Five DifltrentQu4liltllivt Studies

T 31

, 3. The author' then focuSes on one event (or epiphany) 'in the life of

the

.'

4. The au'tlloririte1prets

the meaning ot thls.event(e.g..,.metaphor,

'..
-

S. The author
.

to'fheJarger literature.
:.
.

6. The author discussesthele!isons learned in conducting

stUdy.

s.tudy eVf!nts, s.ihiatUtgthem .withka . a and evokhlgihepresence of the in the study aU .relled the fonn of study by Denzin (1989b), to be in next chapter. .

J he

01

on a

of

A'PH'ENOMEN9LOGY
$ee

Appenc:lix C)
H

This study the ;Ncaring interactioll between a nurse and his ..;or her patient; Theinvesligator, explores the central of 'ihe structure of a caring nurse-dient interaction and poses this question; NWJiit is essential lor theexperienee to bede:.aibed client as being a carina interaction?The author begins this study with philoSQ:phical ideas, <l'1llvmg.on existentialtnemes of BUber.{l9S8} a.f\dMarCeJ. (1971). These 0petute5S; life as' a my$tery (rather a pl'Ob= , to be solved), and being present for others. an .approach tostudying"fhe prQblemthat includes field; of peiception partidpants; seeing .how they experience, li,'e, and disptay the phenomenon; and looking for themeanjng.of p_ts' experiences. the researcher-saysshe nteded to set aSide her preconceptions to best understand the as experienced by the' parlidpants. " The studying 10 nonhospitaliZedadults have priorh,!eradions with a registered nurse and are able tooommunicate their fer!ings- regarding these interactions. They are asked fi,'e ques-

man

of

32 "f(

QUALITATIVE INQUIR.,.,

tions, and their .aM.1rsi$.

.

are t.ape-.recorded.

data

i.. Theresea,rcherJirsi reads all descriptions in their entirety.

, :2.:

then,extracts'significant statements from each des..."Tip-

tion.
' .

'3. These statements a,reformut;Jted 'into meanings, and these mean.. " . !

, .ings

are 'clustered into

' "

"

'

, , 4.:'The
',.

The' analysis resUidng in signitkat'\t,ataa:-. ments, an a"nalysis, for males and females' '3$ 'weD as lor and '
Meanings are then lor caring and , Finally., these meanings Clustered, into themes from which the author provides t\\"o narrath'e noricaring nurse-dient interactions. , descriptionS of a The article ends by the author returning to the philosophical of' the study, discussing hoy! the,results reinforce this and addressing i.clipliqltions 'for nursing practice,/! research and theory. noncaring

'.'

PhettomellologiOlI tJspeels. This study repre$ents. apsydiolOgkal ap 'proach to a "'.l.though,it is a studi,on' a..": interpersonal topic, the overa8 format of the article 'is hlg.JUy structured, foUowingmany of the forms we typicaUy aSsoqate With quantitative research (e.g., the literature reView). I especially the ' detailed attention to the philosophical j,ehlndthe study {i.e., exisfenti8:1ism,phenonlenoJosyf rlgor9U$ ;attention' to' proce<lures or steps in the The'""'treatment of the data,"'using Colaizzi's data analysis (simitarto that 01 '.. .i iMoUstaials;- 1994:), is a useful for analyzing pbeno: menological" d a t a . . ' , This study illustrates several basu= teaturesof a phenOmenological

I
,:1

study:

.
of 'a

The author suggests there is a" Nessential interaction.

It

Five
,_ The study

Sludks

y 33'

philosophiCal perspective of the phe-

nomenological appmach. ,
_ The author,studies a single

'
the caring interaction.

_ nie researoher NJ>rackets"preconc;eptions $0 as not to ,injecthypotheses, or ,personal experiences into the study_ TI,e researcher ad'vances phenomenological data anairsis

________

steps. 'The autboudumsto the

baSe at the eudofthestudy.

A'GROUNDED THEORY STQPY (Morrow See Appendix D)

,This isa grounded theorys"'..:idy about the and:copii\g ,strategies ,ot 11 women to sexual The au,thorsask the followm8two open-erKied questions. "7ell me, as much as you are '. comfortable slwing with me right now, what happened to you when you wetesexuany abused? What were the primary ways in whkb you survived?'" Data. are coUect?d primarily through one-on-one locus :gtoup interviews, and participa,nt ene of 'the The aut!lors first fonn :ategories of information and :t.he data tlarough systematically relatingtnE:cafego:enter of this .nodel is the ries in the form ofavisual model. At the central which thee is eveope. g or dangerous feelings along with helplessness, powerlessness, ;a!""'- lack of control. Factors causing this nomenon are culfuraln()1D'lS C'.nd different loons of sexual abuse. Individuals uSestrategies-in two areas: avoiding being overwhelmed ,by feelingsand.managfng their helplessness, powerlessness., and lack 01' control These strategiesareoset 'within the of peq>elratOI' sensations., frequency as well as withiri. Jargu .cendltionssuch family dynat,nks, victims' ages, and rewards. Th,"ot Without .These women talk abOut as surviying, healing, and hoping. The consequences article ends by relatins. the theoretical model back to the literature on sexual ..

