AIR POLLUTION Sources Types Effects

Reporters Orlando Elman Jr. Nove Fernandez Priza Solamo Rudy Resuma Ivy Capitula Estephany Resula Zhander Vohr Soreo

Submitted to Engr. Kriz Chavez, ChE

February, 2013

O. ELMAN Jr. Air Pollution Is the introduction of pollutants into the atmosphere that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms, and ruin the environment. Could be in the form of gas, solid particles, or vapor. Sources of pollutants include: - Anthropogenic - Natural Anthropogenic Source Human-made. Mostly related to the burning of fossil fuels. Includes: - smoke from industrial factories - emissions from landfills - fumes from aerosols and paints - vehicle emissions - other man-made pollutants Natural Source Are naturally-occurring pollutants. Part of the daily cycle of the natural world. Includes: - dust from large areas of land without vegetation - CO2 emitted by animals and humans - smoke and CO from wildfires - sulfur oxides and ashes from volcanic eruptions 6 Major Air Pollutants: Carbon monoxide Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Methane Ozone Volatile organic compounds Carbon Monoxide (CO) Is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly lighter than air. It is very toxic and harmful to humans and animals when encountered in higher concentrations. By-product of incomplete combustions of carbon-containing matter.

 Major sources are: - coal-fired power plants - internal combustion engines from vehicles - factories Impacts on the environment and humans: Levels of carbon monoxide on the atmosphere is very negligible to have direct effects on humans. But on high levels, CO reacts with hemoglobin to produce carboxyhemoglobin, which results to coma and death. CO poisoning is the most common type of fatal air poisoning in many countries. Unlike other pollutants, CO persists to stay in the atmosphere, which readily reacts with OHto form CO2, contributing to global warming. Sulfur Oxide (SOx) Some of the top air pollutants known to men. SO2 is a toxic, pungent gas which contributes greatly to the formation of acid rain. SOx are the main precursors of acid rain. Major sources are: - volcanic eruptions - burning of coal and other sulfur-containing Impacts on the environment and humans: SOx are one of the main cause of acid rain, together with NOx. Sulfur oxides react with the ozone molecules on the ozone layer, gradually thinning it. High concentrations of sulfur oxides in the rain causes land to acidify, and crops to wither. High concentrations cause breathing problems on asthmatic people. Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Nitrogen oxides are one of the most prominent air pollutants around the world. Primarily in the form of NO2, together with SO2 creates acid rain. Can be seen as brown haze overhead heavily polluted cities. Major sources are: - produced naturally during thunderstorms - by-products of some industrial processes - combustion of petroleum Effects on the environment and humans: Nitrogen oxides are the precursors of acid rain. It readily reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere, producing nitric acid. High concentrations cause eutrophication. Causes respiratory complications among humans. matter, primarily coal and petroleum

Methane (CH4) Methane is a very potent greenhouse gas. Scientists consider methane to be the 2nd most damaging greenhouse gas, 25 times that of CO2. 2nd most prevalent greenhouse gas. Used mainly as biogas. Like other greenhouse gases, methane is very effective in trapping the heat from the sun from escaping Earth. Major sources are: - emissions from landfills and organic decompositions

- mostly emitted by the agricultural and the industrial sectors Effects on the environment and humans: Methane contributes greatly to global warming, by preventing the heat from the sun to escape from Earth. Methane rises above the stratosphere, enveloping the Earth and gradually increases the Earths average temperature. High concentrations cause dizziness and nervous complications. Ozone (O3) Ozone makes up only 0.6 parts per million of the atmosphere. It is not stable, and breaks down in the lower atmosphere to O2. It forms the ozone layer that protects the Earth from the UV rays. Ozone is not emitted directly into the air, but is formed by gases called nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that in the presence of heat and sunlight react to form ozone. High-level ozone protects us, but ground-level ozone pollutes us. Impacts on the environment and humans: Ground-level ozone is the primary ingredient of smog. Ozone, when inhaled, causes respiratory complications to humans. Ground-level ozone interferes with the ability of plants to produce and store food, so that growth, reproduction and overall plant health are compromised. Ground-level ozone has been shown to reduce agricultural yields for many economically important crops Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Are organic compounds with high volatility. They contribute greatly to global warming, and are the main pollutants that destroy the ozone layer. VOCs include: - fumes from paints and coatings

- CFCs - Benzene N. FERNANDEZ Primary Pollutants the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states it is "emitted into the atmosphere directly from the source of the pollutant and retains the same chemical form." Examples of Primary Pollutants: Car exhaust, smokestacks (CO, SO2, NO) Particulate material (soot, ash) Toxic metals (lead, mercury) Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (methane, propane, CFCs, etc.)

Secondary Pollutants forms as a result of chemical reactions that take place after a substance is released into the air. Examples of secondary pollutants: Atmospheric acids (H2SO4,HNO3) Photochemical oxidants (NO2)

Types of Pollutants 1. metals The heavy metals cadmium, lead and mercury are common air pollutants, being emitted a. cadmium is released into the atmosphere by natural and anthropogenic means. Volcanoes, windborne particles and biogenic emissions are considered the main natural sources of cadmium in the atmosphere (Nriagu, 1989). The anthropogenic sources of cadmium include non-ferrous metal production, stationary fossil fuel combustion, waste incineration, iron and steel production and cement production. Elemental cadmium is released during high-temperature processes such as organic fossil fuel combustion and waste incineration. Oxides (CdO) are emitted by most of the anthropogenic sources. Sulfides (CdS) are prominent in the emissions from non-ferrous metal production and coal combustion. Refuse incineration is a source of cadmium chloride (CdCl2) (AMAP, 1998). Health issues: Kidney and bone are the critical target organs with regard to environmental exposure. mainly as a result of various industrial activities.

