Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology
http://www.saylor.org/courses/psych303/ The Saylor Foundation
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License
Second Edition
Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton

Copyright 2009 Kelvin Seifert For any questions about this text, please email drexel!u"a.edu
#ditor$%n$Chie& 'elvin (ei&ert Associate #ditor )arisa *rexel #ditorial Assistant +ackie (harman ,roo&reader -achel ,u"liese
The .lobal Text ,ro/ect is &unded by the +acobs Foundation, 0urich, (1it2erland
http://www.saylor.org/courses/psych303/
A .lobal Text
The Saylor Foundation
About the authors and revie1er Author, Kelvin Seifert

'elvin (ei&ert is pro&essor o& educational psycholo"y at the 4niversity o& )anitoba, 5innipe", Canada. 6e earned a 7A &rom (1arthmore Colle"e in 89:; and a ,h* &rom the 4niversity o& )ichi"an in 89;3, in a combined pro"ram &rom the (chool o& #ducation and the *epartment o& ,sycholo"y. 6is research interests include the personal identity development o& teachers, the impact o& peers in 0pre$service teacher education, and the development o& e&&ective strate"ies o& blended learnin". 6e is the author o& &our university textbooks <1ith 6ou"hton )i&&lin, in traditional print &ormat= about educational psycholo"y, child and adolescent development, and li&espan human development. 6e is also the editor o& the online Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy. -ecent publications include >(tudent cohorts (upport "roups or intellectual communities?@ <Teachers College Record) and >Learnin" about peers A missed opportunity &or educational psycholo"y@ <The Clearinghouse=. 6is pro&essional service includes servin" as chair o& the *epartment o& #ducational Administration, Foundations, and ,sycholo"y at the 4niversity o& )anitoba, and servin" as president o& the American #ducational -esearch Association (pecial %nterest .roup on Teachin" #ducational ,sycholo"y. *urin" his career o& 3A years, he has tau"ht introductory educational psycholo"y over ;A times.
Author, Rosemary Sutton

A&ter &our years o& teachin" hi"h school mathematics in Be1 0ealand, *r -osemary (utton attended "raduate school and earned her )( in #ducational ,sycholo"y &rom the 4niversity o& %llinois and her ,h* &rom ,ennsylvania (tate 4niversity in 6uman *evelopment. (he /oined the Cleveland (tate 4niversity &aculty in Cleveland, Chio in 89D3 and since that time has tau"ht pre$service and in service under"raduates and "raduate students educational psycholo"y and educational technolo"y. (he has received several 4niversity a1ards &or her teachin" and has conducted numerous 1orkshops &or teachers in Borth #ast Chio. *r (utton has published a variety research articles on teacher development as 1ell as equity issues in mathematics, technolo"y, and assessment. 6er recent research interests have &ocused in t1o areas teachin" educational psycholo"y and teachersE emotions. -ecent publications can be &ound in (ocial ,sycholo"y o& #ducation, #ducational ,sycholo"y -evie1, +ournal o& Teacher #ducation, and an edited volume, #motions and #ducation. (ince 300F, *r (utton has been 1orkin" as an Administrator, &irst as the *irector o& Assessment &or the 4niversity. This position involved coordinatin" the student learnin" assessment &or all "raduate, under"raduate, and student support pro"rams. %n Au"ust 300;, *r (utton 1as appointed Gice ,rovost &or 4nder"raduate (tudies and is no1 responsible &or overseein" o&&ices and &unctions &rom academic and student service areas in order to create a campus culture that coordinates student services 1ith the academic mission o& the 4niversity.
Revie er, Sandra !eemer

(andra *eemer is pro&essor o& educational &oundations at )illersville 4niversity, in )illersville, ,A. (he is also the editor o& the online /ournal called HTeachin" #ducational ,sycholo"y,H and has contributed to the development o& the (pecial %nterest .roup on Teachin" #ducational ,sycholo"y <T#, (%.= sponsored by the American #ducational -esearch Association. (he teaches courses in educational psycholo"y and educational researchI her research interests &ocus on ho1 motivational theory can be used to create learnin"$&ocused classrooms.
A .lobal Text
Table of Contents
,re&ace............................................................................................................................................................... ;
8. The chan"in" teachin" pro&ession and you.............................................................................D

The /oys o& teachin".......................................................................................................................................... D Are there also challen"es to teachin"?............................................................................................................80 Teachin" is di&&erent &rom in the past............................................................................................................ 80 6o1 educational psycholo"y can help............................................................................................................8:
3. The learnin" process .............................................................................................................30

TeachersJ perspectives on learnin"................................................................................................................ 30 )a/or theories and models o& learnin".......................................................................................................... 33
3. (tudent development............................................................................................................. F8
5hy development matters............................................................................................................................. F3 ,hysical development durin" the school years.............................................................................................. F3 Co"nitive development the theory o& +ean ,ia"et........................................................................................ F: (ocial development relationships,personal motives, and morality .............................................................A0 )oral development &ormin" a sense o& ri"hts and responsibilities............................................................. A: 4nderstandin" >the typical student@ versus understandin" students........................................................... :8
F. (tudent diversity....................................................................................................................::
%ndividual styles o& learnin" and thinkin"..................................................................................................... :; )ultiple intelli"ences..................................................................................................................................... :D .i&ted and talented students.......................................................................................................................... ;0 .ender di&&erences in the classroom.............................................................................................................. ;3 *i&&erences in cultural expectations and styles.............................................................................................. ;A Accommodatin" diversity in practice............................................................................................................ D0
A. (tudents 1ith special educational needs.............................................................................. DA

Three people on the mar"ins..........................................................................................................................DA .ro1in" support &or people 1ith disabilities le"islation and its e&&ects...................................................... D: -esponsibilities o& teachers &or students 1ith disabilities.............................................................................D; Cate"ories o& disabilitiesKand their ambi"uities........................................................................................... 98 Learnin" disabilities........................................................................................................................................98 Attention de&icit hyperactivity disorder......................................................................................................... 9F %ntellectual disabilities................................................................................................................................... 9: 7ehavioral disorders.......................................................................................................................................99 ,hysical disabilities and sensory impairments.............................................................................................808 The value o& includin" students 1ith special needs..................................................................................... 80F
:. (tudent motivation.............................................................................................................. 809

)otives as behavior.......................................................................................................................................880 )otives as "oals............................................................................................................................................. 883 )otives as interests....................................................................................................................................... 88: )otives related to attributions......................................................................................................................88D )otivation as sel&$e&&icacy............................................................................................................................ 830 )otivation as sel&$determination................................................................................................................. 83A #xpectancy x value e&&ects on studentsJ motivation....................................................................................830 TA-.#T a model &or inte"ratin" ideas about motivation........................................................................... 838
;. Classroom mana"ement and the learnin" environment.................................................... 83D

5hy classroom mana"ement matters.......................................................................................................... 839 F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License ,reventin" mana"ement problems by &ocusin" students on learnin".........................................................8F0 -espondin" to student misbehavior.............................................................................................................8A0 'eepin" mana"ement issues in perspective................................................................................................. 8AA
D. The nature o& classroom communication............................................................................8A9

Communication in classrooms vs communication else1here..................................................................... 8A9 #&&ective verbal communication................................................................................................................... 8:3 #&&ective nonverbal communication.............................................................................................................8:3 (tructures o& participation e&&ects on communication................................................................................8:: Communication styles in the classroom.......................................................................................................8:9 4sin" classroom talk to stimulate studentsJ thinkin".................................................................................. 8;3 The bottom line messa"es sent, messa"es reconstructed........................................................................... 8;:
9. Facilitatin" complex thinkin"..............................................................................................8D3

Forms o& thinkin" associated 1ith classroom learnin"................................................................................8DF Critical thinkin"............................................................................................................................................ 8DA Creative thinkin" ..........................................................................................................................................8D: ,roblem$solvin"............................................................................................................................................ 8D; 7road instructional strate"ies that stimulate complex thinkin".................................................................. 898 Teacher$directed instruction........................................................................................................................ 893 (tudent$centered models o& learnin".......................................................................................................... 300 %nquiry learnin"............................................................................................................................................ 308 Cooperative learnin".................................................................................................................................... 303 #xamples o& cooperative and collaborative learnin"................................................................................... 303 %nstructional strate"ies an abundance o& choices.......................................................................................30A
80. ,lannin" instruction.......................................................................................................... 380

(electin" "eneral learnin" "oals................................................................................................................... 380 Formulatin" learnin" ob/ectives................................................................................................................... 38A (tudents as a source o& instructional "oals.................................................................................................. 333 #nhancin" student learnin" throu"h a variety o& resources........................................................................33: Creatin" brid"es amon" curriculum "oals and studentsJ prior experiences............................................... 339 ,lannin" &or instruction as 1ell as &or learnin"........................................................................................... 33A
88. Teacher$made assessment strate"ies................................................................................ 3F0