Fiw

Trlldit;Dn$ oflnlJuiry
3. These.todes are oapnizecf otal events (or ,in

:that .indicatepiv..
life.

4. The MSearoher explores the meaNng of these sfotiu, relying on the IRdividual to p.ovide and searching' for.

meanirigs.

5. TheRSeafCher alSo 't)c larger structures 10 explain the, meanings, such as ,social in groups. cultural is.sues., ideologies, and Itkforical cOllfext" and provides an inte.tpretadon for die life experiences of the indh.1dual (or crO$$:individuals are sl'..Idied). .
.
L"\d ihe

oa biography, it

is challenging for;the foUo\o\1ng reasons:

The researdter collect extensive information from and aoout the $Ubjectoftl\e biography.

The investigator needs to have a dear Wlderstanding ot conteXtual material to position the .subject within .th4! larger 'trendS in society or in the culture.
It takes a keen eye to determine the particular stoiles, slant, or angle in \'\'liting a biography and to uncovet' L'ie, >Yf..gure under the G1Ipe!i" (Edell. 1,984) t!tat explains thi! multilayered conteXt of a li!e.

U.'ie an, interpretive approach, needs to be able to bring himself or herself into the narrative .and acknowl,edge his other standpoint.

'A PHENOMENOLOGIcAL STUDY

,
'

, Whereasa.biogiaphy repoltsthe life ofta lingle iifJi"idur;l, a "lie..a';'eaol.lca1'stitly the meaning;o{ the weel . .edeMa fol' several individualS abOut concept or "'e:""enOMelIOn. Phenoolenol.r. gists explore the structures of consciousness in human experiences (Polldnghome; 19,89).' It has roots in thephilosoph;(ol ,erspedlves of

52 T

QUALITATIVE INQUIRY

,
.

edmUnd Hussed (1859-1938) and by Heidegger, Sartre, and

used

1982), and it

insOOiology'

&: Borgatta, 1992; Swingewood, (GiorgL 1985; Polkingnome, 1989, 1994), ,nursing arid the sciences (Ni.. 1993; Oller, 1986).. and edueation (Tesch". 1988). history of phenomenology starts with Gennan matheinatician Edmwld Hussc{l (1859..1938) extensive writings addressing phllosophy 1913 his retirement (Stewart &: Mkkunas, 1990).' HuSsed"s ideas abstracfi .as (1962) raises the q,uestion -what is in his Phenomenology In Husserl is known to calf any projectcuITently under way Nphenomenologyf,lussed emphasizes many pomts (Moustalcas, Researchers search for the essenficrl, iitwrticr"'WvdrIre(OI'fWeaceJ _or the central underlying meaning o' the experience'and emphaSize the intention.DIlly liE COlJsJousness where contain bOth the out\o\fard appearance and inWard 'consciousness based on merncrY, image, and ,/re._enolo,;ccr'''. ciacrlrsUprocceds through ofreduc;tion, the analysis of specific statements and then;les,and for aU possible mearungs. The reseaOCher also sets cl$ide all prejudgments, &radeling (See his or bar e).:peri,'ence andielying'onintuitioJ\ iJrtagi-: nation, and universal to -obtain a pictwe of the experience. From'these philosophical tenets..-four themES are diS4..--ecnibl.!'
. . M

.,
_
I

."

I
I
.f

&. Mickunas. 19-90):

I: Aretu," -to the traditiDnal wits 5, the end 01 tlW 19th philosophy had become limited a.world by eMpirical means,caUe4 "scientisDiK The to the traditional tasks of philosophy conception of philOSQ-. phy as a seatdt for wisdom before, philosophy became enamored with Science. .

to

2. -A phllosopllY Pllenomenology's,approitchis to .suspend ali ";fla!ural atti.. they are on' a more certain :so5is epome by Hussed. '

Five QU/dilative 7hulilions ifl'"luiry

T 53

1.

, always is

Theialo"tioa_"., , . . . . . . . . This idea' is that consciousness .. Reality ofan ,object 'then, 'is

of
cording .shifting the appears-in:

..

into and objects, thus tothe.mearuiag of-an objeqthat , ' . .

This theme

4"
eel perce.v ..WJUWl tho _'
.
from the
- '.