The main critical effects include increased excretion of low-molecularweight proteins in the urine (as a result of proximal tubular cell damage) and an increased risk of osteoporosis.

An increased risk of lung cancer has also been reported following inhalation exposure in occupational settings.

b. lead Natural emissions are from wind resuspension and from sea salt, volcanoes, forest fires and biogenic sources (Nriagu, 1989). Major anthropogenic emission sources of lead on a global scale include the combustion of fossil fuels from, for example, traffic, non-ferrous metal production and iron and steel production. Some contributions are also made by cement production and waste disposal (Pacyna & Pacyna, 2001). Atmospheric lead is bound to particulate matter. It tends to be associated with particles 0.21.0 m in size (aerodynamic diameter). oil combustion releases lead as lead oxide (PbO). non-ferrous metal production releases lead sulfate (PbSO4) and PbO. Removal of lead from the atmosphere occurs via wet scavenging and dry deposition.

*Health issues: - Lead is a well-known neurotoxic metal. - Impairment of neurodevelopment in children is the most critical lead effect. c. mercury The main natural sources of mercury are diffusion from the Earths mantle though the lithosphere, evaporation from the sea surface, and geothermal activity. The largest anthropogenic source of mercury on a global scale is the combustion of coal and other fossil fuels. Others sources include metal production, cement production, waste disposal and cremation. On a global scale, the estimated natural emission of mercury represents about one-third of the total, and anthropogenic emissions represent about two-thirds The most abundant mercury species is elemental mercury (Hg0). It exists in the gaseous phase, and its contribution to the total atmospheric mercury burden is more than 90%. Gaseous inorganic mercury (or so-called reactive gaseous mercury (RGM)) exists in the atmosphere in much smaller amounts. The speciation of mercury bound to particles is not known, but it is most likely that divalent mercury compounds are present on the particle surface or integrated into the particle.

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Health issues Methylmercury and dimethylmercury are among the most toxic chemical species of mercury and are generally of the greatest concern from a human perspective. Approximately 80% of the inhaled Hg0 vapour is absorbed through the lungs and is rapidly transported to other parts of the body, including the brain and the kidneys. Acute poisoning following exposure to mercury vapour at high levels (more than 1000 g/m3) for a short period can cause severe irritation of the airways, pneumonitis, pulmonary oedema and other symptoms of lung damage.

It can damage the brain, nerves, kidneys and lungs and, in extreme cases, can cause coma and/or death.

2. Particulates Are finely divided solid particles suspended in air. Examples are: Smoke and soot produced by combustion. Dust from physical breakup of solid matter. Asbestos from industrial plants Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. particles according to their size: Particles less than 100 microns, which are also called inhalable since they can easily enter the nose and mouth. Particles less than 10 microns (PM10, often labeled fine in Europe). These particles are also called thoracic since they can penetrate deep in the respiratory system. Particles less than 4 microns. These particles are often called respirable because they are small enough to pass completely through the respiratory system and enter the bloodstream. Particles less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5, labeled fine in the US). Particles less than 0.1 microns (PM0.1, ultrafine).

potential effects of exposure to fine particulates: Continued exposure to fine particulate air pollution can prove to be extremely hazardous to human health. These fine particles can settle and accumulate inside the lungs, resulting in irregular breathing. Prolonged exposure can result in the damage of small sacs in the lungs known as alveoli that control the exchange of oxygen and carbon-dioxide. Such exposures can lead to a variety of respiratory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). They can also worsen existing medical conditions such as bronchitis, asthma and heart disease.

Since most of the fine particles are smaller in size in comparison to red blood cells, fine particulate air pollution can lead to the damage of these healthy cells. When these fine particles start affecting healthy red blood cells, it can result in poor circulation, high blood pressure and fatigue. In more extreme cases, prolonged exposure can induce blood clots that can act as primary causes of strokes and deep vein thrombosis (DVT). 3. Aerosols Are suspensions of solid or liquid in a gas. The name aerosol is thought to have been first used by F.G. Donnan during World War I to describe clouds of microscopic particles in air. Some aerosols are released into the atmosphere, others are made in the atmosphere. For example, sulfate aerosols are made in the atmosphere from sulfur dioxide released from power plants. Aerosols help clouds to form in the sky and the number and types of clouds affects climate. Certain types are able to scatter or absorb sunlight, which affects climate. Aerosols that scatter light can make interesting distortions in the sky, called atmospheric optics. Aerosols can also limit visibility, causing haze in many parts of the world. P.SOLAMO Combustion Pollutants in the form of organic gases or vapors can be burnt to convert them into water vapor and relatively less harmful products, such as carbon dioxide. By combustion sources is meant operations where primarily fossil fuels, coal, natural gas, petrol, diesel and furnace oil are burnt to obtain energy. Pollutants in the form of organic gases or vapours can be burnt to convert them into water vapour and relatively less harmful products, such as carbon dioxide. Sources of combustion Combustion by-products are coming from un-vented kerosene and gas space heaters, woodstoves, fireplaces, and gas stoves. Un-vented kerosene heaters may also generate acid aerosols. Combustion gases and particles also come from chimneys and flues that are improperly installed or maintained and cracked furnace heat exchangers. Pollutants from fireplaces and woodstoves with no dedicated outdoor air supply can be "back-drafted" from the chimney into the living space, particularly in weatherized homes. Tobacco smoking, burning activities such as welding or soldering. Sources of Combustion Products Indoor air pollution There are many sources of indoor air pollution in homes. These sources of indoor air pollution include combustion sources (oil, gas, kerosene, coal, wood, tobacco products), building materials, wet or damp carpet, cabinetry or furniture made of certain pressed wood

