1

Internet Telephony
based on SIP
SNU - Dallas
April 28, Nay 1, 2000
Henry Sinnreich, NC! WorldCom
Alan Johnston, NC! WorldCom
2
!nternet Nultimedia
- Real Time Protocol (RTP) - media packets
- Real Time Control Protocol (RTCP) - monitor 8 report
- Session Announcement Protocol (SAP)
- Session Description Protocol (SDP)
- Session !nitiation Protocol (S!P)
- Real Time Stream Protocol (RTSP) - play out control
- Synchronized Nultimedia !ntegration Language (SN!L) -
mixes audiofvideo with text and graphics
References: Search keyword at http:ffwww.rfc-editor.orgfrfc.html
For SN!L - http:ffwww.w3.orgfAudiovideof
2
3
Telephony on the Internet
may not be a stand-alone business, but part of IP services
Public IP Backbone
Goes everywhere
End-to-end control
Consistent for all services
DNS mobility
Messaging
Web
Directory
Security
QoS
Media services
Sessions
Telephony

SIP
RTP
CAS, Q.931, SS7
PCM
Telephone
Gateway
SIP client
MG
SG
MGCP
S!PfRTP Nedia Architecture
Any other sessions
4
Commercial Grade IP Telephony
New services (new revenue)
Scalability (Web-like)
Baseline PSTN8PBX features
- Client 8 user authentication
- Accounting assured QoS
- QoS assured signaling
- Security assured signaling
- Hiding of caller !D 8 location
Better than PSTN features
- New 8 fast service creation
- !nternet (rapid) scalability
- Nobility
- Dynamic user preferences
- End-to-end control
- Service selection
- Feature control
- Nid-call control features
- Pre-call
- Nid-call
Assure baseline PSTN features
Leverage and Commonality of telephony with the Web/Internet
3
5
!nternet End-to-End Control
Central
Control
USER USER
Central
Control
Central
Control
SW SW
SW SW SW SW
UN! NN! NN! UN!
!TU !ntelligent Network Control:
POTS, !SDN, B!SDN, FR, ATN, H.323, NEGACOfH.2+8, GSN
Services supported by
interfaces and central
controllers
User has little
control
USER USER
Elective
Server
Elective
Server
!nternet
Dumb Network"
R
R
R
User has control of all
applications and choice
of servers
All services enabled by
protocols: From ftp to web
No single point of failure
R
6
SIP vs. flavors of IPDC, SGSP, MGCP, MEGACO, H.248
(Internet ClientServer vs. !el"o MasterSlave Proto"ols#
GC GC
NG NG
PSTN PSTN
CAS, Q.931, SS7 S!P, H.323
RTP PCN
PSTN !nternet
NCGP
GC
NG
!P !nternet
1. !P Telephony Gateway
2. Softswitch" a la !N 3. Residential GWY
?
NCGP NCGP
RG
- breaks e-2-e control model
- no services integration
- no choice of server and apps
- unequal access" is reinvented
- phone to phone only
- PSTN services
- single vendor solution
Absorbs PSTN complexity at the edge of !P
TR 303.
Legend
CG: gateway Controller
MG: Media Gateway
4
7
!P Communications
PSTNfPBX-like:
- POTS
- A!N CS-1, CS-2
- PBX 8 Centrex
User has control of:
- All addressable devices
- Caller and called party
preferences
Better quality than 3.1 kHz
Web-like:
- Presence
- voice and text chat
- Nessaging
- voice, data, video
- Nultiparty
Conferencing
Education
Games
Any quality
Nost yet to be invented
Complete integration of all services under full user control
Nixt !nternet-PSTN: Click'nConnect, !CW, unified messaging
8
Development of S!P
- !ETF - !nternet Engineering Task Force
