Chapter 7

Golonka, J., 2007, Geodynamic evolution of the South Caspian Basin, in P. O. Yilmaz and G. H. Isaksen, editors, Oil and gas of the Greater Caspian area: AAPG Studies in Geology 55, p. 17 41.

Geodynamic Evolution of the South Caspian Basin

Jan Golonka
AGH University of Science and Technology, Krako w, Poland

ABSTRACT he South Caspian Basin was formed as a result of the interaction of the Eurasia, India, Arabia, and numerous microplates starting from the Triassic. During the Late TriassicEarly Jurassic, several microplates were sutured to the Eurasian margin, closing the Paleotethys Ocean. A JurassicCretaceous north-dipping subduction was developed along this new continental margin south of the Pontides, Trans-Caucasus, and Iranian plates. This subduction zone trench-pulling effect caused rifting, creating the back-arc basin of the Greater Caucasusproto-South Caspian Sea, which achieved a maximum width during the Late Cretaceousearly Paleogene. During the Eocene, the Lesser Caucasus, Sanandaj-Sirjan, and Makran plates were sutured to Trans-CaucasusTaleshSouth CaspianLut system. The subduction zone jumped to the Scythian-Turan margin. The South Caspian underwent reorganization during the OligoceneNeogene. Northward movement of the South Caspian microcontinent (SCM) resulted in rifting between SCM and Alborz plate. The southwestern part of the South Caspian Basin was reopened, whereas the northwestern part was gradually reduced in size. The source rocks of the Maikop Formation were deposited in the South Caspian Basin during the Oligoceneearly Miocene. The collision of India and the Lut plate with Eurasia caused the deformation of Central Asia and created a system of northwestsoutheast wrench faults. The remnants of the JurassicCretaceous back-arc system oceanic and attenuated crust, as well as Tertiary oceanic and attenuated crust, were locked between adjacent continental plates and orogenic systems. Thick molasse-type sediments that accumulated during the PlioceneQuaternary provided reservoir rocks and contributed to the burial and maturation of source rocks.

INTRODUCTION
Sixteen time-interval maps were constructed that depict the plate-tectonic configuration, paleogeography, and lithofacies for the circum-Caspian region
Copyright n2007 by The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. DOI:10.1306/1205844St551463

and adjacent areas from the Early Triassic to the Neogene. These maps were derived from my contribution to the Mobil projects, which encompassed 32 global Phanerozoic paleoenvironment and lithofacies maps aimed to evaluate petroleum systems in time and space.

17

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The presented version of circum-Caspian regional maps was finalized in 1999 2000 at the Institute of Geological Sciences, Jagiellonian University. The aim of this paper is to provide the platetectonic evolution and position of the major crustal elements of the area in the global framework and to show the relationship between the geodynamic evolution of the area and the development of components of petroleum systems. Therefore, I restricted the number of plates and terranes modeled, trying to use the existing information and degree of certainty. I tried to apply geometric and kinematic principles, using computer technology, to model interrelations between tectonic components of the circum-Caspian area. This general framework will provide a basis for the future integration of the local tectonics.

MAPPING METHODOLOGY
The maps were constructed using the following defined steps: 1) construction of the base maps depicting plate boundaries (sutures), plate position at the specific time, and outline of present-day using the platetectonic model 2) review of existing global and regional paleogeographic maps 3) posting of generalized facies and paleoenvironment database information on base maps 4) interpretation and final assembly of computer map files The maps were constructed using a plate-tectonic model that describes the relative motions between approximately 300 plates and terranes. This model was constructed using PLATES and PALEOMAP software (see Golonka et al., 1994; Golonka and Ford, 2000; Golonka et al., 2000), which integrate computer graphics and data-management technology with a highly structured and quantitative description of tectonic relationships. The heart of this program is the rotation file, which is constantly updated, as new paleomagnetic data become available. Hot-spot volcanics serve as reference points for the calculation of paleolongitudes (Golonka and Bocharova, 2000). Magnetic data have been used to define paleolatitudinal position of continents and rotation of plates (see, e.g., Westphal et al., 1984; Bazhenov et al., 1991; Besse and Courtillot, 1991; Van der Voo, 1993). Ophiolites and deep-water sediments mark paleo-oceans, which were subducted and included into fold belts.