products; household cleaning products, central heating and cooling systems, humidification devices and Volatile Organic Compounds. Outdoor air pollution Sources of air pollution that contribute to poor outdoor air quality are generally caused by combustion processes. This includes motor vehicle emissions, solid fuel burning and industrial processes and outdoor sources such as radon, pesticides, and outdoor air pollution. Strategy for Control of Combustion Pollutants A strategy for control the combustion pollutants is: limitation of source contaminants that prevent combustion contaminants occurring or releasing, dilution of contaminants that prevent contaminants exceeding the exposure criteria for human health, and maintenance of combustion appliances for a good conditions. Additionally, residential carbon monoxide gas detectors may use to reduce deaths from carbon monoxide poisoning. Reducing Exposure to Combustion Products 1. Take special precautions when operating fuel-burning unvented space heaters. Consider potential effects of indoor air pollution if you use an unvented kerosene or gas space heater. Follow the manufacturer's directions, especially instructions on the proper fuel and keeping the heater properly adjusted. 2. Install and use exhaust fans over gas cooking stoves and ranges and keep the burners properly adjusted. Using a stove hood with a fan vented to the outdoors greatly reduces exposure to pollutants during cooking. Improper adjustment, often indicated by a persistent yellow-tipped flame, causes increased pollutant emissions.

3. Keep woodstove emissions to a minimum. Make certain that doors in old woodstoves are tight-fitting. Use aged or cured (dried) wood only and follow the manufacturer's directions for starting, stoking, and putting out the fire in woodstoves. Chemicals are used to pressure-treat wood; such wood should never be burned indoors. 4. Have central air handling systems, including furnaces, flues, and chimneys, inspected annually and properly repair cracks or damaged parts. Blocked, leaking, or damaged chimneys or flues release harmful combustion gases and particles and even fatal concentrations of carbon monoxide. Strictly follow all service and maintenance procedures recommended by the manufacturer, including those that tell you how frequently to change the filter. Stationary source Stationary sources are non-moving sources, fixed-site producers of pollution such as power plants, chemical plants, oil refineries, manufacturing facilities, and other industrial facilities.

Stationary source of air pollution emission such as, power plant, steel mills, smelters, cement plants, refineries, and other industrial processes. Point source It refers to a source at a fixed point, such as a smokestack or storage tank, that emits air pollutants. Sources identified on an individual facility basis or as a single source are called point sources. Refineries and industrial plants are examples of point sources. Area source It refers to a series of small sources that together can affect air quality in a region. This term is sometimes extended to cover groups of numerous small point sources, such as dry cleaners or gas stations. Area sources also include the diverse, unpermitted small sources which individually do not emit significant amounts of pollutants but which together make an appreciable contribution to the emission inventory. Examples of area sources are residential heating and use of paints, varnishes, and consumer products. Emissions from these sources are grouped into categories and calculated based on surrogate variables. Information on these surrogates is usually available for the state or by county. Selected surrogates are used to apportion the category emissions into diurnal and spatial patterns. Example: Residential water heaters Small engines Consumer products Emission point Is the specific place or piece of equipment from which a pollutant is emitted. Air pollutants can be emitted from smokestacks, storage tanks, equipment leaks, process wastewater handling/treatment area, loading and unloading facilities. Process vent Is basically an opening where substances (mostly in gaseous form) are "vented" into the atmosphere. Common process vents in a chemical plant are distillation columns and oxidation vents. Volatile Which means that it can be evaporated, or pass from a liquid state to a gaseous state. Stationary sources are also classified as: Major source Is one that emits, or has the potential to emit, pollutants over a major source threshold. Minor source Is any source which emits less pollutant than the major source threshold. Area sources represent numerous facilities or activities that individually release small amounts of a given pollutant, but collectively can release significant amounts of a pollutant.

