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SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
A solar tracker is a device for orienting a Photovoltaic array solar photovoltaic panel or concentrating solar reflector or lens toward the sun. The sun's position in the sky varies both with the seasons (elevation) and time of day as the sun moves across the sky. Solar powered equipment works best when pointed at or near the sun, so a solar tracker can increase the effectiveness of such equipment over any fixed position, at the cost of additional system complexity. There are many types of solar trackers, of varying costs, sophistication, and performance. One well-known type of solar tracker is the heliostat, a movable mirror that reflects the moving sun to a fixed location, but many other approaches are used as well. Non-concentrating applications require less accuracy, and many work without any tracking at all. However, tracking can substantially improve both the amount of total power produced by a system and that produced during critical system demand periods (typically late afternoon in hot climates). The use of trackers in non-concentrating applications is usually an engineering decision based on economics. Compared to photo voltaic, trackers can be inexpensive. This makes theme specially effective for photovoltaic systems using high-efficiency (and thus expensive) panels. Extracting usable electricity from the sun was made possible by the discovery of the photoelectric mechanism and subsequent development of the solar cell a semi conductive material that converts visible light into a direct current. By using solar arrays, a series of solar cells electrically connected, a DC voltage is generated which can be physically used on a load. Solar arrays or panels are being used increasingly as efficiencies reach higher levels, and are especially popular in remote areas where placement of electricity lines is not economically viable. The process of sensing and following the position of the sun is known as Solar Tracking. It was resolved that real-time tracking would be necessary to follow the sun effectively, so that no external data would be required in operation.
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CHAPTER 2
PHOTOVOLTAICS
Photovoltaic(PV) is a technology that converts light directly into electricity.Photovoltaicis also the field of study relating to this technology and there are many research institutes devoted to work on photovoltaic. Due to the growing need for solar energy, the manufacture of solar cells and solar photovoltaic array has expanded dramatically since 2002.making it the worlds fastest -growing energy technology.
2.1. SOLAR CELL

Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. A photovoltaic cell, commonly called a solar cell or PV, is the technology used to convert solar energy directly into electrical power. A photovoltaic cell is a non mechanical device usually made from silicon alloy
FIG:2.1 Solar Cell The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a photovoltaic system. Individual cells can vary in size from about 0.5 inches to about 4 inches across. However, one cell only produces 1 or 2 watts, which isn't enough power for most applications. The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon the sunlight .Climatic conditions (eg., clouds, fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar energy received by a photovoltaic array and, in turn, its performance. Most current technology photovoltaic modules are about 10% efficient in converting solar radiation. Further research is being conducted to raise this efficiency to 20%.
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2.2 TYPES OF SOLAR PANELS:

There are 4 types of Solar Panels and I have them broken down for you below.
MONO CRYSTALLINE:
Monocrystalline solar panels are made from a large crystal of silicon. These type of solar panels are the most efficient as in absorbing sunlight and converting it into electricity, however they are the most expensive. They do somewhat better in lower light conditions then the other types of solar panels.
POLYCRYSTALLINE:
Polycrystalline solar panels are the most common type of solar panels on the market today. They look a lot like shattered glass. They are slightly less efficient then the monocrystalline solar panels and less expensive to produce. Instead of one large crystal, this type of solar panel consists of multiple amounts of smaller silicon crystal.
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CAST POLYSILICON:
In this process, molten silicon is cast in a large block which, when cooled, can be cut into thin wafers to be used in photovoltaic cells. These cells are then assembled in a panel. Conducting metal strips are then laid over the cells, connecting them to each other and forming a continuous electrical current throughout the panel.
STRING RIBBON SILICON:

String ribbon uses a variation of the polycrystalline production process, using the same molten silicon but slowly drawing a thin strip of crystalline silicon out of the molten form. These strips of photovoltaic material are then assembled in a panel with the same metal conductor strips attaching each strip to the electrical current.
AMORPHOUS SOLAR PANELS
Amorphous solar panels consist of a thin-like film made from molten silicon that is spread directly across large plates of stainless steel or similar material. These types of solar panels have lower efficiency then the other two types of solar panels, and the cheapest to produce. One advantage of amorphous solar panels over the other two is that they are shadow protected. That means that the solar panel continues to charge while part of the solar panel cells are in a shadow. These work great on boats and other types of transportation.
SOLAR PANEL EFFICIENCY DETAILS:

