PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT Volume 40, Issue 1, February 2013 Online English edition of the Chinese language

journal Cite this article as: PETROL. EXPLOR. DEVELOP., 2013, 40(1): 114. RESEARCH PAPER

Large-scale accumulation and distribution of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon resources in China

ZHAO Wenzhi1,*, HU Suyun2, WANG Hongjun2, BIAN Congsheng2, WANG Zecheng2, WANG Zhaoyun2
1. PetroChina Exploration & Production Company, Beijing 100007, China; 2. PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, Beijing 100083, China

Abstract: This paper analyzes the large-scale accumulation conditions and distribution characteristics of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon resources in China. Large-scale development of accumulation elements and their change in scale are the material basis of large scale oil and gas accumulation, determining the regional nature of oil and gas distribution. Liquid hydrocarbon dispersed in marine source rocks being cracked to form a large volume of gas and coal measure source rocks expelling gas during uplift are two important factors for the formation of large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation, which control the scale of source rocks that enter the main gas-generating stage. Volume flow and diffusive flow are the main migration-accumulation mechanism for the large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation, which ensures the sufficiency of hydrocarbon supply. Pancake, layer-like, and cluster are three main accumulation forms of large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation, which ensure the scale of hydrocarbon accumulation. Middle to low abundance hydrocarbon resources are characterized by near-source distribution, main-body play, late accumulation stage and single accumulation type. The periclinal area of palaeo-highs in marine craton basins, the lower slopes and sags in an intra-continental depression basin, and the gentle slopes of foreland basins are the most likely areas for the development of large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation, and they have two types of accumulation, large area and large scope. The proposal of the large-scale accumulation of middle to low abundance hydrocarbon resources in China improves the hydrocarbon discovering potential in middle to deep layers of superimposed basins and in the lower slopes and sags in depression basins, enlarges the exploration scale, and extends the hydrocarbon exploration from local second-order structure zones to the whole basin with the main source rock as the center, and from middle layers to deep, even super-deep, layers. Key words: middle-low abundance hydrocarbon resources; large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation; condition; distribution characteristics; exploration field; superimposed basin; depressed basin; onshore China

1 Overview of hydrocarbon resources in onshore superimposed basins in China

The mainland continent of China was formed as a result of the collision, accretion and merge of a number of small ancient plates (e.g. North China Plate, Tarim Plate, Yangtze Plate) of different scales [12]. It has generally experience a long period of complicated evolution and multiple periods of geodynamic system superposition and reconstruction. The sedimentary basins in China received Early Paleozoic marine, Late Paleozoic marine to transitional and Mesozoic and Cenozoic continental depositional architectures from the bottom up [3], forming a couple of large-scale superimposed basins with multi-cycles [46], e.g. the Ordos Basin, the Sichuan Basin, the Tarim Basin, the Songliao Basin, and the Bohai Bay Basin. Provided with abundant hydrocarbon resources, petroliferous basins with superimposed sedimentation are the current focus of hydrocarbon exploration and reserves increase in

China. Through the exploration over the last half a century, a number of large and medium sized oil and gas fields, e.g. Daqing, Shengli, north Dagang, Damintun have been discovered in Mesozoic and Cenozoic terrestrialformations, which symbolize the first milestone in the founding of Chinas petroleum industry [78]. Since the late 1980s, more efforts have been put into hydrocarbon exploration targeting Paleozoic marine and transitional formations. Consequently, some large and medium oil and gas fields have been discovered in succession, e.g. Jingbian Gas Field in middle Ordos Basin and Sulige Gas Field in north Ordos Basin [9], Kela2, Dina and Dabei Gas Field in Kuche foreland province in the Tarim Basin, Lunnan, Tahe and Tazhong oil and gas fields in deep marine craton carbonate measures, Puguang and Longgang gas field in Permian and Triassic System in the Sichuan Basin [1013]. The exploration practices verify the existence of large oil and gas fields both in shallow to middle Mesozoic

Received date: 09 Aug. 2012; Revised date: 10 Nov. 2012. * Corresponding author. E-mail: zwz@petrochina.com.cn Foundation item: Supported by the National 973 Program (2007CB209500) and the National Carbonate Rock Major Project (2008ZX05004). Copyright 2013, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina. Published by Elsevier BV. All rights reserved.

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and Cenozoic terrestrial formations and in middle to deep Paleozoic marine to transitional formations in superimposed petroliferous basins [1416]. According to petroleum exploration in recent years [1724], there are some trends in superimposed petroliferous basin exploration: (1) effective exploration depth has increased continuously. The exploration has deepened by 1 5002 000 m compared with previous activities. In eastern China, continental clastic rock exploration has gone beyond 3 500 m depth, and discovered meaningful oil and gas in formations deeper than 4 000 m. In western China, exploration has been pushed down to over 5 000 m depth, and made breakthroughs in formations deeper than 6 000 m; the deepest exploration depth is close to 8 000 m; (2) exploration has expanded constantly from previous second-order structure zones to structural lows and depressions in spacious slope areas. Large scale hydrocarbon reserves discovered to date have made slope areas an important focus in onshore petroleum reserves and resulted in production increases in China; (3) fundamental changes in prospecting targets from previous structural reservoirs to composite stratigraphic, lithologic and structural-lithologic reservoirs have taken place. The latter has become a principal part in petroleum reserves increases; (4) reservoir types have diversified greatly from mainly clastic reservoir rocks in the past to an assemblage of clastic rocks, carbonate rocks, volcanic rocks and metamorphic rocks. Special reservoir types have gained an increasingly prominent position in reserves increases; (5) most large oil and gas fields discovered recently have medium to low abundance of hydrocarbons, indicating the deterioration of resource quality; but their large reserves scale indicates large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation in the past; (6) engineering technology plays a

crucial role in not only lowering exploration cost but also enhancing the economic value of resources. Onshore hydrocarbon resources of medium to low abundance are spread extensively across China (Figure 1). Aiming at hydrocarbon resources with medium to low abundance in onshore superimposed petroliferous basins, this paper probes the geologic settings of these large-scale accumulations and their distribution in the hope of shedding a little light on hydrocarbon geologic theory and to push ahead exploration and reserves increases in the province.

