Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Page 1 of 19
Tables
2.1 Spectral Class of 10 Nearest Stars.................................. 11
Figures
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Proton-Proton Chain ....................................................... 5 Inverse Square Law ....................................................... 7 Variance in Black Body Curves with Temperature................ 8 Solar Spectrum............................................................ 10 Hertzprung-Russel Diagram........................................... 12 HR Diagram Based on Hipparcos Data............................. 13 Visual Binaries............................................................. 15 Simulated Lightcurve from Eclipsing Binary...................... 16 Spectroscopic Binaries .................................................. 17
Page 3 of 19
Proton-Proton Chain
The simplest reaction to be found in stars is the conversion of hydrogen into helium - a process known as the proton-proton chain. In this process six hydrogen atoms are needed to create one helium nucleus of two protons and two neutrons. Process proton + proton proton + deuterium helium-3 + helium-3 Result deuterium helium-3 helium-4 Extras positron, neutrino gamma-ray 2 protons
1 2 3
Table 2.1: Proton-Proton Chain In Step 1 two protons come together to form deuterium (a nucleus of one proton and one neutron). This interaction also involves the liberation of a positron (a positively charged electron) and a neutrino. This process occurs 1038 times per second in the Sun. In Step 2 the resulting deuterium nucleus combines with a proton to make the rare isotope helium-3 consisting of one neutron and two protons. This reaction also produces a gamma ray. In Step 3 the helium-3 nucleus becomes a helium-4 nucleus by the addition of a neutron. This step can occur in several ways, but the combination of two helium-3 nuclei is the most common way. Steps 1 and 2 must occur twice before step 3 can occur. Six protons go into the cycle, but two come back out. The overall process results in four protons (hydrogen nuclei) becoming a helium-4 nucleus, two positrons, two neutrinos and two gamma rays.
Page 4 of 19
Each helium-4 nucleus has a mass that is about 99.3% of the mass of four protons. In the Sun, for example, 600 million tons of hydrogen are converted into 596 million tons of helium every second. The missing four million tons of matter is released as energy in accordance with Einstein's equation E=mc2.
CNO Cycle
The other major process that occurs in more massive stars (due to the necessary higher core temperature) is the Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) cycle. This more complex process involves the combination of carbon-12 nuclei with protons to form successively heavier nuclei up to oxygen. More details on the CNO cycle can be found in section 5.2.
Page 5 of 19
GM R dP = dr R2
[2.1]
The Sun is currently in this stable state and will remain so for another 5000 million years. At this point all the fuel in the Sun will have been used up and, since it is no longer able to generate an outward radiation pressure, gravitational contraction will begin again.
Page 6 of 19
Apparent Brightness
A star's apparent brightness is described as the amount of energy that actually reaches us per unit area of the star. Apparent brightness is also referred to as flux. The diminishing of apparent brightness obeys the inverse square law. If the radiation from a star is emitted uniformly in all directions (spherically), then doubling the distance from the star means the radiation intensity per unit area falls by one quarter.
Figure 2.2: Square law for areas Apparent brightness, which is measured in units of Watts per square metre, can be calculated using the following equation:
Apparent Brightness =
Luminosity 4 .Distance 2
[2.2]
Astronomers measure apparent brightness using an electronic detection device, such as a CCD, which records how much energy strikes its surface each second.
Page 7 of 19
E ( , T ) =
2hc 2
1 e
hc kT
[2.3]
Plotting the results for a range of temperatures as a function of wavelength produces a characteristic radiation curve.
Figure 2.3: Variance in Black Body Curves with Temperature The shape of each curve is the same. The only difference is that with higher temperatures the peak radiation intensity is higher. The peak intensities at each temperature are related as defined by Wien's Law.
Page 8 of 19
[2.4]
The Stefan-Boltzmann law tells us how much energy a blackbody radiator of a known temperature radiates per unit area of its surface. It states that the radiated electromagnetic energy of a hot body is proportional to the surface area radiating that power, and the fourth power of the thermodynamic temperature. It can be used to calculate the total energy emitted per square centimetre in all directions.
E = T 4
[2.5]
Page 9 of 19
Page 10 of 19
Page 11 of 19
Page 12 of 19
Figure 2.6: Actual HR Diagram Based on Hipparcos Data (ESA) The above image is a real HR diagram generated from data on 41 453 stars in the Hipparcos catalogue. The colour scale indicates the number of stars in a cell of 0.01 mag in V-I and 0.05 mag in MHP.
Page 13 of 19
Page 14 of 19
Figure 2.6: Changing Position of a faint companion star around the bright star Sirius
Page 15 of 19
Eclipsing Binaries
Eclipsing binary stars also dance around each other, but in a distinctive way that causes one star to eclipse the other as it passes in front of it, obscuring it from the observer's sight. When the stars are next to each other, their maximum brightness can be seen by the observer, but their brightness, or magnitude, changes as the smaller star is behind or in front of the larger star.
Page 16 of 19
Spectroscopic Binaries
In most binaries, the stars are situated too close together for observers to distinguish them. With spectroscopic binaries it is only by analysis of stellar spectra that the binary properties are discovered.
Figure 2.8: Spectral shifts observed in Spectroscopic Binary By looking at the absorption lines in the spectrum obtained from this pair of stars, scientists can notice that as the star moves, the absorption lines also seem to move. This movement is known as the Doppler shift. Although it may be tempting to conclude that the spectrum in such a case is from a single star, as single stars are also subject to a Doppler Shift, the shift observed in the spectra of binary systems behaves in a unique way, indicating that there are two stars revolving around each other.
Page 17 of 19
Each booklet can be used to cover a topic on its own, or as part of a series. Booklets 5 and 6 expand on the material covered in the other booklets and there is, therefore, some overlap in content. All the booklets can be accessed via the ESA Science and Technology at: http://sci.esa.int/teachernotes For other educational resources visit the ESA Science and Technology Educational Support website at: http://sci.esa.int/education
Page 18 of 19
Page 19 of 19