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Business Writing

Lesson 1: Why is Writing Important in Business? This first lesson looks at the importance of spelling words correctly and examines some international differences in spelling. It considers homonyms which often cause problems and teaches the basics of proof reading. It also covers the correct usage of basic personal pronouns. Why is Writing Important in Business? Every business produces paperwork. The first thing a prospective new business needs to do is to produce a business plan. Letters must be written to clients, trading partners and funding bodies. Written applications must be made for a variety of reasons. Advertisements must be designed, whether to promote products and services or to find the right people to fill staff vacancies. At every stage, fluent, error-free writing can give you a big advantage. This course will start with the basics of good writing and go on to look at how writing can be used in each of these different contexts. Because of the breadth of topics covered in this course, it's necessary to work through it in stages. If you find the initial stages too simple, don't worry, as quite different topics will be covered later on. If you find them too difficult, be assured that the whole of the course won't be like this. You may find the grammar websites recommended along with this course to be very helpful in clearing up any confusion. Don't hesitate to ask questions if there are points which you don't Basic Spelling Matters Why do we have spelling standards in English? Why don't we simply spell things the way they sound? This question is often voiced by people who find spelling difficult and bothersome. English spelling has complicated origins and often it doesn't seem to make much sense phonetically, in the modern age. However, standards in written English are very important, and their early adoption is part of the reason for its success as a language. If we spell things the way we speak - as people used to do five hundred years ago - we start to experience the same difficulties in reading as we might in understanding the speech of people with unfamiliar accents. It is standardized English which enables speakers all across the world to understand one another. This has done a great deal to facilitate trade and

to establish English as one of the predominant languages of business in the global marketplace. For the convenience of the majority of students, this course is written in American Standard English, which means that words are spelled according to the system used in the USA. Where necessary, there are annotations to help speakers of other variants of English understand words which differ. If you're trading internationally, it's important to be aware of these differences. Less of them occur in formal discourse, so it's often safer to avoid casual, jokey writing, even if it might otherwise seem appropriate. It's also wise to avoid the use of slang terms and idiom, as these might not mean anything to the foreign reader; or worse, they might mean something very different. The linguist Jeremy Smith has collected a list of such terms in his British / American English Dictionary. Although it's common for US academics to talk about 'British English', this is a conflation of two established standards, English Standard English and Scottish Standard English. These standards also use some words differently, have some unique words, and use some different syntactical forms. Some of the features of Scottish Standard English will seem familiar to Canadians, as the influx of Scottish settlers over the past three centuries has heavily influenced the language there. Although it's best for you to try and stick decisively to one standard version of English in your own writing, you should be aware of these variations so that you don't misinterpret other people's communications. Syntax is the system of arranging words which enables us to understand the meaning of sentences. People speaking different variants of English tend to phrase the same questions in slightly different ways. For instance, an Englishman may ask "Have you got the time?" where an American would ask "Do you have the time?" Either of those people may ask "Where do you live?" when a Scot would ask "Where do you stay?" Where an American or Englishman would say "That desk needs tidying." a Scot or Canadian would say "That desk needs tidied." All of these forms are correct in the context of the appropriate national speech. Besides the standard varieties of English which you are likely to encounter among native speakers, there's English as spoken by people for whom it is a second language. Communicating effectively with people in this position is becoming increasingly important for businesses trading in Europe and the Far East, as well as in smaller markets elsewhere. Most foreign businesspeople whom you encounter in this context will have very good formal English, but, again, they may find idiom and casual language confusing. When communicating with them, it's advisable to

avoid using really new words (including a lot of business buzzwords, which develop locally before becoming widely established); keep your language straightforward and clear. You may feel that it's unnecessary for you to pay a lot of attention to your spelling if you're using a computer with a spell checker. Spell checkers, however, are far from perfect. They may not be familiar with trade-specific terminology which you need to use, and if you run them automatically they may switch such words for more familiar ones, creating a great deal of confusion. Even a well established spell checker will often fail to spot real words which have accidentally been written in place of other real words - missing the 'm' off the end of 'form', for example, to leave 'for'. Most spell checkers have a very limited understanding of context (if any), so won't realize this sort of thing is a problem. Spell checkers also fail to spot the substitution of words for homonyms - other words which sound the same but have different meanings. The best way to use a spell checker is to combine it with manual editing. Letting it run through a document in the first instance, informing you when it thinks it has found mistakes, will help to get rid of a lot of small errors, and will thus reduce the amount of time which you need to spend on proofreading those documents yourself. Proofreading is a learned skill, and can be trickier than it looks for the beginner, but with practice you'll find that you notice errors more and more easily. This will occur as you learn what to look out for. You'll become familiar with your own mistakes, which may help you to spell more accurately from the outset in future. Homonyms, Apostrophes and Grammatical Case Being aware of which homonyms to look out for is important when proof reading. Many people aren't actually sure which of these common words are supposed to go where. Confusion often occurs between 'there', 'their' and 'they're'. 'There' is used to describe a position, eg: "The book is over there." 'Their' means 'belonging to them'. "That is their book." 'They're' is an abbreviation for 'they are'. "They're looking for the book." Many writers confuse 'to', 'too' and 'two'.

'To' is directional, eg: "I'm going to the post office." Note that it can refer to time as well as space, eg: "I'm going to be late." 'Too' describes an extreme, eg: "This is too long." or "You are talking too fast." 'Two' is a number. Some writers confuse 'of' and 'off' (this is the sort of error which can also occur by accident). 'Of' describes the relationship between things, eg: "A box of pencils." or "In the month of September." 'Off' is the opposite of 'on', eg: "I took my coat off." or "It has fallen off the desk." Some Americans may find that their pronunciation makes it difficult to distinguish between 'then' and 'than', and that they consequently misuse these words. 'Then' applies to time, eg: "Then I went out." 'Then' can also be used to mean 'in that case', eg: "If no-one is at the desk then you should ring for attention." 'Than' is used in making comparisons, eg: "This guide is better than that one." Americans say "different than"; British speakers say "different from." Another common point of confusion relates to the difference between 'its' and 'it's'. We'll talk more about this shortly, when we discuss apostrophes. 'Its' means 'belong to it', eg: "That is its box." 'It's' is an abbreviation for 'it is', eg: "It's heavy." Only use 'it's' when you could write 'it is' instead. English is a difficult language to spell correctly because it has such complicated roots. Originally a Germanic language, most closely related to Dutch, it was heavily influenced by French after the Norman conquest of England, and it was also influenced by the high international status of Latin. In the nineteenth century, scholars decided that English should be made to follow rules, but often they didn't understand the real reasons why the language worked as it did, so they made mistakes which continue to confuse people to this day. One of these mistakes involved apostrophes.

English nouns (words which describe objects, like 'table' or 'letter') are traditionally classified according to four cases. These cases tell us the function of the word within a sentence. You don't need a thorough understanding of this to write good English, but it does help to explain some of the language's peculiarities. English cases work as follows:Nominative - the subject of a sentence. In "I throw the ball", 'I' is the subject. Accusative - the object in a sentence. In "I throw the ball", 'ball' is the object. Genitive - the possessive case. In "I throw the dog's ball", 'dog' takes the genitive case. Dative - the indirect object. In "I throw the dog's ball at the tree", 'tree' is the indirect object. A sentence can contain more than one word in any of these cases, eg: "Jane and I throw the dog's ball at the tree.", where 'Jane' and 'I' both take the nominative case. You'll notice that, in the genitive case, 'dog' is followed by an apostrophe and an 's'. This is simply a marker which tells us that the dog owns something. In early English, no apostrophe was used, just a simple 's' ending. Victorian scholars, however, didn't understand the case system. They thought that the 's' must indicate an abbreviation. They conjectured that a word like 'dog's' was short for 'dog his', as in 'the dog his ball', and they believed this extended throughout the language, eg: to 'the girl his ball' for 'the girl's ball'. Because of this mistake, they introduced the apostrophe, which has been a part of English ever since. When you use an apostrophe 's' ending on a noun, check first to make sure the noun should be in the genitive case. This applies to all nouns, including personal names and place names. Nouns which end in 's' to begin with, eg: 'James', follow a special rule. In these situations, the apostrophe follows the 's' (eg: 'James' book'). Many writers make the mistake of adding a second 's' after the apostrophe, but that is incorrect. This rule also applies when a number of things collectively own another thing, eg: 'the dogs' ball' (where the ball belongs to more than one dog). Where a plural noun doesn't end in an 's' (eg: 'children'), the old rule is followed (eg: 'the children's ball.') It is important to use apostrophes properly even though you may often encounter other people using them incorrectly, sometimes in prominent places. The popular