2 Geologic settings for large-scale accumulation of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon

We have observed a special kind of hydrocarbon accumulation which is low in abundance [25], extensive in distribution and large in potential reserve; widely spread over large onshore petroliferous basins in China; we refer to them as medium-low abundance hydrocarbon resources. In general this kind of resource differs significantly from medium-high abundance resources in terms of reservoir geometry, source -reservoir-seal assemblage, mechanisms of hydrocarbon generation, expulsion, migration and accumulation, preservation conditions, etc. Here we use the concept of medium-low abundance resources in large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation to indicate its accumulation and distribution features. 2.1 Concept and connotations of large-scale accumulation of medium-low abundance resources 2.1.1 Definition of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon resources In accordance with their quality and economic value, hy-

Fig. 1

Distribution of hydrocarbon resources of medium to low abundance in China

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drocarbon resources occurring in major onshore petroliferous basins in China can be classified into two categories, i.e. high abundance resources and medium-low abundance resources. Just as its name implies, medium-low abundance resources refer to hydrocarbons relatively low in abundance. According to the statistical data based on national standards for hydrocarbon geologic reserves abundance classification (for crude oil, reserves 300104 t/km2 belong to high abundance, reserves 100104300104 t/km2 medium abundance, and reserves 50104100104 t/km2 low abundance; for natural gas, reserves 10108 m3/km2 represent high abundance, reserves 210810108 m3/km2 medium abundance, and reserves < 2108 m3/km2 low abundance), in the past 10 years China witnessed the discovery of 58 large and medium scale onshore oilfields with proved reserves of 42.55108 t and 31 large onshore gas fields with proved reserves of 2.331012 m3. Oil and natural gas reserves from medium-low abundance fields account for 76.5% and 68.8% of proved reserves respectively. As for hydrocarbon resources abundance anticipated to be discovered, 61% of oil resources and 67% of natural gas resources are estimated to be medium-low abundance resources. Obviously hydrocarbon resources of medium to low abundance are the targets of interest in near-term hydrocarbon reserves increases and would be a dominant component of future oil and gas reserves in China. What is the real meaning of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon resources? First, this kind of resource is the product of conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs mixed with unconventional hydrocarbon accumulations, which is determined by the specific geologic environments and evolution of petroliferous basins in China. Second, these kinds of resources feature extensive oil and gas bearing areas and large-scale reserves; the hydrocarbon bearing area would generally reach hundreds of or thousands of or even tens of thousands of square kilometers and initial hydrocarbons in place would amount to several hundred million or billions of tons oil equivalent but relatively low in abundance per square kilometre. Third, the resource distribution is very uneven; a large oil and gas field would usually consist of thousands of hydrocarbon reservoirs of small scale, and contain tight oil and gas zones of still lower hydrocarbon saturation, water zones or dry zones distributed continuously or discontinuously in numerous small lithologic or stratigraphic reservoir units. 2.1.2 Concept and connotations of large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations The so-called large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation refers to numerous hydrocarbon reservoirs spreading widely over depression platforms and slopes in onshore cratonic basins and gentle slopes in foreland basins in China due to the existence and lateral variation of accumulation elements on a large scale. For example, the Upper Paleozoic Sulige Gas Field in the Ordos Basin is composed of a series of lithologic gas reservoirs, with proved gas-bearing area of 2.08104 km2
3

and proved reserves of 2.851012 m3, so far, showing typical features of large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation. The concept of large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation has two connotations. One is the existence and lateral variation of accumulation elements on a large scale. In terms of accumulation elements, the distribution area of source kitchen, reservoir bodies and source-reservoir-seal assemblages should at least reach thousands of or even tens of thousand square kilometers, e.g. both Upper Paleozoic Carboniferous coal-measure source rocks and Permian clastic reservoir rocks are over 20104 km2 in the Ordos Basin. As for scale variation of accumulation elements, the intense planar heterogeneity in source kitchens and reservoir bodies would lead to lateral variations in consequent stratigraphic and lithologic traps which may be distributed in clusters. For example, the large Ordovician carbonate fracture-vug type Lunnan-Tahe Oil and Gas Field in the Tarim Basin contains hundreds of fractured vuggy units and each fractured vuggy unit is a relatively independent hydrocarbon accumulation unit; hydrocarbon reservoirs formed distributed groups (Figure 2). The other connotation is hydrocarbon accumulations in layer-cake patterns or in cluster formation, which are the most typical features separating hydrocarbon reservoir groups of medium to low abundance from conventional high abundance oil and gas reservoirs (fields) and unconventional continuous hydrocarbon accumulations. 2.1.3 Connotation of hybrid hydrocarbon resources

According to the geologic features of discovered hydrocarbon reservoirs, hydrocarbon resources in China can be classified into three categories, i.e. conventional resources represented by oil and gas fields (reservoirs) of high abundance, unconventional resources or continuous hydrocarbon accumulations such as tight sand gas, tight oil, coalbed methane, shale gas, etc., and hybrid resources of the conventional mixed with the unconventional. Hybrid resources are geologically equivalent to hydrocarbon reservoir groups with medium to low abundance and have the following features: (1) blended properties, which means their reservoir petrophysical properties and reservoir structures represent a transitional state from the conventional to the unconventional (Figure 3); (2) dual mechanisms, which means there are two hydrocarbon accumulation mechanisms, i.e. volume flow charge via Darcy flow for the conventional and diffusion flow charge via non-Darcy flow for the unconventional (mainly refers to tight sand oil and gas); (3) dual resource constitution. If low abundance reservoirs are taken as those with in-place reservoir permeability less than 0.1103 m2 and surface permeability less than 1103 m2, the conventional and unconventional gas reserves make up about 35% and 65% respectively in onshore natural gas reserves discovered in China with medium to low abundance (also known as low permeability). 2.2 Basic conditions for large-scale accumulation of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon Large-scale accumulation of medium-low abundance hy-