Information from several general and regional paleogeographic papers was filtered and used (e.g., Vinogradov, 1968a, b; Davouzadeh and Schmidt, 1984; Ronov et al., 1984, 1989; Dercourt et al., 1984, 1993; Vakhrameev, 1987; Zonenshain et al., 1990; Alekseev et al., 1991; Stampfli et al., 1991; Popov et al., 1993; Sengo r and Natalin, 1996; Bagirov et al., 1997; Institute of Tectonics of Lithospheric Plates, 1997; Robertson, 1998; Golonka and Ford, 2000). I have also used the unpublished maps and databases from the PALEOMAP group (University of Texas at Arlington), PLATES group (University of Texas at Austin), University of Chicago, Institute of Tectonics of Lithospheric Plates in Moscow, Robertson Research in Llandudno, Wales, and the Cambridge Arctic Shelf Programme. The plate and terrane separation was based on the PALEOMAP system (see Scotese and Lanford, 1995), with modifications in the Tethys area (Golonka and Gahagan, 1997; Golonka et al., 2000). The calculated paleolatitudes and paleolongitudes were used to generate computer maps in the Microstation design format using the equal-area Molweide projection.

MAP DISCUSSSION PermianTriassic

Many of the continental collisions, which began in the Carboniferous, reached maturity in the Early Permian. A major part of Pangea was assembled, and the new supercontinent, ringed by subduction zones, moved steadily northward. The formation of Laurasia reached a main phase, with the suturing of Kazakhstan and Siberia with Laurussia (Ziegler, 1989; Zonenshain et al., 1990; Nikishin et al., 1996). Carboniferous earliest Permian rifting of the Cimmerian plates (see Dercourt et al., 1993; Golonka et al., 1994; Sengo r and Natalin, 1996) from Gondwana turned into drifting during the Permian, marking the inception of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. The Scythian-Turan platform was formed. The Scythian-Turan platform is a name used by Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) geoscientists to describe the terrane accreted to Eurasia during the late Paleozoic Hercynian orogenies between Ukraine and Afghanistan. The North Caspian (Peri-Caspian) Basin constitutes the boundary between the Scythian and Turan parts of the platform (e.g., Zonenshain et al., 1990). During the Early Triassic (Figure 1), an active subduction existed along the northern Paleotethys convergent margins (Kazmin, 1991; Stampfli et al., 1991; Dercourt et al., 1993; Ricou, 1996). The maker block

Geodynamic Evolution of the South Caspian Basin / 19

was accreted in the Caucasus area, as was the Kurgovat microcontinent in the Pamir (Zonenshain et al., 1990). The subduction zone along the Paleotethys margin produced the early Cimmerian volcanic arc along the southern margin of Eurasia and caused back-arc rifting in the proto-Black Sea area and along the margins of Scythian-Turan platform (Kazmin, 1990, 1991; Zonenshain et al., 1990). The Tauric basin was formed between the Pontides and the Dobrogea Crimea segment of the Scythian platform.

Late Triassic
In the Late Triassic (Figure 2), the Paleotethys Ocean continued subducting under the southern margin of Eurasia. In the western Tethys area, several blocks of the Cimmerian provenance (Sengo r, 1984; Sengo r and Natalin, 1996) collided with the Eurasian margin in the so-called early Cimmerian orogeny. Trans-Caucasus, TaleshAlborz (western and central Iran), and the South Caspian microcontinent block collided with the Scythian-Turan margin of the Eurasian continent at an earlier time (Carnian), whereas the Lut block, Herat, and North Pamir collided with the Turan platform at a later phase (Zonenshain et al., 1990; Kazmin, 1991; V. G. Kazmin, 1997, personal communication). During the Late Triassic, the older PermianTriassic rifts turned into oceanic and aulacogenic basins, which facilitated the establishment of seaways in the southern Scythian-Turan platform. Marine deposits have been identified in Crimea, Fore-Caucasus, Manych, and Mangyshlak and in western and southern Turkmenia (Dercourt et al., 1993; Gaetani et al., 1998). The northern part of the Scythian-Turan plate received terrestrial sedimentation or was in a nondepositional environment. The collision of the microplates with the southern margin of Eurasia resulted in the compressional events that were recorded in the major deformation of the PermianTriassic deposits, the formation of the Mangyshlak and BadkhyzKarabil fold zones (Zonenshain et al., 1990; Gaetani et al., 1998), and the general uplift of the Fore-Caucasus and middle Asia regions.