novel Bridget Jones' Diary has been widely distributed as Bridget Jones's Diary, for example. Remember that other people's failings are no excuse for your own. Apostrophes are also used to indicate abbreviations. They show that some letters have been left out to make a word shorter. Sometimes this occurs within a single word (eg: 'B'ham' as a popular abbreviation for 'Birmingham'), but these uses are almost always slang, so you should avoid them in your formal business communications. More often, an apostrophe indicates that some letters are missing where two words have been squashed together into one, eg: 'can't' as an abbreviated form of 'can not', or 'she'll' as an abbreviated form of 'she will'. Although they are not strictly considered to be formal English, these forms are in everyday use, and language which avoids them can often feel stilted. You should feel comfortable about using words of this type in your business documents. It should be noted that English, Scottish and Australian people often run the word 'have' into other words using an apostrophe, eg: 'they've' for 'they have'. This is a standard pattern of speech and writing in their countries and is not an affectation, even though some Americans may be unfamiliar with it. It occasionally occurs where 'have' is being used to indicate the past tense (eg: 'would've' for 'would have'), but this is not strictly formal usage. The word 'whom' should always take either the accusative or the dative case in English (otherwise it would be 'who'). Some writers use 'whom' a great deal to try and impress. It is not simply a more sophisticated version of 'who'; it has a proper function, and should not otherwise be used. Personal Pronouns The most active part of the case system remaining in modern English is in the use of personal pronouns. These are the short words which we use to stand in for the full names of people and things, eg: 'I', 'him', 'she' and 'it'. Most of us use these words so often that we get them right without trying, but occasionally people fall into bad habits. When listing a group of people who are doing something together, it is polite to put yourself last, eg: "David, Peter and I are going to the meeting." People often choose the wrong personal pronoun in this situation, eg: "David, Peter and me are going to the meeting." Because going (to the meeting) is an active behavior, all of the people going are subjects in the sentence and should therefore take the nominative case. 'Me' is an accusative and dative form. In the opposite situation, you should not say "David gave these documents to Peter and I." but, rather,

"David gave these documents to Peter and me." because, in that case, 'Peter and me' are the (indirect) objects in the sentence. In these situations, think about whether you are doing something or having something done to you. It can be less confusing if you imagine what the sentence would be like without the other person: eg: "David gave these documents to I." sounds obviously wrong. Besides 'me', 'he', 'she', 'it', 'us' and 'them', there is another personal pronoun in English which often causes confusion: 'one'. This can be a very useful pronoun, but if you're not sure how to use it correctly, you can get by without it. As with 'whom', some people use it to try and impress, but get it wrong, which makes a much worse impression than if they hadn't tried. Many people are familiar with 'one' as it is used by the British Royal Family, where it stands in for 'I'. This is, strictly speaking, correct usage, but it is archaic and does not represent the way that 'one' is used by most other people. More often 'one' is used to represent an unspecified person who might be like any other person. Using 'one' can provide an alternative to using passive voice constructions (which, in business letters, your grammar checker will probably complain about). An example would be "One can turn off one's grammar checker." Many people would use the popular alternative "You can turn off your grammar checker." However, use of 'you' in this context, though it may sound less stilted, has slightly different connotations. It can be useful to be able to distinguish between a specific 'you' and a more general 'you' (as representative of anyone). If you choose to use 'one' in a document, be consistent and keep using it wherever appropriate. Don't change to 'you' halfway through. Many people produce ugly, grammatically flawed writing by changing pronouns mid-sentence, but there's really no reason why you should have to let that happen. Use of 'he', 'she' and 'they' will be covered later, in the section on gender-neutral language. Royal watchers may note that the British Queen uses the word 'we' where other people would use 'I'. This is an obscure reference to the Queen as a representative of her country (thus it implies the shared will of her subjects). It is traditionally used only by royalty, though Margaret Thatcher once famously used it in her declaration "We are a grandmother." The press considered Mrs. Thatcher's usage to be indicative of megalomania. Unless you are royalty, using 'we' in this way is best avoided.

Lesson 2: Grammar and Punctuation This lesson introduces basic sentence structure. It provides an overview of punctuation marks and their uses, and demonstrates the importance of proper grammatical construction. Why Grammar and Punctuation are Important Using proper grammar and punctuation helps to make sentences easy to read and reduces the chances of your writing being misunderstood. Without punctuation, it's often possible to interpret a piece of written information in more than one way. For example, "Cheryl read the book", without punctuation, could mean that Cheryl read the book in the past (properly written as "Cheryl read the book.") or that Cheryl is being instructed to read the book now ("Cheryl, read the book.") In this lesson, we'll look at assorted punctuation marks, examining what they're for and when they should be used. You'll find the recommended grammar guide web pages useful for further reading.

Clauses and Sub-Clauses


Many people leave the education system without achieving a proper understanding of punctuation. In this section, we look at punctuation marks and how they function. In order to do this, we first need to take a look at the way sentences function. Sentences can be divided into clauses, or units of information, as in the example below:"The letter is in the post." The above sentence has just one clause, as it conveys just one piece of information. The letter is in the post and should arrive on Thursday." The above example has two clauses, because it contains two pieces of information which could be delivered separately (as 'The letter is in the post.' and 'The letter should arrive on Thursday.') The word 'and' is a conjunction, used to join these clauses together. Other conjunctions you'll encounter frequently are 'but', 'although', 'with' and 'when'. "The letter is in the post and should arrive on Thursday, in time for your meeting."

In this example, a further clause has been added to the sentence. It is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. Commas are not needed next to words which act as conjunctions, though sometimes they may be used there in order to make a sentence easier to read. When we speak, we tend to pause slightly and catch our breath at the points where commas would appear in writing. Commas are also used to separate items in short lists, eg: "You may use blue, black, or red ink." Many writers use too many commas. In most of your business writing, you will be using comparatively short sentences; if a sentence contains more than three commas, it would be wise for you to look at it again to see if all of them are necessary. A semi-colon stands somewhere in between a comma and a period. It usually appears only in literary or legalistic writing, where a number of clauses must be presented in one sentence to demonstrate that they are closely connected. Semicolons are also used when writing lists. As we have seen, commas can separate items in short lists, but semi-colons are better suited for longer lists, especially where other punctuation in used within one or more of the list items, as in the example below:"We have these items in stock: jackets; waistcoats; shirts in white, gray or blue; and socks." A semi-colon should never be used to introduce a list; this is the job of a colon, as seen in the example above. A colon may also be used to introduce speech, eg: "My boss has a favorite saying: 'Neither a borrower nor a lender be'".

Dashes and Parentheses


Dashes are a popular but somewhat informal way to introduce and conclude asides within speech, eg: "He says he missed the train - as he usually does - and that's why he was late." They can be used to replace semi-colons in non-list situations, eg: "They only had blue ones - I don't know when they'll be getting other colors in." You should avoid using dashes in your more formal business letters. Dashes are distinct from hyphens, although they look much the same. Hyphens are used in some composite words (eg: 'go-between') and between some words which function to produce a single meaning when they appear as a pair (eg: 'self-

interested'). They are also used to indicate when a long word has been broken up in order to make it fit between two lines of text. You will not normally need to break words up like this when you are writing using a word processor, but if you do it's important to remember that you should only ever split a word between syllables (units of sound which can be pronounced separately). Parentheses (brackets) provide a useful way to make asides and tangential remarks when you don't want to use footnotes. Ideally, you should keep information in parentheses brief. Footnotes are useful for longer asides, but you should bear in mind that people may not always bother to read them. Information contained within parentheses may feature the full range of punctuation marks, but it should be self contained. (It's possible to enclose an entire sentence in parentheses, when it expresses something tangential to the rest of the paragraph in which it is situated.) If you end a phrase in parentheses with a period, question mark or exclamation mark, you don't need to make the next word outside the parentheses the start of a new sentence. Any punctuation which is part of the phrase within parentheses should also be enclosed by them, so that, as we have seen above, an entire sentence in parentheses has its period (or other closing mark) before the final bracket, not after it. Parentheses can also be used when you want to include information without placing much emphasis on it, eg: "I may be slightly late for the meeting (I have to collect my sister from the train station)." Nested parentheses are sometimes necessary when explaining complicated matters, especially technical matters, but they should be avoided wherever possible. Sometimes parentheses can be used to enclose a single letter. This is most often seen when alternative versions of a word are possible depending on the context in which something is read, eg: "I look forward to receiving your contribution(s)." This example allows for circumstances in which there may be one contribution or many.