- NNUS!C - Nultiparty Nultimedia Session Control
Working Group
- S!P developed by Handley, Schulzrinne, Schooler, and
Rosenberg
Submitted as !nternet-Draft 7f97
- Assigned RFC 25+3 in 3f99
- !nternet Nultimedia Conferencing Architecture.
- Alternative to !TU's H.323
- H.323 used for !P Telephony since 199+
- Problems: No new services, addressing, features
- Concerns: scalability, extensibility
5
9
S!P Philosophy
- !nternet Standard
- !ETF - http:ffwww.ietf.org
- Reuse !nternet addressing (URLs, DNS, proxies)
- Utilizes rich !nternet feature set
- Reuse HTTP coding
- Text based
- Nakes no assumptions about underlying protocol:
- TCP, UDP, X.25, frame, ATN, etc.
- Support of multicast
10
S!P Clients and Servers - 1
- S!P uses clientfserver architecture
- Elements:
- S!P User Agents (S!P Phones)
- S!P Servers (Proxy or Redirect - used to locate S!P
users or to forward messages.)
- Can be stateless or stateful
- S!P Gateways:
- To PSTN for telephony interworking
- To H.323 for !P Telephony interworking
- Client - originates message
- Server - responds to or forwards message
6
11
S!P Clients and Servers - 2
Logical S!P entities are:
- User Agents
- User Agent Client (UAC): !nitiates S!P requests
- User Agent Server (UAS): Returns S!P responses
- Network Servers
- Registrar: Accepts REG!STER requests from clients
- Proxy: Decides next hop and forwards request
- Redirect: Sends address of next hop back to client
The different network server types may be collocated
12
S!P Addressing
Uses !nternet URLs
- Uniform Resource Locators
- Supports both !nternet and PSTN addresses
- General form is na$e%&o$ain
- To complete a call, needs to be resolved down to
User@Host
- Examples:
sip:alan@wcom.com
sip:J.T. Kirk <kirk@starfleet.gov>
sip:+1-613-555-1212@wcom.com;user=phone
sip:guest@10.6+.1.1
sip:790-7360@wcom.com;phone-context=vNET
7
13
S!P Session Setup Example
2'' O(
AC(
I)*I!E si+,+i"ar&%--net."o$
.ost./"o$."o$ si+.--net."o$
SIP
0ser A1ent
Client
SIP
0ser A1ent
Server
23E
2'' O(
Me&ia Strea$
14
Proxy Server Example
server./"o$."o$
2'' O(
23E
2'' O(
I)*I!E si+,+i"ar&%/"o$."o$
.ost./"o$."o$
2'' O(
AC(
I)*I!E si+,+i"ar&%--net."o$
si+.--net."o$
SIP
0ser A1ent
Client
SIP
Pro45
Server
SIP
0ser A1ent
Server
Me&ia Strea$
8
15
Redirect Server Example
6'2 Move& si+,+i"ar&%--net."o$
AC(
Me&ia Strea$
I)*I!E si+,+i"ar&%/"o$."o$
SIP
0ser A1ent
Client
SIP
Re&ire"t
Server
78' Rin1in1
AC(
I)*I!E si+,+i"ar&%--net."o$
SIP
0ser A1ent
Server
REGIS!ER +i"ar&%--net."o$
.ost./"o$."o$
si+.--net."o$
2'' O(
server./"o$."o$
2'' O(
C
RS
0AS
7
2
6
16
S!P Requests
S!P Requests (Nessages) defined as:
- Nethod SP Request-UR! SP S!P-version CRLF (SP=Space,
CRLF=Carriage Return and Line Feed)
- Example: !Nv!TE sip:picard@wcom.com S!Pf2.0
Met.o& Des"ri+tion
I)*I!E A session is 8ein1 re9-este& to 8e set-+ -sin1 a s+e"ifie& $e&ia
AC( Messa1e fro$ "lient to in&i"ate t.at a s-""essf-l res+onse to an I)*I!E .as 8een re"eive&
OP!IO)S A :-er5 to a server a8o-t its "a+a8ilities
23E A "all is 8ein1 release& 85 eit.er +art5
CA)CE; Can"els an5 +en&in1 re9-ests. 0s-all5 sent to a Pro45 Server to "an"el sear".es
REGIS!ER 0se& 85 "lient to re1ister a +arti"-lar a&&ress /it. t.e SIP server