EarlyMiddle Jurassic
During the latest Triassic Early Jurassic, the Lut, Farah, and southern Pamir microcontinents collided with Eurasia and were sutured to the Turan platform. The compressional events were recorded in the southern Kopet Dagh (Aghdarband) area in northwestern Iran (Baud and Stampfli, 1991; Lyberis and Manby, 1999), in the Herat area in Afghanistan, and in the Pamir Mountains (Zonenshain et al., 1990) between CIS, Afghanistan, and western China (Tarim).

The remnants of Paleo-Tethys still existed in the Early Jurassic (Figure 3), between the Tarim and Qiangtang microcontinents. Continued sea-floor spreading occurred within the Neotethys. Advanced sea-floor spreading occurred between the Gondwanian margin and the Helmand and Lhasa blocks (Golonka et al., 1996). At this time, the Lhasa plate (Sengo r, 1984; Dercourt et al., 1993; Metcalfe, 1994; Ricou, 1996; Sengo r and Natalin, 1996; Yin and Nie, 1996) drifted away from Gondwana. The Pelagonian plate, Kirsehir, and Sakarya (Robertson et al., 1991, 1996), and perhaps, the Lesser CaucasusSanandajSirjan plate (Adamia, 1991; Golonka and Gahagan, 1997; Golonka et al., 2000), were drifting off the Apulia Taurus Arabia margin. The Neo-Tethys Ocean was divided into the northern and southern branches. The northern Sevan-Akera-Qaradagh Ocean was subducting under the western part of the ScythianTuran platform. The southern Pindos ocean (named after the Pindos Mountains in Greece; Robertson et al., 1991, 1996) was spreading between the Gondwanian margin and a series of microplates. After the Late Triassic Early Jurassic compression, the rifting regime was reestablished within the Scythian-Turan platform, between the eastern Black Sea and western Turkmenia and continued through the Middle Jurassic (Figure 4). Most of the former rift systems that had developed during the Late Permian Triassic were reactivated, and new rift systems originated. In the western and central part of the platform, the EarlyMiddle Jurassic rifting primarily concentrated in the Greater Caucasus Basin. Rifting somewhat influenced the Indol-Kuban basin, and the Terek Caspian trough developed as a subsidiary rift of the Greater Caucasus rift system (Adamia, 1991; Sobornov, 1994). In the eastern part of the ScythianTuran platform, the Early Middle Jurassic rifting intensely influenced the Amu Darya and AfghanTadjik regions (Clarke, 1994). Lower Middle Jurassic deposits in the ScythianTuran platform are represented by sandy-clayey coalbearing formations, which unconformably overlie Paleozoic and Mesozoic sequences. The deltas with coal-bearing deposits were formed on the northern margins of the Alborz plate (Berberian, 1983). The epicontinental sea with carbonate deposits covered the Lut block and the southern margin of Talesh Alborz blocks. In the Middle Jurassic Aalenian, the Pontides plates (Pontides) collided with the southern margin of Eurasia. The compressional event related to this collision continued throughout the Bathonian and is documented

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FIGURE 1. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during Early Triassic; plates position at 237 Ma.
The boxed legend is the legend to Figures 1 16. Qualifiers: C = coal; E = evaporite; G = glauconite; P = phosphoric; R = red beds; V = volcanics. Abbreviations of ocean and plate names: AC = Alborz Caspian Basin; Ag = Aghdarband (southern Kopet Dagh); Al = Alborz; Ba = Baluchistan; BS = Black Sea; CI = central Iran accretionary complex; Ch = Cheleken basin; EA = eastern Anatolian accretionary complex; EM = eastern Mediterranean; EP = eastern Pontides; Fa = Farah; GC = Greater Caucasus; GCS = Greater Caucasus proto-South Caspian Sea (Ocean); He = Heart; Hm = Helmand; KD = Kopet Dagh; Ko = Kohistan; Ki = Kirsehir; La = Ladakh; LC = Lesser Caucasus; Lh = Lhasa; Ma = Makran; NP = North Pamir; PA = Pakistan; Pe = Pelagonian plate; Pi = Pindos ocean; Qa = Qiangtang; Sa = Sakarya; SAQ = SevanAkera-Qaradagh Ocean; SCM = South Caspian microcontinent; Sh = Shatski rise; Si = Sistan ocean; SP = South Pamir; SS = Sanandaj Sirjan; SWC = South Western/Kura Caspian Basin; Ta = Taurus terrane; Tl = Talysh; Tm = Tarim; Tr = Trans-Caucasus; WP = western Pontides; Wt = west Turkmen Caspian Basin.

by pre-Bajocian and pre-Callovian deformations in Crimea and the western Fore-Caucasus (Zonenshain et al., 1990).