Exclamation Marks and Question Marks


Exclamation marks are a tool for adding emphasis to a sentence or indicating surprise, as in "Look at our amazing offers!" However, they have little place in formal writing. Whilst you may find them useful in advertising, you should try to avoid using them in your other business communications. Using excessive exclamation marks is like laughing at your own jokes. It demands enthusiasm which the reader may not share. In no circumstances should you end a sentence with more than one exclamation mark. Late nineteenth and early twentieth century English literature often makes use of exclamation marks and question marks which appear mid-sentence. Whilst you may encounter this in your personal reading, it is not appropriate for use in modern business communications. It might seem obvious to state that question marks should be used only when you are asking a question, but the fact is that many people use them incorrectly. When we speak, we tend to raise the pitch of our voices slightly at the end of a question. There are certain other situations in which we also raise our pitch, and people habitually attach question marks to sentences of this type when they write them down. Examples are:"Surely you don't believe him." "Perhaps you'd like a cup of tea." "I wonder if they've finished yet." If you begin a sentence by raising a question, make sure to remember the question mark at the end, even if other, non-questioning clauses intervene. For example: "When do you want to meet, if you've got to be in the office all morning and I already have appointments in the afternoon?" We'll look at how using questions can help your business writing in lesson six, when we discuss tone.

Quotation Marks
You'll see quite a bit of variety in the use of quotation marks when you're reading. This is partly because the rules for using quotation marks differ on either side of the Atlantic. American English uses double quotation marks to indicate speech and single quotation marks to indicate speech within speech (eg: "He said to me 'You're always late.'") In Britain, these marks are traditionally used the other way round, though many British writers now conform to the American standard. In most cases, either is appropriate, so long as you are consistent. Single quotation marks are always used to single out a particular word - you'll see many examples of that in these lessons, when a word is being talked about rather than performing its usual function in a sentence. Single quotation marks are also used around words whose appropriateness in a particular situation is dubious, eg: "our 'beloved' leader" (as written by somebody who doesn't think the leader in question is worthy of such a description). This is slang usage, however, and is not usually appropriate for business writing. When you are splitting up continued speech, you should use commas to indicate the pause, eg: "'I don't think,' she said, 'that you should do that.'" However, where possible you should try to avoid splitting speech in the middle of a clause. Where speech can be split into two sentences, the prevailing standard is to end the first of those sentences with a comma rather than a period (eg: "'I don't care,' he said, 'I'll do what I like.'") However, you will encounter writing which adheres to a different standard and does not do this. It is unlikely that you will need to make complicated use of quotations in your business writing. Most businesses use direct quotations only in advertising (eg: "Mrs, Brown from Surrey said 'What a wonderful diet! I lost twenty five pounds!'") Using a lot of quotations can make your writing seem less formal. Furthermore, by making reference to other people all the time it makes you seem less confident and gives the impression that you are taking less personal responsibility for what you're saying. Developing good grammar habits takes time and practice. Don't worry if you find it difficult at first. Many experienced writers don't spot their grammatical errors until the proofreading stage.

Lesson 3: Presentation and Format


This lesson teaches you how to lay out text on a page to best effect, how to structure proper paragraphs and how to make use of blank space. It examines alternatives to using a word processor and provides an overview of the use of special characters.

Paragraphs and Use of Space


Proper use of paragraphs enables people to skim through documents quickly to find information of interest to them. It helps to break up information on a page and improve overall appearance. It's an important way of organizing information. There are no strict rules as to when you should finish a paragraph and start a new one. The easiest way to approach it is this: each paragraph should contain information about a particular idea. When you introduce a new idea, you can do so in a new paragraph. However, you shouldn't carry over assumed information between paragraphs. For instance, if you are talking about Steve in one paragraph you should use his name again the first time you mention him in a later paragraph, rather than using the personal pronoun 'him' as shorthand. Each paragraph should make sense if read in isolation. In most business documents, it's best to keep sentences and paragraphs short. This will enable you to deliver information clearly and efficiently. In these lessons, paragraphs are distinguished from one another by the blank lines between them. You'll often see this method used in modern business documents and in the press. It makes it easier for you to present text symmetrically on a page, so that the page looks neat. If you want to give your documents a more traditional, literary appearance, you may prefer to distinguish paragraphs by indenting the first line of each. You can do this on a computer by using the tab key. Some writers like to use blank lines and indenting. Whichever method you choose, it's important to be consistent. Using plenty of blank space makes a document easier to read. Many readers find pages full of dense text intimidating. They're more likely to read something if it's broken down into manageable sections. Margins should be at least an inch wide. This not only improves the appearance of the text, it provides somewhere for readers to make notes directly connected to particular parts of the document. Space

at the top and bottom of the document makes your headers stand out and makes page numbering easier to follow. Business documents should always be written on one side of paper only, even if they are hand-written. Each page should be clearly numbered. This avoids confusion if the reader is looking for a particular piece of information within a document that is several pages long. It also enables the reader to lay out several pages face up on a desk when cross-referencing.

Other Methods of Writing


Despite the preponderance of computers in the modern workplace, some businesses still prefer to produce documents using typewriters. This gives the impression of being slightly old-fashioned and of having traditional values, which can be useful for some politicians, lawyers, design companies and even publishers. For other businesses, it's important to come across as modern and up to the minute, in which case using a typewriter is a bad idea. In general, using a typewriter will reduce the speed at which you can produce documents. It means that all your proof reading has to be done manually, and it makes error-correction more difficult. It is still acceptable to use white-out (tippex) to cover mistakes, provided it is done neatly, but excessive use of white-out (more than twice on a single page) creates a bad impression. If you make a lot of errors, it's better to re-type the document. Use of hand-written documents should be kept to a minimum, as it is not considered to be very professional in most circumstances. Writing by hand is suitable for memos and for internal communication with colleagues and staff who clearly do not have difficulty reading your handwriting. It may also be used to add a personal touch to outgoing material, especially when gifts or compensatory packages are dispatched. We'll cover this further in lesson six. Although it can be tempting to make documents look more elegant by using an elaborate handwriting style, this is usually a mistake, as it may make them difficult for people to read. A simple style, neatly written, usually creates a better impression. Most of you will have learned appropriate handwriting in school. If you want to make your handwriting look elegant, invest in a good quality pen. Biros are perfectly adequate for internal memos, but do not convey a good impression to clients and customers. Using a good quality pen is also advisable when you are signing typed or printed documents.

Use of pencils should be avoided, because it looks overly casual and leaves your documents more vulnerable to alteration and forgery. Unless you are a design company producing an informal, deliberately quirky note, use of metallic pens should also be avoided. In most cases, it is best to use blue or black ink. Red ink should never be used on the outside of envelopes and packages which are due to travel through the post, as this is the color which most post offices use to mark corrections. When filling in forms, it's important to use blue or black ink. These days, many forms are read by computers which cannot properly interpret other colors. Unless advised otherwise, you should fill in forms using small, neat capital letters. Avoid any personal flourishes or non-standard styles, like ones with tails on them or struck-through sevens. Do not add the accents to foreign words. The more easily a computer can read your writing, the faster your submissions will be processed.