9
17
S!P Requests Example
Required Headers (fields):
Via: Shows route taken by request.
Call-ID: unique identifier generated by client.
CSeq: Command Sequence number
- generated by client
- !ncremented for each successive request
INVITE sip:picard@wcom.com SIP/2.0
Via: SIP/2.0/UDP host.wcom.com:5060
From: Alan Johnston <sip:alan.johnston@wcom.com>
To: Jean Luc Picard <sip:picard@wcom.com>
Call-ID: 314159@host.wcom.com
CSeq: 1 INVITE
}
Uniquely
identify
this
session
request
18
S!P Requests Example
Typical S!P Request:
INVITE sip:picard@wcom.com SIP/2.0
Via: SIP/2.0/UDP host.wcom.com:5060
From: Alan Johnston <sip:alan.johnston@wcom.com>
To: Jean Luc Picard <sip:picard@wcom.com>
Call-ID: 314159@host.wcom.com
CSeq: 1 INVITE
Contact: sip:alan.johnston@wcom.com
Subject: Where are you these days?
Content-Type: application/sdp
Content-Length: 124
v=0
o=ajohnston 5462346 332134 IN IP4 host.wcom.com
s=Let's Talk
t=0 0
c=IN IP4 10.64.1.1
m=audio 49170 RTP/AVP 0 3
10
19
S!P Responses
S!P Responses defined as (HTTP-style):
- S!P-version SP Status-Code SP Reason-Phrase CRLF
(SP<S+a"e, CR;=<Carria1e Ret-rn an& ;ine =ee&#
- Example: SIP/2.0 404 Not Found
- First digit gives Class of response:
Des"ri+tion E4a$+les
744
Infor$ational > Re9-est re"eive&, "ontin-in1 to
+ro"ess re9-est.
78' Rin1in1
787 Call is 2ein1 =or/ar&e&
244
S-""ess > A"tion /as s-""essf-ll5 re"eive&,
-n&erstoo& an& a""e+te&.
2'' O(
644
Re&ire"tion > =-rt.er a"tion nee&s to 8e ta?en in
or&er to "o$+lete t.e re9-est.
6'' M-lti+le C.oi"es
6'2 Move& !e$+oraril5
444
Client Error > Re9-est "ontains 8a& s5nta4 or "annot
8e f-lfille& at t.is server.
4'7 0na-t.ori@e&
4'8 Re9-est !i$eo-t
A44
Server Error > Server faile& to f-lfill an a++arentl5
vali& re9-est.
A'6 Servi"e 0navaila8le
A'A *ersion )ot S-+orte&
B44 Glo8al =ail-re > Re9-est is invali& at an5 server.
B'' 2-s5 Ever5/.ere
B'6 De"line

20
S!P Responses Example
Required Headers:
Via, From, To, Call-ID, and CSeq
are copied exactly from Request.
To and From are NOT swapped!
SIP/2.0 200 OK
Via: SIP/2.0/UDP host.wcom.com:5060
From: Alan Johnston <sip:alan.johnston@wcom.com>
To: Jean Luc Picard <sip:picard@wcom.com>
Call-ID: 314159@host.wcom.com
CSeq: 1 INVITE
11
21
S!P Responses Example
Typical S!P Response (containing SDP)
SIP/2.0 200 OK
Via: SIP/2.0/UDP host.wcom.com
From: Alan Johnston <sip:alan.johnston@wcom.com>
To: Jean Luc Picard <sip:picard@wcom.com>
Call-ID: 314159@host.wcom.com
CSeq: 1 INVITE
Contact: sip:picard@wcom.com
Subject: Where are you these days?
Content-Type: application/sdp
Content-Length: 107
v=0
o=picard 124333 67895 IN IP4 uunet.com
s=Engage!
t=0 0
c=IN IP4 11.234.2.1
m=audio 3456 RTP/AVP 0
22
C
Forking Proxy Example
sip.mci.com
ACK
INVITE
INVITE
404 Not Found
180 Ringing
INVITE
sip:picard@wcom.com
host.wcom.com
180 Ringing
ACK
sip.uunet.com
SIP
User Agent
Client
SIP
Proxy
Server
SIP
User Agent
Server 2
SIP
User Agent
Server 1
proxy.wcom.com
100 Trying
BYE
200 OK
Media Stream
200 OK
200 OK
S7
S2
Fork
12
23
S!P Headers - Partial List
Hea&er Des"ri+tion E4a$+les
A""e+t In&i"ates a""e+ta8le for$ats.
A""e+t, a++li"ationCs&+
A""e+t, "-rren"5C&ollars
A-t.ori@ation Contains en"r5+tion infor$ation
A-t.ori@ation, +1+ infoD
CallID 0se& to -ni9-el5 i&entif5 a
+arti"-lar session or re1istration
$essa1es. S.o-l& .ave
ran&o$ness to ens-re overall
1lo8al -ni9-eness.
CallID, 7%$ars.8roo?s.net
CallID, Ean'77FFF7A7' 7%server.$"i."o$
i, 6747AF2BA6A%--net."o$

