semi-colon (;) 1.

A semi-colon can be used to separate two main clauses in a sentence: I liked the book; it was a pleasure to read. This could also be written as two separate sentences: I liked the book. It was a pleasure to read. However, where the two clauses are closely related in meaning (as in the above example), a writer may prefer to use a semi-colon rather than two separate sentences. Other examples: She loved the cat; it was like her best friend. My pet hamster Sandra and I took a little walk; by the time I returned Sandra was gone. Jim waved and waved as he sailed away; it was sad to see him go.

2. Semi-colons can also be used to separate items in a list if these items consist of longer phrases. For example: I need large, juicy tomatoes; half a pound of unsalted butter; a kilo of fresh pasta, preferably tagliatelle; and a jar of black olives. To play the piano well you need: a strong pair of hands; the ability to read music; and a certain passion to perform. In a simple list, commas are used.

comma (,) A comma is a punctuation mark used to help the reader by separating parts of a sentence. It sometimes correspondsto a pause in speech. In particular we use commas: 1. to separate items in a list (but not usually before and): My favourite sports are football, tennis, swimming and gymnastics. I got home, had a bath and went to bed.

2. to mark off extra information: Jill, my boss, is 28 years old.

3. after a subordinate clause which begins a sentence: Although it was cold, we didnt wear our coats.

4. with many connecting adverbs (eghowever, on the other hand, anyway, for example): Anyway, in the end I decided not to go.

dash () A dash is a punctuation mark used especially in informal writing (such as letters to friends, postcards or notes). Dashes may be used to replace other punctuation marks (colons, semi-colons, commas) or brackets: It was a great day out everybody enjoyed it. Main uses: 1. To present extra information in the way a semi-colon, colon or brackets would: We had a great time in the New Forest the dogs especially liked it. Running your own business rather than someone elses is really very satisfying. There are three foods I cant resist ice cream, chocolate and roasted peanuts. 2. Before an afterthought or something surprising or unexpected: It was a great day out even Marnie enjoyed it! The new car will arrive on Friday at least I hope it will.

3. When a thought or something said is broken off: I wish you wouldoh, never mind. What if we No, I have a better idea!

hyphen (-) A hyphen is sometimes used to join the two parts of a compound noun, as in golf-ball and proof-read. But it is much more usual for such compounds to be written as single words (egfootball, headache, bedroom) or as separate words without a hyphen (golf ball, stomach ache, dining room, city centre). However, hyphens are used in the following cases: 1. in compound adjectives and longer phrases used as modifiers before nouns: a foul-smelling substance a well-known painter a German-English dictionary a one-in-a-million chance a state-of-the-art computer a ten-year-old girl

2. in many compound nouns where the second part is a short word like in, off, up or by: a break-in a write-off a mix-up a passer-by 3. in many words beginning with the prefixes co-, non- and ex-: co-operate non-existent ex-husband

ellipsis () An ellipsis is the term used for three dots () which show that something has been omitted or is incomplete. Main uses: 1. To show that words have been omitted: The queen held a party, during the summer, for her staff. Changes to: The queen held a party for her staff. The queen held a party, during the summer 2. To demark a pause in thought: Kate considered the suggestion for several minutes ... and then spoke. I wonder ... Finn said, if the answer lies somewhere over that hill. 3. To create suspense, or to show a flashback in time: She could feel the eyes watching her There was a knock at the door It had all started 5 years ago

Brackets () Uses 1. Brackets are used when a word or phrase is inserted into a sentence to explain or elaborate. It may be placed in brackets or betweendashes or commas: The bus (that was yellow) was running five minutes late. The bus, that was yellow, was running five minutes late. Sydney Opera House (built at the entrance to Sydney harbour) is famous for its summer opera season. The teacher (who was new to the school) took the class to the seaside. Connor (Amy's boyfriend) bought the tickets. Connor Amys boyfriend bought the tickets. 2. Abbreviations. When explaining abbreviations or jargon, brackets are often used. He was an active member of the IOC (International Olympic Committee). He was an active member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).

colon (:) 1. Use a colon to introduce a list. Fruit is healthy. For example: pears, oranges, grapes and apples. There are three things you must do: eat, drink and breathe. In this camp we sleep in one of two places under the ground or in the trees. 2. Or to explain the first part of a sentence (replacing because): The dragon was terrifying: flames shot out from its mouth. He was very cold: the temperature was below zero.

apostrophe () An apostrophe is a punctuation mark used to indicate either omitted letters or possession. Omitted letters We use an apostrophe for the omitted letter(s) when a verb is contracted (= shortened). For example: Im (I am) theyve (they have) were (we are) wouldve (would have) whos (who is/has) hed (he had/would) its (it is/has) shell (she will)

In contracted negative forms, not is contracted to nt and joined to the verb: isnt, didnt, couldnt etc. To show possession We use an apostrophe + s for the possessive form : my mothers car Joe and Fionas house the cats tail Jamess ambition a weeks holiday With a plural possessor already ending in s (egparents), an apostrophe is added to the end of the word: my parents car the girls toilets