Monocrystalline- 18% Polycrystalline- 15% Amorphous (thin-film)- 10%
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CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF TRACKERS
3.1TRACKER MOUNT TYPES
Solar trackers may be active or passive and may be single axis or dual axis.There are two types of dual axis trackers, polar and altitude-azimuth. Single axis trackers: Horizontal axis: Several manufacturers can deliver single axis horizontal trackers which may be oriented by either passive or active mechanisms, depending upon manufacturer. In these, a long horizontal tube is supported on bearings mounted upon pylons or frames. The axis of the tube is on a North-South line. Panels are mounted upon the tube, and the tube will rotate on its axis to track the apparent motion of the sun through the day. These devices are less effective at higher latitudes. The principal advantage is the inherent robustness of the supporting structure and the simplicity of the mechanism. Vertical axis: A single axis tracker may be constructed that pivots only about a vertical axle, with the panels either vertical, at a fixed, adjustable, or tracked elevation angle. Such trackers with fixed or (seasonably) adjustable angles are suitable for high latitudes, where the apparent solar path is not especially high, but which leads to long days in Summer, Two-axis mount: Altitude-azimuth A type of mounting that supports the weight of the solar tracker and allows it to move in two directions to locate a specific target. One axis of support is horizontal (called the altitude) and allows the telescope to move up and down. The other axis is vertical (called the azimuth) and allows the telescope to swing in a circle parallel to the ground. Restricted to active trackers, this mount is also becoming popular as a large telescope mount owing to its structural simplicity and compact dimensions. Multi-mirror reflective unit: A multiple mirror reflective system combined with a central power tower is employed at the Sierra SunTower, located in Lancaster, California. This generation plant operated by eSolar is scheduled to www.BEProjectReport.com Page 6
begin operations on August 5, 2009. This system, which uses multiple heliostats in a north-south alignment, uses pre-fabricated parts and construction as a way of decreasing startup and operating costs.
3.2 DRIVE TYPES:

Active tracker Active trackers use motors and gear trains to direct the tracker as commanded by a controller responding to the solar direction.Active two-axis trackers are also used to orient heliostats - movable mirrors that reflect sunlight toward the absorber of a centralpowerstation. As each mirror in a large field will have an individual orientation these are controlled programmatically through a central computer system, which also allows the system to be shut down when necessary. Passive tracker Passive trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid that is driven to one side or the other (by solar heat creating gas pressure) to cause the tracker to move in response to an imbalance. As this is a non-precision orientation it is unsuitable for certain types of concentrating photovoltaic collectors but works fine for common PV panel types. These will have viscous dampers to prevent excessive motion in response to wind gusts. Shader/reflectors are used to reflect early morning sunlight to "wake up" the panel and tilt it toward the sun, which can take nearly an hour. The time to do this can be greatly reduced by adding a self-releasing tiedown that positions the panel slightly past the zenith (so that the fluid does not have to overcome gravity) and using the tiedown in the evening. (A slack-pulling spring will prevent release in windy overnight conditions.)
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CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
4.1 BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM:
FIG: 4.1
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4.2 POWER SUPPLY:

In this project power supplies with +5V & -5V option normally +5V is enough for total circuit. Another supply is used in case of OP amp circuit .Transformer primary side has 230/50HZ AC voltage whereas at thesecondary winding the voltage is step downed to 12/50hz and this voltage is rectified using two full wave rectifiers .The rectified output is given to a filter circuit to filter the unwanted ac in the signal After that the output is again applied to a regulator LM7805(to provide +5v) regulator. WhereasLM7805 is for providing 5V regulation.
Fig: 4.2 Block Diagram Of Power Supply A step down transformer is used to convert 230V 50HZ line voltage 12V ac input to the supply pin of the circuit. The ac voltage is converted to pulsated dc using a center tapped full wave rectifier. Any ripples if present are eliminated using a capacitive filter at the output of the full wave rectifier. The capacitive filter output is input to LM 7805(voltage regulator), which produces a dc equivalent of ac 5V. This 5V dc acts as VCC to the micro controller. Circuit Features: Brief description of operation: Gives out well regulated +5V output, output current capability of 1A Circuit complexity: Very simple and easy to build Circuit performance: Very stable +5V output voltage, reliable operation Availability of components: Easy to get, uses only very common basic components Applications: Part of electronics devices, small laboratory power supply Power supply voltage: 230V AC Power supply current: 1A www.BEProjectReport.com Page 9
4.3 AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLER

FEATURES 89C51 based architecture 8-Kbytes of on-chip Reprogrammable Flash Memory 128 x 8 RAM Two 16-bit Timer/Counters Full duplex serial channel Boolean processor Four 8-bit I/O ports, 32 I/O lines Memory addressing capability 64K ROM and 64K RAM Power save modes: Idle and power-down Six interrupt sources Most instructions execute in 0.3 us CMOS and TTL compatible Maximum speed: 40 MHz @ Vcc = 5V Industrial temperature available Packages available: 40-pin DIP 44-pin PLCC 44-pin PQFP
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: THE MICROCONTROLLER:

A microcontroller is a general purpose device, but that is meant to read data, perform limited calculations on that data and control its environment based on those calculations. The prime use of a microcontroller is to control the operation of a machine using a fixed program that is stored in ROM and that does not change over the lifetime of the system. The microcontroller design uses a much more limited set of single and double byte instructions that are used to move data and code from internal memory to the ALU. The microcontroller is concerned with getting data from and to its own pins; the architecture and instruction set are optimized to handle data in bit and byte size.
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FIG 4.3.1 The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 4k bytes of Flash Programmable and erasable read only memory (EROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is functionally compatible with the industrystandard 80C51 microcontroller instruction set and pin out.
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PIN CONFIGURATION:
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PIN DESCRIPTION:
VCC GND Supply voltage Ground Port 0 Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during access to external program and data memory. Port 1 Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port. The port 1output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. Port 2 Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current because of the internal pull-ups. Port 3 Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups can be used as inputs. RST Rest input A on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device . ALE/PROG: Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during access to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. PSEN Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory when the AT89c51 is executing code from external program memory PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. EA /VPP External Access Enable (EA) must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000h up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to Vcc for
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internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (Vpp) during Flash programming when 12-volt programming is selected. XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL 2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
OPERATING DESCRIPTION
The detail description of the AT89C51 included in this description is: Memory Map and Register Timer/Counters
MEMORY MAP AND REGISTERS

Memory The AT89C52 has separate address spaces for program and data memory. The program and data memory can be up to 64K bytes long. The lower 4K program memory can reside on-chip. The AT89C52 has 128 bytes of on-chip RAM. The lower 128 bytes can be accessed either by direct addressing or by indirect addressing. The lower 128 bytes of RAM can be divided into 3 segments as listed below
1. Register Banks 0-3: locations 00H through 1FH (32 bytes). The device after reset defaults to
register bank 0. To use the other register banks, the user must select them in software. Each register bank contains eight 1-byte registers R0-R7. Reset initializes the stack point to location 07H, and is incremented once to start from 08H, which is the first register of the second register bank. 2. Bit Addressable Area: 16 bytes have been assigned for this segment 20H-2FH. Each one of the 128 bits of this segment can be directly addressed (0-7FH). Each of the 16 bytes in this segment can also be addressed as a byte. 3. Scratch Pad Area: 30H-7FH are available to the user as data RAM. However, if the data pointer has been initialized to this area, enough bytes should be left aside to prevent SP data destruction.
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Fig 4.3.1 Special Function Registers The Special Function Registers (SFR's) are located in upper 128 Bytes direct addressing area. The SFR Memory Map in shows that Not all of the addresses are occupied. Unoccupied addresses are not implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses in general return random data, and write accesses have no effect. User software should not write 1s to these unimplemented locations, since they may be used in future microcontrollers to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be 0, and their active values will be 1. The functions of the SFRs are outlined in the following sections.
Accumulator (ACC)
ACC is the Accumulator register. The mnemonics for Accumulator-specific instructions, however, refer to the Accumulator simply as A.
B Register (B)
The B register is used during multiply and divide operations. For other instructions it can be treated as another scratch pad register.
Program Status Word (PSW)

The PSW register contains program status information.
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Stack Pointer (SP)

The Stack Pointer Register is eight bits wide. It is incremented before data is stored during PUSH and CALL executions. While the stack may reside anywhere in on chip RAM, the Stack Pointer is initialized to 07H after a reset. This causes the stack to begin at location 08H.
Data Pointer (DPTR)

The Data Pointer consists of a high byte (DPH) and a low byte (DPL). Its function is to hold a 16-bit address. It may be manipulated as a 16-bit register or as two independent 8-bit registers.
Serial Data Buffer (SBUF)

The Serial Data Buffer is actually two separate registers, a transmit buffer and a receive buffer register. When data is moved to SBUF, it goes to the transmit buffer, where it is held for serial transmission. (Moving a byte to SBUF initiates the transmission.) When data is moved from SBUF, it comes from the receive buffer.
Timer Registers
Register pairs (TH0, TL0) and (TH1, TL1) are the 16-bit Counter registers for Timer/Counters 0 and 1, respectively.
Control Registers
Special Function Registers IP, IE, TMOD, TCON, SCON, and PCON contain control and status bits for the interrupt system, the Timer/Counters, and the serial port.
TIMER/COUNTERS
The AT89C51 has two 16-bit Timer/Counter registers: Timer 0 and Timer 1. All two can be configured to operate either as Timers or event counters. As a Timer, the register is incremented every machine cycle. Thus, the register counts machine cycles. Since a machine cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/12 of the oscillator frequency. As a Counter, the register is incremented in response to a 1-to-0 transition at its corresponding external input pin, T0 and T1. The external input is sampled during S5P2 of every machine cycle. When the samples show a high in one cycle and a low in the next cycle, the count is incremented. The new count value appears in the register during S3P1 of the cycle following the one in which the transition was detected. Since two machine cycles (24 oscillator periods) are required to recognize a 1-to-0 transition, the maximum count rate is 1/24 of the oscillator frequency. There are no restrictions on the duty cycle of the external input signal, but it should be held for at least one full machine cycle to ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes.
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In addition to the Timer or Counter functions, Timer 0 and Timer 1 have four operating modes: 13bit timer, 16-bit timer, 8-bit auto-reload, split timer.
TIMERS:
OSCILLATOR FREQUENCY
12D
TLX THX TFX
TR
SFRS USED IN TIMERS