Special Characters and Special Formatting


When using words borrowed from French or other languages which use accents, you should try to include the accent symbol if you can. Such words are sometimes used without accents in their native languages, but only in highly informal writing. Accents should be ignored in typewritten documents, if the appropriate special characters are not available - they should never be drawn in by hand - but most word processors provide accented letter characters in the 'special character' section within the 'insert' menu. Foreign words and phrases which are frequently used in English - eg: 'genre', 'fiance', ''est la vie', 'objet d'art', 'caf', 'et cetera' - may be written using a standard typeface, but words which are seldom or never used in English should be written in italics. Access to special characters on your computer is also useful in other contexts. If you expect to do any significant amount of writing by hand, it may be worth your while to practice drawing them. The ampersand ('&') is not used in formal writing, but is used in formal titles many businesses include it in their company names. When you have to write these

names out yourself, it's better to use the ampersand than to write out the word 'and' in full. If you must use an abbreviated form of 'and' in writing, an ampersand is by far preferable to a plus sign ('+'). Percentage signs ('%') are acceptable in formal writing, but only when they follow after numerals. If you write out numbers in full (eg: 'twenty' as opposed to '20'), you should also write the word 'percent' rather than using the symbol. The 'at' symbol ('@') is less common and is not an acceptable short form for use in anything but the most casual writing. It is, however, appropriate for use in typed email addresses. Many word processors will automatically highlight e-mail addresses and website URLs by presenting them in a different color. This can make printed documents look odd. Unless you wish such material to be highlighted so that it makes a special impact, be sure to turn this function off when you are producing documents which are to be printed. If you wish to note copyright status (your own or somebody else's), you should use the symbol ''. If you do not have access to this symbol, writing the word 'copyright' in full is acceptable. Any such notice should be accompanied by the copyright holder's name (whether individual or corporate) and by the date from which copyright commenced (usually the date of first writing, design or publication). It should be noted that, in Britain, copyright notices do not need to be written out in order for copyright law to apply; but in the USA, copyright which is not explicitly stated may be lost. Trade marks should be registered using the letters 't.m.', and registered trade marks using the symbol ''. It's important to remember to include these (where applicable) when you are writing about other companies' products as well as when you are writing about your own. It's important to use the proper symbols for currencies with which you are working - such as '', '$', '?' and . Since the dollar symbol is used for the national currencies of several different countries, you should remember, where there is any possibility of confusion, to add the appropriate extra letters before the dollar sign, eg: US$ for US dollars or AU$ for Australian dollars. In most modern business communications, footnotes are referenced by number. This is made easy by the footnote function in most word processing programs. If you wish to put across a more traditional image, you should use an asterisk or 'star' ('*'). Asterisks should only be used to reference footnotes which appear on the same page, and not for footnotes which appear at the end of a multi-page

document. A second such footnote may be referenced using the crossed swords symbol, or, as is becoming more common these days, two asterisks together. Italicization is used, as described above, to indicate foreign words with which the reader is likely to be unfamiliar; it is also used to indicate emphasis. A single word can be italicized in this manner (eg: "You should never do that!"), or a whole passage can be italicized. Putting a whole passage in italics is rare, and should normally be reserved for important instructions and abjurations. A single italicized paragraph on a page full of standard paragraphs can make quite an impact. Occasionally, italics are used to indicate that a piece of text is a quotation. Titles are often written in italics rather than appearing in quotation marks or being underlined. Whichever method you use, try to be consistent. Another way to emphasize text is to use a bold typeface. Bold paragraphs stand out more vividly on the page than italics do, and you should bear this in mind when designing a page which will have a balanced appearance. Some business people like to use a short bold paragraph to introduce a new idea at the top of a page following it up with standard paragraphs.

Lesson 4: Writing Letters


This lesson examines techniques for writing standard business letters and considers issues relating to gender-neutral writing. It includes further information on personal pronouns.

Writing Letters
No matter how trivial its content may be, the business letter is always of great importance. It often represents the first contact that a client will have with you, so it has to represent you well. In this section, we deal with the different formats and conventions which you may wish to use when preparing letters for a variety of purposes. A standard business letter is a simple document to produce, and you should aim to produce all your letters to the same format, even where your individual style may differ from other people's. Your company header (usually your logo and a short slogan or description of what you do; this will be discussed in lesson eight) should appear at the top of your

letter, usually in the center. At the very bottom of your letter, ideally in a smaller typeface, you should include your company information (ie: name, any applicable company number, registered office, telephone number etc.) Some companies like to include an e-mail address and/or website URL in this position, but this may not be well suited to companies aiming to present a traditional image. All pages should be clearly numbered. Ideally, you should number your pages as 'page 1 of 2', etc., so that readers can be sure they are not missing any parts of a longer letter. The main body of text in a letter should be written in a plain, clear font (like Times New Roman or Century Gothic) in an easily legible size (twelve point is most popular). Most businesses prefer to align text to the left margin, as when writing by hand or using a typewriter, but some, especially those working in design or aiming for a modern image, choose to justify text. When text is justified, a word processor adjusts the spacing between letters so that all lines appear to be of the same length and the left and right margins are both even. At the top of a letter, at the right hand side, you should write your name, your company name (if relevant), and the address where you can be contacted (this may differ from your registered office address). You may also wish to include a telephone number so that it is prominent and easy for the reader to find. Beneath this information, you should leave a blank line, and then you should write the date on which the letter is being written. Some businesses prefer to write this out in full, to give a more elegant impression. If you are writing the date in numeric format (eg: '01/09/03'), you should be aware that Americans using this format write the month first and then the day, whereas British people write the day first and then the month. Thus, to an American, '01/09/03' would refer to the ninth of January, whilst to a British person it would refer to the first of September. For this reason, it's sometimes wise to write the date out in full in order to avoid confusion. Underneath the date, you should leave a blank line, and beneath that you should write the name and address of the person to whom your letter is addressed. Where possible, you should always address your letter to a person rather than directly to an organization. If you can't find out the name of the appropriate person, you can address your letter by business title, eg: 'The Managing Director' or 'The Editor'. Underneath all this information, you should leave a blank line and then begin your letter. At the end of your letter, you should close (on a new line) with 'yours

sincerely' (for formal situations) or 'yours faithfully' (for slightly less formal situations); there are other variations on this, and it's possible to be creative, but these are the only two you really need for business writing. You should leave a few blank lines underneath this (practice will tell you how many you need) and then type your name. When you have printed the letter, you can sign your name by hand in the blank space. Some business people who have to sign a lot of letters prefer to print their signatures (usually as images) or fill them in with a stamp. You can do this if you wish, but it may affect the legal standing of your letter, since it would be possible for someone else to forge your signature by this means. A hand-written ink signature conveys a better impression. It shows that you have gone to the trouble to be personally involved with the letter (even if an assistant has actually written it). Where more than one signature is required at the end of a letter (eg: where it is from all the directors of a company), blank spaces should be left for each in turn, with their names printed beneath. The most senior should sign first.

Gender Neutral Writing, Names and Titles


In business, you won't always know very much about the person you're addressing. Often, you won't know what sex that person is. There are businesswomen who will throw away letters addressed 'Dear Sir' unread, so, if you're uncertain, it's safer to write 'Dear Sir/Madam'. Many women are sensitive about the titles by which they are referred to - 'Mrs.', 'Miss' or 'Ms.' In some instances you may know that the addressee is female, but not know her title. In these cases, 'Ms' is the safer option, since it won't cause offense by making assumptions about marital status, but it is sometimes perceived as overly formal or as indicative of a political agenda. Where an addressee's title is 'Dr.', 'Prof.', 'Rev'' or similar, you can usually expect to be forgiven for not knowing. In the case of religious and titled individuals whose status you are aware of, it is more important to use the correct forms of address if you wish to make a good impression. A monarch should be addressed as 'your Majesty'; his or her children, and those grandchildren directly in line to the throne, as 'your Highness'. A bishop should be addressed as 'your Grace'. A judge should be addressed as 'your honor'.

Remember that people from non-English speaking countries may use different titles. In these cases, you should endeavor to find out their preferred titles (or the usual ones for that country) before addressing them. When writing to members of the same household, it is inappropriate to assume that they all have the same surname. These days, many married women choose to keep their maiden names, and people change their names for a variety of reasons. The children of remarried parents may keep their original surnames. For this reason, if you are unable to find out a person's name, it is wise to ask or to try and avoid using it. Likewise, if you are required to pronounce a name which you're not sure about you should ask politely whether or not you have got the pronunciation correct. Few people will take offense at a mistake if you are ready to be corrected. To improve your chances of getting it right first time, you can try asking for advice from a friend or colleague with an apparently similar cultural background. If you think you may forget the name but will need to know it in future, make a private note of the way you would pronounce it by writing it down the way it sounds to you.

