertebral column. Each kidney is made up of numerous (about 1 million) functional units, the nephrons. Blood is pumped from the heart to the kidneys to be cleaned. Kidneys act as a filter for the blood. Waste product from the blood is taken out in the kidneys and goes to urethra while cleaned blood leaves kidneys and travels throughout the body. Ureters These are two tubes which convey the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Urinary bladder It is an elastic distensible bag where urine is collected and is temporarily stored. It can hold between one half to two cups of urine before it needs to be emptied. Urethra It is an opening through which urine is discharged from the urinary bladder to the exterior.

Functions of the excretory system:

1. It excretes waste products from the body for example: ammonia, urea and uric acid. 2. It helps in the maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance. 3. It helps to maintain the normal pH of blood and other fluids. 4. It also helps to maintain the optimum concentration of certain constituents of blood like calcium. 5. It maintains the osmotic pressure in blood and tissues.

The Endocrine System

Fig. 7 Position of endocrine glands in the body The endocrine system consists of various glands that are widely separated from each other. These glands are commonly known as the ductless glands because the hormones they secrete pass directly from the cells into the blood. (Endocrine glands are different from that of exocrine glands which releases their secretion in specific areas. For ex. Sweat and salivary glands releases their secretion on the skin or inside the mouth respectively.) The ductless glands secrete many hormones which play a vital role in the normal functioning of the body. Hormones are chemicals through which the endocrine

system controls and coordinates body functions. Hormone levels can be influenced by factors like stress, infection etc. Our body cannot work and grow normally without hormones. Hormones are specific substance secreted by a group of specialized cells, called as endocrine glands. A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes chemicals. A gland selects and removes material from the blood, processes them and secretes the finished product for use somewhere in the body. The endocrine system consists of following glands: Pituitary gland It is located on the ventral side of the brain. It is known as the master gland of the body because it secretes maximum number of hormones and also controls the secretion of hormones secreted by other glands. Following are some of the important hormones secreted by pituitary gland: Growth hormone which stimulates growth of bones and other body tissues. Prolactin which activates milk production process in breastfeeding women. Thyrotropin which stimulates thyroid glands to produce thyroid hormone. Corticotropin which stimulates adrenal gland. Apart from these hormones, pituitary gland secretes hormones which are important to female menstrual cycle, pregnancy, birth etc. It also secretes oxytocin which triggers the contraction of the uterus that occur during labor. In addition to this, pituitary gland secretes hormones which help control body water balance. Thyroid gland It is found in the neck region, at the base of larynx. It secretes thyroxin which helps in normal development of the body. Thyroid hormone regulate metabolism of the body, therefore body temperature and weight. It contains iodine. If a person lacks iodine in his/her diet, the thyroid cannot make hormones, causing a deficiency. Consumption of iodized salt can solve the problem. Parathyroid glands They are four, small oval shaped bodies, two on each side of thyroid glands. They release parathyroid hormone which regulates the calcium level in the blood. Adrenal glands These are two small glands situated on the top of each kidney. These glands have two parts which secrete set of hormones for different purpose. The outer part is called cortex while the inner part is called medulla. Cortex produces hormones which regulate salt and water balance in the body, bodys response to stress, immune system, sexual development and function. Medulla produces hormones such as epinephrine which increases blood pressure and heart rate when the body experiences stress.

Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) - In addition to other hormones, pancreas secrete two important hormones: insulin and glucagon. They work together to maintain normal or steady sugar level in the blood. Pineal gland and Gonads Pineal gland is situated in the brain near the pituitary gland. It secretes hormone which regulates sleep cycle. Gonads are the main source of sex hormones. Male gonads, located in the scrotum, secrete hormones called androgens which regulates the body changes associated with sexual development. Female gonads, the ovaries, are located in the pelvis. They produce eggs and secrete female hormone, estrogen and progesterone.

The Nervous System Nervous system is a system which contains a network of neurons (special cells) that coordinate actions of the body by transmitting signals. It consists of a large number of units called neurons. Neurons are simply referred as nerves.