R. RESUMA The science of air pollution is complex and evolving. Becoming informed is a key to citizens becoming effective players in preventing air pollution. This primer provides a resource for understanding the basics of air pollution science. Listed below are common air pollutants and a brief discussion to help citizens become more informed about what goes into their air. Some pollutants affect only small regional areas, while others can travel the globe. No matter how diverse the pollutants are, the fight against air pollution starts with the same step arming yourself with knowledge. FACT: Since the Second World War, the quantity and variety of chemicals being released into the environment has become ever increasing, with the number of organic chemicals produced doubling about every 7 to 8 years. This means that the production of chemicals has risen from approximately 1 million tons per year in the 1930s to 250 million in 1985. These are main sources of Air pollution: Mobile Sources Industrial Emissions 1. Mobile Sources Mobile sources include both onroad and Nonroad mobile sources. Onroad mobile sources: Vehicles found on roads and highways (e.g., cars, trucks, buses). While Nonroad mobile sources: Mobile sources not found on roads and highways (e.g., airplanes, trains, lawn mowers, construction vehicles, farm machinery). Mobile sources contribute significantly to air pollution. Driving a car is probably a person's single most polluting daily activity. Nationwide, mobile sources are responsible for about 75% of carbon monoxide pollution, and more oxides of nitrogen emissions than area or point sources. In urban areas, the motor vehicle contribution to carbon monoxide pollution can exceed 90 percent. In a typical urban area, at least half of the hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide pollutants come from mobile sources. Motor vehicles are also substantial sources of hazardous air pollutants, such as the recognized carcinogens benzene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene and diesel particulate matter. Thus, EPA's Office of Transportation and Air Quality protects public health and the environment by regulating air pollution from motor vehicles, engines, and the fuels used to operate them, and by encouraging travel choices that minimize emissions. 2. Industrial Emissions Industrial activities play an important role in the economic well-being of Europe contributing to sustainable growth. However, industrial activities also have a significant impact on the environment.

The largest industrial installations account for a considerable share of total emissions of key atmospheric pollutants and also have other important environmental impacts, including emissions to water and soil, generation of waste and the use of energy. Emissions from industrial installations have therefore been subject to EU-wide legislation for some time and currently the following main pieces of legislation apply in this field: Industrial emissions are inorganic waste products in gaseous form that are emitted by industrial plants. They vary in composition and volume and are usually harmful to the environment. Contents of Industrial Emissions SN Name Description 1 CO Carbon MonoOxide 2 H 2 S Hydrogen Sulphide 3 NO (NOx) Nitric Oxide 4 NO 2 (NOx) Nitrogen DiOxide 5 NOx (others) Oxides of Nitro 6 O3 Ozone 7 SO 2 (SOx) Sulphur Dioxide 8 NH 3 Ammonia 9 THC Total Hydro Carbon 10 PM 10 Particulate Matter 10 11 PM 2.5 Particulate Matter 2.5 Various strategies and legal procedures have been used to control and reduce industrial source air pollution. These include:
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air quality objective setting air emission permitting regimes environmental assessment of new or expanded air emission sources voluntary measures including pollution prevention planning and emission reduction programs and emissions trading Primary and Secondary Pollutants I. CAPITULA

Hazardous Air Pollutants Hazardous air pollutants, also known as toxic air pollutants or air toxics, are those pollutants that cause or may cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive effects or birth defects, or adverse environmental and ecological effects. EPA is required to control 187 hazardous air pollutants. Examples of toxic air pollutants: 1. benzene, which is found in gasoline. 2. 3. perchlorethlyene, which is emitted from some dry cleaning facilities. Methylene chloride, which is used as a solvent and paint stripper by a number of industries. Examples of other listed air toxics include dioxin, asbestos, toluene, and metals such as cadmium, mercury, chromium, and lead compounds. Where do toxic air pollutants come from? Most air toxics originate from human-made sources, including mobile sources (e.g., cars, trucks, buses) and stationary sources (e.g., factories, refineries, power plants), as well as indoor sources (e.g., some building materials and cleaning solvents). Some air toxics are also released from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires. How are people exposed to air toxics?

People are exposed to toxic air pollutants in many ways that can pose health risks, such as by:
Breathing contaminated air. Eating contaminated food products, such as fish from contaminated waters; meat, milk, or

eggs from animals that fed on contaminated plants; and fruits and vegetables grown in contaminated soil on which air toxics have been deposited.
Drinking water contaminated by toxic air pollutants. Ingesting contaminated soil. Young children are especially vulnerable because they often

ingest soil from their hands or from objects they place in their mouths.
Touching (making skin contact with) contaminated soil, dust, or water (for example, during

recreational use of contaminated water bodies). Once toxic air pollutants enter the body, some persistent toxic air pollutants accumulate in body tissues. Predators typically accumulate even greater pollutant concentrations than their contaminated prey. As a result, people and other animals at the top of the food chain who eat contaminated fish or meat are exposed to concentrations that are much higher than the concentrations in the water, air, or soil. Greenhouse gases Greenhouse gases are gases in an atmosphere that absorb and emit radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. Many chemical compounds present in Earth's atmosphere behave as 'greenhouse gases'. These are gases which allow direct sunlight (relative shortwave energy) to reach the Earth's surface unimpeded. As the shortwave energy (that in the visible and ultraviolet portion of the spectra) heats the surface, longerwave (infrared) energy (heat) is reradiated to the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases absorb this energy, thereby allowing less heat to escape back to space, and 'trapping' it in the lower atmosphere. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases in the atmosphere such as: carbon dioxide methane water vapor nitrous oxide while others are synthetic. Those that are man-made include the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), as well as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). How Do Humans Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect? While the greenhouse effect is an essential environmental prerequisite for life on Earth, there really can be too much of a good thing. The problems begin when human activities distort and accelerate the natural process by creating more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than are necessary to warm the planet to an ideal temperature.

Burning natural gas, coal and oil -including gasoline for automobile engines-raises the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Some farming practices and land-use changes increase the levels of methane and nitrous oxide. Many factories produce long-lasting industrial gases that do not occur naturally, yet contribute significantly to the enhanced greenhouse effect and "global warming" that is currently under way.