From the Middle Jurassic Bajocian, sedimentary basins in the Caucasus Caspian west Turkmenistan area underwent postrift subsidence with marine clastic

Geodynamic Evolution of the South Caspian Basin / 21

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FIGURE 2. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the Late Triassic; plates position at 225 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

deposits. The fluviolacustrine and lacustrine clays and sandstones were deposited in the southern part of the Turan platform. Shoulder uplift and deformation accompanied the postrift and pre-back-arc spreading.

Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous

During the Callovian Oxfordian, the ScythianTuran platform was primarily an isolated shelf containing a series of relatively deep troughs. Postrift subsidence of sedimentary basins, which had started

within the platform in the Middle Jurassic Bajocian, continued and was accompanied by a global rise of the sea level (Figure 5). The Helmand plate approached Central Asia (Otto et al., 1997). The eastern part of the northern branch of Neotethys narrowed significantly and began to close. A new subduction zone began to develop south of the Lhasa plate. The collision of the Lhasa block with Asia continued (Metcalfe, 1994; Ricou, 1996). According to Yin and Nie (1996), these events occurred

Geodynamic Evolution of the South Caspian Basin / 23

FIGURE 3. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the Early Jurassic; plates position at 195 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

in the Late Jurassic. According to Metcalfe (1994), the collision of Lhasa and Qiangtang occurred along the Banggong Suture, around the JurassicCretaceous boundary. The collision of the Helmand (Afghanistan) with the Turan platform and South Pamir, Karakorum, and Lhasa plates occurred approximately about the same time (Otto et al., 1997). The eastern part of the northern branch of Neotethys was closed. The tectonic setting changed in the Kimmeridgian Tithonian, when the Turan platform underwent

general uplift as a result of the collision of the southcentral Afghanistan (Helmand) and Qiangtang microcontinents with the southern edge of Eurasia. The subduction trench pulling effect along the southern margin of East Pontides, Trans-Caucasus, Talesh, and Alborz plates formed the Greater Caucasus protoCaspian back-arc basin underlain by the oceanic crust (Rezanov and Chamo, 1969; Zonenshain and Le Pichon, 1986; Zonenshain et al., 1990; Bazhenov et al., 1991; Nadirov et al., 1997).

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FIGURE 4. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the Middle Jurassic; plates position at 166 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

The depositional environment in the ScythianTuran platform during the Callovian Oxfordian (Figure 5) was favorable for the accumulation of oilprone source rocks in the Indol-Kuban, east Manych, Mangyshlak, TerekCaspian, Murghab, AfghanTadjik (Polukhtovich et al., 1982; Clarke, 1994; Sagers, 1994), and possibly, the proto-South Caspian Basins. The configuration of troughs and uplifted sedimentary platforms created conditions for restricted seawater circulation and anoxic depositional environments.

The Callovian section in the basins is composed of marine mudstones and shales with lenses of organic limestone and sandstone. In the Indol-Kuban, Terek Caspian, Murghab, Kopet Dagh, and Afghan-Tadjik basins, the Oxfordian section primarily consists of organic carbonates and carbonate muds (Clarke, 1994; Kuznetsov, 1994; Sagers, 1994; Lasemi, 1995). Organicrich shales accumulated in deeper troughs, which were surrounded by barrier reefs. In the east Manych and Mangyshlak basins, which were located in the inner

Geodynamic Evolution of the South Caspian Basin / 25

FIGURE 5. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the Late Jurassic; plates position at 152 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

part of the Scythian-Turan shelf zone, Oxfordian deposits consist of organic-rich shales, mudstones, siltstones, and marls. A carbonate platform developed to the south of the east Manych and Mangyshlak basin, at the northern margin of the Greater Caucasus South Caspian deep-water basin. Kimmeridgian Tithonian time was manifested by evaporite sedimentation over the uplifted southern margin of the Scythian-Turan platform. Evaporites form a perfect regional seal over Callovian Oxfordian reservoirs and provide exceptionally

favorable conditions for preservation of hydrocarbon accumulations. During the Tithonian Berriasian (Figure 6), rifting started along the northern and eastern margin of the Lut block. This rifting was followed by seafloor spreading during the Barremian Hauterivian (Figure 7) and formation by the Albian of the Sistan ocean (Figure 8). This ocean is known from the ophiolites in northern Iran (Ricou, 1996; Sengo r and Natalin, 1996). Perhaps all intra-Iranian basins were open at that time (Dercourt et al., 1984).