0f

th'e

The reaUty of an
.'
ir .

f' 0; an

only
'.
4-h-----p - - - " ' - _.,._-'

'-,

in intellectual :thoughtcom.e espe": "_ dally sociology and pSydloIOgy"a.nd camps sumasreflediveltranscendentalphenomenology,-diaIOgical phenomet\Gtogy" empiriCal pheJ\omenQlogy, existential ' nology, hcu:meneutic phenotJ.\erlology, and (Barritt, 1986iTesch" '1990).1 bnefly and locus attention"on 'psychological phenomenology as ex:pressd

through Empirieal/tr"listen4eafJ p'eno;..eaology. . The sociological phenomeuology, owes much 'Schutz. articulate-; the' essenee of phenomenology .for stUdying social ads (Swingewood, 1991).Schuu is L,tert::Sted in how ordinary me;nbCn 01 society the wolid of eve.ryd4ty how individ"als out of social interactions (people with each other). As al,extension a man.by the name of Garfinkel caPs this approach Neth_ _ nomethqdoJogfi a \vay U\ which to how individuals' ,m make meanings of their everyday Often dralvlng 011 ethnography and cultural themes, ethnomethodology relies on meth': odS of analyzing everyday talk (Swingewooct 1991). ' My prelerred thepsyc6';ogl"" .PpI'fHlclai also focuses on themea.nmgofexperiences;but has.found individual experiences, not grot.1p experien.:es, central Coming from the DuqueSne Studiesm the central tenets of this thinking are

to

to determine what.an experience means for the who have had the experience and are able to provide a compreJ\ensivedesaiption ofil From the individual descriptiOns, universal meanings are derived, in .

0"

54 T'

QUALITATIVEINQUIR. Y

other words, the essences of

.

expeiience. (Moustakas, 199.,

Irflnste;'Jenlal

proceeds to' elabo,cate.i,n a type of phenomenology, to Hus..c;erl but places m<?reemphasiS onbracketing out (qJome orr.,.aclcefing)
.

and how.,
'.

'

unh'ersalstructuresbaSed on whatpeople

"The,conduct"of psychological phenomenQlogy Ilas been addressed-

, '1 .
.

"

.
Giorgi-'---'---'------

(i98S, .1994),

PolIdngnoilte,-

'm<>sl reently, Moustakas

"how to 1986). But these methQ(ls; '1;ased .on:pheoomenological princi,: pIes. . ftinction as general or outlfues, and researchers are expected to develop plans of study especially suited to understai'ldhlg .the particular' experiential phenomenon that is the Qbject of their 1989;,_p!!- 44). With this in mind;, I summarize the major procedural musing phenom.enofogy:
T

The researclJU needs to Uuplti/osop6ical petspedlves behind the app,roach, especially. flU! concept Ofstudying how people Uperiena If phenomenon:. The, concept of epoJ.e is centrai where the
researcher-brackets his "orher oWn preconceived ideas about . to Wldel$tand it through. the voic::es of the inIorUlid\ts (Field &: Morse, 1985)..

Tile investi'gator 'WriitsTeseaTch quesbons :that aploTe 'hi! meaning oj thai Jor individlUtls -and llsks indiVid:ta!s 10 describ( fhd,

'

' ,

.". The iflvesttgator IJIm collects data frOm individUills whQltave apm.... e1u:ed de "IIeaomenOll under investigation. Typically, this tion is collected through long (augmented V{ith fe-'
searcher se1foft.flection and previously developed

desCr!puooS

from artistic works) with informants ranging in number IromS to

25 (Polkingnoine, 1989):
T

'.

.TlUt ,t.enomelUlt.,i(al elata anafysis steps are generally similarfor all-

psydwlogiad' phenommologists who discuss the methods. tQ Moilstakas (1994) and Polkinghome (1989), all psychological
employ a similar series .of steps. The original

Five Qualitlltiw Trtldilions ifInquiry

... S5

into statements or1ttriz1U"';0fI.lben.,the units are transfonnedinto I,Iafen expressedinpsy. chological and phenomenological concepts.Fmany, these lonnations are tied together to make a general desaiption of the experience, the fufvnIlJeurt,Ii- of what was and'
the sfrudura'

experiencecL Some phenO:appro8ch by incorporating personal mean (Moustakas" 1994), by using singJe-subject analysis, and by analyzing the role of 1915). .--,-.-.----,

menologists ing o{the before

. . . ----...--.. .
,

structure'" (grief is the same whether the loved one isa puppy, a . parakeet, or a child).: of'the report should come away withtheleeling that "'I 'better. what it is like for someone to experience thatH(Polldnghome, 1989"p. 46). The : .actual lonnat lor .the report might follow Moustakas*s (1994) outlU:te of the phenomenological model or c:haptersin a phenomenological study.
N

TM report ends fDilh the mul,er undD$lan4i'.g belle,. tl,e eSseafl'G' ;"Vfln.1it sInidvre(. dselJee} of Ihe apuiena, reeog:" .IMt II' single unifi.Jing maningtf: th, e.xpaima aisls. For example" this means that all experiences have an underJying

Alllienoll!etlolopl(ClIstrnft maybe dullengingto

for UlefonoWing - - - - , -....-

reasons:
c The researcher tequi:rE:s a sond grounding ill the philosophical

preccepfs.
. participants in the study need to i?e carefully chosen to be indiv.iduals who have experienced 1M "IelloateIIOII. .

:Bracketing personal.experiences by the resean:herma,y be difficUlt

. The
.
'.

need4i to decide how and in 'what way his .orher

experiences" win be introduced into the stud,.

"

A GRoiJNDmmEORY STUPY
.AlthougJ\ a phenQmenological study emphasizes the meaning of an experience for a numbet of individuals, the intentof a,ft'OuaJeJ"'eo,.,