Conta"t Alternative SIP 0R; for $ore
&ire"t $essa1e ro-tin1.
Conta"t, W. Ri?er, A"tin1 Ca+tain Gri?er%starfleet.1ovH
Conta"t, roo$2'6%.otel."o$I e4+ires<6B''
$, a&$in%$"i."o$
Content;en1t. O"tet "o-nt in $essa1e 8o&5.
Content;en1t., 28A
Content!5+e Content t5+e of $essa1e 8o&5
Content!5+e, a++li"ationCs&+
", a++li"ationC..626
CSe9 Co$$an& Se9-en"e n-$8er >
-se& to &istin1-is. &ifferent
re9-ests &-rin1 t.e sa$e session.
CSe9, 7 I)*I!E
CSe9, 7''' I)*I!E
CSe9, 462A 23E
CSe9, 7 REGIS!ER

En"r5+tion En"r5+tion infor$ation.
En"r5+tion, +1+ infoD
E4+ires 0se& to in&i"ate /.en t.e
$essa1e "ontent is no lon1er
vali&. Can 8e a n-$8er of
se"on&s or a &ate an& ti$e.
E4+ires, B'
E4+ires, !.-, 'J Ean 7FFF 7J,'' CS!

24
S!P Headers - Continued
From Required field containing the originating S!P
URL. Can also include a display name.
From: Dana Scully <sip:dana@skeptics.org>
From: sip:+1-31+-3+2-7360@gateway.wcom.com;
tag=123+567
f: sip: guest@192.168.1.1

Nax-Forwards Count decremented by each server
forwarding the message. When goes to
zero, server sends a +83 Too Nany Hops
response.
Nax-Forwards: 10
Priority Can specify message priority
Priority: normal
Priority: emergency
Record-Route Added to a request by a proxy that needs to
be in the path of future messages.
Record Route: sip.mci.com
Require !ndicates options necessary for the session.
Require: local.telephony
Response-Key Contains PGP key for encrypted response
expected.
Response-Key: pgp info.
Retry-After !ndicates when the resource may be
available. Can be a number of seconds or a
date and time.
Retry-After: 3600
Retry-After: Sat, 01 Jan 2000 00:01 GNT


13
25
S!P Headers - Continued
Ro-te Deter$ines t.e ro-te
ta?en 85 a $essa1e.
Ro-te, orino"o.8roo?s.net
S-8Ke"t Can 8e -se& to in&i"ate
nat-re of "all.
S-8Ke"t, More a8o-t SIP
s, 3o-L& 8etter ans/erM

!o Re9-ire& fiel& "ontainin1
t.e re"i+ient SIP 0R;. Ma5
"ontain a &is+la5 na$e.
!o, =o4 M-l&er
Gsi+,$-l&er%lone1-n$an.or1H
!o, si+,7'7'F'''%o+erator.$"i."o$I
ta1<674
t,
si+,78''CO;;EC!%tele"o$.$"i."o$I
ta1<A2
0ns-++orte& ;ists feat-res not
s-++orte& 85 server.
0ns-++orte&, t"a+.tele+.on5
*ia 0se& to s.o/ t.e +at.
ta?en 85 t.e re9-est.
*ia, SIPC2.'C0DP si+.$fs."o$
*ia, SIPC2.'C!CP --net."o$
v, SIPC2.'C0DP 7F2.7B8.7.7
Warnin1 Contains a "o&e an& te4t to
/arn a8o-t a +ro8le$
Warnin1, 667 0ni"ast not availa8le