7asic concepts............................................................................................................................................... 3F8 Assessment &or learnin" an overvie1 o& the process...................................................................................3F8 (electin" appropriate assessment techniques % hi"h quality assessments................................................3F3 -eliability ..................................................................................................................................................... 3FA Absence o& bias ............................................................................................................................................ 3F: (electin" appropriate assessment techniques %% types o& teacher$made assessments..............................3F: (elected response items................................................................................................................................3F9 Constructed response items ........................................................................................................................ 3AF ,ort&olios.......................................................................................................................................................3:F Assessment that enhances motivation and student con&idence.................................................................. 3:; TeachersJ purposes and belie&s .................................................................................................................... 3:; Choosin" assessments ................................................................................................................................. 3:D ,rovidin" &eedback ...................................................................................................................................... 3:D (el& and peer assessment ............................................................................................................................. 3:9 Ad/ustin" instruction based on assessment................................................................................................. 3;0 Communication 1ith parents and "uardians...............................................................................................3;0 Educational Psychology
A .lobal Text
Action research studyin" yoursel& and your students................................................................................. 3;8 .radin" and reportin" ................................................................................................................................. 3;3
83. (tandardi2ed and other &ormal assessments.....................................................................3;;

7asic concepts............................................................................................................................................... 3;; 6i"h$stakes testin" by states........................................................................................................................3D3 %nternational testin"..................................................................................................................................... 398 %nternational comparisons .......................................................................................................................... 393 4nderstandin" test results........................................................................................................................... 393 %ssues 1ith standardi2ed tests .....................................................................................................................39D
Appendix A ,reparin" &or licensure...................................................................................... 30F Appendix 7 *ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research...........................................................389 Appendix C The re&lective practitioner.................................................................................. 3A8
Types o& resources &or pro&essional development and learnin".................................................................. 3A3 -eadin" and understandin" pro&essional articles .......................................................................................3AA Action research hearin" &rom teachers about improvin" practice............................................................. 3:: The challen"es o& action research................................................................................................................. 3;8 7ene&itin" &rom all kinds o& research........................................................................................................... 3;3
:
Preface *r. 'elvin (ei&ert 5hy % 1anted this book to be part o& the .lobal Textbook ,ro/ect
% have tau"ht educational psycholo"y to &uture teachers &or nearly 3A years, durin" 1hich % used one or another o& the ma/or commercial textbooks 1ritten &or this sub/ect. %n "eneral % &ound all o& the books 1ell$ 1ritten and thorou"h. 7ut % also &ound problems <8= Thou"h they di&&ered in details, the ma/or textbooks 1ere surprisin"ly similar in overall covera"e. This &act, coupled 1ith their lar"e overall si2e, made it hard to tailor any o& the books to the particular interests or needs o& individuals or "roups o& students. Too o&ten, buyin" a textbook 1as like havin" to buy a hu"e (unday ne1spaper 1hen all you really 1ant is to read one o& its sections. %n a similar 1ay, commercial educational psycholo"y textbooks usually told you more than you ever needed or 1anted to kno1 about the sub/ect. As a &ormat, the textbook did not allo1 &or individuali2ation. <3= #ducational psycholo"y textbooks 1ere al1ays expensive, and over the years their costs rose &aster than in&lation, especially in the 4nited (tates, 1here most o& the books have been produced. Currently every ma/or text about educational psycholo"y sells &or more than 4(* 800. At best this cost is a stress on studentsE bud"ets. At 1orst it puts educational psycholo"y textbooks beyond the reach o& many. The problem o& the cost is even more obvious 1hen put in 1orld1ide perspectiveI in some countries the cost o& one textbook is rou"hly equivalent to the avera"e annual income o& its citi2ens. <3= %n the competition to sell copies o& educational psycholo"y textbooks, authors and publishers have "radually added &eatures that raise the cost o& books 1ithout evidence o& addin" educational value. #ducational psycholo"y publishers in particular have increased the number o& illustrations and photo"raphs, s1itched to &ull$color editions, increased the complexity and number o& study "uides and ancillary publications, and created proprietary 1ebsites usable &ully only by adopters o& their particular books. These &eatures have sometimes been attractive. )y teachin" experience su""ests, ho1ever, that they also distract students &rom learnin" key ideas about educational psycholo"y about as o&ten as they help students to learn. 7y publishin" this textbook online 1ith the .lobal Textbook ,ro/ect, % have taken a step to1ard resolvin" these problems. %nstructors and students can access as much or as little o& the textbook as they really need and &ind use&ul. The cost o& their doin" is minimal. ,eda"o"ical &eatures are available, but are kept to a minimum and rendered in &ormats that can be accessed &reely and easily by anyone connected to the %nternet. %n the &uture, revisions to the book 1ill be relatively easy and prompt to make. These, % believe, are desirable outcomes &or everyoneL $$Kelvin Seifert Dr. Kelvin Seifert
A .lobal Text
1. The changing teaching profession and you

A teacher named Ashley reflects" She loo#ed around the classroom, en$oying a %lessed moment of &uiet after the students left at the end of the day. 'Ashley, the teacher, that(s me), she said *roudly to the em*ty room. '+ut hy am , doing this-) she as#ed herself &uietly.and reali/ed she as teaching for 0adia, asn(t ho al ays sure of the ans er. +ut then she remem%ered one reason" she sat at the ta%le to the left, al ays smiled so reason" she as teaching for 2incoln, tired old 2incoln, ell and al ays 1 ell, usually) tried hard. And another ho needed her hel* more than he reali/ed. as also ith t enty3t o young as teaching so she ideas. That(s hy
She remem%ered t enty other reasons.t enty other students. And one last reason" she teaching for herself, challenging herself to see if she really could #ee* u* *eo*le at once, and really accom*lish something could #ee* gro ing as a *erson, #ee* connecting she as teaching. orth hile ith them. She
ith others, #ee* learning ne
The joys of teaching

5hy be a teacher? The short ans1er is easy
to 1itness the diversity o& "ro1th in youn" people, and their /oy in learnin" to encoura"e li&elon" learnin"Kboth &or yoursel& and &or others to experience the challen"e o& devisin" and doin" interestin", excitin" activities &or the youn"
There is, o& course, more than this to be said about the value o& teachin". Consider, &or instance, the >youn" people@ re&erred to above. %n one class they could be six years oldI in another they could be sixteen, or even older. They could be rich, poor, or some1here in bet1een. They could come &rom any ethnic back"round. Their &irst lan"ua"e could be #n"lish, or somethin" else. There are all sorts o& possibilities. 7ut 1hoever the particular students are, they 1ill have potential as human bein"s talents and personal qualitiesKpossibly not yet reali2edK that can contribute to society, 1hether as leaders, experts, or supporters o& others. A teacherEs /obKin &act a teacherEs *rivilege.is to help particular >youn" people@ to reali2e their potential. Another teacher reflects" 0athan *aused for a dee* %reath %efore s*ea#ing to me. ',t(s not li#e , e4*ected it to %e,) he said. ',(ve got five #ids that. ,(ve got t o, may%e three, ho s*ea# English as a second language. , didn(t e4*ect ith reading disa%ilities, and one of them has a *art3time aide. ,(ve ho finish activities early.
had to learn more a%out using com*uters than , ever e4*ected.they(re a lot of curriculum materials online no , and the com*uters hel* the #ids that need more *ractice or teaching. ,(m doing more screening and testing of #ids than , e4*ected, and it all ta#es time a ay from
A .lobal Text
1. The changing teaching profession and you '+ut it(s not all sur*rises. , e4*ected to %e a%le to 5light a fire( under #ids a%out learning to read. And that has actually ha**ened, at least sometimes ith some children6)
As a teacher, you 1ill be able to do this by layin" "round1ork &or lifelong learning. Mou 1ill not teach any one student &orever, o& course, but you 1ill o&ten 1ork 1ith them lon" enou"h to convey a crucial messa"e that there is much in li&e to learnKmore in &act than any one teacher or school can provide in a li&etime. The kno1led"e may be about science, math, or learnin" to readI the skills may be sports, music, or artKanythin". 5hatever you teach, its immensity can be a source o& curiosity, 1onder and excitement. %t can be a reason to be optimistic about li&e in "eneral and about your students in particular. Learnin", 1hen properly understood, is never$endin", even thou"h it o&ten &ocuses on short$term, immediate concerns. As a teacher, you 1ill have an advanta"e not shared by every member o& society, namely the excuse not only to teach valuable kno1led"e and skills, but to point students %eyond 1hat they 1ill be able to learn &rom you. As an old limerick put it <be&ore the days o& "ender$balanced lan"ua"e=, >The 1orld is &ull o& such a plenty o& thin"s, %Jm sure 1e should all be as happy as kin"s.@ Jennifer 7uller, a third teacher reflects" '8K), suddenly getting %usinessli#e in her tone. '9ere(s my ty*ical day teaching tenth grade" , get u* at :";<, have a &uic# %rea#fast, get to school %y =">? if the traffic(s not %ad. Then , chec# my email.usually there(s a little stuff from the *rinci*al or some other administrator, may%e one or t o from *arents concerned %ecause their child is doing *oorly in one of my classes, may%e one or t o from students.',(m going to %e sic# today, @s 7uller6).that sort of thing. 0o it(s A"B? and , have t o hours %efore my first class.this term , teach only %iology, and , e all have to trou*e do n to the li%rary for a staff meeting hen , hen , only teach *eriods C, ;, and ?. @ay%e , have mar#ing to do %efore class, or may%e , have to get a la% demonstration ready. 8r may%e meet 1groanD). Ehatever , don(t finish in the morning, , have to finish after school. +ut that(s also try not to do it then, %ut a lot of times , have to. +ut , al ays &uit %y F"<<.that(s al ays atch TG for an hour, or $ust 'vegetate ) ith a %oo#.)
ith the Ecology Clu% 1,(m the faculty advisor), so , might have to finish stuff in the evening. ,
5hatever you teach, you 1ill be able to &eel the satis&action o& desi"nin" and orchestratin" complex activities that communicate ne1 ideas and skills e&&ectively. The challen"e is attractive to many teachers, because that is 1here they exercise /ud"ment and >artistry@ the most &reely and &requently. Mour students 1ill depend on your skill at plannin" and mana"in", thou"h sometimes 1ithout reali2in" ho1 much they do so. Teachers 1ill need you to kno1 ho1 to explain ideas clearly, to present ne1 materials in a sensible sequence and at an appropriate pace, to point out connections bet1een their ne1 learnin" and their prior experiences. Althou"h these skills really take a li&etime to master, they can be practiced success&ully even by be"innin" teachers, and they do improve steadily 1ith continued teachin" over time. -i"ht &rom the start, thou"h, skill at desi"n and communication o& curriculum is one o& the ma/or >perks@ o& the /ob. The very complexity o& classroom li&e virtually "uarantees that teachin" never needs to "et borin". (omethin" ne and e4citing is bound to occur /ust 1hen you least expect it. A student sho1s an insi"ht that you never expected to seeKor &ails to sho1 one that you 1ere sure he had. An activity "oes better than expectedKor 1orse, or merely di&&erently. Mou understand &or the &irst time 1hy a particular student behaves as she does, and be"in thinkin" o& ho1 to respond to the studentEs behavior more help&ully in the &uture. A&ter teachin" a particular
9
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License learnin" ob/ective several times, you reali2e that you understand it di&&erently than the &irst time you tau"ht it. And so on. The /ob never stays the sameI it evolves continually. As lon" as you keep teachin", you 1ill have a /ob 1ith novelty.
re there also challenges to teaching!