Deforestation also contributes to global warming. Trees use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen in its place, which helps to create the optimal balance of gases in the atmosphere. As more forests are logged for timber or cut down to make way for farming, however, there are fewer trees to perform this critical function.

Population growth is another factor in global warming, because as more people use fossil fuels for heat, transportation and manufacturing the level of greenhouse gases continues to increase. As more farming occurs to feed millions of new people, more greenhouse gases enter the atmosphere.

Secondary Pollutants Photochemical smog is a condition that develops when primary pollutants (oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds created from fossil fuel combustion) interact under the influence of sunlight to produce a mixture of hundreds of different and hazardous chemicals known as secondary pollutants. Development of Photochemical Smog Certain conditions are required for the formation of photochemical smog. These conditions include: 1. A source of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds. High concentrations of these two substances are associated with industrialization and transportation. Industrialization and transportation create these pollutants through fossil fuel combustion. 2. The time of day is a very important factor in the amount of photochemical smog present. The following diagram illustrates the daily variation in the key chemical players. The diagram suggests:

Early morning traffic increases the emissions of both nitrogen oxides and VOCs as people drive to work.

Later in the morning, traffic dies down and the nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds begin to be react forming nitrogen dioxide, increasing its concentration.

As the sunlight becomes more intense later in the day, nitrogen dioxide is broken down and its by-products form increasing concentrations of ozone.

At the same time, some of the nitrogen dioxide can react with the volatile organic compounds to produce toxic chemicals such as PAN.

As the sun goes down, the production of ozone is halted. The ozone that remains in the atmosphere is then consumed by several different reactions.

Chemistry of Photochemical Smog

To begin the chemical process of photochemical smog development the following conditions must occur:

Sunlight. The production of oxides of nitrogen (NOx). The production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Temperatures greater than 18 degrees Celsius. Major Chemical Pollutants in Photochemical Smog: Sources and Environmental Effects

Toxic Chemical

Sources

Environmental Effects - decreased visibility due to yellowish

Additional Notes

- combustion of oil, coal, gas in both automobiles Nitrogen Oxides (NO and NO2) and industry - bacterial action in soil - forest fires - volcanic action - lightning

color of NO2 - NO2 contributes to heart problems - NO2 can suppress plantgrowth - decreased resistance to infection - may encourage the spread of cancer and lung

- all combustion processes account for only 5 % of NO2 in the atmosphere, most is formed from reactions

involving NO -concentrations likely to rise in the future

- evaporation of solvents - evaporation of fuels

- eye irritation

- the effects of VOCs are

- respiratory irritation dependent on the type of some are chemical - samples show over 600

Volatile Organic - incomplete combustion Compounds (VOCs) of fossil fuels naturally

carcinogenic

occurring - decreased visibility different VOCs in atmosphere concentrations likely to

compounds like terpenes due to blue-brown from trees haze

continue to rise in future bronchial - concentrations of 0.1 parts per million can reduce

- formed from photolysis of NO2 Ozone (O3) constriction

- sometimes results from - coughing, wheezing photosynthesis by 50 % stratospheric intrusions ozone - respiratory irritation - people with asthma and - eye irritation respiratory problems are

decreased

crop influenced the most - can only be formed during

yields

- retards plant growth daylight hours - damages plastics - breaks down rubber - harsh odor - eye irritation - formed by the reaction of - high toxicity to Peroxyacetyl Nitrates (PAN) NO2 with VOCs (can be plants was not detected until

recognized in smog

formed naturally in some - respiratory irritation - higher toxicity to plants than environments) damaging to ozone

proteins

Acid Rain Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). "Acid rain" is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material) from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. The precursors, or chemical forerunners, of acid rain formation result from both natural sources, such as volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and man-made sources, primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion. Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds. The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released from power plants and other sources, prevailing winds blow these compounds across state and national borders, sometimes over hundreds of miles. Wet Deposition Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow. If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to the ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist. As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and animals. The strength of the effects depends on several factors, including how acidic the water is; the chemistry and buffering capacity of the soils involved; and the types of fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the water. Dry Deposition In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals may become incorporated into dust or smoke and fall to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the ground, buildings, homes, cars, and trees.

Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed from these surfaces by rainstorms, leading to increased runoff. This runoff water makes the resulting mixture more acidic. About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition. Effects of Acid Rain Acid rain causes acidification of lakes and streams and contributes to the damage of trees at high elevations (for example, red spruce trees above 2,000 feet) and many sensitive forest soils. In addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including irreplaceable buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our nation's cultural heritage. Prior to falling to the earth, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) gases and their particulate matter derivatives sulfates and nitratescontribute to visibility degradation and harm public health. E. RESULA Effects of air pollution A variety of air pollutants have known or suspected harmful effects on human health and the environment. These pollutants are principally the products of combustion from space heating, power generation or from motor vehicle traffic and factories. Pollutants from a certain source may not only prove a problem in the immediate vicinity of these sources but can travel long distances. Health effects People are affected by air pollution in different ways. Some are more sensitive to pollutants than others. Young children and the elderly often suffer more from the effects of air pollution as do people with health problems such as asthma, heart and lung disease. The extent to which an individual is harmed by air pollution usually depends on the total exposure to the damaging chemicals.