Sex and Personal Pronouns


When you are referring to a hypothetical individual whose sex is not certain, which personal pronouns should be used to refer to that person? Several options are available. Traditionally, the neutral personal pronoun in English has been the same as the masculine one, but many feminists have objected to this, and using it means risking political disapproval. It can also, on occasion, produce phrases which look a bit silly. Most modern business people prefer to avoid it. The most popular neutral way to use third person singular pronouns in formal modern English is to write them as 'he/she', 'him/her' etc. This method is unlikely to attract disapproval, but it can look a bit awkward, and it can interrupt the flow of speech. You might choose to write out in full 'he or she', 'him or her' etc. each time; this is slightly less popular, as, when it's used a lot, it can make documents quite a bit longer. It does have the advantage of sounding more like natural speech. It's probable that you have often heard people use the third person plural pronoun ('them', 'they', 'their') as an alternative to 'he/she'. This is considered by many people to be slang usage, and some people may be distinctly unimpressed upon encountering it in your business communications. However, there are business circles - as, indeed, there are literary circles - where it is quite acceptable. It has a

proud literary heritage, having been prominently advocated by the novelist Jane Austen, and it has been quite widely used in twentieth century books. Various other neutral pronouns have been advanced over the years. It is possible to use 'one' in this instance, but, since it differs from the more common usage of that word (see lesson one), this can cause confusion. An experimental new word, 'ne' (declined as 'ne', 'nim', 'nis') was introduced in the middle of the last century, but failed to catch on. New neutral pronouns have had more success on the internet, where many readers are familiar with 'zie'/'zir' and 'xie/xir', as with 'sie'/'hir'/'hirs'. If you conduct a lot of business via the internet, you may choose to investigate the use of these forms within your particular market, to see if they might be useful to you there. However, they are inappropriate in formal English and should not be used in your general business communications. Whichever option you use, it is important to be consistent. Certainly, you should try to avoid changing pronouns within a single document. In some instances, it may be advisable to select the pronoun option which is most appropriate for a particular set of readers.

Lesson 5: Extending your Writing Skills


This lesson teaches you how to use your writing skills to improve your performance in meetings and telephone conversations. It considers options for improving communication in the workplace and introduces issues related to the use of electronic media.

Extending your Writing Skills


The business environment includes many more areas where good writing is important than simply producing letters. Improving the quality of your written language can also help to improve your spoken language, especially if you take the time to plan out conversations beforehand. When you are going to make a telephone call or enter a meeting, make notes on what you intend to say. You don't need to write down precise lines (if you do, other people will quickly come to the conclusion that you're reading from a script), but a general outline will help you to keep your thoughts organized and avoid missing anything important. It will help you to go over matters in a sensible order, increasing your apparent professionalism. It will help you to maintain the initiative if other people interject and distract or confuse you. You should plan a conversation is much the same way as you would plan the contents of different paragraphs in a letter.

At most formal business meetings, somebody representing each company involved is required to take minutes. Even if you can delegate this task to a secretary, it's useful to know how to do it yourself, and to take your own notes where possible. Minutes of meetings provide a record for the government of how your business is operating, and they also provide recourse when people who were at the meeting later dispute what happened there. Minutes do not need to include a record of absolutely everything which was said. They should note all of the decisions which were arrived at during the meeting and all of the conclusions which were drawn and agreed upon. These items must be presented in order. Minutes must also record the names of everyone present at a meeting, and they should note when any of those people left the room or arrived late, so that it's clear who was present when decisions were made. Rather than attending formal meetings, many people now make important business arrangements over the phone or via e-mail. In these cases, it's important that a proper written record of those conversations be maintained. Conversations should ideally be recorded, though in many places recording someone on the telephone without first getting that person's permission is illegal, so you should verbally establish that you're both aware of the recording at the start of the call. Phone conversations which are not recorded should be minuted by both parties in the same way that a meeting would be minuted, with the date and time at which they took place clearly noted. E-mail messages in which business decisions are made should be saved. Do not rely on your computer to do this. Computers are always vulnerable to malfunctions which can cause them to lose data. Ideally, you should print out important e-mail messages and store them with the rest of your paper files. A back-up copy on a DVD , CD or floppy disk is also advisable. E-mail messages must be stored with their headers intact. The headers are the technical information, usually appearing at the top of the message, which determine who sent it to whom, when, and via which machines. In case of dispute, this information will help to prove that your record is genuine.

Internal Communications
E-mail bulletins can be a useful way to keep colleagues and staff informed of what's happening in your business, from major decisions to minor changes in working practices. We'll discuss the formatting of email messages later in the section on external e-mail. Internal e-mail doesn't require much special attention, as you will usually be sending these messages to other people who are using the same system as you are. Internal e-mails can be somewhat informal, but you

should still make sure they're spelled and punctuated correctly if you want to set a good example. Electronic bulletin boards can also be used for internal communications. Such a board is essentially a web page which only people working for your company can access. Announcements and memos can be posted there. If you are using an electronic bulletin board, remember to check it regularly, and to remind your colleagues and/or staff to do likewise. The danger of using this system is that people will forget to pay attention to it. Physical bulletin boards are more difficult to ignore, especially if you position them in a prominent area of the workplace, such as by the front door. The problem with this system is that it makes your internal communications visible to anyone who is visiting the workplace, reducing your company's privacy. Some larger companies opt to distribute an internal newsletter to keep staff up to date on changes. Because it's impractical to produce a new newsletter every day, or more than once a day, you'll generally be unable to use this system to make urgent announcements. However, a newsletter is something which your staff are more likely to keep and remember, long after they have forgotten the contents of single posted notices. You can also use a newsletter to create a friendly team atmosphere in the workplace by including (with permission) some personal articles, such as notices of retirement or of awards received by staff members. Including photos can help staff in a larger workplace to become familiar with one another. Getting other staff members involved in producing the newsletter also encourages team spirit. Newsletters can take quite a bit of time and effort to produce, though you'll find that this becomes less of a problem as the process of production becomes familiar. A team of two to four people working for an hour each is ideal for producing a weekly newsletter approximately four pages long. Unlike other business communications, newsletters should be printed using both sides of each sheet of paper, so that they look like ordinary magazines or newspapers. Big headlines and the use of columns (rather than writing right across the page) add to this impression. People are used to seeing this format in publications which they read for pleasure, so they are more likely to read the whole newsletter attentively than they would be to read four pages of ordinary text. If you intend to photocopy your newsletter or other internal communications which include photos, pictures or graphs, bear in mind that the clarity of these illustrations is likely to be reduced by the photocopying process. In most cases, it is

advisable to edit your pictures so that they look slightly too light on screen, so that they won't look too dark after they have been photocopied.

External E-mail
When you are contacting people outside your own company by e-mail, you should bear in mind that, as discussed above, not everybody will be using the same software. It's better to send simple e-mail which conveys all the important information than to send visually stylish e-mail which may be illegible when it arrives at the other end. Sending e-mail which has been written using html is usually a bad idea. Some e-mail programs automatically use html, even if it's not apparent when you're writing, but you can turn this function off. Don't send important information using e-mail attachments. Many people will not open e-mail attachments in case there might be computer viruses within them. If you need to send an attachment, make sure you're aware of the recipient's policy on this, if necessary by querying first. If you don't send attachments, you cannot transmit viruses from your system to those of people whom you e-mail. If you open attachments which people have sent to you, you should be sure to have an upto-date virus checker running on your system at the time. It's wise to turn off the function in some e-mail programs which opens attachments automatically. Formal business e-mail messages should be formatted like letters, with appropriate introductions and indented or spaced paragraphs. They should always contain contact information for your business, preferably including non-electronic means of contact. They should include all the information which you are legally required to provide in letters. It's a good idea to include this information in your business signature so that you don't have to write it out afresh every time. Although you cannot add your legal signature to a standard e-mail message, you should always sign it with your personal name, rather than having it ascribed anonymously to your company. People responding to such messages should know who they are talking to, and should be able to ask for you if they contact your company by other means.

Lesson 6: Setting the Tone


This lesson examines how you can make language work for you when tackling difficult situations in business.