The special function registers used in timers are,
TMOD Register
TCON Register
Timer(T0) & timer(T1) Registers
(i) TMOD Register:

TMOD is dedicated solely to the two timers (T0 & T1). The timer mode SFR is used to configure the mode of operation of each of the two timers. Using this SFR your program may configure each timer to be a 16-bit timer, or 13 bit timer, 8-bit auto reload timer, or two separate timers. Additionally you may configure the timers to only count when an external pin is activated or to count events that are indicated on an external pin. It can consider as two duplicate 4-bit registers, each of which controls the action of one of the timers.
(ii) TCON Register:

The timer control SFR is used to configure and modify the way in which the 8051s two timers operate. This SFR controls whether each of the two timers is running or stopped and contains a flag to indicate that each timer has overflowed. Additionally, some non-timer related bits are located in TCON SFR.
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These bits are used to configure the way in which the external interrupt flags are activated, which are set when an external interrupt occurs.
(iii) TIMER 0 (T0):

TO (Timer 0 low/high, address 8A/8C h) These two SFRs taken together represent timer 0. Their exact behavior depends on how the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. What is configurable is how and when they increment in value.
T H0 T L0
(iv) TIMER 1 (T1):

T1 (Timer 1 Low/High, address 8B/ 8D h) These two SFRs, taken together, represent timer 1. Their exact behavior depends on how the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. What is Configurable is how and when they increment in value.
TH1
TL1
The Timer or Counter function is selected by control bits C/T in the Special Function Register TMOD. These two Timer/Counters have four operating modes, which are selected by bit pairs (M1, M0) in TMOD. Modes 0, 1, and 2 are the same for both Timer/Counters, but Mode 3 is different. The four modes are described in the following sections.
Mode 0:
Both Timers in Mode 0 are 8-bit Counters with a divide-by-32 pre scalar. Figure 8 shows the Mode 0 operation as it applies to Timer 1. In this mode, the Timer register is configured as a 13-bit register. As the count rolls over from all 1s to all 0s, it sets the Timer interrupt flag TF1. The counted input is enabled to the Timer when TR1 = 1 and either GATE = 0 or INT1 = 1. Setting GATE = 1 allows the Timer to be controlled by external input INT1, to facilitate pulse width measurements. TR1 is a control bit in the Special Function Register TCON. Gate is in TMOD. www.BEProjectReport.com Page 18
The 13-bit register consists of all eight bits of TH1 and the lower five bits of TL1. The upper three bits of TL1 are indeterminate and should be ignored. Setting the run flag (TR1) does not clear the registers. Mode 0 operation is the same for Timer 0 as for Timer 1, except that TR0, TF0 and INT0 replace the corresponding Timer 1 signals. There are two different GATE bits, one for Timer 1 (TMOD.7) and one for Timer 0 (TMOD.3).
Mode 1
Mode 1 is the same as Mode 0, except that the Timer register is run with all 16 bits. The clock is applied to the combined high and low timer registers (TL1/TH1). As clock pulses are received, the timer counts up: 0000H, 0001H, 0002H, etc. An overflow occurs on the FFFFH-to0000H overflow flag. The timer continues to count. The overflow flag is the TF1 bit in TCON that is read or written by software
Mode 2
Mode 2 configures the Timer register as an 8-bit Counter (TL1) with automatic reload, as shown in Figure 10. Overflow from TL1 not only sets TF1, but also reloads TL1 with the contents of TH1, which is preset by software. The reload leaves the TH1 unchanged. Mode 2 operation is the same for Timer/Counter 0.
Mode 3
Timer 1 in Mode 3 simply holds its count. The effect is the same as setting TR1 = 0. Timer 0 in Mode 3 establishes TL0and TH0 as two separate counters. The logic for Mode 3 on Timer 0 is shown in Figure 11. TL0 uses the Timer 0 control bits: C/T, GATE, TR0, INT0, and TF0. TH0 is locked into a timer function (counting machine cycles) and over the use of TR1 and TF1 from Timer 1. Thus, TH0 now controls the Timer 1 interrupt. Mode 3 is for applications requiring an extra 8-bit timer or counter. With Timer 0 in Mode 3, the AT89C51 can appear to have three Timer/Counters. When Timer 0 is in Mode 3, Timer 1 can be turned on and off by switching it out of and into its own Mode 3. In this case, Timer 1 can still be used by the serial port as a baud rate generator or in any application not requiring an interrupt.
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4.4 DS 1307(RTC)
Real-Time Clock (RTC) Counts Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Date of the Month, Month, Day of the Week, and Year with Leap-Year
Fig: 4.4.2 Pin Configuration
DESCRIPTION
The DS1307 serial alarm real-time clock provides a full binary coded decimal (BCD) clock calendar that is accessed by a simple serial interface. The clock/calendar provides seconds, minutes, hours, day, date, month, and year information. The end of the month date is automatically adjusted for months with fewer than 31 days, including corrections for leap year. The clock operates in either the 24-hour or 12-hour format with AM/PM indicator. In addition, 96 bytes of NV RAM are provided for data storage. The DS1307 will maintain the time and date, provided the oscillator is enabled, as long as at least one supply is at a valid level An interface logic power-supply input pin (VCCIF) allows the DS1307 to drive SDA and SCL pins to a level that is compatible with the interface logic. This allows an easy interface to 3V logic in mixed supply systems. The DS1307 offers dual-power supplies as well as a battery input pin. The dual power supplies support a programmable trickle charge circuit that allows a rechargeable energy source (such as a super cap or rechargeable battery) to be used for a backup supply. The VBAT pin allows the device to be backed up by a non-rechargeable battery. The DS1307 is fully operational from 2.0V to 5.5V. Two programmable time-of-day alarms are provided by the DS1307. Each alarm can generate an interrupt on a programmable combination of seconds, minutes, hours, and day. Dont care states can be inserted into one or more fields if it is desired for them to be ignored for the alarm condition. www.BEProjectReport.com Page 20
The time-of-day alarms can be programmed to assert two different interrupt outputs or to assert one common interrupt output. Both interrupt outputs operate when the device is powered by VCC1, VCC2, or VBAT. The DS1307 supports a direct interface to SPI serial data ports or standard 3-wire interface. A straightforward address and data format is implemented in which data transfers can occur 1 byte at a time or in multiple-byte-burst mode.
4.5LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)