26
via Headers and Routing
Via headers are used for routing S!P
messages
- Requests
- Request initiator puts address in Via header
- Servers check Via with sender's address, then add
own address, then forward. (if different, add
received" parameter)
- Responses
- Response initiator copies request Via headers.
- Servers check Via with own address, then forward
to next Via address
14
27
S!P Firewall Considerations
- Firewall Problem
- Can block S!P packets
- Can change !P addresses of packets
- TCP can be used instead of UDP
- Record-Route can be used:
- ensures Firewall proxy stays in path
- A Firewall proxy adds Record-Route header
- Clients and Servers copy Record-Route and put in
Route header for all messages
28
S!P Nessage Body
- Nessage body can be any protocol
- Nost implementations:
- SDP - Session Description Protocol
- RFC 2327 +f98 by Handley and Jacobson
- http:ffwww.ietf.orgfrfcfrfc2327.txt
- Used to specify info about a multi-media session.
- SDP fields have a required order
- For RTP - Real Time Protocol Sessions:
- RTP Audiofvideo Profile (RTPfAvP) payload descriptions
are often used
15
29
SDP Examples
SDP Example 1
v<'
o<aKo.nston N7B76AAA7272 I) IP4
.ost./"o$."o$
s<;etOs !al?
t<' '
"<I) IP4 7'7.B4.4.7
$<a-&io 4F7J' R!PCA*P ' 6
SDP Example 2
v<'
o<+i"ar& 724666 BJ8FA I) IP4
--net."o$
s<En1a1eM
t<' '
"<I) IP4 7'7.264.2.7
$<a-&io 64AB R!PCA*P '
=iel& Des"ri+ton
*ersion v=0
Ori1in
o=<username> <session id> <version>
<network type> <address type> <address>
Session )a$e s=<session name>
!i$es t=<start time> <stop time>
Conne"tion Data
c=<network type> <address type>
<connection address>
Me&ia
m=<media> <port> <transport> <media
format list>