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O12yMiddle and Lower Ordovician Yingshan Formation, O2yjUpper Ordovician Yijianfang Formation, O3qUpper Ordovician Qrebake Formation, O3sUpper Ordovician Sangtamu Formation

Fig. 2

Distribution of fractured vuggy hydrocarbon unit in Tahe Oilfield

Fig. 3 Reservoir petrophysical properties of different kinds of natural gas reservoirs

drocarbon depends on the existence of accumulation elements on a large scale and three aspects of variations in accumulation conditions on a certain scale, i.e. the existence of source kitchens and reservoir bodies on a large scale and their change in heterogeneity, the extensive distribution of source-reservoir-seal assemblages, and formation uplift on a large scale. 2.2.1 Existence and variation of accumulation elements on a large scale 2.2.1.1 Extensive development of three kinds of source kitchen and two kinds of reservoir bodies There are three kinds of major source kitchens for large4

scale accumulation of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon resources: (1) coal-measure source rocks, mainly distributed in the Carboniferous-Permian and Triassic-Jurassic Systems; (2) argillaceous source rocks, commonly found in the Cretaceous System in the Songliao Basin, the Triassic System in the Ordos Basin, or the Carboniferous-Permian System in the Junggar Basin, etc.; (3) cracked gas from liquid hydrocarbons residing in source rocks, mainly found in marine Paleozoic measures in the Tarim and Sichuan Basin. The mass development of source kitchens refers to the large scale of kitchens which may provide enough hydrocarbon sources for large-scale accumulations from medium-low abundance hydrocarbons as well as the large scale of kitchens during the hydrocarbon generation and expulsion stages. For example, the Upper Paleozoic Carboniferous-Permian coal-measure source rocks as a whole with an area of 24104 km2 in the Ordos Basin have reached the peak gas generation threshold of Ro above 1.2% at the end of the Cretaceous due to gentle formation configuration, which means over 90% of source kitchens have entered the gas generation window. The overall basin uplift since the Cretaceous has given rise to adsorbed gas desorption and free gas expansion, which have then been discharged from gas source kitchens for accumulation over an area of 18104 km2. There is also large scale liquid hydrocarbons residing in marine argillaceous source rocks in the Tarim and Sichuan Basins which have been converted to natural gas via thermal cracking at a high-post mature stage. Cracked gas source rocks cover an area of 7104 km2 in the Manjar depression in the Tarim Basin. The Sinian-Cambrian gas source kitchens that have also reached the thermal cracking stage also extend over an area greater than 8104 km2 in the Sichuan Basin.

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The mass development of reservoir bodies refers to those reservoir groups transformed from depositional sand bodies which are controlled by gentle formation configuration and formation water systems in succession and are altered by diagenesis, or fractured vuggy unit groups in cluster distributions on a large scale which are the product of carbonate rocks altered by epigenetic dissolution. The mass development in the paper means the reservoir groups cover thousands of, even tens of thousands of square kilometers (Tables 1 and 2). For example, the proved and basically proved gas-bearing area in the Sulige Gas Field in the Ordos Basin has exceeded 3.3104 km2 with tens of thousands of relatively independent gas reservoirs. Fractured vuggy carbonate reservoir groups are very common in carbonate reservoir rocks and are distributed extensively thorughout the Tarim, Sichuan and Ordos Basins. If each fractured vuggy unit is taken as a basic hydrocarbon accumulation unit, this kind of reservoir group also contains thousands of to tens of thousands of units, spreading over thousands of or tens of thousands of square kilometers. 2.2.1.2 Mass distribution of four source-reservoir-seal assemblages The mass development of source-reservoir-seal assemblages means large-scale distribution of assemblages generated through close surface contact between source rocks, reservoir rocks and caprocks or internal connection by various channels. The large-scale distribution of assemblages is based on the large-scale development of source rocks and reservoir groups. According to the study, there are four kinds of source-reservoir-seal assemblages (Figure 4) in large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations of medium-low abundance in large onshore petroliferous basins in China: (1) extensive assemblages, in which underlying source rocks are in close contact with overlying reservoir bodies in a sheet-like mode on a large scale. This kind of assemblage is represented by the Carboniferous-Permian transitional coal-measure clastic rock
Table 1 Horizon Xu2 Member, Hechuan Xu2 Member, Guang'an He8 Member, Sulige He8 Member, Mizhi-Yulin

assemblages in the Ordos Basin, where source kitchens are in close contact with underlying reservoir groups, conducive to migration and accumulation of gas discharged from source rocks in reservoir groups; (2) sandwich or layer cake assemblage, in which source rocks and reservoir bodies are in alternate contact with each other. This kind of assemblage is represented by the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Sichuan Basin, where the Xu1, Xu3 and Xu5 Members are major gas source rocks and the Xu2, Xu4 and Xu6 Members are major reservoir beds, which interfinger alternately over a distribution area of 11.3104 km2. Gas discharged from source rocks could migrate into adjacent reservoir bodies to form large-scale gas reservoirs; (3) inter-medium assemblage, in which source kitchens are in connection, instead of direct contact, with reservoir groups through fault networks and the planar distribution of unconformable surfaces which act as passages for large-scale hydrocarbon migration and accumulation. This kind of assemblage is represented by the Ordovician Yijianfang, Lianglitage and Yingshan Formations in the slope areas of the Tazhong and Tabei uplifts in the Tarim Basin; (4) reverse flow assemblage, in which source rocks cap the reservoir bodies and hydrocarbons are expelled from overlying source rocks, charging downwards into underlying reservoir bodies to form large-scale reservoirs. This kind of assemblage is also large in scale and represented by the Ordovician Majiagou Formation in the middle Ordos Basin (Figure 5), where the Carboniferous-Permian coal-measures source kitchen directly overlies the Majisgou weathering crust reservoir beds. Here gas flows downwards into underlying reservoir bodies to form gas reservoirs. At present nearly 160 gas reservoirs have been discovered in the Jingbian Gas Field alone, with a probable gas-bearing area of 1.0104 km2, proved gas reserves of 4 337108 m3, basically proved reserves of 330108 m3, probable gas reserves of 2 087108 m3 and PPPR (proved, probable, and possible reserves) totalling 6 754108 m3.