6ere, too, the simple ans1er is >yes@. #very /oy o& teachin" has a possible &rustration related to it. Mou may 1ish to make a positive di&&erence in studentsE lives, but you may also have trouble reachin" individuals. A student seems not to learn much, or to be unmotivated, or un&riendly, or 1hatever. And some teachin" problems can be subtle 1hen you call attention to the 1onder&ul immensity o& an area o& kno1led"e, you mi"ht accidentally discourage a student by implyin" that the student can never learn >enou"h@. The complexity o& desi"nin" and implementin" instruction can sometimes seem over1helmin", instead o& satis&yin". 4nexpected events in your classroom can become chaos rather than an attractive novelty. To paraphrase a popular sel&$help book, sometimes >bad thin"s happen to "ood teachers@ <'ushner, 89D3=. 7ut as in the rest o& li&e, the >bad thin"s@ o& teachin" do not ne"ate the value o& the "ood. %& anythin", the undesired events make the "ood, desired ones even more satis&yin", and render the 1ork o& teachin" all the more valuable. As you 1ill see throu"hout this book, there are resources &or maximi2in" the "ood, the valuable, and the satis&yin". Mou can brin" these resources to your 1ork, alon" 1ith your "ro1in" pro&essional kno1led"e and a healthy dose o& common sense. %n this sense you 1ill not need to >"o it alone@ in learnin" to teach 1ell. Mou ill, ho1ever, be personally responsible &or becomin" and remainin" the best teacher that you can possibly beI the only person 1ho can make that happen 1ill be you. )any o& the resources &or makin" this happen are described in this book in the chapters ahead.
Teaching is different from in the past

%n the past decade or t1o teachin" has chan"ed si"ni&icantly, so much in &act that schools may not be 1hat some o& us remember &rom our o1n childhood. Chan"es have a&&ected both the opportunities and the challen"es o& teachin", as 1ell as the attitudes, kno1led"e, and skills needed to prepare &or a teachin" career. The chan"es have in&luenced much o& the content o& this book. To see 1hat 1e mean, look brie&ly at &our ne1 trends in education, at ho1 they have chan"ed 1hat teachers do, and at ho1 you 1ill there&ore need to prepare to teach
increased diversity there are more di&&erences amon" students than there used to be. *iversity has
made teachin" more &ul&illin" as a career, but also made more challen"in" in certain respects.
N increased instructional technology classrooms, schools, and students use computers more o&ten
today than in the past &or research, 1ritin", communicatin", and keepin" records. Technolo"y has created ne1 1ays &or students to learn <&or example, this textbook 1ould not be possible 1ithout %nternet technolo"yL=. %t has also altered ho1 teachers can teach most e&&ectively, and even raised issues about 1hat constitutes >true@ teachin" and learnin".
greater accountability in education both the public and educators themselves pay more attention
than in the past to ho1 to assess <or provide evidence &or= learnin" and "ood quality teachin". The attention has increased the importance o& education to the public <a "ood thin"= and improved education &or some students. 7ut it has also created ne1 constraints on 1hat teachers teach and 1hat students learn.
80
A .lobal Text

increased professionalism of teachers Bo1 more than ever, teachers are able to assess the quality o&
their o1n 1ork as 1ell as that o& collea"ues, and to take steps to improve it 1hen necessary. ,ro&essionalism improves teachin", but by creatin" hi"her standards o& practice it also creates "reater 1orries about 1hether particular teachers and schools are >"ood enou"h@. 6o1 do these chan"es sho1 up in the daily li&e o& classrooms? The ans1er depends partly on 1here you teachI circumstances di&&er amon" schools, cities, and even 1hole societies. (ome clues about the e&&ects o& the trends on classroom li&e can be &ound, ho1ever, by considerin" one particular caseKthe chan"es happenin" in Borth America.
Be1 trend O8 diversity in students

(tudents have, o& course, al1ays been diverse. 5hether in the past or in the present day, students learn at unique paces, sho1 unique personalities, and learn in their o1n 1ays. %n recent decades, thou"h, the &orms and extent o& diversity have increased. Bo1 more than ever, teachers are likely to serve students &rom diverse lan"ua"e back"rounds, to serve more individuals 1ith special educational needs, and to teach students either youn"er and older than in the past.
2anguage diversity
Take the case o& lan"ua"e diversity. %n the 4nited (tates, about F0 million people, or 8F per cent o& the population are 6ispanic. About 30 per cent o& these speak primarily (panish, and approximately another A0 per cent speak only limited #n"lish <4nited (tates Census 7ureau, 300A=. The educators responsible &or the children in this "roup need to accommodate instruction to these students someho1. ,art o& the solution, o& course, is to arran"e speciali2ed second$lan"ua"e teachers and classes. 7ut ad/ustment must also happen in >re"ular@ classrooms o& various "rade levels and sub/ects. Classroom teachers must learn to communicate 1ith students 1hose #n"lish lan"ua"e back"round is limited, at the same time that the students themselves are learnin" to use #n"lish more &luently <,itt, 300A=. (ince relatively &e1 teachers are 6ispanic or speak &luent (panish, the ad/ustments can sometimes be a challen"e. Teachers must plan lessons and tasks that students actually understand. At the same time teachers must also keep track o& the ma/or learnin" "oals o& the curriculum. %n Chapter F <>(tudent *iversity@= and Chapter 80 <>,lannin" %nstruction@=, some strate"ies &or doin" so are described. As you "ain experience teachin", you 1ill no doubt &ind additional strate"ies and resources <.ebhard, 300:=, especially i& second$lan"ua"e learners become an important part o& your classes.
!iversity of s*ecial educational needs