General Description:
The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a low power device (microwatts). Now a days in most applications LCDs are using rather using of LED displays because of its specifications like low power consumption, ability to display numbers and special characters which are difficult to display with other displaying circuits and easy to program. An LCD requires an external or internal light source. Temperature range of LCD is 0C to 60C and lifetime is an area of concern, because LCDs can chemically degrade these are manufactured with liquid crystal material (normally organic for LCDs) that will flow like a liquid but whose molecular structure has some properties normally associated with solids. . LCDs are classified as 1. Dynamic-scattering LCDs and 2. Field-effect LCDs
FIELD EFFECT LCD:

Field-effect LCDs are normally used in such applications where source of energy is a prime factor (e.g., watches, portable instrumentation etc.).They absorb considerably less power than the light-scattering type. However, the cost for field-effect units is typically higher, and their height is limited to 2 inches. On the other hand, light-scattering units are available up to 8 inches in height. Field-effect LCD is used in the project for displaying the appropriate information
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Fig: 4.5.1 Liquid Crystal Display
4.6 KEYPAD
Keypads are a part of HMI or Human Machine Interface and play really important role in a small embedded system where human interaction or human input is needed. Matrix keypads are well known for their simple architecture and ease of interfacingwith any microcontroller. Scanning a matrix keypad: There are many methods depending on how the keypadis connected with the controller, but the basic logic is same. Thecolumns as i/p and rows making them o/p, this whole procedure of reading the keyboard is called scanning.
Fig 4.6. Matrix Keypad www.BEProjectReport.com Page 22
4.7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces electrical oscillations at a particular designed frequency determined by the physical characteristics of one or more crystals, generally of quartz, positioned in the circuit feedback loop. A piezoelectric effect causes a crystal such as quartz to vibrate and resonate at a particular frequency. The quartz crystal naturally oscillates at a particular frequency, its fundamental frequency that can be hundreds of megahertz. The crystal oscillator is generally used in various forms such as a frequency generator, a frequency modulator and a frequency converter.
FIG 4.7.1
4.8 L293D DRIVER

The L293D is a monolithic integrated high voltage, high current four channel driver designed to accept standard DTL or TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads (such as relays solenoids, DC and stepping motors) and switching power transistors. To simplify use as two bridges is pair of channels is equipped with an enable input. A separate supply input is provided form the logic, allowing operational at a low voltage and internal clamp diodes are included. This device is suitable for use in switching applications at frequencies up to 5 KHz. The L293D is assembled in a 16 lead plastic package which has 4 center pins connected together and used for heat sinking.
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Fig 4.8.1 Pin Configuration Of L293d
FEATURES:
600ma. output current capability perchannel 1.2a pe ak o utput current (nonrepetitive) per channel enable facility overtemperature protection logical 0 input voltage up to 15v internal clamps diodes.
4.9BRUSHLESS DC GEAR MOTOR