Overview of reservoir bodies in medium-low abundance clastic gas fields in China Sedimentary system area/km2 17 703 27 096 159 386 105 062 Table 2 Sands area /km2 12 534 17 227 145 591 79 135 Reservoirs area/km2 11 852 16 519 115 043 54 891 Single reservoir area/km2 0.510.0 5.015.0 0.31.5 0.21.2 Reservoir-sand area ratio/% 95 96 79 69

Statistics of typical carbonate reservoir bodies

Gas field Jingbian Tahe

Class-I reservoir unit Class-II reservoir unit Class-III reservoir unit Class-IV reservoir unit Proved oil & Number of gas bearing reservoir Single reservoir Single reservoir Single reservoir Single reservoir Number Number Number Number units area/km2 unit area/km2 unit area/km2 unit area/km2 unit area/km2 6 000 1 780 158 348 28 35 20.060.0 3.528.0 53 20 1545 416 77 43 1030 26 250 0.52.0

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Fig. 4 Major source-reservoir-seal assemblages in large-scale gas reservoir groups of medium-low abundance

2.2.1.3 Large-scale variations in three aspects of accumulation elements Large-scale variations in three aspects of accumulation elements include variation in continuity of lateral source kitchen distribution, lateral variation in reservoir petrophysical properties and continuity, and variation in stratigraphy and lithology. These variations would make hydrocarbon flow into adjacent reservoir bodies, continuously or discontinuously, to form hydrocarbon reservoirs distributed in clusters and also ensure large scale hydrocarbon accumulation and reservoir formation. (1) Lateral changes in source kitchen continuity. There are two kinds of source kitchens for large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation: one is continuous source kitchens represented by cracked gas from liquid hydrocarbon residing in source rocks and coal-measures source kitchens. The other is discontinuous source kitchens represented by the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Sichuan Basin. In spite of the existence of

Xujiahe coal-measure source kitchens on a large scale, the discontinuous coal distribution leads to a wide planar variation of hydrocarbon expulsion in both intensity and quantity, and hence the discontinuous hydrocarbon accumulation in adjacent reservoir bodies. Xujiahe coal-measure source kitchens with cumulative gas generation intensity higher than 20108 m3/km2 account for over 80% of the total source kitchen area. Gas source rocks mainly occur vertically in the Xu1, Xu3 and Xu5 Members with individual gas generation intensity of less than 15108 m3/km2 in general. Gas generation intensity in most sections is only 810810108 m3/km2. In terms of the capacity of gas supply from source kitchens, partial reservoir bodies do not receive enough gas due to the discontinuous nature of the source rock distribution and it is difficult for reservoir bodies to form continuous gas reservoirs with high gas saturation, resulting in discontinuous hydrocarbon accumulation and large variation in reservoir abundance. (2) Lateral change in reservoir petrophysical properties and continuity. In spite of the large-scale development of reservoir bodies on the whole, there are still some lateral changes within the internal reservoir space and petrophysical properties owing to the lateral alteration of sedimentary environments, diagenesis and epigenetic reconstruction intensity. As a consequence, a series of reservoir units or fractured vuggy units with relatively good porosity, permeability and pore throat structures are present against a background of quasi-layered distribution. A single reservoir unit or fractured vuggy unit may be small and different in scale, but the gathering of these units would be considerably larger. For example, the sandstone reservoir beds in the Sulige Gas Field, in the Ordos Basin basically consist of numerous tight sands and conventional sands (Figure 6). (3) Lateral change in stratum and lithology. Large-scale reservoir bodies generated against a gentle structural setting exhibit great spatial variations in their internal reservoir

Fig. 5

Gas reservoir section, Jingbian Gas Field, Ordos Basin

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Fig. 6

Reservoir section of Shihezi Formation, Ordos Basin

petrophysical properties and structures. As a result, many genetic types of lithologic-stratigraphic traps come into being, e.g. lithologic traps generated from initial sedimentation, petrophysical property traps originated from diagenesis, stratigraphic traps composed of fractures-vugs and wall rocks originated in epigenesis, etc. These numerous features, independent of quasi-independent traps, often occur in clusters and evolve into reservoir groups once charged with hydrocarbons. Although a single reservoir is small, tens of thousands of units could constitute reservoir groups on a large scale with the distribution area over thousands or even tens of thousands of square kilometers. The large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations may remedy the disadvantage of large structural trap deficiencies in the hinterland and slope areas in large onshore depositional basins and the disadvantage of poor caprock conditions in vast gentle structural areas in the hinterlands in petroliferous basins in China. Large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations may still occur in those provinces with poor caprock conditions (throat breakthrough pressure difference between tight sands and gas sands may be only 0.30.5 MPa in general). 2.2.2 Extensive uplift

lations in the Ordos, Sichuan, Tarim and Junggar Basins, large depression lake basins in China have generally been uplifted by 1 0003 000 m and the present buried depths of major target strata with hydrocarbon accumulations are all deeper than 2 000 m. Basin uplift is considered to facilitate hydrocarbon accumulation on a large scale due to the following three aspects: (1) in continuous burial period, hydrocarbons may accumulate in progressively and be deposited in source rocks at some stage, which reserves energy for hydrocarbon expulsion at the uplift stage; (2) in the process of formation uplift and temperature drop, hydrocarbon generation slows down while oil and gas expand due to the pressure drop. For example, the uplift of coal-measure source kitchens may give rise to pressure release and gas desorption and expansion [2627]. Volume growth from marine liquid hydrocarbon cracking and conversion into gaseous hydrocarbons at the mature to post mature stages [2829] may result in hydrocarbon discharge in a concentrated manner from inner source rocks, i.e. large-scale hydrocarbon expulsion; (3) large onshore depression lake basin uplifts in China have mainly occurred after the end of the Cretaceous, which postpones hydrocarbon accumulation and is advantageous to the preservation of hydrocarbon reservoirs.

