History of India

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the history of the Indian subcontinent prior to the partition of India in 19 !" For the modern #epublic of India, see $istory of the #epublic of India" For %akistan and &angladesh, see $istory of %akistan and $istory of &angladesh" 'Indian history' redirects here" For other uses, see (ative )merican history"
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History of India

*hronology of Indian history Ancient India %rehistoric India and +edic India
#eligions, ,ociety, Mahajanapadas

-auryan %eriod
.conomy, ,pread of &uddhism, *hanakya, ,atavahana .mpire

The /olden )ge

0iscoveries, )ryabhata, #amayana, -ahabharata

Medieval India The *lassical )ge /ur1ara2%ratihara %ala .mpire #ashtrakuta .mpire
)rt, %hilosophy, 3iterature

Islam in India
0elhi ,ultanate, +i1ayanagara .mpire, -usic, /uru (anak

-ughal India
)rchitecture, -aratha *onfederacy

Modern India *ompany #ule

4amindari system, Warren $astings, -angal %andey, 156!

&ritish Indian .mpire

$indu reforms, &engal #enaissance,

Independence struggle, -ahatma /andhi ,ubhas *handra &ose

v t e

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

,tone age 7!8889:888 &*;<sho=> &ron?e age 7:88891:88 &*;<sho=> Iron age 71!889@A &*;<sho=> -iddle Bingdoms 7191@!9 )0;<sho=>

3ate medieval age 71@8A9169A )0;<sho=> .arly modern period 716@A91565 )0;<sho=> Cther states 7118@919 ! )0;<sho=> *olonial period 71686919A1 )0;<sho=> Bingdoms of ,ri 3anka<sho=> (ation histories<sho=> #egional histories<sho=> ,pecialised histories<sho=>
v t e

The history of India begins =ith evidence of human activity of Homo sapiens, as long as !6,888 years ago, or =ith earlier hominids including Homo erectus from about 688,888 years ago"<1> The Indus +alley *ivili?ation, =hich spread and flourished in the north=estern part of the Indian subcontinent from c" ::88 to 1:88 &*. in present2day %akistan and north=est India, =as the first ma1or civili?ation in ,outh )sia"<@> ) sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the -ature $arappan period, from @A88 to 1988 &*."<:> This civili?ation collapsed at the start of the second millennium &*. and =as later follo=ed by the Iron )ge +edic *ivili?ation, =hich eDtended over much of the Indo2/angetic plain and =hich =itnessed the rise of ma1or polities kno=n as the -aha1anapadas" In one of these kingdoms, 7-agadha;, -ahavira and &uddha =ere born in the Ath or 6th century &*. and propagated their Shramanic philosophies" -ost of the subcontinent =as conEuered by the -aurya .mpire during the th and :rd centuries &*." +arious parts of India ruled by numerous -iddle kingdoms for the neDt 1,688 years,

among =hich the /upta .mpire stands out" ,outhern India sa= the rule of the *halukyas, *holas, %allavas, and %andyas" This period, =itnessing a $indu religious and intellectual resurgence, is kno=n as the classical or '/olden )ge of India'" 0uring this period, aspects of Indian civili?ation, administration, culture, and religion 7$induism and &uddhism; spread to much of )sia, =hile kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links =ith the #oman .mpire from around !! *." -uslim rule started in some parts of north India in the 1:th century =hen the 0elhi ,ultanate =as established in 1@8A *."< > 0uring the reign of )lauddin Bhil1i and -uhammad bin TughluE the 0elhi ,ultanate ruled the ma1or part of northern India in the early 1 th century and raids =ere conducted into southern India" )fter the death of -uhammad bin TughluE the 0elhi ,ultanate declined and its territories =ere confined to some parts of the Indo2/angetic %lain" The 16th century sa= the emergence of several po=erful $indu kingdoms like the +i1ayanagara .mpire in south India, the /a1apati Bingdom in eastern India and #a1put kingdoms in north=estern India" The northern 0eccan =as ruled by the &ahmani ,ultanate and parts of the Indo2/angetic %lain =as still ruled by the 0elhi ,ultanate"<6> -ughal rule came from *entral )sia to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent in the 1Ath century" -ughal rulers introduced *entral )sian art and architecture to India" In addition to the -ughals and various #a1put kingdoms, several independent $indu states, such as the +i1ayanagara .mpire, the -aratha .mpire, .astern /anga .mpire and the )hom Bingdom, flourished contemporaneously in southern, =estern, eastern and northeastern India respectively" The -ughal .mpire suffered a gradual decline in the early 15th century, =hich provided opportunities for the -aratha .mpire to eDercise control over large areas in the subcontinent"<A> &eginning in the late 15th century and over the neDt century, large areas of India =ere anneDed by the &ritish .ast India *ompany" 0issatisfaction =ith *ompany rule led to the Indian #ebellion of 156!, after =hich the &ritish provinces of India =ere directly administered by the &ritish *ro=n and =itnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline" 0uring the first half of the @8th century, a nation=ide struggle for independence =as launched by the natives irrespective of caste, creed or religion, the leading party being Indian (ational *ongress =hich =as later 1oined by -uslim 3eague as =ell" The subcontinent gained independence from the Fnited Bingdom in 19 !, after the &ritish provinces =ere partitioned into the dominions of India and %akistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the ne= states" In terms of land cover or population cover, largest empires in history of Indian ,ubcontinent =ere under the rule of -auryan .mpire, /upta .mpire, -ughal .mpire under )urang1eb, -aratha .mpire 7for a brief period;, and &ritish #ule 7=here princely states accepted su?erainty of the empire;"