30
Another SDP Example
v=0
o=alan +1-613-1212 IN host.wcom.com
s=SSE University Seminar - SIP
i=Audio, Listen only
u=http://sse.mcit.com/university/
e=alan@wcom.com
p=+1-329-342-7360
c=IN IP4 10.64.5.246
b=CT:128
t=2876565 2876599
m=audio 3456 RTP/AVP 0 3
a=type:recvonly
16
31
Authentication 8 Encryption
- S!P supports a variety of approaches:
- end to end encryption
- hop by hop encryption
- Proxies can require authentication:
- Responds to INVITEs with 407 Proxy-
Authentication Required
- Client re-INVITEs with Proxy-Authorization
header.
- S!P Users can require authentication:
- Responds to INVITEs with 401 Unathorized
- Client re-INVITEs with Authorization header
32
S!P Encryption Example
INVITE sip:picard@wcom.com SIP/2.0
Via: SIP/2.0/UDP host.wcom.com:5060
From: Alan Johnston <sip:alan@wcom.com>
To: Jean Luc Picard <sip:picard@wcom.com>
Call-ID: 314159@host.wcom.com
CSeq: 1 INVITE
Content-Length: 224
Encryption: PGP version=2.6.2, encoding=ascii
q4aspdoCjh32a1@WoiLuaE6erIgnqD3erDg8aFs8od7idf@
hWjasGdg,ddgg+fdgf_ggEO;ALewAKFeJqAFSeDlkjhasdf
kj!aJsdfasdfKlfghgasdfasdfa|Gsdf>a!sdasdf3w2945
1k45mser?we5y;343.4kfj2ui2S8~&djGO4kP%Hk#(Khuje
fjnjmbm.sd;dal;12;123=]aw;erwAo3529ofgk
17
33
PSTN Features with S!P
Features implemented by S!P Phone
- Call answering: 200 OK sent
- Busy: 483 Busy Here sent
- Call rejection: 603 Declined sent
- Caller-!D: present in From header
- Hold: a re-!Nv!TE is issued with !P Addr =0.0.0.0
- Selective Call Acceptance: using From,
Priority, and Subject headers
- Camp On: 181 Call Queued responses are
monitored until 200 OK is sent by the called party
- Call Waiting: Receiving alerts during a call
34
PSTN Features with S!P
Features implemented by S!P Server
- Call Forwarding: server issues 301 Moved
Permanently or 302 Moved Temporarily
response with Contact info
- Forward Don't Answer: server issues 408
Request Timeout response
- voicemail: server 302 Moved Temporarily
response with Contact of voicemail Server
- Follow Ne Service: Use forking proxy to try
multiple locations at the same time
- Caller-!D blocking - Privacy: Server encrypts From
information
18
35
S!P User Location Example
Q=quality gives preference
SIP/2.0 302 Moved temporarily
Contact: sip:henry@wcom.com
;service=IP,voice mail
;media=audio ;duplex=full ;q=0.7
Contact : phone: +1-972-555-1212; service=ISDN
;mobility=fixed; language=en,es, ;q=0.5
Contact : phone: +1-214-555-1212; service=pager
;mobility=mobile
;duplex=send-only ;media=text; q=0.1; priority=urgent
;description=For emergency only
Contact : mailto: henry@wcom.com
S!P supports mobility across networks and devices
36
S!P Nobility Support
SIP Redirect
Server
SIP Proxy
Server
Foreign
Network
Mobile
Host
Home
Network
Corresponding
Host
1 2
3
6
4
5
1 INVITE
2 302 moved temporarily
3, 4 INVITE
5, 6 OK
7 Data
Global: Wire and wireless
No tunneling required
No change to routing
For fast hand-offs use:
Use Cellular IP or
Use DRCP
7
19
37
S!P Nobility
Pre-call mobility
- NH can find S!P server
via multicast REG!STER
- NH acquires !P address
via DHCP
- NH updates home S!P
server
Nid-call mobility
- NH->CH: New !Nv!TE
with Contact and
updated SDP
- Re-registers with home
registrar
Need not bother home registrar: Use multi-stage registration
Recovery from disconnects
38
Nobile !P Communications
Nobile !P Requirements
- Transparency above L2:
Nove but keep !P address and
all sessions alive
- Nobility
- Within subnet
- Within domain
- Global
- AAA and NA!s
- Location privacy
- QoS for r.t. communications
Evolution of Wireless Nobility
- Circuit Switched Nobility
based on central !Ns
- LAN-NAN: Cellular !P
- Wide Area: Nobile !P
- Universal (any net): S!P
20
39
Presence, !nstant Nessaging and voice
http:ffwww.ietf.orgfinternet-draftsfdraft-ietf-impp-model-03.txt
40
!P S!P Phones and Adaptors
1
2
3
Are !nternet hosts
- Choice of application
- Choice of server
- !P appliance
!mplementations
- 3Com (2)
- Cisco
- Columbia University
- Nediatrix (1)
- Nortel (3)
- Pingtel
21
41
S!P Summary
- S!P is:
- Relatively easy to implement
- Gaining vendor and carrier acceptance
- very flexible in service creation
- Extensible and scaleable
- Appearing in products right now
- S!P is not:
- Going to make PSTN interworking easy
- Going to solve all !P Telephony issues (QoS)
42
References
Book on Internetworking Multimedia by Jon Crowcroft, Mark Handley,
Ian Wakeman, UCL Press, 1999 by Morgan Kaufman (USA) and
Taylor Francis (UK)
RFC 2543: SIP: Session Initiation Protocol
ftp://ftp.isi.edu/in-notes/rfc2543.txt
The IETF SIP Working Group home page
http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/sip-charter.html
SIP Home Page
http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~hgs/sip/
Papers on IP Telephony
http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~hgs/sip/papers.html
22
43
Relevant !ETF Working Groups
- A-&ioC*i&eo !rans+ort (avt# R!P
- Differentiate& Servi"es (&iffserv# > :oS in 8a"?8one
- IP !ele+.on5 (i+tel# > CP;, GW lo"ation, !RIP
- Inte1rate& Servi"es (intserv# > en&toen& :oS
- Me&ia Gate/a5 Control ($e1a"o# > IP tele+.on5 1ate/a5s
- M-lti+art5 M-lti$e&ia Session Control ($$-si"# > SIP, SDP,
"onferen"in1
- PS!) an& Internet Internet/or?in1 (+int# > $i4t servi"es
- Reso-r"e Reservation Set-+ Proto"ol (rsv+#
- Servi"e in t.e PS!)CI) Re9-estin1 In!ernet Servi"e (s+irits#
- Session Initiation Proto"ol (si+# > si1nalin1 for "all set-+
- Si1nalin1 !rans+ort (si1tran# > PS!) si1nalin1 over IP
- !ele+.one )-$8er Ma++in1 (en-$# > s-r+rises M
- Instant Messa1in1 an& Presen"e Proto"ol (i$++#
.tt+,CCietf.or1C.t$l.".artersC/1&ir..t$l
This large work effort may cause the complete re-engineering
of communication systems and services