Setting the Tone


Not only is it important to be able to adjust the style of your writing to different types of business document, it's important to be able to adjust your tone for different circumstances. This includes knowing when to be formal or informal, when to be conciliatory, and how to make effective requests and demands. In this lesson, we look at the ways in which you can adjust your writing to maximum effect. Although most business communications require a degree of formality, it's useful to know when to be friendly, and how to make your writing reflect a friendly tone. Individual customers often respond well to writing which they feel is slightly more personal, less distant and cold. Even if you are writing to a large corporation, it can be worth your while to come across as a friendly person to the secretary, who will appreciate the difference in a day filled with less considerate communications. Secretaries and administrators who take a liking to you are more likely to prioritize your communications and to do favors for you when, for instance, you need to contact somebody urgently. Of course, there is a fine line between being friendly and coming across as patronizing. Many customers do not respond well to the "How are you?" and "Have a nice day." approach, which they consider to be obsequious and intrusive. This is particularly true of British and Australian people, in whose countries that approach is not as widely established as it is in America. If you are an American writing to clients in these countries, try to temper your language so as not to seem overly familiar. If you are a British business person writing to an American, try to relax your tone a little so as not to come across as overly formal and stilted. Americans sometimes interpret traditional British formality as arrogance. It's wise to tailor the level of formality within your business communications to the individual client, wherever that is possible. If you are responding directly to a customer's letter, try to match the level of formality which that customer has used. Exceptions to this will be discussed in the section on dealing with complaints and with problem clients. Using more of the common abbreviations in English (words like 'can't' and 'isn't) can make your writing seem less formal, as can minimizing the use of technical terms and long words. Informal language uses a smaller vocabulary. Readers shouldn't have to pause to remember the meaning of a word. When you are communicating with people outside your specific field of business (such as general

service providers and members of the public), it's particularly important to avoid using words which are only familiar within that field. If you are a doctor, for instance, you shouldn't expect everyone to know what oncology is; if you are a restaurateur, you shouldn't expect everyone to be familiar with the nature of a canap. Such things can usually be explained using much simpler language. In certain cases, business writers want to use more obscure terminology to impress, as when applying for funding. This can have a positive effect, but shouldn't be used to excess. You should never come across as if you are trying to impress, or people will suspect a lack of substance behind your words. In these cases, your use of specific terminology should suffice only to make it clear that you are well versed within your field. When writing in a highly formal style, writers sometimes use long words (usually of French or Latin origin) in order to try and make a good impression. There is nothing strictly wrong with this, but you should be wary of over-reaching yourself. As an editor, I have encountered literally hundreds of cases in which people have used long words whose meanings they didn't fully understand. Often this made them seem slightly ridiculous. In some cases, it led to them saying the opposite of what they intended to say. Remember that there is no point in using impressive words if your readers are consequently unable to understand you. In literary writing, it's reasonable to expect readers to have an interest in expanding their vocabularies. In business writing, this is not the case. Most people prefer business documents to be simple and clear. The public are often suspicious of documents which they feel may be using obscure language to try and conceal unwelcome information (such as interest payable on credit installments). When you have finished writing a document, read through it and use a dictionary to look up any words that you are not entirely certain about. If this seems arduous, bear in mind that every time you do it you'll learn something, so there'll be less words to look up in the future. If you want to expand your vocabulary further, the best way to do it is to engage in a great deal of recreational reading. When you read, you learn about new words without even noticing it, and you'll be able to write more confidently as a result.

Writing Requests
Whether you are requesting time, money, products or services, and whether or not you intend to recompense the provider, requests should always be structured carefully. When you are asking somebody to provide something for you, you are placing yourself in a position where you are inferior to that person (whether or not you feel that way on a personal level), and your language should reflect that. You should clearly express your need and your appreciation. You can thank people for their consideration or attention even before they have provided you with anything concrete. Often, you won't want to indicate how desperate you really are for assistance - for instance, you won't want a bank to think you need a loan so badly that you are probably bad at managing your finances and may be unable to repay it. For this reason, requests are generally couched in neutral language, without any strong emotive terms. Rather than using phrases like "we're depending on you for this", "we need this really urgently" and "please don't ignore this", you should be using phrases like "we would be grateful", "we would very much appreciate it" and "this would be most helpful to us". Since you don't want to come across as emotional, you should avoid using too many adjectives (words which describe nouns). It can be frustrating to write like this when your request is urgent, but in most cases it will get you better results. Requests are usually more effective if they are addressed to an individual rather than to an institution, and if they are slightly personal in tone. You shouldn't speculate about the person you are writing to (for instance by suggesting that he or she must know what it's like to be in your position), but you may make use of the first person ('I' and 'me', etc.) to good effect. This shows that the request reflects your personal concerns (even if those concerns are voiced on behalf of your business). Most people find it harder to turn down an individual than a faceless company. Signing letters of request 'yours faithfully' emphasizes the personal touch and your position of dependency. When you are writing requests, there are three things which you should cover:Why the thing you are requesting will be useful to you. What you will use it for. How this will be beneficial to the provider.

In some cases, you may not intend to give the provider any direct compensation in the form of money, goods or services. This would apply, for example, to requests for money from government funding bodies. In this case, you need to emphasize other factors which make improving your business beneficial to the provider. A government funding body, for instance, will be pleased to hear about your ambitions to expand and the prospect of you taking on more staff or providing better security to the staff you already have. Another company may be interested by your offer to recommend them to your business contacts or to offer further (compensated) work to them in the future. The nature of the indirect compensation offered should be clearly specified when you make your initial request.

Writing Demands and Complaints


When you write a demand or complaint, you are placing yourself in a dominant position, and your writing should reflect that. Your writing should be more formal in tone, and you should sign your letters 'yours sincerely'. Short, snappy sentences provide your writing with a more assertive tone. You will usually be writing demands only when somebody with whom you are trading has already let you down. You may be owed money some time after it should have been paid, or goods may be overdue. An initial letter of demand should be polite in tone, short and to the point. It should make reference to the possibility that there has been a mistake and that you were not let down deliberately. If people feel that they are being given the opportunity to resolve the situation without having to admit they were at fault, they will be more willing to co-operate. For this reason, you should avoid using words of phrases which appear to condemn them, and you should avoid questioning their moral integrity. You may also find it useful, in your initial letter, to suggest an easy process of recompense (for example, offering to let somebody who owes you money pay you in stages rather than all at once). If you do not receive a satisfactory response to your initial letter of demand, you should word your follow-up letter more strongly. As in all business correspondence, you should avoid swearing and personal speculation, but you may wish to state that you consider the addressee's behavior unprofessional and/or that you are considering warning your business contacts against trading with them. Any threat of legal action should normally be reserved for a third letter (and made only after consultation with a lawyer); but if you are dealing with a member of the public who probably won't care about your opinions or about what you may say to your contacts, you may wish to introduce the legal aspect earlier. Many people will

rush to resolve the situation when such a threat is made, so that there may be no need for you to actually take legal action. Letters of complaint should be made only when an incident has occurred or a situation arisen which cannot be resolved directly, for instance when a contractor's negligence has resulted in damage to your business' property. Complaints may result in offers of compensation, but they should not be relied upon to do so. It is more important than ever to use good spelling and grammar when you write a complaint, as you must avoid giving the reader any opportunity to doubt your own professionalism. Initial complaints should be made to the individuals responsible for your problems or, where no-one is directly responsible, to the manager whose duty it is to oversee that area. In the event that you do not receive a satisfactory response, you should write to the next person up in the business hierarchy; if that fails, you should go to the very top and contact the managing director. If you are dealing with a sole trader or a member of the public, there may be little you can do to obtain an apology or offer of compensation, but nevertheless a strongly worded complaint will often unsettle a person and make him or her think twice about letting down somebody else in the same way. Lesson 7: Advertising and the Press This lesson teaches you how to use language to promote your business to the public and to potential trading partners. It covers a range of different types of advertising and also tells you what you need to know to write press releases.