Large-scale accumulation of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon features large-scale accumulation during petroliferous basin uplift. Extensive uplift and denudation in a depositional basin are usually regarded as a process of overlying formation pressure drop (i.e. unloading) as well as formation temperature drop and pressure relief. According to classic hydrocarbon accumulation theories, formation uplift would be taken as the cause of reservoir damage and hydrocarbon loss, especially in those provinces with poor caprock conditions. Here we believe that moderate uplift of large depression lake basins in China may not lead to hydrocarbon reservoir damage; instead, it becomes an important period in hydrocarbon expulsion and accumulation. As for moderate uplift, we here refer to an uplift process which would lift source rocks and major target strata up to an appropriate depth interval and meanwhile not lead to hydrocarbon losses. Based on the analysis of uplift magnitude impact on hydrocarbon accumu7

3 Mechanism and distribution of large-scale accumulations of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon

Large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations of medium-low abundance need three geologic prerequisites: (1) source rocks in close and extensive contact with reservoir rocks; (2) reservoir bodies with strong heterogeneity, complicated pore-throat structures and poor petrophysical properties; (3) gently dippng strata and lack of high-relief structural traps and good caprocks. Accordingly, large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations of medium-low abundance differ greatly from both conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs and unconventional hydrocarbon accumulations in mechanism and distribution. 3.1 Mechanism of hydrocarbon migration and accumulation As mentioned above, the close and extensive contact of

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source rocks with reservoir bodies is one of the prerequisites for large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation at medium-low abundance, which works in two aspects: (1) the excessive pressure inside source kitchens would be fully converted into effective drive to expel massive hydrocarbon generated from source kitchens into reservoir bodies over a short distance; (2) the extensive contact guarantees extensive migration and accumulation over a short distance for large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations. There are two mechanisms working in the process of hydrocarbon accumulation in reservoir bodies with poor properties: (1) the mechanism of volume flow migration and accumulation. Hydrocarbons generated intermittently in large quantities in source kitchens, give rise to overpressure and inner source pressure much higher than the adjacent reservoir pressure. Thus the source-reservoir pressure difference works as a powerful force driving hydrocarbons into tight heterogeneous reservoir bodies in the mode of volume flow. Meanwhile differences between source-reservoir hydrocarbon concentrations would also drive hydrocarbons to diffusively flow into reservoir rocks. We found that hydrocarbon charge through volume flow mainly occurs during the burial stage, i.e. at a stage where high source-reservoir pressure differences occur. Taking the Ordos Basin as an example, it is confirmed by pressure data from inclusion tests that there is at least 7 MPa residual source-sand pressure difference in the Upper Paleozoic Shanxi Formation and 5 MPa residual pressure difference between Shanxi Formation and adjacent Shihezi Formation sandstone, which would propel gases inside source rocks to move toward reservoir beds, i.e. gas charge with volume flow. At a later basin uplift stage, residual source-reservoir pressure differences may decline gradually because hydrocarbon generation in source kitchens comes to an end. On the other hand, free gas volumetric expansion in micropores in source rocks due to formation uplift may drive up inner source pressures and maintain certain drainage forces in source rocks. Meanwhile desorption of adsorbed gas in source kitchens owing to source pressure decline during uplift would increase free gas saturation in those micropores in source rocks, which would also contribute towards the source-reserTable 3 Gas field Xinchang Daniudi Hechuan Guang'an Anyue Sulige Yulin Wushenqi Shenmu Oil & gas bearing area/km2 161.20 1545.65 1058.30 578.90 360.80 20 800.00 1 715.80 872.50 827.70

voir driving force; (2) the mechanism of diffusion flow migration and accumulation. In general, reservoir bodies in large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations of medium-low abundance often feature low porosity, low to extremely low permeability, high displacement pressure and high irreducible water saturation. In addition to volume flow driven by source-reservoir pressure differences, diffusion driven by hydrocarbon concentration differences would also cause hydrocarbon migration and accumulation. Especially in those tight reservoirs with poorer properties and pore-throat structure, hydrocarbons may dominantly be propelled into reservoir beds by diffusion due to concentration differences. On account of the extensive and direct contact of source rocks with reservoir rocks, the diffusion may occur regionally on a large scale. Therefore diffusion is another mechanism for large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation. 3.2 Major patterns of large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation Pancake, layer-like, and cluster are three major accumulation patterns of large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations which ensures the scale of hydrocarbon accumulation. Accumulation in thin, layer-cake patterns refers to the type of discoveries with small oil and gas column height (usually several meters to dozens of meters) and large oil and gas bearing areas (usually thousands to tens of thousands of square kilometers); oil and gas zones would be distributed in space like a layer-cake. The area of this kind of reservoir could be denoted with regular squares in numerical characterization, with square height standing for oil and gas column height and square area oil and gas bearing area, with the aspect ratio denoting the feature of the thin cake like structure. Based on this notation, we counted the medium-low abundance gas reservoir groups discovered in the Ordos, Sichuan and Tarim Basins (Table 3) and found that values of aspect ratio often exceed 1000 or ten thousand at the most. For example, the proved gas-bearing area in the Sulige Gas Field is about 20 800 km2 and effective gas zone thickness is 515 m; the ratio of average width of gas-bearing area to average gas zone thickness is up to 14422 and is much higher than that in large gas fields with high

Medium-low abundance gas reservoir and gas zone thickness, China Reservoir thickness/m 825 619 1126 635 1036 515 330 512 315 Porosity/% 3.08.0 5.011.0 7.010.0 6.013.0 6.014.0 7.011.0 5.011.0 3.514.0 4.012.0 Permeability/ 103 m2 0.104.00 0.00110.00 0.00150.00 0.00110.00 0.00114.00 0.0110.00 0.0110.00 0.0110.00 0.0110.00 Reservoir-sandstone Reservoir thickness ratio /% width-to-thickness ratio 9 28 25 20 29 57 58 56 69 1 311 3 574 2 168 1 322 1 187 14 422 3 570 3 475 3 424