Another &actor makin" classroom increasin"ly diverse has been the inclusion o& students 1ith disabilities into classrooms 1ith non$disabled peers. %n the 4nited (tates the trend be"an in the 89;0s, but accelerated 1ith the passa"e o& the %ndividuals 1ith *isabilities #ducation Act in 89;A, and a"ain 1hen the Act 1as amended in 300F <4nited (tates .overnment ,rintin" C&&ice, 300A=. %n Canada similar le"islation 1as passed in individual provinces durin" the same "eneral time period. The la1s "uarantee &ree, appropriate education &or children 1ith disabilities o& any kindK1hether the impairment is physical, co"nitive, emotional, or behavioral. The la1s also reco"ni2e that such students need special supports in order to learn or &unction e&&ectively in a classroom 1ith non$disabled peers, so they provide &or special services <&or example, teachin" assistants= and procedures &or makin" individuali2ed educational plans &or students 1ith disabilities.
88
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License As a result o& these chan"es, most American and Canadian teachers are likely to have at least a &e1 students 1ith special educational needs, even i& they are not trained as special education teachers or have had no prior personal experience 1ith people 1ith disabilities. Classroom teachers are also likely to 1ork as part o& a pro&essional team &ocused on helpin" these students to learn as 1ell as possible and to participate in the li&e o& the school. The trend to1ard inclusion is de&initely ne1 compared to circumstances /ust a "eneration or t1o a"o. %t raises ne1 challen"es about plannin" instruction <such as ho1 is a teacher to &ind time to plan &or individuals?=, and philosophical questions about the very nature o& education <such as 1hat in the curriculum is truly important to learn?=. These questions 1ill come up a"ain in Chapter A, 1here 1e discuss teachin" students 1ith special educational needs.
2ifelong learning
The diversity o& modern classrooms is not limited to lan"ua"e or disabilities. Another recent chan"e has been the broadenin" simply o& the a"e ran"e o& individuals 1ho count as >students@. %n many nations o& the 1orld, hal& or most o& all three$ and &our$year$olds attend some &orm o& educational pro"ram, either part$time preschool or &ull$ time child care <Bational %nstitute &or #arly #ducation -esearch, 300:=. %n Borth America some public school divisions have moved to1ard includin" nursery or preschool pro"rams as a ne1er >"rade level@ precedin" kinder"arten. Cthers have expanded the hours o& kinder"arten <itsel& considered a >ne1@ pro"ram early in the 30 th century= to span a &ull$day pro"ram. The obvious di&&erences in maturity bet1een preschoolers and older children lead most teachers o& the very youn" to use &lexible, open$ended plans and teachin" strate"ies, and to develop more personal or &amily$like relationships 1ith their youn" >students@ than typical 1ith older students <7redekamp P Copple, 899;=. +ust as important, thou"h, are the educational and philosophical issues that early childhood education has brou"ht to public attention. (ome educational critics ask 1hether preschool and day care pro"rams risk becomin" inappropriate substitutes &or &amilies. Cther educators su""est, in contrast, that teachers o& older students can learn &rom the &lexibility and open$ended approach common in early childhood education. For teachers o& any "rade level, it is a debate that cannot be avoided completely or permanently. %n this book, it reappears in Chapter 3, 1here % discuss studentsJ developmentKtheir ma/or lon"$term, chan"es in skills, kno1led"e, and attitudes. The other end o& the a"e spectrum has also expanded. )any individuals take courses 1ell into adulthood even i& they do not attend &ormal university or colle"e. Adult education, as it is sometimes called, o&ten takes place in 1orkplaces, but it o&ten also happens in public hi"h schools or at local community colle"es or universities. (ome adult students may be completin" hi"h school credentials that they missed earlier in their lives, but o&ten the students have other purposes that are even more &ocused, such as learnin" a trade$related skill. The teachers o& adult students have to ad/ust their instructional strate"ies and relationships 1ith students so as to challen"e and respect their special stren"ths and constraints as adults <7ash, 300A=. The studentsJ maturity o&ten means that they have had li&e experiences that enhance and motivate their learnin". 7ut it may also mean that they have si"ni&icant personal responsibilitiesKsuch as parentin" or a &ull$time /obK1hich compete &or study time, and that make them impatient 1ith teachin" that is irrelevant to their personal "oals or needs. These advanta"es and constraints also occur to a lesser extent amon" >re"ular@ hi"h school students. #ven secondary school teachers must ask, ho1 they can make sure that instruction does not 1aste studentsJ time, and ho1 they can make it truly e&&icient, e&&ective, and valuable. #lse1here in this book <especially in Chapters 9 throu"h 88, about assessment and instruction=, 1e discuss these questions &rom a number o& perspectives. Educational Psychology
83
A .lobal Text
Be1 trend O3 usin" technolo"y to support learnin"

For most teachers, >technolo"y@ means usin" computers and the %nternet as resources &or teachin" and learnin". These tools have "reatly increased the amount and ran"e o& in&ormation available to students, even i& their bene&its have sometimes been exa""erated in media reports <Cuban, 3008=. 5ith the %nternet, it is no1 relatively easy to access up$to$date in&ormation on practically any sub/ect ima"inable, o&ten 1ith pictures, video clips, and audio to accompany them. %t 1ould seem not only that the %nternet and its associated technolo"ies have the potential to trans&orm traditional school$based learnin", but also that they have in &act be"un to do so. For a variety o& reasons, ho1ever, technolo"y has not al1ays been inte"rated into teachersJ practices very thorou"hly <6aertel P )eans, 3003=. Cne reason is practical in many societies and re"ions, classrooms contain only one or t1o computers at most, and many schools have at best only limited access to the %nternet. 5aitin" &or a turn on the computer or arran"in" to visit a computer lab or school library limits ho1 much students use the %nternet, no matter ho1 valuable the %nternet may be. %n such cases, &urthermore, computers tend to &unction in relatively traditional 1ays that do not take &ull advanta"e o& the %nternet as a 1ord processor <a >&ancy type1riter@=, &or example, or as a re&erence book similar to an encyclopedia. #ven so, sin"le$computer classrooms create ne1 possibilities and challen"es &or teachers. A sin"le computer can be used, &or example, to present upcomin" assi"nments or supplementary material to students, either one at a time or small "roups. %n &unctionin" in this 1ay, the computer "ives students more &lexibility about 1hen to &inish old tasks or to be"in ne1 ones. A sin"le computer can also enrich the learnin" o& individual students 1ith special interests or motivation. And it can provide additional revie1 to students 1ho need extra help. These chan"es are not dramatic, but they lead to important revisions in teachersJ roles they move teachers a1ay &rom simply deliverin" in&ormation to students, and to1ard &acilitatin" studentsJ o1n constructions o& kno1led"e. A shi&t &rom >&ull$&rontal teachin"@ to >"uide on the side@ becomes easier as the amount and use o& computer and %nternet technolo"ies increases. %& a school <or better yet, a classroom= has numerous computers 1ith &ull %nternet access, then studentsJ can in principle direct their o1n learnin" more independently than i& computers are scarce commodities. 5ith ample technolo"y available, teachers can &ocus much more on helpin" individuals in developin" and carryin" out learnin" plans, as 1ell as on assistin" individuals 1ith special learnin" problems. %n these 1ays a stron" shi&t to computers and the %nternet can chan"e a teacherJs role si"ni&icantly, and make the teacher more e&&ective. 7ut technolo"y also brin"s some challen"es, or even creates problems. %t costs money to equip classrooms and schools &ully o&ten that money is scarce, and may there&ore mean deprivin" students o& other valuable resources, like additional sta&& or additional books and supplies. Cther challen"es are less tan"ible. %n usin" the %nternet, &or example, students need help in sortin" out trust1orthy in&ormation or 1ebsites &rom the >&lu&&@, 1ebsites that are unreliable or even dama"in" <(eiter, 300A=. ,rovidin" this help can sometimes be challen"in" even &or experienced teachers. And some educational activities simply do not lend themselves to computeri2ed learnin"Ksports, &or example, driver education, or choral practice. As a ne1 teacher, there&ore, you 1ill need not only to assess 1hat technolo"ies are possible in your particular classroom, but also 1hat 1ill actually be assisted by ne1 technolo"ies. Then be prepared &or your decisions to a&&ect ho you teachKthe 1ays you 1ork 1ith students.
83
Be1 trend O3 accountability in education

%n recent years, the public and its leaders have increasin"ly expected teachers and students to be accounta%le &or their 1ork, meanin" that schools and teachers are held responsible &or implementin" particular curricula and "oals, and that students are held responsible &or learnin" particular kno1led"e. The trend to1ard accountability has increased the le"al requirements &or becomin" and <sometimes= remainin" certi&ied as a teacher. %n the 4nited (tates in particular, preservice teachers need more sub/ect$area and education$related courses than in the past. They must also spend more time practice teachin" than in the past, and they must pass one or more examinations o& kno1led"e o& sub/ect matter and teachin" strate"ies. The speci&ics o& these requirements vary amon" re"ions, but the "eneral trendKto1ard more numerous and >hi"her@ levels o& requirementsKhas occurred broadly throu"hout the #n"lish$speakin" 1orld. The chan"es obviously a&&ect individualsJ experiences o& becomin" a teacherK especially the speed and cost o& doin" so. ,ublic accountability has led to increased use o& high3sta#es testing, 1hich are tests taken by all students in a district or re"ion that have important consequences &or studentsE &urther education <Fuhrman P #lmore, 300F=. 6i"h$stakes tests may in&luence "rades that students receive in courses or determine 1hether students "raduate or continue to the next level o& schoolin". The tests are o&ten a mixture o& essay and structured$response questions <such as multiple$choice items=, and raise important issues about 1hat teachers should teach, as 1ell as ho1 <and 1hether= teachers should help students to pass the examinations. %t also raises issues about 1hether hi"h$stakes testin" is &air to all students and consistent 1ith other ideals o& public education, such as "ivin" students the best possible start in li&e instead o& disquali&yin" them &rom educational opportunities. Furthermore, since the results o& hi"h$stakes tests are sometimes also used to evaluate the per&ormance o& teachers, schools, or school districts, insurin" studentsJ success on them becomes an obvious concern &or teachersKone that a&&ects instructional decisions on a daily basis. For this reason 1e discuss the purpose, nature, and e&&ects o& hi"h$stakes tests in detail in Chapter 83.
Be1 trend OF increased pro&essionalism o& teachers