Air pollution can affect our health in many ways with both short-term and long-term effects. Examples of short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. Other symptoms can include headaches, nausea, and allergic reactions. Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema. Long-term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in the elderly. The table below shows the types of health effects experienced by the most common pollutants at elevated levels: Pollutant Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulphur Dioxide, Ozone Health effects at very high levels These gases irritate the airways of the lungs, increasing the symptoms of those suffering from lung diseases

Particles

Fine particles can be carried deep into the lungs where they can cause inflammation and a worsening of heart and lung diseases

Carbon Monoxide

This gas prevents the uptake of oxygen by the blood. This can lead to a significant reduction in the supply of oxygen to the heart, particularly in people suffering from heart disease

Health Effects of Ozone and Particle Pollution Ozone and particle pollution are the most widespread air pollutantsand among the most dangerous. Recent research has revealed new insights into how they can harm the bodyincluding taking the lives of infants and altering the lungs of children. All in all, the evidence shows that the risks are greater than we once thought. Particle pollution refers to a mix of very tiny solid and liquid particles that are in the air we breathe and it is a very dangerous to take in. Breathing particle pollution may trigger illness, hospitalization and premature death. Particle pollution also diminishes lung function, causes greater use of asthma medications and increased rates of school absenteeism, emergency room visits and hospital admissions. Other adverse effects can be coughing, wheezing, cardiac arrhythmias and heart attacks. According to the findings from some of the latest studies, short-term increases in particle pollution have been linked to:

death from respiratory and cardiovascular causes, including strokes; increased numbers of heart attacks, especially among the elderly and in people with heart conditions;

inflammation of lung tissue in young, healthy adults; increased hospitalization for cardiovascular disease, including strokes and congestive heart failure;

increased emergency room visits for patients suffering from acute respiratory ailments; increased hospitalization for asthma among children; Ozone (O3) is an extremely reactive gas molecule composed of three oxygen atoms. It is the

primary ingredient of smog air pollution and is very harmful to breathe. Ozone attacks lung tissue by reacting chemically with it. Ozone is capable of causing inflammation in the lung at lower concentrations than any other gas. Such an effect would be a hazard to anyone with heart failure and pulmonary congestion, and would worsen the function of anyone with advanced lung disease. Ozone at levels currently in the U.S. causes immediate health problems. Many areas in the United States produce enough ground-level ozone during the summer months to cause health problems that can be felt right away. Immediate problemsin addition to increased risk of premature death include:

shortness of breath; chest pain when inhaling;

wheezing and coughing; asthma attacks; increased susceptibility to respiratory infections; increased susceptibility to pulmonary inflammation; and Increased need for people with lung diseases, like asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), to receive medical treatment and to go to the hospital.

The table below shows the summary of information about a certain pollutant. Pollutant Carbon Monoxide (CO) Description Colorless, odorless gas Sources Motor vehicle exhaust, indoor sources include kerosene or wood burning stoves. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Colorless gas that dissolves in water vapor to form acid, and interact with other gases and particles in the air. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Reddish brown, highly reactive gas. Coal-fired power plants, petroleum refineries, manufacture of sulfuric acid and smelting of ores containing sulfur. Motor vehicles, electric utilities, and other industrial, commercial, and residential sources that burn fuels. Ozone (O3) Gaseous pollutant when it is formed in the troposphere. Vehicle exhaust and certain other fumes. Formed from other air Eye and throat irritation, coughing, respiratory tract problems, asthma, lung damage. Plant and ecosystem damage. Susceptibility to respiratory infections, irritation of the lung and respiratory symptoms (e.g., cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing). Contribute to the formation of smog, acid rain, water quality deterioration, global warming, and visibility impairment. Eye irritation, wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, lung damage. Contribute to the formation of acid rain, visibility impairment, plant and water damage, aesthetic damage. Health Effects Headaches, reduced mental alertness, heart attack, cardiovascular diseases, impaired fetal development, death. Welfare Effects Contribute to the formation of smog.

pollutants in the presence of sunlight. Lead (Pb) Metallic element Metal refineries, lead smelters, battery manufacturers, iron and steel producers. Particulate Matter (PM) Very small particles of soot, dust, or other matter, Diesel engines, power plants, industries, windblown dust, Eye irritation, asthma, bronchitis, lung damage, cancer, heavy metal poisoning, cardiovascular effects. Visibility impairment, atmospheric deposition, aesthetic damage. Anemia, high blood pressure, brain and kidney damage, neurological disorders, cancer, lowered IQ. Affects animals and plants, affects aquatic ecosystems.

including tiny wood stoves. droplets of liquids. Air-Pollution Injury to Vegetation

The Ministry of the Environment monitors air quality at 33 stations across the province. The sites are set in both urban and rural settings and monitor the 6 most common air pollutants: sulfur dioxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, total reduced sulfur compounds, carbon monoxide and suspended particles. Oxidants Ozone is the main pollutant in the oxidant smog complex. Its effect on plants was first observed in the Los Angeles area in 1944. Since then, ozone injury to vegetation has been reported and documented in many areas throughout North America, including the southwestern and central regions of Ontario. Throughout the growing season, particularly July and August, ozone levels vary significantly. Periods of high ozone are associated with regional southerly air flows that are carried across the lower Great Lakes after passing over many urban and industrialized areas of the United States. Localized, domestic ozone levels also contribute to the already high background levels. Injury levels vary annually and white bean, which are particularly sensitive, are often used as an indicator of damage. Other sensitive species include cucumber, grape, green bean, lettuce, onion, potato, radish, rutabagas, spinach, sweet corn, tobacco and tomato. Resistant species include endive, pear and apricot. Ozone symptoms characteristically occur on the upper surface of affected leaves and appear as a flecking, bronzing or bleaching of the leaf tissues. Although yield reductions are usually with visible foliar injury, crop loss can also occur without any sign of pollutant stress. Conversely, some crops can sustain visible foliar injury without any adverse effect on yield.