Conventional DC motors use a stationary magnet with a rotating armature combining the commutation segments and brushes to provide automatic commutation. In comparison, the brushless DC motor is a reversed design: the permanent magnet is rotating whereas the windings are part of the stator and can be energized without requiring a commutator-and-brush system.
SPECIFICATION: INPUT VOLTAGE 15V INPUT CURRENT 0.6A R.P.M 10:1 www.BEProjectReport.com Page 24
Fig 4.9.1 Brushless Dc Motor
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CHAPTER 5
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
5.1 HARD WARE IMPLEMENTATION
5.1.1 SCHEMATIC: 5.1.2 INTERFACING LCD WITH MICRO CONTROLLER:
Fig 5.1 Interfacing Lcd With Microcontroller Lcd (Liquid Crystal Display) was connected to microcontroller through pins (D0-D3) to(p1.4-p1.7) respectively to send the data through microcontroller ,R/W pin was connected to ground ,RS PIN to P2.0,EN pin to P2.1,and Vcc to supply pin.
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5.1.3 INTERFACING L293D DRIVER AND GEAR MOTOR WITH MICROCONTROLLER:
Fig 5.2 Interfacing L293d Driver With Gear Motor L293D was connected to micro controller through pins p0.0 andP0.1 .3and4 pins are connected to D.C BRUSHLESS MOTOR positive and negative pins. 4,5 pins were shorted and given to 9v supply. 7,11,13,14 left open and remaining pins were connected to ground.
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5.1.4INTERFACING DS1307 WITH MICROCONTROLLER:
Fig 5.3 Interfacing Ds 1307 With Micro Controller DS 1307 was connected to the micro controller through pins P3.2, P3.4, P3.3 to the pins 7, 6, 5 respectively. 1, 2pins were connected to 33KHZ crystal oscillator and the remaining pins were connected to supply of 3.6V.
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5.1.5WORKING OF SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

The system contains two modules, one is tracking and the other is controlling module. Tracking module which will take angular rotation with the help of DC gear motor in synchronous with the starting position of the sun. As sun rises from East, it will also take the angle according to the angle of raising sun. So it will continuously track the sun till the sun sets in the West. Initially when the supply from the power kit was drawn and given to all the components of the control circuit and keyboard. When the power supply is switched ON the panel comes to the original position and by the keypad switches the clock time in the LCD screen can be setted by the keypad switches. K1, K2 and K3 are the switches of keypad. K1 represents Increment switch, K2 represents Decrement switch and K3 represents Enable switch. Initially the panel stands at reference position 8:00AM and according to the setting time the panel rotates with the help of brushless DC Gear Motor. Module is designed with efficient Microcontroller from ATMEL 89C51 which helps to drive the tracking module at different instants. The keypad switches was connected to the microcontroller through latch to the port2(Pins 2.6, 2.7,2.8) and microcontroller was connected to the LCD screen through the pins(P1.4 to P1.7) and the LCD displays the preset time. DS1307 is the RTC(Real Time Clock) used to produce clock pulses through microcontroller which connects the LCD display, displays the time. L293D driver was connected to the DC Motor, microcontroller and 9V battery. The pulses that was produced by the microcontroller helps to connect the DC supply to the DC brushless motor. The DC brushless motor was mounted on a separate stand and connected to a shaft which rotates the solar panel given from the microcontroller based upon this gear motor operates. When the supply was given to the dc gear motor, according to the setting from keypad, the solar panel reaches the set state from the initial position with one degree as one second and after reaching the set position it covers every degree by one degree.
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5.1.6 PROJECT KIT PHOTOS
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5.2SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION PROGRAMME:.