5hatever your reactions to the &irst three trends, it is important to reali2e that they have contributed to a &ourth trend, an increase in *rofessionalism o& teachers. 7y most de&initions, an occupation <like medicine or la1Kor in this case teachin"= is a pro&ession i& its members take personal responsibility &or the quality o& their 1ork, hold each other accountable &or its quality, and reco"ni2e and require special trainin" in order to practice it. 7y this de&inition, teachin" has de&initely become more pro&essional than in the past <Cochran$(mith P Fries, 300A=. %ncreased expectations o& achievement by students mean that teachers have increased responsibility not only &or their studentsJ academic success, but also &or their o1n development as teachers. 7ecomin" a ne1 teacher no1 requires more speciali2ed 1ork than in the past, as re&lected in the increased requirements &or certi&ication and licensin" in many societies and re"ions. The increased requirements are partly a response to the complexities created by the increasin" diversity o& students and increasin" use o& technolo"y in classrooms. .reater pro&essionalism has also been encoura"ed by initiatives &rom educators themselves to study and improve their o1n practice. Cne 1ay to do so, &or example, is throu"h action research <sometimes also called teacher research=, a &orm o& investi"ation carried out by teachers about their o1n students or their o1n teachin".
8F
A .lobal Text
1. The changing teaching profession and you Action research studies lead to concrete decisions that improve teachin" and learnin" in particular educational contexts <)ertler, 300:I (trin"er, 300F=. The studies can take many &orms, but here are a &e1 brie& examples
6o1 precisely do individual children learn to read? %n an action research study, the teacher mi"ht observe
and track one childJs readin" pro"ress care&ully &or an extended time. From the observations she can "et clues about ho1 to help not only that particular child to read better, but also other children in her class or even in collea"uesJ classes.
*oes it really matter i& a hi"h school social studies teacher uses more, rather than &e1er, open$ended
questions? As an action o& research study, the teacher mi"ht videotape his o1n lessons, and systematically compare studentsJ responses to his open$ended questions compared to their responses to more closed questions <the ones 1ith more &ixed ans1ers=. The analysis mi"ht su""est 1hen and ho1 much it is indeed desirable to use open$ended questions.
Can an art teacher actually entice students to take more creative risks 1ith their dra1in"s? As an action
research study, the teacher mi"ht examine the studentsJ dra1in"s care&ully &or si"ns o& visual novelty and innovation, and then see i& the si"ns increase i& she encoura"es novelty and innovation explicitly. Table 8 #xamples o& action research pro/ect Steps in action research Pro ect ,urpose o& the research <as expressed by the teacher doin" the research= !"ample #$ students% use of the &nternet >%n doin" assi"nments, ho1 hi"h$quality, relevant in&ormation?@ !"ample 2$ a teacher%s helpfulness to !S' students >Am % respondin" to my #(L my #n"lish$speakin" students, and 1hy or 1hy not?@ 5ho is doin" the study? Classroom teacher <elementary teacher Classroom teacher <senior hi"h
success&ul are my students at &indin" students as &ully and help&ully as to
level= and school computer specialist level=Kstudyin" sel&I ,ossibly collaboratin" 1ith other teachers or 1ith #(L specialist. 6o1 in&ormation is "athered and recorded Assessin" studentsJ assi"nmentsI Cbservin" students 1hile they search the %nternet. %ntervie1in" students about their search experiences Gideotapin" o& sel& interactin" durin" class discussionsI +ournal diary by teacher o& experiences 1ith #(L vs other studentsI %ntervie1s 1ith teacherJs #(L students 6o1 in&ormation is analy2ed Look &or obstacles and >search tips@ expressed by several studentsI Look &or di&&erences in type and amount o& interactions 1ith #(L vs.
8A
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Look &or common stren"ths and problems 1ith research cited on assi"nments. other studentsI Look &or patterns in the di&&erencesI Try alterin" the patterns o& interaction and observe the result. 6o1 in&ormation is reported and communicated 5rite a brie& report o& results &or &ello1 sta&&I .ive a brie& oral report to &ello1 sta&& about results 5rite a summary o& the results in teacherJs /ournal diaryI (hare results 1ith &ello1 sta&&I (hare results 1ith teacherJs students.
T1o other, more complete examples o& action research are summari2ed in Table 8. Althou"h these examples, like many action research studies, resemble >especially "ood teachin" practice@, they are planned more thou"ht&ully than usual, carried out and recorded more systematically, and shared 1ith &ello1 teachers more thorou"hly and openly. As such, they yield special bene&its to teachers as pro&essionals, thou"h they also take special time and e&&ort. For no1, the important point is that use o& action research simultaneously re&lects the increasin" pro&essionalism o& teachers, but at the same time creates hi"her standards &or teachers 1hen they teach.
"o# educational psychology can help