Contents
1 %eriodisation @ %rehistoric era o @"1 ,tone )ge o @"@ &ron?e )ge : +edic period 716889688 &*.; o :"1 +edic society o :"@ ,anskriti?ation ',econd urbanisation' 75882@88 &*.; o "1 -aha1anapadas 7A882:88 &*.; o "@ Fpanishads and ,hramana movements

": %ersian and /reek conEuests o " -aurya .mpire 7:@@9156 &*.; 6 .pic and .arly %uranic %eriod 2 .arly *lassical %eriod G /olden )ge 7ca" @88 &*.9 !88 *.; o 6"1 (orth=estern hybrid cultures o 6"@ ,atavahana 0ynasty o 6": Bushan .mpire o 6" #oman trade =ith India o 6"6 /upta rule 2 /olden )ge A -edieval and 3ate %uranic %eriod 2 3ate2*lassical )ge 768891688 *.; o A"1 (orthern India o A"@ #ashtrakuta .mpire 75th218th century; o A": %ala .mpire 75th21@th century; o A" *hola .mpire 79th21:th century; o A"6 The Islamic ,ultanates o A"A 0elhi ,ultanate o A"! +i1ayanagara .mpire 71 th21Ath century; o A"5 .arly modern period 7168821568; o A"9 -ughal .mpire o A"18 %ost2-ughal period A"18"1 -aratha .mpire A"18"@ ,ikh .mpire 7(orth2=est; A"18": Cther kingdoms ! *olonial era 71688219 !; o !"1 *ompany rule in India o !"@ The rebellion of 156! and its conseEuences o !": &ritish #a1 71565219 !; !":"1 #eforms !":"@ Famines o !" The Indian independence movement 5 Independence and partition 719 !2present; 9 $istoriography 18 ,ee also 11 /allery 1@ (otes 1: #eferences 1 ,ources o 1 "1 %ublished sources o 1 "@ Web2sources 16 Further reading o 16"1 $istoriography 1A Cnline sources
o

1! .Dternal links

Periodisation
James -ill 71!!:215:A;, in his The History of British India 7151!;,<!> distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely $indu, -uslim and &ritish civilisations"<!><5> This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to"<9> )nother periodisation is the division into 'ancient, classical, medieaval and modern periods'"<18> ,mart<11> and -ichaels<1@> seem to follo= -illHs periodisation,<note 1>, =hile Flood<1:> and -uesse<16><1A> follo= the 'ancient, classical, medieaval and modern periods' periodisation"<1!> 0ifferent periods are designated as 'classical $induism': ,mart calls the period bet=een 1888 &*. and 188 *. 'pre2classical'" ItHs the formative period for the Fpanishads and &rahmanism<note @>, Jainism and &uddhism" For ,mart, the 'classical period' lasts from 188 to 1888 *., and coincides =ith the flo=ering of 'classical $induism' and the flo=ering and deterioration of -ahayana2buddhism in India"<19> For -ichaels, the period bet=een 688 &*. and @88 &*. is a time of ')scetic reformism'<@8>, =hereas the period bet=een @88 &*. and 1188 *. is the time of 'classical $induism', since there is 'a turning point bet=een the +edic religion and $indu religions'"<@1> -uesse discerns a longer period of change, namely bet=een 588 &*. and @88 &*., =hich he calls the '*lassical %eriod'" )ccording to -uesse, some of the fundamental concepts of $induism, namely karma, reincarnation and 'personal enlightenment and transformation', =hich did not eDist in the +edic religion, developed in this time"<@@> Smart<11> Michaels (overall)<@:> Michaels (detailed)<@:> Muesse<1A> Indus +alley *ivili?ation 7::8891 88 &*.; Flood<@ > Indus +alley *ivilisation 7ca" @688 to 1688 &*.;