Fig. 8 Nervous system showing brain in detail

Fig. 9 Nervous system (brain and spinal cord) Nervous system mainly consists of three parts1. Central Nervous System (CNS) 2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 3. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Central Nervous System It consists of the brain and the spinal cord. They act as the main processing center of the whole nervous system. Entire CNS is protected and surrounded by membranes called as meninges. These cavities or the space between the membranes and the brain or spinal cord are filled with a clear fluid called cerebrospinal fluid or CSF. Central nervous system is responsible for receiving and interpreting signals from the peripheral nervous system and sending out the signals to it.

Peripheral Nervous System Peripheral nervous system acts as a connector to the CNS. It consists of the nerves that arise from brain and spinal cord. Nerves are solid, white and thread like structure. There are mainly there types of nerves- sensory, motor and mixed nerves. The peripheral nervous system consists of31 pairs of spinal nerves (arising from the spinal cord) 12 pairs of cranial nerves (arising from the brain)

Autonomic Nervous System The Automatic nervous system controls the functions of the body carried out automatically, which are initiated in the brain. For example - maintenance of blood pressure, secretion of glands. Nervous system is mainly concerned with the following functions1. It controls and regulates various activities of the organs and the organism as a whole. For example, muscular contraction, rate of respiration, heartbeat, sense of vision, hearing, pain etc. 2. It coordinates the working of various glands and tissues of the body; thus regulating the internal environment of the body. 3. It helps the organism to react to the external environmental fluctuations.

Do you know? An average adult male brain weighs about 1375 grams. An average adult female brain is about 1275 grams. There are about 13, 500,00 neurons in the human spinal cord.

The Reproductive System The ability to reproduce is one of the properties that distinguish living beings from nonliving matter. The reproductive system is a system of organs within an organism which work together for the purpose of reproduction of more organisms like themselves. Human reproduction is a sexual reproduction that takes place as internal fertilization. In human beings the reproductive organs of the male and the female differ anatomically and physiologically. Both males and females produce specialized reproductive cells known as gametes, containing genetic material-genes and chromosomes. Like any other organisms, humans too pass along certain characteristics to the next generation through genes. These genes make children similar to other members in their family and at the same time each child unique. These genes come from the fathers sperm and the mothers egg which are produced by the male and female reproductive systems.

Female reproductive system A human female reproductive system consists of a series of organs primarily located inside the body and around the pelvic region of a female that contribute towards the reproductive process.

Fig. 10 Female reproductive organs The internal organs of a female reproductive system lie in the pelvic cavity and consist of following parts: Vagina, which acts as the receptacle for sperms from male. Uterus, which holds the developing fetus. Two fallopian or uterine tubes which extend from the sides of the uterus. Two ovaries (female sex glands) which produce the female's ova. Breasts are located in the chest region. They play an important role in reproductive functioning such as breast feeding. Important sexual hormones of females include estrogen and progesterone.

Male reproductive system The primary function of a male reproductive system is to produce spermatozoa for fertilization of the ovum.

Fig. 11 Male reproductive organs Main reproductive organs of a male are: Penis - It is a male sex organ for sexual intercourse. Scrotum - It contains the testes. Testes- Production of sperm and sexual hormone takes place in testes. Epididymis- Development and storage of sperms takes place in epididymis. Prostrate- Nourishment of sperm takes place with the help of prostate fluid. Urethra- It is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside the body. In addition, it ejects semen when the male reaches orgasm. An important sexual hormone of males is testosterone.

Summary The human body is a completely natural yet very advanced and complex mechanism. It is one of the best machines ever created. Just like different departments in any big company, the work of the body has been distributed to different systems. Under the powerful control of the brain, all the systems co-operate, supplement each other, and work effectively. It will be helpful to know and understand the working of each system in order to be healthy and even to improve its working.

References: www.wikipedia.com http://humanorgans.org http://www.britannica.com/ and all other topic related websites.