All thin"s considered, then, times have chan"ed &or teachers. 7ut teachin" remains an attractive, satis&yin", and 1orth1hile pro&ession. The recent trends mean simply that you need to prepare &or teachin" di&&erently than you mi"ht have in the past, and perhaps di&&erently than your o1n school teachers did a "eneration a"o. Fortunately, there are 1ays to do this. )any current pro"rams in teacher education provide a balance o& experiences in tune 1ith current and emer"in" needs o& teachers. They o&&er more time &or practice teachin" in schools, &or example, and teacher education instructors o&ten make deliberate e&&orts to connect the concepts and ideas o& education and psycholo"y to current best practices o& education. These and other &eatures o& contemporary teacher education 1ill make it easier &or you to become the kind o& teacher that you not only 1ant to be, but also 1ill need to be. This bookKabout educational psycholo"y and its relation to teachin" and learnin"Kcan be one o& your supports as you "et started. To make it as use&ul as possible, 1e have 1ritten about educational psycholo"y 1hile keepin" in mind the current state o& teachin", as 1ell as your needs as a unique &uture teacher. The text dra1s heavily on concepts, research and &undamental theories &rom educational psycholo"y. 7ut these are selected and &ramed around the problems, challen"es, and satis&actions &aced by teachers daily, and especially as &aced by teachers ne1 to the pro&ession. 5e have selected and emphasi2ed topics in proportion to t1o &actors <8= their importance as reported by teachers and other educational experts, and <3= the ability o& educational psycholo"y to comment on particular problems, challen"es, and satis&actions help&ully.
8:
A .lobal Text
1. The changing teaching profession and you There is a lot to learn about teachin", and much o& it comes &rom educational psycholo"y. As a career, teachin" has distinctive &eatures no1 that it did not have a "eneration a"o. The ne1 &eatures make it more excitin" in some 1ays, as 1ell as more challen"in" than in the past. The chan"es require learnin" teachin" skills that 1ere less important in earlier times. 7ut the ne1 skills are quite learnable. #ducational psycholo"y, and this text, 1ill "et you started at that task.
Chapter summary
Teachin" in the t1enty$&irst century o&&ers a number o& satis&actionsK1itnessin" and assistin" the "ro1th o& youn" people, li&elon" learnin", the challen"e and excitement o& desi"nin" e&&ective instruction. Four trends have a&&ected the 1ay that these satis&actions are experienced by classroom teachers <8= increased diversity o& students, <3= the spread o& instructional technolo"y in schools and classrooms, <3= increased expectations &or accountability in education, and <F= the development o& increased pro&essionalism amon" teachers. #ach trend presents ne1 opportunities to students and teachers, but also raises ne1 issues &or teachers. #ducational psycholo"y, and this textbook, can help teachers to make constructive use o& the ne1 trends as 1ell as deal 1ith the dilemmas that accompany them. %t o&&ers in&ormation, advice, and use&ul perspectives speci&ically in three areas o& teachin" <8= students as learners, <3= instruction and assessment, and <3= the psycholo"ical and social a1areness o& teachers.
Cn the %nternet
Q(((.ets.org)pra"isR Try this 1ebsite o& the #ducational Testin" (ervice i& you are curious to learn more about licensin" examinations &or teachers, includin" the ,-AS%( %% test that is prominent in the 4nited (tates <see pp. xxx=. As you 1ill see, speci&ic requirements vary some1hat by state and re"ion. Qportal.unesco.org)education)enR This is the 1ebsite &or the education branch o& 4B#(CC, 1hich is the abbreviation &or the >4nited Bations #ducational, (cienti&ic, and Cultural Cr"ani2ation.@ %t has extensive in&ormation and ne1s about all &orms o& diversity in education, vie1ed &rom an international perspective. The challen"es o& teachin" diverse classrooms, it seems, are not restricted to the 4nited (tates, thou"h as the ne1 items on the 1ebsite sho1, the challen"es take di&&erent &orms in di&&erent countries. Q(((.edchange.orgR Q(((.cec.sped.orgR These t1o 1ebsites have numerous resources about diversity &or teachers &rom a Borth American <4(A and Canada= perspective. They are both use&ul &or plannin" instruction. The &irst oneKmaintained by a "roup o& educators and callin" itsel& #dChan"eK&ocuses on culturally related &orms o& diversity, and the second oneKby the Council &or #xceptional ChildrenK&ocuses on children 1ith special educational needs.
'ey terms
Accountability in education Action research Assessment *iversity 6i"h$stakes testin" %nstructional technolo"y Li&elon" learnin" ,ro&essionalism Teacher research
-e&erences
7ash, L. <#d.=. <300A=. +est *ractices in adult learning. 7oston Anker ,ublications. 7redekamp, (. P Copple, C. <899;=. !evelo*mentally a**ro*riate *ractice, Revised edition. 5ashin"ton, *.C. Bational Association &or the #ducation o& Moun" Children. 8;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Cochran$(mith, ). <3003=. Assessin" assessment in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, ?><3=, 8D;$898. Cochran$(mith, ). P Fries, '. <300A=. -esearch teacher education in chan"in" times ,olitics and paradi"ms. %n ). Cochran$(mith P '. 0eichner <#ds.=, Studying teacher education" The re*ort of the AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education, :9$880. Cuban, L. <3008=. 8versold and underused" Com*uters in the classroom. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. #ducational Testin" (ervice. <300F=. Study guide for Princi*les of 2earning and Teaching, Cnd edition. ,rinceton, B+ Author. Fuhrman, (. P #lmore, -. <300F=. Redesigning accounta%ility systems for education. Be1 Mork Teachers Colle"e ,ress. .ebhard, L. <300:=. Teaching English as a second or foreign language" A teacher self3develo*ment and methodology guide, Cnd edition. Ann Arbor, )% 4niversity o& )ichi"an ,ress. .lass&ord, L. <300A=. Triumph o& politics over peda"o"y? The case o& the Cntario Teacher Tuali&yin" Test. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, ,ssue H>?. Cnline at Q111.umanitoba.caUpublicationsUc/eapUarticlesU"lass&ord.htmlR. 6aertel, .. P )eans, 7. <3003=. Evaluating educational technology" Effective research designs for im*roving learning. Be1 Mork Teachers Colle"e ,ress. 6arris, *. P 6errin"ton, C. <300:=. Accountability, standards, and the "ro1in" achievement "ap Lessons &rom the past hal&$century. American Journal of Education, BBC<3=, 8:3$30D. 6arvard #ducational -evie1. <300A=. %ntervie1 4nited (tates (ecretary o& #ducation )ar"aret (pellin"s. 9arvard Educational Revie , =?<F=, 3:F$3D3. 'ushner, 6. <89D3=. Ehen %ad things ha**en to good *eo*le. Be1 Mork (chocken 7ooks. Lubienski, C. <300A=. ,ublic schools in marketi2ed environments (hi&tin" incentives and unintended consequences o& competition$based educational re&orms. American Journal of Education, BBB<F=, F:F$ FD:. )ertler, C. <300:=. Action research" Teachers as researchers in the classroom. Thousand Caks, CA (a"e. Bational %nstitute &or #arly #ducation -esearch. <300:=. Percent of *o*ulation age ; and > ho are enrolled
in school" Census C<<<. -etrieved on )arch 38, 300: &rom Q111.nieer.or"UresourcesU&actsR. Beil, ). <3003=. The dan"ers o& testin". Educational 2eadershi*, :<<A=, F3$F:. ,itt, '. <300A=. !e%ates in ES2 teaching and learning" Culture, communities, and classrooms. London, 4' -outled"e. -udalevi"e, A. <300A, Au"ust=. -e&orm or sVance? (eekin" the >spirit@ o& the Bo Child Le&t 7ehind. Teachers College Record. Cnline at Q111.tcrecord.or"R, %*O 83883.
8D
A .lobal Text
1. The changing teaching profession and you (eiter, #. <300A=. The ,0TER0ET *layground" Children(s access, entertainment, and miseducation. Be1 Mork ,eter Lan". (trin"er, #. <300F=. Action research in education. 4pper (addle -iver, B+ ,earson #ducation. (utton, -. <300F=. Teachin" under hi"h$stakes testin" *ilemmas and decisions o& a teacher educator. Journal of Teacher Education, ??<A=, F:3$F;A. 4nited (tates Census 7ureau. <300A=. The 9is*anic *o*ulation in the Inited States" C<<>. -etrieved on )arch 38, 300: &rom Qhttp UU111.census."ovUpopulationU111UsocdemoUhispanicUcps300F.htmlR. 4nited (tates .overnment ,rintin" C&&ice. <3003=. 0o Child 2eft +ehind Act" A des#to* reference. 5ashin"ton, *.C. Author. Federal -e"istry. <300A, +une 38=. Assistance To States for the Education of Children 4nited (tates .overnment ,rintin" C&&ice Author. Golante, L. <300F=. Teachin" to the test 5hat every educator and policy$maker should kno1. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, ,ssue H;?. Cnline at Q111.umanitoba.caUpublicationsUc/eapUarticlesUvolante.htmlR. ith !isa%ilities.
89
$. The learning process

Ehen my son @ichael one tas# , *oured as old enough to tal#, and %eing an eager %ut naJve dad, , decided to %ring children learn). ,n hich according to ide glass *ie *late, than it hether it @ichael to my educational *sychology class to demonstrate to my students 'ho ater from a tall drin#ing glass to a ater.there as less no @ichael changed the 'amount) of that, on the contrary, the amount of as in the *ie *late. , told him as in the glass or the *ie ater had stayed the same
*late. 9e loo#ed at me a %it strangely, %ut com*lied original *osition" there as less ater, he said,
ith my *oint of vie .agreeing at first that, as *oured into the *ie *late com*ared to
yes, the amount had stayed the same. +ut %y the end of the class session he had reverted to his hen it %eing *oured into the drin#ing glass. So much for demonstrating 'learning)6 1Kelvin Seifert) 2earning is "enerally de&ined as relatively permanent chan"es in behavior, skills, kno1led"e, or attitudes resultin" &rom identi&iable psycholo"ical or social experiences. A key &eature is permanence chan"es do not count as learnin" i& they are temporary. Mou do not >learn@ a phone number i& you &or"et it the minute a&ter you dial the numberI you do not >learn@ to eat ve"etables i& you only do it 1hen &orced. The chan"e has to last. Botice, thou"h, that learnin" can be physical, social, or emotional as 1ell as co"nitive. Mou do not >learn@ to snee2e simply by catchin" cold, but you do learn many skills and behaviors that are physically based, such as ridin" a bicycle or thro1in" a ball. Mou can also learn to like <or dislike= a person, even thou"h this chan"e may not happen deliberately. Each year after that first visit to my students, along ha**ily, %ut hile @ichael as still a *reschooler, , returned ith ould as
him to my ed3*sych class to do the same 'learning demonstrations). And each year @ichael came ould again fail the tas# a%out the drin#ing glass and the *ie *late. 9e ater stayed the same no matter hich ay it ould still assert that the amount had changed. 9e com*ly %riefly if , 'suggested) that the amount of *oured, %ut in the end he
as not learning this
%it of conventional #no ledge, in s*ite of my re*eated efforts. +ut the year he turned si4, things changed. Ehen , told him it and *ie *late again-) , said yes, , res*onded, '%ecause , #no as time to visit my ed3*sych class ater in the drin#ing glass ant
again, he readily agreed and as#ed" 'Are you going to as# me a%out the
as indeed *lanning to do that tas# again. 'That(s good), he
that the amount stays the same even after you *our it. +ut do you
me to fa#e it this time- 7or your students( sa#e-)
Teachers% perspectives on learning

For teachers, learnin" usually re&ers to thin"s that happen in schools or classrooms, even thou"h every teacher can o& course describe examples o& learnin" that happen outside o& these places. #ven )ichael, at a"e :, had be"un reali2in" that 1hat counted as >learnin"@ in his dadJs educator$type mind 1as somethin" that happened in a
30
A .lobal Text
2. The learning process classroom, under the supervision o& a teacher <me=. For me, as &or many educators, the term has a more speci&ic meanin" than &or many people less involved in schools. %n particular, teachersJ perspectives on learnin" o&ten emphasi2e three ideas, and sometimes even take them &or "ranted <8= curriculum content and academic achievement, <3= sequencin" and readiness, and <3= the importance o& trans&errin" learnin" to ne1 or &uture situations.
Gie1in" learnin" as dependent on curriculum