Indus +alley *ivilisation and +edic period 7ca" :88821888 &*.;

%revedic religions %revedic religions 7until ca" 1!68 7until ca" 1!68 &*.;<1@> &*.;<1@> .arly +edic %eriod 7ca" 1!6821@88 &*.; -iddle +edic %eriod 7from 1@88 &*.;

+edic religion 7ca" 1!682688 &*.;

+edic %eriod 71A889588 &*.;

+edic period 7ca" 16882688 &*.;

%re2classical period 3ate +edic period 7ca" 1888 &*. 2 7from 568 &*.; *lassical %eriod 188 *.; )scetic reformism .pic and %uranic )scetic reformism 75889@88 &*.; 7ca" 6882@88 period 7ca" 6882@88 &*.; &*.; 7ca" 688 &*. to 688 *.; *lassical %reclassical .pic and %uranic $induism 7ca" @88 &*.2 $induism 7ca" @88 &*.2:88 period 7@88 &*.9688

*.;<@6> '/olden )ge' 7/upta .mpire; 7ca" :@82A68 *.; 1188 *.;<@1>
<@A>

*.;

*lassical period 7ca" 188 *. 2 1888 *.;

3ate2*lassical $induism 7ca" A6821188 *.;

<@!>

Islamic rule and $indu2Islamic ',ects of civilisation $induism' 7ca" 188821!68 *.; 7ca" 118821568 *.;<@5> -odern period 7ca" 1!68 *. 2 present;

Islamic rule and ',ects of $induism' 7ca" 118821568 *.;<@5>

-edieval and 3ate %uranic %eriod 768891688 *.;

-edieval and 3ate %uranic %eriod 768891688 *.;

-odern )ge 716889present;

-odern $induism -odern $induism 7from ca" 1568;<@9> 7from ca" 1568;<@9>

-odern period 7ca" 1688 *. to present;

Prehistoric era
Stone Age
-ain article: ,outh )sian ,tone )ge Further information: -ehrgarh, &himbetka rock shelters, and .dakkal *aves

&himbetka rock painting, -adhya %radesh, India 7c" :8,888 years old;

,tone age 76888 &*.; =ritings of .dakkal *aves in Berala, India"

Isolated remains of Homo erectus in $athnora in the (armada +alley in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the -iddle %leistocene era, some=here bet=een 688,888 and @88,888 years ago"<:8><:1> Tools crafted by proto2humans that have been dated back t=o million years have been discovered in the north=estern part of the subcontinent" <:@><::> The ancient history of the region includes some of ,outh )siaHs oldest settlements<: > and some of its ma1or civilisations"<:6><:A> The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the palaeolithic hominid site in the ,oan #iver valley"<:!> ,oanian sites are found in the ,ivalik region across =hat are no= India, %akistan, and (epal"<:5> The -esolithic period in the Indian subcontinent =as follo=ed by the (eolithic period, =hen more eDtensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice )ge approDimately 1@,888 years ago" The first confirmed semipermanent settlements appeared 9,888 years ago in the &himbetka rock shelters in modern -adhya %radesh, India" .arly (eolithic culture in ,outh )sia is represented by the &hirrana findings 7!688 &*.;in $aryana, India G -ehrgarh findings 7!888 &*. on=ards; in &alochistan, %akistan"<:9>< 8> Traces of a (eolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the /ulf of Bhambat in India, radiocarbon dated to !688 &*."< 1> $o=ever, the one dredged piece of =ood in Euestion =as found in an area of strong ocean currents" (eolithic agriculture cultures sprang up in the Indus +alley region around 6888 &*., in the lo=er /angetic valley around :888 &*., and in later ,outh India, spreading south=ards and also north=ards into -al=a around 1588 &*." The first urban civilisation of the region began =ith the Indus +alley *ivilisation"< @>