Fungi
Fungi can be single celled or very complex multicellular organisms. They are found in just about any habitat but most live on the land, mainly in soil or on plant material rather than in sea or fresh water. A group called the decomposers grows in the soil or on dead plant matter where they play an important role in the cycling of carbon and other elements. Some are parasites of plants causing diseases such as mildews, rusts, scabs or canker. In crops fungal diseases can lead to significant monetary loss for the farmer. A very small number of fungi cause diseases in animals. In humans these include skin diseases such as athletes foot, ringworm and thrush.

Types of fungi Fungi are subdivided on the basis of their life cycles, the presence or structure of their fruiting body and the arrangement of and type of spores (reproductive or distributional cells) they produce. The three major groups of fungi are:

multicellular filamentous moulds

Macroscopic filamentous fungi that form large fruiting bodies. Sometimes the group is referred to as mushrooms, but the mushroom is just the part of the fungus we see above ground which is also known as the fruiting body. single celled microscopic yeasts

Multicellular filamentous moulds Moulds are made up of very fine threads (hyphae). Hyphae grow at the tip and divide repeatedly along their length creating long and branching chains. The hyphae keep growing and intertwining until they form a network of threads called a mycelium. Digestive enzymes are secreted from the hyphal tip. These enzymes break down the organic matter found in the soil into smaller molecules which are used by the fungus as food. Some of the hyphal branches grow into the air and spores form on these aerial branches. Spores are specialized structures with a protective coat that shields them from harsh environmental conditions such as drying out and high temperatures. They are so small that between 500 1000 could fit on a pin head. Spores are similar to seeds as they enable the fungus to reproduce. Wind, rain or insects spread spores. They eventually land in new habitats and if conditions are right, they start to grow and produce new hyphae. As fungi cant move they use spores to find a new environment where there are fewer competing organisms. Macroscopic filamentous fungi Macroscopic filamentous fungi also grow by producing a mycelium below ground. They differ from moulds because they produce visible fruiting bodies (commonly known as mushrooms or toadstools) that hold the spores. The fruiting body is made up of tightly packed hyphae which divide to produce the different parts of the fungal structure, for example the cap and the stem. Gills underneath the cap are covered with spores and a 10 cm diameter cap can produce up to 100 million spores per hour. Yeasts Yeasts are small, lemon-shaped single cells that are about the same size as red blood cells. They multiply by budding a daughter cell off from the original parent cell. Scars

can be seen on the surface of the yeast cell where buds have broken off. Yeasts such as Saccharomyces, play an important role in the production of bread and in brewing. Yeasts are also one of the most widely used model organisms for genetic studies, for example in cancer research. Other species of yeast such as Candida are opportunistic pathogens and cause infections in individuals who do not have a healthy immune system.

Algae
Algae can exist as single a cell, an example of which is Chlamydomonas, or joined together in chains like Spirogyra or made up of many cells, for instance Rhodymenia (red seaweed).

Most algae live in fresh or sea water where they can either be free-floating (planktonic) or attached to the bottom. Some algae can grow on rocks, soil or vegetation as long as there is enough moisture. A few algae form very close partnerships with fungi to form lichens. Unusual algal habitats are the hairs of the South American Sloth and Polar bears. All algae contain a pigment called chlorophyll a (other types of chlorophyll such as b, c and / or d may also be present) and they make their own food by photosynthesis. The chlorophyll is contained in the chloroplasts and gives many algae their green appearance. However some algae appear brown, yellow or red because in addition to chlorophylls they have other accessory pigments that camouflage the green colour.

Diatoms a type of algae, are found floating in the phytoplankton of the seas. Their cell walls contain a hard substance called silica. When the diatoms die they sink to the floor. Their soft parts decay and the silica cell wall remains. Over time the pressure of the seawater pushes the silica together to form one large layer. This silica is mined from the seabed, crushed and used in abrasives and polishes such as toothpaste.