5hen teachers speak o& learnin", they tend to emphasi2e 1hatever is tau"ht in schools deliberately, includin" both the o&&icial curriculum and the various behaviors and routines that make classrooms run smoothly. %n practice, de&inin" learnin" in this 1ay o&ten means that teachers equate learnin" 1ith the ma/or &orms o& academic achievementKespecially lan"ua"e and mathematicsKand to a lesser extent musical skill, physical coordination, or social sensitivity <.ardner, 8999, 300:=. The imbalance occurs not because the "oals o& public education make teachers responsible &or certain content and activities <like books and readin"= and the skills 1hich these activities require <like ans1erin" teachersJ questions and 1ritin" essays=. %t does happen not <thank&ullyL= because teachers are biased, insensitive, or una1are that students o&ten learn a lot outside o& school. A side e&&ect o& thinkin" o& learnin" as related only to curriculum or academics is that classroom social interactions and behaviors become issues &or teachersKbecome thin"s that they need to mana"e. %n particular, havin" do2ens o& students in one room makes it more likely that %, as a teacher, think o& >learnin"@ as somethin" that either takes concentration <to avoid bein" distracted by others= or that bene&its &rom collaboration <to take advanta"e o& their presence=. %n the small space o& a classroom, no other vie1point about social interaction makes sense. Met in the 1ider 1orld outside o& school, learnin" o&ten does happen incidentally, >accidentally@ and 1ithout conscious inter&erence or input &rom others % >learn@ 1hat a &riendJs personality is like, &or example, 1ithout either o& us deliberately tryin" to make this happen. As teachers, 1e sometimes see incidental learnin" in classrooms as 1ell, and o&ten 1elcome itI but our responsibility &or curriculum "oals more o&ten &ocuses our e&&orts on 1hat students can learn throu"h conscious, deliberate e&&ort. %n a classroom, unlike in many other human settin"s, it is al1ays necessary to ask 1hether classmates are helpin" or hinderin" individual studentsJ learnin". Focusin" learnin" on chan"es in classrooms has several other e&&ects. Cne, &or example, is that it can tempt teachers to think that 1hat is tau"ht is equivalent to 1hat is learnedKeven thou"h most teachers kno1 that doin" so is a mistake, and that teachin" and learnin" can be quite di&&erent. %& % assi"n a readin" to my students about the -ussian -evolution, it 1ould be nice to assume not only that they have read the same 1ords, but also learned the same content. 7ut that assumption is not usually the reality. (ome students may have read and learned all o& 1hat % assi"nedI others may have read everythin" but misunderstood the material or remembered only some o& itI and still others, un&ortunately, may have neither read nor learned much o& anythin". Chances are that my students 1ould con&irm this picture, i& asked con&identially. There are 1ays, o& course, to deal help&ully 1ith such diversity o& outcomesI &or su""estions, see especially Chapter 80 >,lannin" instruction@ and Chapter 88 >Teacher$made assessment strate"ies@. 7ut 1hatever instructional strate"ies % adopt, they cannot include assumin" that 1hat % teach is the same as 1hat students understand or retain o& 1hat % teach.
38
Gie1in" learnin" as dependent on sequencin" and readiness

The distinction bet1een teachin" and learnin" creates a secondary issue &or teachers, that o& educational readiness. Traditionally the concept re&erred to studentsJ preparedness to cope 1ith or pro&it &rom the activities and expectations o& school. A kinder"arten child 1as >ready@ to start school, &or example, i& he or she 1as in "ood health, sho1ed moderately "ood social skills, could take care o& personal physical needs <like eatin" lunch or "oin" to the bathroom unsupervised=, could use a pencil to make simple dra1in"s, and so on. Table 3 sho1s a similar set o& criteria &or determinin" 1hether a child is >ready@ to learn to read <Copple P 7redekamp, 300:=. At older a"es <such as in hi"h school or university=, the term readiness is o&ten replaced by a more speci&ic term, prerequisites. To take a course in physics, &or example, a student must &irst have certain prerequisite experiences, such as studyin" advanced al"ebra or calculus. To be"in 1ork as a public school teacher, a person must &irst en"a"e in practice teachin" &or a period o& time <not to mention also studyin" educational psycholo"yL=. Table 3 -eadin" readiness in students vs in teachers Signs of readiness in the child or student
productive <speakin"= vocabulary o& A,000$
Signs of readiness to teach reading

teacher ans1ers childrenJs questions 1hen
D,000 1ords
child understands and uses complete sentences childJs questions tend to be relevant to the task
possible
teacher encoura"es child to &ind out more
throu"h other means in addition to askin" teacher

teacher asks questions desi"ned to elaborate or
at hand
childJs correctly usin" most common
expand childJs thinkin"

teacher hi"hli"hts letters and sounds in the
"rammatical constructions
child can match some letters to some sounds child can strin" a &e1 letters to"ether to make a
classroom
teacher provides lots o& paper and markin"
tools
teacher assists child 1ith initial 1ritin" o&
&e1 simple 1ords

child can tell and retell stories, poems, and
letters
teacher encoura"es children to enact stories,
son"s poems, and son"s Source" Copple P 7redekamp, 300:.
Bote that this traditional meanin", o& readiness as preparedness, &ocuses attention on studentsJ ad/ustment to school and a1ay &rom the reverse the possibility that schools and teachers also have a responsibility &or ad/ustin" to students. 7ut the latter idea is in &act a le"itimate, second meanin" &or readiness$ %& A$year$old children normally need to play a lot and keep active, then it is &air to say that their kinder"arten teacher needs to be >ready@ &or this behavior by plannin" &or a pro"ram that allo1s a lot o& play and physical activity. %& she cannot or 1ill not Educational Psychology
33
A .lobal Text
2. The learning process do so <1hatever the reason may be=, then in a very real sense this &ailure is not the childrenJs responsibility. Amon" older students, the second, teacher$oriented meanin" o& readiness makes sense as 1ell. %& a teacher has a student 1ith a disability <&or example, the student is visually impaired=, then the teacher has to ad/ust her approach in appropriate 1aysKnot simply expect a visually impaired child to >sink or s1im@. As you mi"ht expect, this sense o& readiness is very important &or special education, so % discuss it &urther in Chapter A >(tudents 1ith special educational needs@. 7ut the issue o& readiness also &i"ures importantly 1henever students are diverse <1hich is most o& the time=, so it also comes up in Chapter F >(tudent diversity@.
Gie1in" trans&er as a crucial outcome o& learnin"

(till another result o& &ocusin" the concept o& learnin" on classrooms is that it raises issues o& use&ulness or trans&er, 1hich is the ability to use kno1led"e or skill in situations beyond the ones in 1hich they are acquired. Learnin" to read and learnin" to solve arithmetic problems, &or example, are ma/or "oals o& the elementary school curriculum because those skills are meant to be used not only inside the classroom, but outside as 1ell. 5e teachers intend, that is, &or readin" and arithmetic skills to >trans&er@, even thou"h 1e also do our best to make the skills en/oyable 1hile they are still bein" learned. %n the 1orld inhabited by teachers, even more than in other 1orlds, makin" learnin" &un is certainly a "ood thin" to do, but makin" learnin" use&ul as 1ell as &un is even better. Combinin" en/oyment and use&ulness, in &act, is a >"old standard@ o& teachin" 1e "enerally seek it &or students, even thou"h 1e may not succeed at providin" it all o& the time.
&ajor theories and models of learning

(everal ideas and priorities, then, a&&ect ho1 1e teachers think about learnin", includin" the curriculum, the di&&erence bet1een teachin" and learnin", sequencin", readiness, and trans&er. The ideas &orm a >screen@ throu"h 1hich to understand and evaluate 1hatever psycholo"y has to o&&er education. As it turns out, many theories, concepts, and ideas &rom educational psycholo"y do make it throu"h the >screen@ o& education, meanin" that they are consistent 1ith the pro&essional priorities o& teachers and help&ul in solvin" important problems o& classroom teachin". %n the case o& issues about classroom learnin", &or example, educational psycholo"ists have developed a number o& theories and concepts that are relevant to classrooms, in that they describe at least some o& 1hat usually happens there and o&&er "uidance &or assistin" learnin". %t is help&ul to "roup the theories accordin" to 1hether they &ocus on chan"es in behavior or in thinkin". The distinction is rou"h and inexact, but a "ood place to be"in. For starters, there&ore, consider t1o perspectives about learnin", called behaviorism <learnin" as chan"es in overt behavior= and constructivism, <learnin" as chan"es in thinkin"=. The second cate"ory can be &urther divided into psycholo"ical constructivism <chan"es in thinkin" resultin" &rom individual experiences=, and social constructivism, <chan"es in thinkin" due to assistance &rom others=. The rest o& this chapter describes key ideas &rom each o& these vie1points. As % hope you 1ill see, each describes some aspects o& learnin" not /ust in "eneral, but as it happens in classrooms in particular. (o each perspective su""ests thin"s that you mi"ht do in your classroom to make studentsJ learnin" more productive.
7ehaviorism chan"es in 1hat students do