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FIGURE 6. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the latest Late Jurassic earliest Lower Cretaceous; plates position at 140 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

A rift (Figure 7) developed between the western Pontides and adjacent parts of Ukraine in southeastern Europe (Go ru r, 1988). By the Albian (Figure 8), the opening of the western Black Sea occurred by rifting and drifting of the western-central Pontides away from the Moesian and Scythian platform of Eurasia (Kazmin 1990; Robinson et al., 1996; Banks and Robinson, 1997; V. G. Kazmin, 1997, personal communication). On the southern Neotethyan margin, the opening of the central Atlantic caused the eastward movement of the

African Arabian plate. The Taurus (southern Turkey) plate was rifted from AfricaArabia (Figures 7, 8) during the reopening of the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Robertson, 1998; Golonka et al., 2000).

Late CretaceousEocene
From the Early Cretaceous to the Paleocene, the Scythian-Turan platform was characterized by a relatively stable tectonic setting and was not influenced

Geodynamic Evolution of the South Caspian Basin / 27

FIGURE 7. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the Hauterivian Barremian; plates position at 130 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

regionally by either compressional or extensional events. The Neo-Tethys Ocean was subducting under the southern Eurasian margin. Spreading continued in the Greater Caucasus proto-Caspian Ocean (Zonenshain and Le Pichon, 1986; Golonka, 2000). The Jurassic Greater Caucasus proto-Caspian and Cretaceous western Black Sea oceanic basins separated subduction-related volcanic arcs, which successively developed along the Neotethys northern margin from the Scythian-Turan platform. The Greater Caucasus

proto-Caspian Ocean was connected with the Sistan ocean, which separated Lut from Afghanistan and Kopet-Dagh area (Figure 9). Deep-water seaways connected these basins to the Tethys Ocean. The Greater Caucasus Ocean achieved the maximum width, approximately 400 600 km (250 370 mi), during the Late Cretaceous. The opening of the South Atlantic Ocean caused the drift and counterclockwise rotation of Africa. The Arabian margin of the AfricanArabian plate moved

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FIGURE 8. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the latest upper Aptian middle Cenomanian; plates position at 112 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

northeastward, and the western Neotethys narrowed. The northeastward movement of India caused the narrowing of the eastern Neotethys (Golonka et al., 1994). This reversed the geotectonic process. After reaching the maximum dispersion phase, the continents began to slowly assemble in a new configuration. The regime between the Arabian margin and the Sanandaj Sirjan plate changed from passive to convergent (Guiraud and Bellion, 1996; Ricou, 1996; Sengo r and Natalin, 1996). The north-dipping subduc-

tion under the SanandajSirjan plate is marked on the CenomanianCampanian time slice (Figure 9), but it is also possible it has been active since the Jurassic. Africa was moving northward, closing the gap between its northern margin and the Taurus plate and causing a cessation (Campanian time) of spreading in the east Mediterranean (Ricou, 1996; Sengo r and Natalin, 1996). During the Late CretaceousPaleocene (Figure 10), the Kirsehir and Sakarya plates collided with Pontides (Yilmaz et al., 1997). This collision closed

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FIGURE 9. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the late Cenomanian middle Campanian; plates position at 90 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

the northern branch of the Neotethys. The oceanic basins between Taurus and Kirsehir remained open. The northward movement of the Shatski terrane began the closing of the proto-Black Sea (Robinson et al., 1996; V. G. Kazmin, 1997, personal communication). Lesser Caucasus approached the Trans-Caucasus and Talesh area. The northeastward movement of the Arabian plate and the Sanandaj Sirjan terrane significantly reduced and partly closed the Sevan-AkeraQaradagh Ocean. At the same time, obduction (Oman

ophiolites, among others) occurred on the northeastern margins of the Arabian plate. During the Eocene (Figure 11), Lesser Caucasus, Sanandaj Sirjan, and Makran plates were sutured to the Trans-Caucasus Talesh South Caspian Lut system (Adamia, 1991; Golonka, 1999). The subduction zone was locked and jumped to the Scythian-Turan margin (Golonka, 2000). The western segment of this subduction was located along the northern margin of the eastern Black Sea, on the Greater Caucasus area,