Basics of Advertising
When it comes to advertising, even business people who are confident about their writing will be tempted to hire an outside agency to take care of things. However, this can be expensive, and often the amount of advertising you need to do will not justify the cost. Though you may need an agency to get you to the top in a crowded marketplace, there's no reason why you shouldn't design basic advertisements for yourself. The most basic type of advertising, and the type most accessible to small businesses with limited funds, is advertising in newspaper and magazine small ad columns. Some newspapers and specialist magazines offer such advertising for free, because their sales are improved when their readers see a lot of adverts for

products or services which they are interested in purchasing. These offer the best opportunity of all, because you've nothing to lose and it's probable that your advert will meet with a sympathetic readership. However, there can be a lot of competition from other businesses taking advantage of the same deal, so it's all the more important that you make your advert stand out. Advertising in major newspapers and magazines usually costs money. This means that your advert will be seen by a larger number of people, but you should consider whether or not those are likely to be the sort of people who will be interested in your business. If you're offering products and services which might appeal to a wide range of people (eg: fashionable clothes, graphic design, or a new kitchen gadget) then advertising in the mainstream press could be beneficial to you. If you are advertising tennis accessories, placing your adverts in specialist tennis magazines might result in a better return on your investment. Free newspaper and magazine small ads adhere to a standard format, so the only thing you have control over is choice of words, and the number of characters which you can use is strictly limited. In this case, it's best to use short, snappy words and phrases and provide a phone number and/or email address to enable readers to contact you. Use active verbs to make your advert sound energetic. Keep descriptions brief and to the point. Reading small ads will help you to become familiar with the many abbreviations which advertisers use to help them work within the set character limits. Some of these are widespread (eg: 'o.n.o.' for 'or nearest offer', 'c.o.d.' for 'cash on delivery') but others are specific to particular publications. It's always wise to familiarize yourself with a publication as a whole before advertising in it. Small ads which you pay for usually offer a range of options which can help you to make your advert more effective. These include leaving blank space around your advert or enclosing it within a border. These options cost more, but are often very effective. Look at a page full of small ads and you will find that your eyes are drawn toward the ones that have been made to look distinctive in this way. Creating space around adverts can be very effective in a range of situations. People are more inclined to read information in small amounts; a few well-chosen words with plenty of reassuring space around them are more appealing than a page full of dense text. The same thing applies to information presented visually. If you design adverts which involve pictures, you should try to avoid making them look crowded.

Use of Fonts
When designing adverts and other promotional material, many people make the mistake of using too many different fonts. If you've spent all day producing identical business documents in Times New Roman, it can be fun to scroll through all the different font options which might be suitable for less formal writing, and it can be tempting to use lots of different interesting ones. However, an excess of font styles makes an advert look crowded and messy. You should never use more than four different fonts on any one page (no matter how big that page is), and ideally you should restrict yourself to two. It's quite acceptable to use different character sizes within the same font, and to use both standard and bold versions. The type of fonts which you select say a lot about you and your business. In advertising, it's wise to stay away from overly familiar fonts like Times New Roman or Century Gothic because people associate these with boring formal reading and will not usually pay much attention to them. Heavier fonts which contrast more strongly with the background (eg: Arial or Luxi) make more visual impact. A fairly plain font is best if you want to convey a reliable, traditional business image. Handwriting style fonts (eg: Lucida or Arioso) can create an impression of elegance, but are best used in moderation (eg: just for your company's name) as they can be difficult to read. Small character versions of handwriting fonts are best avoided. Quirky fonts (eg: Actionis or Indigo Joker) are best reserved for businesses in the entertainment or design industries. If you intend to use a quirky font, make sure you view a large number of them before making your choice, because some of them are particularly well suited to specific industries (eg: Broadway for theatrical companies or Hydrogenwhiskey for computer companies). Unless you want to convey a deeply radical, quirky sense of character (eg: when advertising a pop group) you should never change fonts in the middle of a word. You should endeavor to avoid changing fonts in the middle of a paragraph, except where that paragraph contains a single word which has its own signature font, eg: your company name.

Use of Color
Too many colors in an advert create the same problems as too many fonts. Unless your advert features a color photograph, you should stick to using just two or three colors (even if they include black or white). The most visually striking adverts are usually those which keep their color options simple. This applies to backgrounds, pictures, logos and text. When choosing colors for an advert, think about what you want that advert to do. Adverts which use high-contrast colors (eg: yellow on black or orange on blue) stand out more and get more attention. They convey an energetic, youthful attitude. However, they may not appear very sophisticated, and may put off older, calmer people. Try to tailor your choice of colors to the advertised product or service and to your intended market. Look at magazines and newspapers to see which colors your competitors are using. You don't want your advert to be identical to theirs, but, unless you have a radical design outlook, you may be wary of being too different.

Types of Advert
There are many different media which you can use for advertising before you reach the point of needing help from a professional agency. Newspaper and magazine small ads are easy to design. You may also consider buying larger sections of page in such publications; they have advertising departments which will talk you through how to do this. Adverts starting from a quarter page upwards are guaranteed to be noticed by the majority of readers. Obviously, the larger your advert is, the more important it becomes for you to make effective use of spacing, fonts and colors. Although larger adverts give you more room to talk about your business than small ads do, you should be wary of including too much more written information. Including further contact details is advisable, but these should usually be in quite a small typeface at the bottom of your advert. It's advisable to make your business logo bigger and to use just one or two catchy phrases which readers (especially after repeated exposure to the advert) are likely to remember. We'll discuss writing phrases like this in lesson eight. Businesses operating in the entertainments industry (eg: bars, restaurants and cinemas) often advertise using flyers. These are small printed sheets usually about

six inches by four, in black and white or color, providing a brief description of services available and an address. They can be left in similar venues (with the permission of the staff there) for customers to pick up, or they can be distributed by hand, through letterboxes or directly to people who look likely to be interested. Because flyers are a cheap way of advertising, they are rarely delivered using postal services. A cousin of the flyer is the business postcard. This has become increasingly popular over the past decade, and is used by many design companies as well as entertainment organizations. It is sometimes used by banks and by food companies aiming to attract the attention of young people. Even the British Army has used such postcards as part of a recruitment drive. Producing your own postcards is more difficult that producing flyers, but there are a number of agencies available who will transfer your designs into postcard format and print them for you quite cheaply. The advantage of postcards is that (unlike most flyers, for reasons to do with paper quality and convenience) they are double sided, so your contact information can be printed clearly where it won't distract from your logo and picture(s). Business postcards are usually left (by arrangement) in cafs and bars where customers can browse through them. As well as attracting young people, they are popular with those interested in the arts. Full leaflets advertising your business are usually best designed by specialist agencies, or approached only when you have gained experience and confidence using other methods of advertising. However, there are some exceptions. Restaurants offering food to take away often deliver leaflet versions of their menus to nearby residential properties. These may include photographs of the establishments so that customers can more easily find them if they wish to visit in person. Other businesses offering locally based services, such as tanning salons and hairdressers, sometimes make use of simple leaflets. The public do not generally expect such leaflets to be of high quality, so they more easily forgive mistakes and poor print quality; they are not so patient with larger or more remote businesses. Locally based charities often distribute leaflets which they have designed themselves. Because most people are well disposed toward charities from the outset, these do not need to be a high quality in order to attract positive interest. To improve the impression which leaflets give, you should ensure that they are printed on glossy paper with a colored logo and/or a photograph on the front page.

Special events and campaigns can be advertised effectively using posters, which can be put up in entertainment venues and some public buildings by arrangement. Posters should be designed like scaled-up versions of part-page newspaper and magazine adverts. Because they're designed to be seen from a distance, you shouldn't use the extra space for extra text which will be impossible to read without closer inspection.

Press Releases
Newspapers and specialist magazines (especially trade magazines) are often interested in writing articles about businesses, especially if you are launching a new campaign or promotion, or if you are planning to hold an event which will be open to the public. Private events attended by celebrities (including politicians, who are often eager to demonstrate their connections with the business world) are also newsworthy. You can contact these publications directly to find out who their business and events editors are, then contact these editors with press releases about what you're doing. Journalists are always busy, and often welcome the chance to fill up leftover bits of space in their publications with easily written articles where you have already done most of the research for them. However, you should not assume that journalists in this position will be entirely uncritical, especially if you have previously attracted press attention for negative reasons. A press release should be no more than a page in length. It should be written clearly and concisely, giving details of what is happening, when, and where. Your name and business information should appear at the top. Press releases accompanied by photographs are more likely to result in publication, but any photographs must be of high quality (as with photocopying, some definition is always lost during the printing process) and should ideally be professionally taken. Freelance photographers are available quite cheaply in most major cities, and can provide you with a business portfolio including a picture of your workplace and portraits of all your senior staff. If you are sending a press release to a particular publication for the first time, you should include information on when your business was founded and (briefly) what it does. You should also mention any awards which your business has received. Even entirely new companies can benefit from using press releases. Entrepreneurs can make exciting, inspiring business news. If you have an unusual new product or

service, or simply an unusual way of doing business, make sure the press know about it.