Susceptibility to ozone injury is influenced by many environmental and plant growth factors. High relative humidity, optimum soil-nitrogen levels and water availability increase susceptibility. Injury development on broad leaves also is influenced by the stage of maturity. The youngest leaves are resistant. With expansion, they become successively susceptible at middle and basal portions. The leaves become resistant again at complete maturation. Sulfur Dioxide Major sources of sulfur dioxide are coal-burning operations, especially those providing electric power and space heating. Sulfur dioxide emissions can also result from the burning of petroleum and the smelting of sulfur containing ores. Sulfur dioxide enters the leaves mainly through the stomata (microscopic openings) and the resultant injury is classified as either acute or chronic. Acute injury is caused by absorption of high concentrations of sulfur dioxide in a relatively short time. The symptoms appear as 2-sided (bifacial) lesions that usually occur between the veins and occasionally along the margins of the leaves. The colour of the necrotic area can vary from a light tan or near white to an orange-red or brown depending on the time of year, the plant species affected and weather conditions. Recently expanded leaves usually are the most sensitive to acute sulfur dioxide injury, the very youngest and oldest being somewhat more resistant. Chronic injury is caused by long-term absorption of sulfur dioxide at sub-lethal concentrations. The symptoms appear as a yellowing or chlorosis of the leaf, and occasionally as a bronzing on the under surface of the leaves. Different plant species and varieties and even individuals of the same species may vary considerably in their sensitivity to sulfur dioxide. These variations occur because of the differences in geographical location, climate, stage of growth and maturation. The following crop plants are generally considered susceptible to sulfur dioxide: alfalfa, barley, buckwheat, clover, oats, pumpkin, radish, rhubarb, spinach, squash, Swiss chard and tobacco. Resistant crop plants include asparagus, cabbage, celery, corn, onion and potato. Fluoride Fluorides are discharged into the atmosphere from the combustion of coal; the production of brick, tile, enamel frit, ceramics, and glass; the manufacture of aluminum and steel; and the production of hydrofluoric acid, phosphate chemicals and fertilizers. Fluorides absorbed by leaves are conducted towards the margins of broad leaves (grapes) and to the tips of monocotyledonous leaves (gladiolus). Little injury takes place at the site of absorption, whereas the margins or the tips of the leaves build up injurious concentrations. The injury starts as a gray or light-green water-soaked lesion, which turns tan to reddish-brown. With continued exposure the necrotic areas increase in size, spreading inward to the midrib on broad leaves and downward on monocotyledonous leaves.

Studies of susceptibility of plant species to fluorides show that apricot, barley (young), blueberry, peach (fruit), gladiolus, grape, plum, prune, sweet corn and tulip are most sensitive. Resistant plants include alfalfa, asparagus, bean (snap), cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, celery, cucumber, eggplant, pea, pear, pepper, potato, squash, tobacco and wheat. Ammonia Ammonia injury to vegetation has been observed frequently in Ontario in recent years following accidents involving the storage, transportation or application of anhydrous and aqua ammonia fertilizers. These episodes usually release large quantities of ammonia into the atmosphere for brief periods of time and cause severe injury to vegetation in the immediate vicinity. Complete system expression on affected vegetation usually takes several days to develop, and appears as irregular, bleached, bifacial, necrotic lesions. Grasses often show reddish, interveinal necrotic streaking or dark upper surface discolouration. Flowers, fruit and woody tissues usually are not affected, and in the case of severe injury to fruit trees, recovery through the production of new leaves can occur. Sensitive species include apple, barley, beans, clover, radish, raspberry and soybean. Resistant species include alfalfa, beet, carrot, corn, cucumber, eggplant, onion, peach, rhubarb and tomato. Particulate Matter Particulate matter such as cement dust, magnesium-lime dust and carbon soot deposited on vegetation can inhibit the normal respiration and photosynthesis mechanisms within the leaf. Cement dust may cause chlorosis and death of leaf tissue by the combination of a thick crust and alkaline toxicity produced in wet weather. The dust coating also may affect the normal action of pesticides and other agricultural chemicals applied as sprays to foliage. In addition, accumulation of alkaline dusts in the soil can increase soil pH to levels adverse to crop growth.

Z. V. SOREO Effects of Air Pollution on Climate Change People to remember. John Baptiste Fourier. First to consider Earth as a greenhouse; atmosphere behaved like a glass in a hot house, letting through light rays of the sun but retaining dark rays from the ground. John Tyndall. First to recognize that specific gases in the atmosphere selectively absorbed thermal-IR radiation; water vapour absorbs more thermal-IR radiation than does dry air and postulated that water vapour moderates the Earths climate.