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FIGURE 10. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the late Campanian early Paleocene; plates position at 65 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

and south off the Apsheron Peninsula and ridge. The major transform fault system in the western Turkmenistan basin area separated the eastern and western segment of subduction. This fault system is buried deeply below west Turkmen basin Neogene sediments. The eastern segment was located along the south Kopet Dagh margin approximately 200300 km (124186 mi) south from the Apsheron Ridge. The subduction jump produced the trench pulling force, which influenced all plates between the Black

Sea and Sistan ocean in Afghanistan. The timing of movement initiation and movement velocity is different for different plates. This difference caused the origin of several major strike-slip faults of southwest northeast direction, which cut both continental crust and JurassicCretaceous oceanic crust ( Jackson, 1992; Kopp, 1997; Golonka, 2000). The most important are the Araks fault, which separates the Lesser Caucasus block and the Trans-Caucasus block from the Talesh plate, and the Lahijan fault in the Alborz Mountains.

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FIGURE 11. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the Lutetian Bartonian; plates position at 45 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

The extension of the Lahijan fault, which separated the South Caspian microcontinent from the Southwest Caspian Basin, is buried deeply below the South Caspian Neogene sediments. The northward movement of the South Caspian microcontinent resulted in rifting between the SCM and the Alborz plate. Beginning with the Eocene, the southeastern part of the Turan plate and the adjacent Afghanistan area was strongly affected by the India Eurasia collision. The onset of the collision of India with Asia occurred

near the PaleoceneEocene boundary (Gaetani and Garzanti, 1991; Longley, 1997). According to Searle (1996), this collision may have been diachronous, occurring earlier in northern Pakistan (60 Ma), then in Ladakhsouthern Tibet. Metamorphism and crustal thickening reached a peak about 40 Ma in northern Pakistan, propagating later southward (Searle, 1996). Oceanic subduction ceased beneath the Indian Eurasian collision zone (Longley, 1997). To the south, the Arabian plate slowly converged with Eurasia,

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closing the remnants of the Pindos ocean along the Sanandaj Sirjan margin (Zagros suture). The Jurassic Cretaceous oceanic crust of the eastern Black SeaGreater Caucasus Basin was subducted under the overriding Scythian plate. The northward movement of the Shatski rise block caused the opening of the eastern Black Sea (Robinson et al., 1996; Banks and Robinson, 1997). The northward movement of the Trans-Caucasus block caused the collision and formation of the Greater Caucasus orogenic belt (Adamia, 1991). A marine environment spread throughout the Scythian-Turan platform and adjacent areas during the Cretaceous Eocene, though climatic factors and global variations of sea level controlled deposition. Terrigenous deposits accumulating on the platform during the Early Cretaceous are overlain by Late Cretaceous carbonates. The PaleoceneEocene was characterized by mixed deposition of clastic and carbonate rocks.

OligoceneMiocene
The most recent stage of tectonic history of the South Caspian region and the adjacent platform started in the Oligocene (Figure 12) and was related to the collision of the Indian and Arabian continents with southern Eurasia. Compressional events in Central Asia and the Neotethys region resulted in the general uplift of the Scythian-Turan platform. The collision of India and Eurasia continued. Metamorphism and crustal thickening reached their peak in the Zanskar area (Searle, 1996). The subduction zone beneath the Scythian-Turan margin of Eurasia (Sobornov, 1994; Granath et al., 2000) produced a trench-pull force, which caused the northward movement of the plates between the Black Sea and Afghanistan, the closure of the Greater Caucasus and Sistan oceans, and the reorganization of the South Caspian Sea (Golonka, 1999). The Sistan ocean was closed in eastern Iran, between the Helmand and Lut plates (Sengo r and Natalin, 1996). The development of the molasse basins continued in the Himalayan belt foreland (Burbank et al., 1996). Collision and suturing of India to Asia caused extensive strike-slip faulting in Asia (Kopp, 1997). Several blocks were deformed and thrust over the Turan platform in the Pamir, Afghan Tadjik, and Gissar areas. Initial rifting occurred between Africa and Saudi Arabia in the Gulf of Aden. The Afar plume influenced the opening of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden (White and McKenzie, 1989; Menzies et al., 1992).

