1. Lexical transformations in translation 1.1.

Translation transformation - the essence of the translation process In the process of translation is often impossible to use the appropriate words and expressions that gives us a dictionary. In such cases, we resort to transformational translation, which is to convert the internal form of a word or phrase , or its full replacement for adequate transmission of the content of the statement . Achieving adequacy in translation due to the ability to correctly identify Interpreter problem and take the necessary translation transformation. Main purpose of the transfer - to achieve adequacy. The main task of the translator when the adequacy - skillfully produce various translation transformation to the target text as closely as possible to transmit all information contained in the original text , subject to the relevant rules of the translation language . Transformation by which the transition from original units to units of translation, called translational transformations . However, the term "transformation" can not be taken literally : the original text itself " not converted " in the sense that it does not change by itself. This text , of course, he is left alone , but along with them on the basis of it creates another text in another language . Translation transformation are a special kind of paraphrase , cross-language , which is quite different from transformations within a single language. " When we talk about monolingual transformations , we are referring to the phrase , which differ from each other in grammatical structure , lexical content, have ( almost ) the same content and are able to perform in the context of one and the same communicative function . Comparing the original and transforming texts , we unconsciously note that some sections of the original text translated " word for word ", and some are significant deviations from the literal matches. Particularly noticeable places where translates text in its linguistic means totally different from the original . Therefore, in our linguistic consciousness , there are some cross-language correspondence deviations from which we perceive as a cross-language transformation. Depending on the nature of the units of the original language , which are considered as the initial operation , translation transformation divided into stylistic transformation - the essence of which is to change the stylistic coloring transferable units . (When I could stand it no longer I raised myself upon my knees, still keeping hold with my hands, and thus got my head clear. - When I felt that the forces of change to me, I sat up on his knees, not letting go of the ring from his hand, and my head was above the water .. Morphological transformation - the substitution of one part of speech or other multiple parts of speech. Syntactic transformation - the essence of which is to change the syntactic functions of words and phrases . Change syntactic functions in the translation process is accompanied by rearrangement of syntactic structures : convert one type to another subordinate clause . It also relates syntactic transformations replacing Russian English passive construction active. Semantic transformations - are carried out on the basis of various causal relations that exist between the elements described situations (He was the kind of guy that hates to answer youright away. - Such as it is , did not immediately respond.

Lexical transformation - is the deviation from the direct word correspondences. Lexical transformation caused mainly by the fact that the volume of the original values of lexical units and the target language is not the same . Grammatical transformations - is to transform the sentence structure in the translation process in accordance with the rules of the target language . 1.2. Types of lexical transformations In his work " The rate of exchange " Latyshev LK lexical transformation defines as " deviation from the dictionary matches " / Latyshev LK, 1981:180 / . In the lexical systems of English and Russian languages are observed discrepancies that occur in the type of the semantic structure of the word . Any word that is lexical unit - is part of the lexical system . This explains the uniqueness of the semantic structure of words in different languages. Therefore, the essence of lexical transformations is to " replace the individual lexical units ( words and phrases) FL IL lexical units that are not their dictionaries and equivalents , ie , that have a different meaning than they transmit in the translation unit DICE " There are many reasons causing lexical transformation , and complete coverage of the reasons there is no possibility . Therefore, we will limit their choice only some of the major causes of the need for this type of transformation. In the meaning of words in different languages are often allocated different features of the same phenomenon or concept , which reflects the vision of the world peculiar to a given language , or rather , the carriers of the language , which inevitably creates difficulties in translation . Compare for example , glasses and goggles. In English, the word stands out the material from which the object is made , and in Russian - its function : the second eye ( eyes ) . or : Hot milk with skin on it. (P. H. Johnson) Hot milk with foam . This phenomenon is actually associated in English with the skin, skin covering the body or fetus , whereas in the Russian language as the basis of the word on the results of boiling - foam appears when the milk boils and foams . English word herring-bone (work) in the Russian language in the tree correspond to the combination , herringbone ( bricklaying , stitch pattern ) . In the Russian language association with a tree - a spruce in English - with ridge herring. Image in the Russian language is associated with an abundance of forests, in English - with the proximity of the sea. However, despite the selection of various features , both the first equally adequately reflect the same phenomenon is true. This linguistic fact observed in so many words . The second reason that causes lexical transformation is the difference in the amount of semantic word. There is absolutely identical words in FL and IL . Most often, the first match of the lexical -semantic variant ( LSV ) of such words , their main value, followed by various LSV , since the development of the values of these words went different ways. This is due to the functioning of the various words in the language , the difference in use, different compatibilities , but even the basic meaning of an English word may be wider than the corresponding Russian word ( of course, not excluded the opposite case ) .