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abundance, where the ratio is generally from less than one hundred to several hundred. For example, the gas-bearing area in the Kela2 Gas Field is 48 km2 with a gas column height of 55 m on average, the ratio of average width to average thickness is only 126; this ratio in the Puguang Gas Field is only 75. It is noted here that large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation in thin, layer-cake patterns may come about in the provinces with poor caprock conditions; thereby this pattern is very important for large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations of medium-low abundance. For instance, the Upper Paleozoic structure in the Sulige Gas Field is a gentle monocline, high in the north and low in the south, with a dip angle of 13. Gas zone thickness is usually 515 m and single gas-bearing sand is 1 0002 500 m in length and 100250 m in width. Buoyancy pressure from the gas column height is 0.15 MPa at the most. The direct caprocks over the gas zones are tight sands with poorer properties and their displacement pressure is higher than 1.2 MPa according to lab data. The reservoir-seal displacement pressure difference is larger than 0.5 MPa, which means the buoyancy from the gas column is insufficient for natural gas to break through caprocks and gas reservoirs may then be preserved. Accumulation in cluster refers to oil and gas accumulation in a series of stratigraphic or lithologic trap groups. Terrestrial sedimentary series, such as carbonate series in gentle platforms in cratonic basins, transitional and continental series in onshore depressions and continental sedimentary series in wide gentle slopes in foreland basins, are reconstructed by positive diagenesis and epidiagenesis to form reservoir beds with strong heterogeneity. Variation in lithologies and hydrodynamic energy in the original sedimentary source area could also result in heterogeneous reservoirs. As a consequence, numerous independent or quasi-independent reservoir groups may come into being; the single reservoir scale may be small, but a gathering of these reservoirs would become considerably large (Table 4). Oil and gas charge into these reservoir bodies would create hydrocarbon reservoir groups on a large scale; besides the reservoir groups do not demand sealing conditions and some inferior sealing conditions (usually less than several mega-pascal in pressure) are sufficient for large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations, in which reservoirs with better abundance (i.e. sweet spots) become targets for exploration. For example, the He8 Member in the Sulige Gas Field, where thousands of gas reservoir groups, of a small single scale, constitute the large gas field owing to
Table 4 Gas field Sulige Jingbian Hechuan Guang'an

severe lateral variations in lithology and petrophysical properties of channel bar sands. Tight gas zones with low gas saturation, dry zones and water zones (at the structural low in west Sulige) are distributed continuously or discontinuously between small conventional lithologic gas reservoirs. Unconventional and conventional gases are mixed together on the whole. According to studies on the Sulige Gas Field, the gas-bearing area is close to 3.3104 km2, gas reservoirs defined by sand geometry are about 51048104, gas column height in single gas reservoir is 26 m, the scale of OGIP is generally 3000104 10 000104 m3, and the average reserves abundance of the whole field is about 0.7108 m3/km2. Tight sands on the whole bear natural gas, and spread continuously despite their low gas saturation. A quasi-layered pattern is most common in hydrocarbon accumulations in fractured-vuggy carbonate reservoir beds. According to studies, quasi-layered fractured-vuggy karst reservoir beds spread widely in periclinal zones at inherited palaeohighs in cratonic basins due to the impacts of weathering, karstification, bedding karst and inter-stratal karst. Oil and gas charge into these reservoir beds will lead to a distributed configuration of quasi-layered accumulations. Take the Ordovician Yijianfang, Yingshan and Lianglitage Formations in the Tabei uplift slope area in the Tarim Basin as an example. There are hundreds or even thousands of fractures and vugs originating from multi-karstification and each fractured vuggy unit may be regarded as a relatively independent accumulation unit (Figure 7). Multiple quasi-layered hydrocarbon reservoir groups can be merged together to form large oil and gas fields, e.g. the Tahe and Halahatang Oilfields, with reserve scales of several hundred million tons to even several billion tons. 3.3 Distribution of large-scale accumulations of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon 3.3.1 Proximity to source

Proximity to source implies that hydrocarbon reservoirs of medium-low abundance are distributed in the areas within or adjacent to effective source kitchens and reservoir distribution is controlled by source area. There are two aspects to consider: (1) the reservoir bodies coexist and are in close contact with source kitchens on a large scale, which is a prerequisite of large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation at medium-low abundance; (2) there is a considerable source-reservoir pressure difference or hydrocarbon concentration difference to guarantee effective hydrocarbon accumulation on a large scale.

Overview of typical clustered medium-low abundance gas reservoirs Gas saturation in single reservoir/% 4065 6090 5065 3560

Number of gas Gas bearing area of Reserves in single Reserves abundance in single Gas zone thickness in reservoir/(108 m3km2) reservoirs single reservoir/km2 reservoir/108 m3 single reservoir/m 51048104 120200 150200 3560 0.31.5 20.060.0 0.510.0 9.017.0 0.31.0 10.060.0 1.020.0 5.040.0 0.30.7 0.20.7 1.05.0 0.84.3 26 27 210 413

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Fig. 7

Quasi-layered hydrocarbon distribution pattern in Tabei uplift and slope area, Tarim Basin

Based on recent studies of medium-low abundance reservoirs discovered in the Ordos, Sichuan, Songliao, Tuha and Junggar Basins, over 90% of reservoirs have been found to be within the extent of source kitchens. Due to the proximity to source, gas reservoir groups of medium-low abundance mainly occur in synclines and wide slopes in depression basins, periclines at palaeohighs in cratonic basins and gentle slopes in foreland basins. 3.3.2 Large area and range plays