The Sanandaj Sirjan plate began to thrust over the Arabian Platform, forming the Zagros Mountains (Dercourt et al., 1993). The main cause of thrusting in the Zagros Mountains, according to Sengo r and Natalin (1996), was the counterclockwise rotation of the Arabian plate. Collision of the Lut block with the Turan platform in Central Asia caused the Kopet Dagh fold belt to form (Kopp, 1997). The collision of India and Eurasia continued. The South Caspian part of the Greater Caucasus Sistan oceanic system underwent reorganization during the Oligocenemiddle Miocene (Figures 13, 14). The northward movement of the South Caspian microcontinent resulted in the rifting between the SCM and the Alborz plate. The Alborz trough in the South Caspian Sea opened, and extension progressed into the west Turkmen depression in Central Asia (Golonka, 1999). The southwestern part of the South Caspian Basin was reopening, whereas the northwestern part was gradually reduced in size. The South Caspian microcontinent or Godin uplift (e.g., Nadirov et al., 1997) separated the southwestern part of the South Caspian Basin and the Western Turkmenistan area. During the Eocene Oligocene, the Paratethys Sea developed in Europe and Central Asia, ahead of the progressing northward orogenic belts (Dercourt et al., 1993; Popov et al., 1993). The main part of the Neotethys was closed. The Neotethys remnants, foreland basin of the Alpine orogens and reorganized Greater CaucasusCaspian Basin with the adjacent parts of the Scythian-Turan platform, formed the Paratethys Sea. The Paratethys was isolated from the world ocean. This isolation and persistent low-pressure system during the Oligocene early Miocene (Golonka et al., 1994) generated favorable conditions for deposition and preservation of the organic-rich shales (Figure 13). The Maikop Formation, containing several layers of organic-rich shales, was deposited north of the Greater Caucasus, in the TerekCaspian Basin, Kura basin, and perhaps in parts of the South Caspian Basin (Popov et al., 1993; Abrams and Narimanov, 1997; Inan et al., 1997; Devlin, 2000). The South Caspian microcontinent probably emerged during the Oligoceneearly Miocene and received a minimum amount of sediments, so we can expect the absence of the Maikop Formation in this area. The clastic sedimentation was predominant during the middle Miocene (Figure 14). The plates convergence in the Greater Caucasus area caused the influx of the large amounts of sediments in the form of proximal and distal flysch, including large

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FIGURE 12. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the Priabonian; plates position at 36 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

submarine slumps. The sedimentation rate exceeded subsidence, and basins were filled. The Greater Caucasus Ocean was closed as a result of the collision of the Lesser Caucasus and the TransCaucasus blocks with the Scythian platform, and the Caucasus Mountains began to form (Zonenshain et al., 1990; Kazmin, 1991; Kopp, 1997). A symmetrical escape of the Caucasian and KopetDagh blocks toward the South Caspian depression followed the northward movement of the Lut, Trans-Caucasus,

and Lesser Caucasus blocks in the Iran Central Asia region (Kopp, 1997). The present-day system of large strike-slip faults continues to be active in Central Asia (Trifonov, 1978) as a result of the northeastern movement of the India plate.

PlioceneQuaternary
During the Pliocene Quaternary (Figures 15, 16), the collision of the Indian continent and the Lut plate with Eurasia caused the deformation of the Central

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FIGURE 13. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the Chattian Aquitanian; plates position at 22 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

Asia region. The system of northwestsoutheast transform faults was developed. These faults were a predominant plate-tectonic force in the Turan platform, Kopet Dagh area (Trifonov, 1978; Kopp, 1997; Lyberis and Manby, 1999), and strongly influenced the South Caspian region. The deformation connected with the southeast northwest strike-slip faults were observed in the great Balkhan area, Apsheron Ridge, South Caspian area, Alborz Mountains, and Kura basin. The northsouth strike-slip movement system

was probably still active but dramatically reduced. The subduction zone south of the Apsheron Ridge became passive perhaps at the end of the Miocene (Figure 15) because of this southeast northwest movement of the lithospheric plates. The collision between the South Caspian microcontinent and the Scythian-Turan plate was never concluded. It appears, however, that the Apsheron subduction zone is active again today (Artemjev and Kaban, 1994; Priestley et al., 1994; Granath et al., 2000; Knapp et al., 2000).