Lesson 8: Introducing your Business


This final lesson sums up much of what has been taught so far and demonstrates how you can use it to introduce your business and make effective business presentations.

Introducing Yourself
In business documents of all kinds, from letters to advertising to business plans, you can benefit from providing an effective introduction to your business and the products and services that it provides. You should practice writing descriptions of different lengths which sum up what your business has to offer. Most business people find it particularly hard to write short descriptions. It's difficult to decide what you simply must include and what you can afford to leave out. Sometimes it's wise to have several different descriptions available (in the form of different letterheads, business cards, brochures etc.) targeted at different sections of your business network and clientele. The most basic introduction that your business needs is a short, snappy one, just a few words long, which sums up what you do. Some examples are:"AT&T Business - Integrated Solutions for All" "Ebay - the World's Online Marketplace" "Shish Mahal - By Far the Best in Curry Capital of the West" You'll observe that such descriptions and slogans are usually written in title case (with the important words capitalized). This increases emphasis and sets them apart from surrounding text. Some businesses now prefer to introduce themselves with a website URL instead of a slogan. This is only suitable if the URL is short and contains the company name in a prominent position, eg: 'www.mycompany.com' It is more appropriate for large companies whose products and services are already familiar to the public.

Remember that you don't have to include everything in a description of what your business does. If you provide quite a variety of products and/or services, focus on just a few which are representative of the rest, and make a note to the effect that there's 'much more besides' or 'much more in store'. Sometimes you may be able to sum up all or part of your range with a simple phrase, eg: 'for all your decorating needs'. Some situations in business require you to introduce yourself as an individual. You probably have some experience with this from writing your resum (curriculum vitae). A personal introduction in business, however, should be much more compact. Try not to exceed three sentences. Readers will not generally be interested in the details of the jobs you've held or what you did while studying. They'll want to be able to take in at a glance those factors which show that you are well suited for the job you're doing. In most cases, a personal introduction should start with your name. Placing this at the very beginning shows that you are confident of your importance as an individual. Any special titles that you may have should be included, as should any letters after your name indicating special status or academic achievement. You should go on to mention any relevant degrees or professional qualifications that you have. Lesser qualifications should be omitted unless you don't have any work experience to talk about. People who didn't do so well in the education system are better advised to move directly onto selling themselves on the basis of their experience. A description of your experience should include your current or most recent job title. If you have been with one company for a long time and are introducing yourself in the context of what you can do with or for that company, you should mention the number of years you've been there. This demonstrates your loyalty and commitment. Up to two other significant jobs that you have held can be included in your introduction. Mentioning too many will make you seem as if you lack direction. Finally, your introduction should mention your personal qualities and ambitions in a way suited to the business at hand, eg: "a keen self-starter with management potential" or "a skilled team worker dedicated to the company's success". In this way, a person reading your introduction will be left with an impression of your character and with a focus on your future potential.

Business Plans
Every new business needs a business plan if it hopes to be taken seriously by funding bodies. Existing businesses can also use business plans to introduce new projects or sidelines. Business plans should contain all the appropriate financial documents assessing present capacity, demonstrating any similar past achievements and predicting expected results for the new enterprise, and they also require a strong introduction for your business and for yourself. Although you may have been advised to fill several pages, it's better to do this by spacing out text and using attractive headers than by over-extending your descriptions. Everything which you write must be obviously important and must be stated with confidence. Active verbs and short sentences can help you to achieve this. In a business plan, you should stress the things that make you different from others working in the same field. Determine your unique selling point. Explain why this difference makes you more competitive. Focus your writing on what you are doing and what you are going to do, to make yourself (and your business) seem dynamic and forward-looking. Charts, tables and graphs can make a good impression in a business plan, demonstrating that you have made some analysis of available statistics and probabilities. Items of this sort should ideally be introduced on separate pages, with two or three sentences at the top of the page to explain what they are. They can then be given a code (eg: 'fig. 3.1') which will enable you to refer to them elsewhere in the document. Charts which describe your intended market are particularly popular with potential investors. In any business plan or new product proposal, you should include at least one page focusing on your market. This should be described in plain language with reference to demographics (age, sex, income bracket etc.) and observed purchasing habits, but it should also include terminology which demonstrates that you are familiar with the way in which people in that market perceive businesses like yours. If, for instance, you are setting up a daycare center, you should use words like 'trustworthy' and 'fun'; if you are setting up an investment company you should use words like 'approachable' and 'dependable'.

Buzzwords
Keeping up to date with business buzzwords can be an exhausting business. Because they exist largely in order to generate a fashionable impression, buzzwords change all the time. The guide recommended along with this course can help you to familiarize yourself with those you think you might need. For these purposes, it's better to rely on a web guide than on a book, since web guides can be constantly updated. However, you should bear in mind that international guides may include terms which nobody in your area is yet familiar with. Whilst using these make you look cutting-edge, it could also make you impossible to understand. It's very important to get buzzwords right; using them inappropriately will make a worse impression than not using them at all. Businesses with a traditional image may prefer to avoid them altogether, or to use only those which have been established for some years. Businesses which want to create a modern image can benefit from them, but, in most cases, they should be used sparingly. Over-use could make you seem pretentious. In correspondence, you should try to tailor your use of buzzwords to match the rate at which they are used in the communications to which you are responding. Buzzwords are appropriate in a business plan, as are technical words, because they demonstrate that you are familiar with your field. At any given time, there are a few buzzwords which are particularly fashionable for inclusion within business plans. The best way to discover these is to read the advertising material distributed by the organizations to which you intend to submit your plan. In this context, buzzwords provide a sense of community. People will be more excited about talking to those who use the same special language as they do.

Catalogs and Online Auctions


When you send out catalogs to your trade customers and/or members of the public, you need to introduce your company in a way which makes a dynamic impression but remains accessible to a wide range of readers. In this context, it's best to make introductions slightly informal and friendly. People who feel relaxed before they start shopping are likely to buy more. Use simple language and emphasize the reliability of your company (for instance by saying how long it has been around, how many satisfied customers it has, etc.) Let readers know what kind of service they can expect from you. When you are describing individual catalog items, you may need to use more technical language. If used in moderation, this can make a good impression even on those who don't understand it, as they feel that they are being permitted to participate in an exclusive social arena. To avoid confusion, you should make ample use of pictures and diagrams. Work out what a customer will need to know about your product (eg: its dimensions, its durability, its flexibility, etc.) and make sure you have included all the necessary information in your description. Even if it's hard to work out the important details from a photograph, it's often worth your while to include one, as most people are happier about buying things which they feel they have seen more directly. Selling your products via auction sites on the world wide web is much like selling them through catalogs, except that you may have less room to write about them. In this situation, you should use the very brief business introduction as mentioned at the start of this lesson. You should go on to describe your product in as much detail as possible, bearing in mind that a wider range of people are likely to encounter it and many of them may not have encountered that sort of thing before. If you are selling objects whose size is important, like clothes or mechanical components, you should list exact measurements rather than referencing standard sizes which may vary internationally. Look through the auction site to see what kind of language your competitors are using. Each auction site tends toward a vocabulary which its regular customers can understand, rather like the abbreviations in small ads as mentioned in lesson seven. Familiarity with this is important if your auction is open to bidders from different countries who may not understand your usual terminology.

Keeping up your Writing Skills


Having completed this course, you should feel more confident about your writing skills and how you can use them in the business world. So what now? Some of the lessons here have covered skills which you should be able to apply immediately, like letter writing. Others have dealt with topics which will present themselves less often. How can you practice day to day to ensure that your skills stay sharp? As mentioned previously, the best way to maintain and improve your writing ability is to read. In the case of business writing, you should make sure to read plenty of other companies' publications. This applies not only to material which you are sent in the course of your working day, but also to posters which you see in the street; adverts in newspapers and on television; and leaflets which you receive in the post. Whenever you have time, sit down with some of this material and look through it for mistakes. Think about how you might have prepared some parts of it better. You should also look out for things which have been done well, which you can copy. Learning to write well is a process which continues throughout life. Now that you understand the basics, you are ready to develop at whatever pace is most suitable for you. This is only the beginning.

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