The reservoir assemblage (play) refers to a group of hydrocarbon reservoirs which are created under the same or similar forming conditions and are provided with the same or similar genetic mechanisms and distribution. There are two assemblages in large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations of medium-low abundance, i.e. accumulations large in area and accumulations large in range. Accumulations large in area denote the kind of reservoir assemblages dominated by continuous source kitchens with sufficient hydrocarbon supply. These mainly occur in the Carboniferous-Permian transitional sandstone series in the Ordos Basin, followed by some clastic series close to major gas source kitchens, e.g. the Permian Jiamuhe, Xiazijie and Wuerhe Formation around Manas Lake source center in the Junggar Basin, Taiyuan Formation close to source kitchens in the Ordos Basin, the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation close to major gas source kitchens in west Sichuan Basin, and the sandstone inside major Xu1, Xu3 and Xu5 source series are some examples. Accumulations that are large in range denote the kind of extensive reservoir assemblage which contains sweet spots. Usually seen in sandwich assemblages and reverse flow as-

semblages, Xujiahe Formation in central Sichuan Basin and Ordovician Majiagou karstic weathering crust in central Ordos Basin are two typical examples of this kind of assemblage. The single accumulation is hardly economic, but laterally there will be dozens of or even hundreds of hydrocarbon reservoirs spreading over a wide province; these reservoirs are usually separated by water zones or tight zones into patches. Studies show there are two reasons for discontinuity of reservoir: one is uneven distribution of source kitchen and insufficiency of hydrocarbon supply volume, which leads to the hydrocarbons accumulating first in reservoirs nearest the sources; the other is poor continuity of reservoir bodies, which results in scattered distribution of hydrocarbon reservoirs across a vast area. The Xujiahe gas reservoirs in the Sichuan Basin (Figure 8), where Xu2, Xu4 and Xu6 reservoir beds vary greatly in gas saturation and abundance in a lateral direction due to the discontinuous distribution of Xu1, Xu3 and Xu5 coal-measure source rocks, thinning or even an absence of source rocks in some areas. There is little chance to form gas reservoirs in an area with thin coal-measure source rocks. Natural gas would preferably abound in those regions with premium source rocks superimposed with effective reservoir beds, to form accumulations of relatively high abundance and gas saturation. 3.3.3 Late formation

Late formation refers to hydrocarbon reservoirs of medium-low abundance that are usually formed after the middle to late stage of the Cretaceous Period in large onshore depressions making up the petroliferous basins in China. The stage of reservoir formation is obviously subsequent to that of the conventional, but the accumulation efficiency is relatively

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Fig. 8

Xujiahe Formation gas reservoir section, Guang'an, Sichuan Basin

high due to limited dissipation in a shorter period of hydrocarbon loss. The late accumulation is likely due to: (1) formation uplift took place at a later stage; (2) fossil marine source rocks resided within the liquid hydrocarbon window for a long time (almost hundreds of millions of years) which is enough for source rocks to be fully matured. Hydrocarbon expulsion might be limited at an early stage and mass expulsion might follow the rapid burial after the Cretaceous Period; (3) gas generation from thermal cracking might happen at a later stage. These three factors lead to hydrocarbon discharge on a large scale from source kitchens, especially from gas source kitchens, at a later stage to form large-scale hydrocarbon reservoir groups of medium-low abundance. In addition, natural gas adsorption in gas source kitchens due to high adsorbability of coal measures and large-scale desorption and expulsion from sources at the later uplift stage might also cause the late accumulation. Studies show the Sulige Gas Field in the Ordos Basin and the Xujiahe gas reservoir in the central Sichuan Basin were all generated in the Cenozoic Era, exactly coincident with the period of basin uplift. The exploration activities in Sulige and central Sichuan demonstrate the large scale of hydrocarbon accumulation at the uplift stage, proving the possibility of accumulation at a later stage. 3.3.4 Simplicity in reservoir type

Sichuan and Tarim Basins are usually gentle in structure with a low stratigraphic dip angle of 1-3, where reservoirs seem unlikely to occur due to a lack of large structural traps; but the extensive development of lithologic or stratigraphic traps remedies the disadvantages of reservoir forming conditions. Despite their inadequate abundance, massive oil and gas bearing scale and less demanding requirements on sealing conditions make it easier to create accumulations on a large scale.

4
4.1

Discussions
Boundary of clustered reservoirs

Simplicity in reservoir type means that there is only one predominant reservoir type in reservoir groups of medium-low abundance, namely lithologic-stratigraphic reservoirs, which account for over 95% of total reservoirs. This is the inevitable result of the geologic setting, where low-relief marine carbonate series and transitional to terrestrial coalmeasure sedimentary series, fracture-vug systems originated from positive reconstruction and sand bodies deposited from inherited traction currents have intense lateral heterogeneity. These processes are very likely to form stratigraphic and lithologic traps as well as subsequent reservoir groups. Hinterlands in such large-scale petroliferous basins as the Ordos,

It is still in doubt whether thin layer-cake and clustered hydrocarbon accumulations have boundaries or not, as well as where the boundaries are, if they exist and how the boundaries could be defined. The authors think that the hydrocarbon accumulation process is in fact a process of hydrocarbon enrichment in reservoir bodies; no matter how good the abundance and quality are, there is always a process of mineralization; nevertheless, it is more difficult and complicated to define the boundary of medium-low abundance resources compared with conventional resources. As for thin layer-cake and clustered accumulations presented here, it is suggested to differentiate the boundary of reservoir group from the border of a single reservoir. In general the boundaries of reservoir groups are in three forms: (1) lithologic boundary between reservoir group and contemporaneous deposits. Taking the Sulige Gas Field as an example, if we focus on each specific gas sand in a continuous gas zone with superimposed multi-layers, there should be a border of the sand because skylight areas with no gas do exist in a large area; (2) boundary between the reservoir group at the structural low and the water zone; (3) regional property boundaries inside a reservoir group due to the existence of tight lithologies. Individual reservoirs may be provided with four kinds of boundaries: (1) the boundaries of clastic reservoir units are usually

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the property boundaries due to the existence of tight lithologies; (2) gas-oil-water contact in conventional reservoirs; (3) the boundaries of fracture-vug units in carbonate rocks, are generally the division between dissolved pore-vug units and tight wall rocks; (4) the gas-oil-water contact inside fracture-vug units. According to the development experiences in the Sulige Gas Field in the Ordos Basin, wells producing gas and water or only water occur in the north and west part of the field. This implies an evident gas-water transition feature indicating that this part of the field may be taken as the macro-boundary of the Gas Field. Meanwhile there are many areas with little or no sandstone reservoir inside the gas field due to intense heterogeneity of reservoir bodies, which are lithologic pinchout belts and may also be taken as the boundaries of gas reservoirs (Figure 9).