In the analysis of the semantic structure of the adjective mellow immediately catches the eye , it is multi-valued word and can detect a very wide range of subjects and concepts : fruit , wine, soil , voice, man. Each sphere of its use corresponds to a single value. But each value in turn correspond to two or more Russian words. English- Russian dictionary sometimes gives them just separated by commas . This suggests that each LSV is not covered by a Russian word , because it contains two or more semes that require two or more transmit Russian words. Thus, the first value - ripe , soft, sweet, juicy ( about fruit ) and the second value - 1.vyderzhanny old ; 2.priyatny taste ( about wine ) , and the third value - mellowed , softened with age ( the person ); fourth value - soft, juicy , thick ( about the voice and paints) ; fifth - value 1. loose 2. fertile , fat ( of soil) , the sixth value , colloquial - cheerful tipsy ( the person ) . In almost all cases correspond to the word mellow in Russian language , different words , depending on the noun it qualifies . It speaks about a very wide semantic scope of each LSV words. Semantic structure of the word creates the possibility of its contextual use, and transfer of contextual meaning of the word is not an easy problem. Contextual meaning of the word depends on the nature of the semantic context , the semantics of words combined with it . Occasional word meaning, suddenly appearing in a context is not arbitrary - it has the potential inherent in the semantic structure of the word. In the contextual use of the word in poetry or prose often manifested 's penetration into the very depths of its semantic structure . After all, the word peculiar as the paradigmatic and semantic relations and lexical potency words may be disclosed in both cases. But identifying these potential values closely associated with the originality of the lexical- semantic aspects of each language, and hence the difficulty in transferring the contextual meaning of words in the translation of what is possible in one language , it is impossible in another because of differences in their semantic structure and in their use. In an atomic war women and children will be the first hostages. Word hostage, according to the dictionary , has only one meaning - "hostage ." However, in this environment is the semantic meaning of the word becomes "victim" . This contextual meaning is obviously present in his paradigmatic value : each pawn can become a victim and die , so the translation has to use the word victim , as the word hostage in a contextual meaning is not used . The first victims of nuclear war are women and children. To him, having different volume values in English and Russian concerns a group of words that includes a lot of variety of words : international words , some verbs of perception, sensation and mental activity and the so-called adverbial verbs . The third reason , which causes the need for lexical transformations , is the difference in compatibility . Words are defined for this language ties. Importantly, the compatibility of the words in the case of interoperability concepts designated by them . This compatibility in different languages, obviously is different , and what is possible in one language is unacceptable in another. Each language has its own typical standards compatibility . Each language can generate an infinite number of new combinations , understandable for people who speak it and do not violate its rules . Each language has a range of normal , steady- traditional combinations that do not coincide with the

corresponding range of combinations in another language , such as , trains run - trains run , rich feeding - abundant food . The air was rich with the scent of the summer flowers (P. Johnson) The air was filled with the scent of summer flowers . Labour Party protests followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain. ("Morning Star") Message for the deal with Spain Conservative government immediately followed the protest of the Labour Party . The wider the scope of semantic words , the wider its compatibility , since thanks to this it may enter into a variety of communications. This in turn allows the transmission opportunities in the translation, the translations . Of great importance is the usual language for each use of the word (usage). It is, of course, connected with the history of this language , its formation and development of the lexical system . In every language produced original cliche , as if ready-made formulas , words and combinations of words used by speakers of this language. The latter are not phraseological units , but they have a full and complete and unlike phraseological units and phrases never violated the introduction of additional words or substituting one of the components . Frenkel Retsker shared translation transformation into lexical and grammatical transformation. Frenkel Retsker identifies seven types of lexical transformations: 1. differentiation values ; 2 . concretization of values ; 3 . generalization of values ; 4 . semantic development; 5 . antonymic translation ; 6. holistic transformation ; 7. compensation for losses in the translation process . (He ordered a drink. - He ordered a whiskey . - Differentiation values drink). (Have you had your meal? - You had breakfast ? - Is an example of specifying the values . ) (The treatment turned to be successful and she recovered completely. Treatment was successful and she is fully recovered - generalization values. Reception semantic development is the replacement of the translation dictionary matching contextual logically related to it. These include a variety of metaphorical and metonymic replacement. (Hegave the horse his head. - He let go of the reins . - Here metonymic observed a clear relationship : the reins and the horse's head - replacement actions caused it.

Frenkel Retsker also highlights replace antonymic translation - what - or concepts expressed in the original, opposing notion translated from the corresponding restructuring of the whole utterance to maintain constant of the content . (The windows of the workshop were closed to keep the cool air. - The windows were closed shop , there is not penetrated to hot air . ) Reception holistic transformation is also a certain kind of semantic development . Converted to an internal form of any segment of the speech chain - from a single word to the whole sentence. And not converted the elements , and holistically . (Never mind. - Do not worry , do not pay attention. ) Holistic Transformation - a common technique lexical transformations in translation of journalistic material. (The other tasks of the revolution in the South could be left to work themselves out. - Perform other tasks of the revolution in the South could let things slide . ) Compensation (or compensation for losses ) in the translation should be considered an element of the original replacement incommunicable element of a different order in accordance with the general ideological - the artistic nature of the script and where it is available for convenient conditions for Russian language. In English : (I `ve brought a Christmas present for Dad - in Russian sentence: This Dad Christmas gift . ) Lexical transformation used in translation in the case if the original text is found non-standard language unit at the word level , for example, any proper name , the inherent culture and language of the original is not in the target language , a term in a particular professional field , words denoting objects, phenomena and concepts of the original culture or traditional naming elements of the third culture, but missing and other structural and functional order in transforming culture. Such words occupy a very important place in the translation process , as being relatively independent of context , they nevertheless give the translated texts different directions, depending on the choice of an interpreter. By lexical translation methods accepted include: transcription and transliteration, tracing , lexicosemantic replacement , specification , generalization, modulation or semantic development.