#include "reg51.h" #include "stdio.h" #define DATA P1 #define delay_us _nop_(); //generates 1 microsecond #define SCKHIGH SCK=1; #define SCKLOW SCK=0; #define SDAHIGH SDA=1; #define SDALOW SDA=0; sbit RS=P1^0; sbit EN=P1^2; sbit RW=P1^1; sbit K1=P2^0; sbit K2=P2^1; sbit K3=P2^2; sbit K4=P2^3; sbit SCK=P3^5; //serial clock pin sbit SDA=P3^4; //serial data pin void delay(unsigned int); voidinit(unsigned char,unsignedint); voidwrite_lcd(unsigned char,unsignedint); void message1(unsigned char,unsigned char*); void message(unsigned char *s); void start(void); void stop(void); voidsend_byte(unsigned char); unsigned char receive_byte(unsigned char); void write_i2c(unsigned char,unsignedchar,unsigned char); unsigned char read_i2c(unsigned char,unsigned char); voidgopos(); void go1(); voidcurrenttime(); void main() { P1 = 0x00; RW = 0; add=0; init(0x30,15); init(0x20,15); init(0x28,5); www.BEProjectReport.com Page 31
init(0x0c,5); init(0x01,5); init(0x06,5); while(1) { if(K1==0) { init(0x01,5); message1(0x80,"Enter HH:MM:SS"); message1(0xc0,"00:00:00"); delay(1000); break; } if(K2==0) { init(0x01,5); message1(0x80,"process continu"); delay(250); goto process; break; } } delay(150); message1(0xc0,"00:00:00"); delay(1000); while(1) { if(K3==0) { delay(300); break; } if(K1==0)//adjust the hours on the bases of the key1 { delay(100);//if we want to increase a= a+1; init(0xc0,15); if(a<=23) { a=a+1; } else { www.BEProjectReport.com Page 32
} } if(K2==0) { delay(100);//adjust the hours on the bases of the key2 a= a-1; init(0xc0,15); //if we want to decrease if(a<=0) { a=0; } else { a=a-1; } } while(1) { if(K3==0) { delay(300); break; } init(0xc3,15); if(K1==0) //adjust the minutes on the bases of the key1 { //if we want to increase if(b<=59) { b=b+1 } else { } } if(K2==0) { //adjust the minutes on the bases of the key2 //if we want to decrease if(b<=0) { www.BEProjectReport.com Page 33
b=0; } else { b=b-1; } } d=0; while(1) { if(K3==0) { delay(300); break; } if(K1==0) { if(d<=59) { d=d+1; } else { d=59; } } if(K2==0) {
//adjust the seconds on the bases of the key1 //if we want to increase
//adjust the seconds on the bases of the key2 //if we want to decrease
if(d<=0) { d=0; else { d=d-1; } } } voidinit(unsigned char dbyte,unsignedintmsec) { unsigned char temp; DATA=dbyte; callen(); temp=_cror_(dbyte,4); www.BEProjectReport.com Page 34
DATA=temp; callen(); delay(msec); } voidwrite_lcd(unsigned char dbyte,unsignedintmsec) { unsigned char temp; DATA=dbyte; callenrs(); temp=_cror_(dbyte,4); DATA=temp; callenrs(); delay(msec); } //starts i2c, if both SCK & SDA are idle void start(void) { if(SCK==0) //check SCK. if SCK busy, return else SCK idle return; if(SDA==0) //check SDA. if SDA busy, return else SDA idle return; SDALOW //data low delay_us SCKLOW //clock low delay_us } //stops i2c, releasing the bus void stop(void) { SDALOW //data low SCKHIGH //clock high delay_us SDAHIGH //data high delay_us } //transmits one byte of data to i2c bus voidsend_byte(unsigned char c) { unsigned mask=0x80; do //transmits 8 bits { if(c&mask) //set data line accordingly(0 or 1) SDAHIGH //data high else www.BEProjectReport.com Page 35
SDALOW //data low SCKHIGH //clock high delay_us SCKLOW //clock low delay_us mask/=2; //shift mask } while(mask>0); SDAHIGH //release data line for acknowledge SCKHIGH //send clock for acknowledge delay_us slave_ack=SDA; //read data pin for acknowledge SCKLOW //clock low delay_us } //receives one byte of data from i2c bus unsigned char receive_byte(unsigned char master_ack) { unsigned char c=0,mask=0x80; do //receive 8 bits { SCKHIGH //clock high delay_us if(SDA==1) //read data c|=mask; //store data SCKLOW //clock low delay_us mask/=2; //shift mask } while(mask>0); if(master_ack==1) SDAHIGH //don't acknowledge else SDALOW //acknowledge SCKHIGH //clock high delay_us SCKLOW //clock low delay_us SDAHIGH //data high return c; } //writes one byte of data(c) to slave device(device_id) at given address(location) void write_i2c(unsigned char device_id,unsigned char location,unsigned char c) { www.BEProjectReport.com Page 36
do { start(); //starts i2c bus send_byte(device_id); //select slave device if(slave_ack==1) //if acknowledge not received, stop i2c bus stop(); } while(slave_ack==1); //loop until acknowledge is received send_byte(location); //send address location send_byte(c); //send data to i2c bus stop(); //stop i2c bus delay(5); } //reads one byte of data(c) from slave device(device_id) at given address(location) unsigned char read_i2c(unsigned char device_id,unsigned char location) { unsigned char c; do { start(); //starts i2c bus send_byte(device_id); //select slave device if(slave_ack==1) //if acknowledge not received, stop i2c bus stop(); }while(slave_ack==1); //loop until acknowledge is received send_byte(location); //send address location stop(); //stop i2c bus start(); //starts i2c bus send_byte(device_id+1); //select slave device in read mode c=receive_byte(1); //receive data from i2c bus stop(); //stop i2c bus return c; } void message(unsigned char *s) { while(*s) { write_lcd(*s++,150); } } //In this equation, x = the actual decimal value; cc = the integer value of (x modulo 100)/10; b = the integer value of (x modulo 1000)/100; I = the integer value of (x modulo 10000)/1000; and m = the integer value of x/10000. www.BEProjectReport.com Page 37
Voidgopos() { while(cnt1>0) { init(0x80,15); write_lcd(((cnt1/10)+48),5); write_lcd(((cnt1%10)+48),5); delay(1000); Mf=1; Delay (29); mf=0; cnt1--; } } Voidgo1 () { Mf=1; Delay (29); Mf=0; } Voidcurrent time () { While (1) { message1 (0xc0,"init-k1y-k2n"); // delay (10000);//after reset display on lcd //message1 (0xc0,"K1-y:K2-N "); If (K2==0) { z4=1; Break; } elseif(K1==0) Break; } }
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CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
6.1ADVANTAGES:
1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7.
Solar power is pollution free during use. Production end wastes and emissions are manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are under development. Facilities can operate with little maintenance after initial setup. Solar electric generation is economically superior where grid connection or fuel transport is difficult, costly or impossible. When grid-connected, solar electric generation can displace the highest cost electricity during times of peak demand can reduce grid loading. Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission/distribution losses. Once the initial capital cost of building a solar power plant has been spent, operating costs are extremely low compared to existing power technologies. The power obtained by solar tracking is almost constant over a period of time when compared with the output obtained by a panel without tracking.
6.2 DISADVANTAGES:
1. Solar electricity is almost more expensive than electricity generated by other sources. 2. Solar electricity is not available at night and is less available in cloudy weather conditions. Therefore, a storage or complimentary power system is required. 3. Limited power density. 4. Solar cells produce DC which must be converted to ACwhen used in currently existing distribution grids
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CHAPTER 7
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
7.1 RESULTS:
1. Output of the power kit was tested and multimeter reading is 5v. 2. Power supply to the control kit was tested. 3. Seconds and minute operation of tracking system was verified.
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7.2 CONCLUSION:
In recent years, the generation of electricity using solar technology has seen a tremendous growth, in particular because of the economic considerations and smooth operation of the solar panels. Even though the initial costs are high, but operation costs and maintenance costs are low. Solar tracking system today offer an innovative method to track the solar insolation and provide economic compatibility of the generation of electric power where grid connections are difficult to setup and costly. Here the tracking system is based on microcontroller with effective systematic operation and the solar panel is rotated by the dc gear motor effectively.
7.3PRESENT CONTRIBUTION AND FUTURE SCOPE:

Here the data provided to the micro controller consists of single common day irrespective of the rotation of the sun and the seasons. Effective tracking system is achieved when the data considering the rotation of earth with respective to sun is included in the micro controller.
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qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwerty uiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasd fghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzx cvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui www.BEProjectReport.

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

2.1. SOLAR CELL

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

2.2 TYPES OF SOLAR PANELS:

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

STRING RIBBON SILICON:

AMORPHOUS SOLAR PANELS

SOLAR PANEL EFFICIENCY DETAILS:

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

3.2 DRIVE TYPES:

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

4.2 POWER SUPPLY:

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

4.3 AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLER

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: THE MICROCONTROLLER:

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

MEMORY MAP AND REGISTERS

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

Program Status Word (PSW)

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

Stack Pointer (SP)

Data Pointer (DPTR)

Serial Data Buffer (SBUF)

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

SFRS USED IN TIMERS

Timer(T0) & timer(T1) Registers

(i) TMOD Register:

(ii) TCON Register:

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

(iii) TIMER 0 (T0):

(iv) TIMER 1 (T1):

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

Fig: 4.4.2 Pin Configuration

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

4.5LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)

FIELD EFFECT LCD:

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

Fig 4.6. Matrix Keypad www.BEProjectReport.com Page 22

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

4.7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

4.8 L293D DRIVER

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

Fig 4.8.1 Pin Configuration Of L293d

4.9BRUSHLESS DC GEAR MOTOR

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

Fig 4.9.1 Brushless Dc Motor

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

5.1.3 INTERFACING L293D DRIVER AND GEAR MOTOR WITH MICROCONTROLLER:

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

5.1.4INTERFACING DS1307 WITH MICROCONTROLLER:

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

5.1.5WORKING OF SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

5.1.6 PROJECT KIT PHOTOS