ron!e Age
-ain article: Indus +alley *ivilisation

'%riest Bing' of Indus +alley *ivilisation The &ron?e )ge in the Indian subcontinent began around ::88 &*. =ith the early Indus +alley *ivilisation" It =as centred on the Indus #iver and its tributaries =hich eDtended into the /haggar2$akra #iver valley,<:6> the /anges2Iamuna 0oab,< :> /u1arat,< > and southeastern )fghanistan"< 6> The civilisation is primarily located in modern2day India 7/u1arat, $aryana, %un1ab and #a1asthan provinces; and %akistan 7,indh, %un1ab, and &alochistan provinces;" $istorically part of )ncient India, it is one of the =orldHs earliest urban civilisations, along =ith -esopotamia and )ncient .gypt"< A> Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the $arappans, developed ne= techniEues in metallurgy and handicraft 7carneol products, seal carving;, and produced copper, bron?e, lead, and tin" The -ature Indus civilisation flourished from about @A88 to 1988 &*., marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the subcontinent" The civilisation included urban centres such as 0holavira, Balibangan, #upar, #akhigarhi, and 3othal in modern2day India, and $arappa,

/aneri=ala, and -ohen1o2daro in modern2day %akistan" The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses"

"edic #eriod ($%&&'%&& C()

-ain article: +edic *ivilisation ,ee also: +edas and Indo2)ryans

) map of (orth India in the late +edic period" The +edic period is characterised by Indo2)ryan culture associated =ith the teDts of +edas, sacred to $indus, =hich =ere orally composed in +edic ,anskrit" The +edas are some of the oldest eDtant teDts in India< !> and neDt to some =ritings in .gypt and -esopotamia are the oldest in the =orld" The +edic period lasted from about 1688 to 688 &*.,< 5> laying the foundations of $induism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society" In terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the *halcolithic to the Iron )ge in this period"< 9>

"edic society
$istorians have analysed the +edas to posit a +edic culture in the %un1ab region and the upper /angetic %lain"< 9> -ost historians also consider this period to have encompassed several =aves of Indo2)ryan migration into the subcontinent from the north2=est"<68><61> +edic people believed in the transmigration of the soul, and the peepul tree and co= =ere sanctified by the time of the )tharva +eda"<6@> -any of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like 0harma, Barma etc" trace their root to the +edas"<6:>

The s=astika is a ma1or element of $indu iconography" .arly +edic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, =ith late $arappan urbanisation having been abandoned"<6 > )fter the time of the #igveda, )ryan society became increasingly agricultural and =as socially organised around the four varnas, or social classes" In addition to the +edas, the principal teDts of $induism, the core themes of the ,anskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period"<66> The -ahabharata remains, today, the longest single poem in the =orld"<6A> The events of -ahabharata happened in a later period than #amayana"In fact, there are references of #amayana in -ahabharata"<6!> The early Indo2)ryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Cchre *oloured %ottery culture in archaeological conteDts"<65>

Sans)riti!ation
-ain article: ,anskriti?ation ,ince +edic times, 'people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to &rahmanic norms', a process sometimes called ,anskriti?ation"<69> It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities =ith the gods of the ,anskrit teDts"<69> The Buru kingdom<A8> corresponds to the &lack and #ed Ware and %ainted /rey Ware cultures and to the beginning of the Iron )ge in north=estern India, around 1888 &*., as =ell as =ith the composition of the )tharvaveda, the first Indian teDt to mention iron, as JyKma ayas, literally 'black metal"' The %ainted /rey Ware culture spanned much of northern India from about 1188 to A88 &*."<65> The +edic %eriod also established republics such as +aishali, =hich eDisted as early as the Ath century &*. and persisted in some areas until the th century *." The later part of this period corresponds =ith an increasing movement a=ay from the previous tribal system to=ards the establishment of kingdoms, called mahajanapadas"

*Second urbanisation* (+&&,-&& C()

0uring the time bet=een 588 and @88 &*. the ,hramana2movement developed, from =hich originated Jainism and &uddhism" In the sa