Svante August Arrhenius. First to propose the theory of global warming; doubling carbon dioxide (gas) mixing ratios, which could occur due to the rapid increase in coal combustion (Industrial Revolution) might lead to temperature increases of 50C. Causes of global warming. Carbon dioxide. The leading cause of global warming. Particulate black carbon and brown carbon. The second leading cause of historic nearsurface global warming. Black carbon is emitted during coal, diesel and jet fuel, natural gas, kerosene, biofuel, and biomass burning. Other anthropogenic pollutants that contribute to global warming include methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, CFCs, HCFCs, chlorocarbons, and water vapor. Statistics. Although carbon dioxide is the most abundant agent triggering global warming, several other chemicals are more efficient, molecule for molecule, at heating the air. However, emission rate and mixing ratio of carbon dioxide are much greater than are those of the other chemicals. Black carbon. It soot heats the air more than 1 million times more per unit mass in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide. Methane. It heats the air about 25 times more per unit mass than carbon dioxide. Dinitrogen oxide and CFCl3(g). They cause about 270 and 4,750 times more warming per unit mass, respectively, than carbon dioxide. Arguments. Global warming: natural vs anthropogenic. Argument 1. The current eccentricity of the Earths orbit (0.017) is in a declining stage, temperatures should naturally increase over the next thousand years or more, and such increases might explain global warming. However, because the eccentricity has also been declining during the past 1,000 years, and the rates of temperature increase today are much higher than were those during the past 1,000 years, this argument does not explain global warming. Argument 2. It is based to the natural variation in solar output. When sunspots appear, the intensity of the suns output increases. A sunspot is a large magnetic storm that consists of a dark, cool central core called an umbra and is surrounded by a ring of dark fibrils called a penumbra. As a result of the magnetic activity associated with sunspots, regions near the umbra are hot, resulting in more net energy emitted by the sun when sunspots are present than when they are absent. Sunspot number and size peak every 11 years; however, because the suns magnetic field reverses itself every 11 years, a complete sunspot cycle actually takes 22 years.

Argument 3. It is based to the natural internal variability of the ocean atmosphere system due to chaotic feedbacks among meteorological variables that characterize the atmosphere (e.g., temperature, pressure, winds, humidity, clouds). Argument 4. It is based to the urban heat island (UHI) effect. Urban areas covered about 0.128 percent of the Earth in 2005 and are generally warmer than vegetated areas around them because urban surfaces reduce evapotranspiration and have sufficiently different heat capacities, thermal conductivities, albedos, and emissivities than vegetated land to enhance urban warming compared with vegetated land they replace. Feedback of Gases to Climate If an increase in greenhouse gas emissions initially forces a warming of the climate, the climate may respond either positively, enhancing the warming, or negatively, diminishing the warming. A positive feedback mechanism is a climate response mechanism that causes temperature to change farther in the same direction as that of the initial temperature perturbation. A negative feedback mechanism is a mechanism that causes temperature to change in the opposite direction from that of the initial perturbation. Positive feedback can lead to a runaway greenhouse effect, such as the one on Venus, whereas negative feedback tends to mitigate potential effects of global warming. Next, some positive and negative feedback mechanisms resulting from an initial increase in temperatures by greenhouse gases are itemized. Water Vapor-Temperature Rise (PF). If air temperatures initially increase due to a greenhouse gas, more water evaporates from the oceans, lakes, and rivers, and sublimates from snow and sea ice, increasing atmospheric water vapor (another greenhouse gas), raising temperatures more. Snow-Albedo (PF). If air temperatures initially increase, sea ice and glaciers melt, uncovering darker ocean or land surfaces below, decreasing the Earth-atmosphere albedo, increasing solar radiation absorbed by the surface, raising temperatures more. Water Vapor-High Cloud (PF). If air temperatures initially increase, more water evaporates from the oceans, lakes, and rivers or sublimates from snow or sea ice. Some of this water vapor produces more high clouds, which consist primarily of large ice crystals that are relatively transparent to solar radiations but absorbs thermal-IR radiation. An increase in high cloud cover due to the initial rise in temperature increases the absorption and reemission of the Earths thermal -IR radiation, raising temperatures more. Solubility-Carbon Dioxide (PF). If air temperatures initially increase, the solubility of carbon dioxide in ocean water decreases, increasing the transfer of carbon dioxide from the ocean to the atmosphere, raising temperatures more.

Saturation Vapor Pressure-Water Vapor (PF). If air temperatures initially increase, the saturation vapor pressure of water increases, reducing the ability of water to condense, increasing the quantity of water vapor in the air, raising temperatures more. Bacteria-Carbon Dioxide (PF). If air temperatures initially increase, the rate at which soil bacteria decompose dead organic matter into carbon dioxide and methane increases, increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane levels, raising temperatures more. Permafrost-Methane (PF). If air temperatures initially increase, permafrost over land and methane hydrates deep in ocean water both melt, increasing the release to the atmosphere of methane stored under the permafrost and in the methane hydrates, raising temperatures more. Water Vapor-Low Cloud (NF). If air temperatures initially increase, water evaporates or sublimates from ocean or ice surfaces, increasing the cover of low clouds (made of small liquid water drops, which reflect solar radiation), increasing the effective Earth-atmosphere albedo, and decreasing downward solar radiation and temperatures. Plant-Carbon Dioxide (NF). If air temperatures initially increase, plants and trees flourish and photosynthesize more, decreasing the quantity of carbon dioxide in the air, offsetting some of the original temperature increases. Essay. If you believe that the global warming problem is an important issue, what specific steps should your national and local governments take to address the issue? If you do not believe that it is an important issue, what steps should scientists take to understand the issue better?