4.2 Differences between the theory of large-scale accumulation and other accumulation theories The ideas for large-scale accumulation of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon are very different from classic hydrocarbon reservoir forming theories and continuous hydrocarbon accumulation theories [30] both in their subjects of study and their accumulation conditions and features. Generally speaking, the differences are greater than the similarities (Table 5). The theory of large-scale accumulation mainly focuses on the hybrid conventional and unconventional resources, varies from the theory of classic reservoir formation and continuous accumulation of conventional and unconventional resources. In such provinces with good reservoir properties or favorable tectonic settings (e.g. low-relief structural traps), the differentiation of gas, oil and water is relatively remarkable and there are dominantly conventional hydrocarbon resources; while in such provinces with tight reservoir beds or short of structural features, the differentiation of gas, oil and water is indistinct and there are mainly unconventional accumulations with complicated reservoir boundaries. As for conventional reservoirs, oil and gas would combine from a disperse state under the effect of formation water buoyancy and discharge into reservoir bodies in volume flow; reservoirs would be provided with high abundance and oil and gas distribution is controlled by local traps, thereby there are distinct gas-oil-water contacts inside reservoirs. As for unconventional resources, hydrocarbons usually spread inside source kitchens and accumulate in self-source-reservoirs or coexisting source-reservoirs via diffusion flow under the effect of source-reservoir pressure difference or hydrocarbon concentration difference; there is no distinct differentiation of gas, oil and water and hydrocarbons would be continuously distributed over a large area. As for distribution, conventional reservoirs usually concentrate in those regions in a basin with low fluid potential and their distribution is often dominated by large structural settings. Unconventional accumulations often coexist with source rocks and often spread inside source series or proximal

Fig. 9

Gas reservoirs in Sulige Gas Field, Ordos Basin Table 5

Overview of three hydrocarbon accumulation theories

Static geologic element Mechanism Limited distribution Darcy & non-Darcy flow Abundance Assemblage Significance

Theory Classical hydrocarbon accumulation Medium-low abundance Hydrocarbon accumulation on a large scale Continuous drocarbon accumulation hy-

Study object Conventional reservoirs Conventionalunconventional Transitional accumulation

Premium source-reservoir-seal assemblage and traps Premium source and poor reservoir-seal assemblage Premium-source and

Separated sourcereservoir Close sourcecontact Close source-reservoir contact

Volume flow Middlecharge high Lowmiddle, Mainly low Medium abundance and above

Structural types Guidance to followed by composite type Extensive distribution (thin layercake & concentrated) Resource Continuous management and evaluation Guidance to prospect forecast prospect forecast

Extensive Non-Darcy flow

Volume flow and diffusion flow charge

reservoir distribution

Unconventional accumulation

poor-seal assemblage, thick and continuous reservoir rocks

Extensive distribution

Rate in publication

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reservoir bodies in alternate contact with source rocks. Hybrid reservoirs of medium-low abundance commonly occupy the same terrains with unconventional resources, like platforms in cratonic basins, gentle synclines in depression basins and wide slopes in foreland basins. Large-scale accumulations may also occur in those regions with tectonic uplift considered in the past to be unfavorable for hydrocarbon prospectivity due to their poor reservoir forming conditions and those districts with poor sealing conditions.

Acknowledgments
In addition to references, this paper also cites some research findings from the National 973 Program (2007CB209500) and the National Carbonate Rock Major Project (2008ZX05004).

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Conclusions

Large onshore petroliferous basins in China widely contain a kind of petroleum resource of medium-low abundance but large-scale hydrocarbon accumulation. The key to large-scale accumulations at medium-low abundance is the existence of accumulation elements on a large scale and variations in accumulation conditions on a large scale. Three kinds of source kitchens, i.e. coal-measure source rocks, marine argillaceous source rocks and source rocks with residing liquid hydrocarbon, and reservoir bodies distributed over a large scale are the physical foundation of large-scale accumulations. The extensive distribution of four kinds of source-reservoir-sealing assemblages, i.e. extensive assemblage, sandwich assemblage, inter-medium assemblage and reverse flow assemblage, provides conditions for large-scale accumulation. Large-scale continuity variation in lateral source kitchen distribution, large-scale lateral variation in reservoir petrophysical properties and their continuity, and large-scale variation in stratigraphy and lithologies guarantee the accumulation on a large scale. Extensive formation uplift also facilitates the overall hydrocarbon expulsion and accumulation. Large-scale accumulation of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon is realized through volume flow and diffusion flow, which guarantees the sufficiency of hydrocarbon charge. Thin layer-cake accumulation, quasi-layered accumulation and clustered accumulation are three major patterns of large-scale accumulation, which guarantees the scale of reservoir formation. Large-scale accumulations of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon feature proximal accumulation, main body of reservoir assemblages, late accumulation and simple reservoir type and are mainly distributed in periclines at palaeohighs in marine cratonic basins, wide slopes and synclines in onshore depression basins and gentle slopes in foreland basins, which are represented by accumulations over a large area and range. The idea of onshore large-scale accumulation of medium-low abundance hydrocarbon in China enriches and develops hydrocarbon accumulation theory and promotes the potential of discovering hydrocarbon resources in middle and deep zones in superimposed basins. It pushes hydrocarbon exploration ahead from local second-order structure zones to the whole basin with major source kitchens as the focus and from shallow and intermediate zones to deep and extremely deep zones. It will be instructive to the extension of future hydrocarbon exploration.
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