Geodynamic Evolution of the South Caspian Basin / 35

FIGURE 14. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the Burdigalian Serravallian; plates position at 14 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

The remnants of the Jurassic Cretaceous back-arc system oceanic and attenuated crust in the Cheleken and Southwest Caspian Basin, as well as the Tertiary oceanic and attenuated crust in the Alborz basin and part of the Southwest Caspian Basin, were locked between adjacent continental plates and orogenic systems. Maximum subsidence of the South Caspian Basin occurred mainly during the Pliocene, when more than 8000 10,000 m (26,200 32,800 ft) of

sediment known as the Productive Series and Variegated Series were deposited. The isolation of the Paratethys Caspian Sea caused changes in the water salinity. Generally, the sediments in the South Caspian area, as well as in the adjacent basin on the Scythian-Turan platform, in west Turkmenia and Kura basin were deposited in the marginal marine environment. The paleo-Volga, paleo-Amu Darya, and paleo-Kura rivers delivered most of the sediments.

36 / Golonka

FIGURE 15. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the Messinian; plates position at 6 Ma. For explanation, see Figure 1.

CONCLUSIONS
Figure 17 illustrates the relationship between the crustal elements in the circum-Caspian area between Africa Arabia and Eurasia during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The Eurasian active margin and Arabian passive margin is a major factor in the geodynamic development of the area during the Mesozoic. The north-dipping subduction under the Eurasian mar-

gin caused back-arc rifting and the formation of the Jurassic Greater Caucasusproto-South Caspian Sea, which achieved a maximum width during the Late Cretaceousearly Paleogene. During the Eocene, the terranes that rifted from the passive margin were sutured to Eurasia. The subduction zone jumped to the northern margin of proto-South Caspian. The South Caspian underwent a reorganization during the Oligocene Neogene.

Geodynamic Evolution of the South Caspian Basin / 37

FIGURE 16. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Caspian area during the Pliocene; plates position at 3 Ma.
For explanation, see Figure 1.

Northward movement of the South Caspian microcontinent resulted in rifting between the SCM and Alborz plate. The southwestern part of the South Caspian Basin was reopened, and the northwestern part was gradually reduced in size. The source rocks of the Maikop Formation were deposited in the South Caspian Basin during the Oligocene early Miocene. These rocks are absent within the South Caspian microcontinent area, which emerged during the Oligocene Neogene and received a minimum amount of organicrich sediments.

The collision of India and the Lut plate with Eurasia caused the deformation of Central Asia and created a system of northwestsoutheast wrench faults. The remnants of the JurassicCretaceous back-arc system oceanic and attenuated crust, as well as Tertiary oceanic and attenuated crust, were locked between adjacent continental plates and orogenic systems. The thick molasse type of sediments that accumulated during the PlioceneQuaternary provided reservoir rocks and contributed to the burial and maturation of source rocks.

38 / Golonka

FIGURE 17. Plate tectonic profiles. Arabia Caspian Sea. 1 = continental crust (including obducted, allochthonous rocks,
and sedimentary cover); 2 = oceanic crust (including deposits); 3 = upper mantle; 4 = direction of plate movement. Abbreviations: AR = Apsheron Ridge; NC = North Caspian; SAQ = Sevan-Akera-Qaradagh Ocean; SCM = South Caspian microcontinent; SS = Sanandaj Sirjan; PT = Paleotethys.

Geodynamic Evolution of the South Caspian Basin / 39

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I express my gratitude to Pinar O. Yilmaz from ExxonMobil for encouragement to present and publish this paper. I am grateful to Lisa Gahagen from the University of Texas at Austin for help in constructing the regional plate model, as well as to my numerous former Mobil co-workers, especially Dave Ford, Mary Edrich, Paul Frydl, Aart Dronkers, Joel Cline, Wim Burgers, Joel Collins, Jeff Sawlan, and Jack Carter, as well as my academia colleagues Chris Scotese from the University of Texas at Arlington; Larry Lawver, Ian Dalziel, and Mike Coffin from the University of Texas at Austin; Malcolm Ross from Rice University; Erik Flu gel and Wolfgang Kiessling from la the University of Erlangen; Andrzej S czka and Nestor Oszczypko from Jagiellonian University; Anatoliy Nikishin from Moscow State University; and Natasha Bocharova, Lev Natapov, and Vladimir Kazmin from the Russian Academy of Sciences, for sharing their ideas about the paleogeography, paleoclimatology, and plate tectonics of this region. My gratitude goes to Akademia Go rniczo-Hutnicza University of Science and Technology for financial support of this paper (grant No.11.11.140.159).

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