*ehaviorism is a perspective on learnin" that &ocuses on chan"es in individualsJ observable behaviorsK chan"es in 1hat people say or do. At some point 1e all use this perspective, 1hether 1e call it >behaviorism@ or somethin" else. The &irst time that % drove a car, &or example, % 1as concerned primarily 1ith 1hether % could actually do the drivin", not 1ith 1hether % could describe or explain ho1 to drive. For another example 1hen % 33
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License reached the point in li&e 1here % be"an cookin" meals &or mysel&, % 1as more &ocused on 1hether % could actually produce edible &ood in a kitchen than 1ith 1hether % could explain my recipes and cookin" procedures to others. And still another exampleKone o&ten relevant to ne1 teachers 1hen % be"an my &irst year o& teachin", % 1as more &ocused on doin" the /ob o& teachin"Kon day$to$day survivalKthan on pausin" to re&lect on 1hat % 1as doin". Bote that in all o& these examples, &ocusin" attention on behavior instead o& on >thou"hts@ may have been desirable at that moment, but not necessarily desirable inde&initely or all o& the time. #ven as a be"inner, there are times 1hen it is more important to be able to describe ho1 to drive or to cook than to actually do these thin"s. And there de&initely are many times 1hen re&lectin" on and thinkin" about teachin" can improve teachin" itsel&. <As a teacher$&riend once said to me >*onJt /ust do somethin"I stand thereL@= 7ut neither is &ocusin" on behavior 1hich is not necessarily less desirable than &ocusin" on studentsJ >inner@ chan"es, such as "ains in their kno1led"e or their personal attitudes. %& you are teachin", you 1ill need to attend to all &orms o& learnin" in students, 1hether inner or out1ard. %n classrooms, behaviorism is most use&ul &or identi&yin" relationships bet1een speci&ic actions by a student and the immediate precursors and consequences o& the actions. %t is less use&ul &or understandin" chan"es in studentsJ thinkin"I &or this purpose 1e need a more cognitive <or thinkin"$oriented= theory, like the ones described later in this chapter. This &act is not really a criticism o& behaviorism as a perspective, but /ust a clari&ication o& its particular stren"th or source o& use&ulness, 1hich is to hi"hli"ht observable relationships amon" actions, precursors and consequences. 7ehaviorists use particular terms <or >lin"o@, some mi"ht say= &or these relationships. They also rely primarily on t1o basic ima"es or models o& behavioral learnin", called res*ondent 1or 'classical)) conditioning and o*erant conditioning. The names are derived partly &rom the ma/or learnin" mechanisms hi"hli"hted by each type, 1hich % describe next.
-espondent conditionin" learnin" ne1 associations 1ith prior behaviors

As ori"inally conceived, respondent conditioning <sometimes also called classical conditioning) be"ins 1ith the involuntary responses to particular si"hts, sounds, or other sensations <Lavond, 3003=. 5hen % receive an in/ection &rom a nurse or doctor, &or example, % crin"e, ti"hten my muscles, and even perspire a bit. 5henever a contented, happy baby looks at me, on the other hand, % invariably smile in response. % cannot help mysel& in either caseI both o& the responses are automatic. %n humans as 1ell as other animals, there is a repertoire or variety o& such speci&ic, involuntary behaviors. At the sound o& a sudden loud noise, &or example, most o& us sho1 a >startle@ responseK1e drop 1hat 1e are doin" <sometimes literallyL=, our heart rate shoots up temporarily, and 1e look &or the source o& the sound. Cats, do"s and many other animals <even &ish in an aquarium= sho1 similar or equivalent responses. %nvoluntary stimuli and responses 1ere &irst studied systematically early in the t1entieth$century by the -ussian scientist %van ,avlov <893;=. ,avlovJs most 1ell$kno1n 1ork did not involve humans, but do"s, and speci&ically their involuntary tendency to salivate 1hen eatin". 6e attached a small tube to the side o& do"sJ mouths that allo1ed him to measure ho1 much the do"s salivated 1hen &ed <#xhibit 8 sho1s a photo"raph o& one o& ,avlovEs do"s=. 7ut he soon noticed a >problem@ 1ith the procedure as the do"s "ained experience 1ith the experiment, they o&ten salivated %efore they be"an eatin". %n &act the most experienced do"s sometimes be"an salivatin" be&ore they even sa1 any &ood, simply 1hen ,avlov himsel& entered the roomL The si"ht o& the experimenter, 1hich had Educational Psychology
3F
A .lobal Text
2. The learning process ori"inally been a neutral experience &or the do"s, became associated 1ith the do"sJ ori"inal salivation response. #ventually, in &act, the do"s 1ould salivate at the si"ht o& ,avlov even i& he did not &eed them. This change in the do"sJ involuntary response, and especially its "ro1in" independence &rom the &ood as stimulus, eventually became the &ocus o& ,avlovJs research. ,sycholo"ists named the process res*ondent conditioning because it describes chan"es in res*onses to stimuli <thou"h some have also called it >classical conditionin"@ because it 1as historically the &irst &orm o& behavioral learnin" to be studied systematically=. -espondent conditionin" has several elements, each 1ith a special name. To understand these, look at and ima"ine a do" <perhaps even mine, named .in"er= prior to any conditionin". At the be"innin" .in"er salivates <an unconditioned response +,-.= only 1hen she actually tastes her dinner <an unconditioned stimulus +,S.=. As time "oes by, ho1ever, a neutral stimulusKsuch as the sound o& openin" a ba" containin" &resh do" &ood Kis continually paired 1ith the eatin"Utastin" experience. #ventually the neutral stimulus becomes able to elicit salivation even %efore any do" &ood is o&&ered to .in"er, or even i& the ba" o& &ood is emptyL At this point the neutral stimulus is called a conditioned stimulus +,CS. and the ori"inal response is renamed as a conditioned response +C-.. Bo1, a&ter conditionin", .in"er salivates merely at the sound o& openin" any lar"e ba", re"ardless o& its contents. <% mi"ht add that .in"er also en"a"es in other conditioned responses, such as lookin" hope&ul and &ollo1in" me around the house at dinner time.= 7e&ore Conditionin" (UCS) Food Salivation (UR) (UCS) Bell No response (UR) *urin" Conditionin" Bell + Food Salivation A&ter Conditionin" (CS) Bell only Salivation (CR) #xhibit 8 Classical conditionin" o& .in"er, the do". +efore conditioning, Kinger salivates only to the taste of food and the %ell has no effect. After conditioning, she salivates even hen the %ell is *resented %y itself.
Res*ondent Conditioning and Students

>C',@ you may be thinkin", >-espondent conditionin" may happen to animals. 7ut does anythin" like it happen in classrooms?@ %t mi"ht seem like not much 1ould, since teachin" is usually about in&luencin" studentsJ conscious 1ords and thou"hts, and not their involuntary behaviors. 7ut remember that schoolin" is not /ust about encoura"in" thinkin" and talkin". Teachers, like parents and the public, also seek positive chan"es in studentsJ attitudes and &eelin"sKattitudes like a love &or learnin", &or example, and &eelin"s like sel&$con&idence. %t turns out that respondent conditionin" describes these kinds o& chan"es relatively 1ell.
3A
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Consider, &or example, a child 1ho responds happily 1henever meetin" a ne1 person 1ho is 1arm and &riendly, but 1ho also responds cautiously or at least neutrally in any ne1 situation. (uppose &urther that the >ne1, &riendly person@ in question is you, his teacher. %nitially the childJs response to you is like an unconditioned stimulus you smile <the unconditioned stimulus= and in response he perks up, breathes easier, and smiles <the unconditioned response=. This exchan"e is not the 1hole story, ho1ever, but merely the settin" &or an important bit o& behavior chan"e suppose you smile at him 1hile standin" in your classroom, a >ne1 situation@ and there&ore one to 1hich he normally responds cautiously. Bo1 respondent learnin" can occur. The initially neutral stimulus <your classroom= becomes associated repeatedly 1ith the ori"inal unconditioned stimulus <your smile= and the childJs unconditioned response <his smile=. #ventually, i& all "oes 1ell, the classroom becomes a conditioned stimulus in its o1n ri"ht it can elicit the childJs smiles and other >happy behaviors@ even 1ithout your immediate presence or stimulus. #xhibit 3 dia"rams the situation "raphically. 5hen the chan"e in behavior happens, you mi"ht say that the child has >learned@ to like bein" in your classroom. Truly a pleasin" outcome &or both o& youL 7e&ore Conditionin" (UCS) Seeing Teacher Smile (UCS) Seeing Classroom *urin" Conditionin" Seeing Teaching Smile + Seeing Classroom Student Smiles A&ter Conditionin" (CS) Seeing Classroom Student Smiles (CR) #xhibit 3 -espondent conditionin" o& student to classroom. +efore conditioning, the student smiles only sight of the classroom even ithout the teacher *resent. hen Student Smiles (UR)
No response (UR)
he sees the teacher smile, and the sight of the classroom has no effect. After conditioning, the student smiles at the
7ut less positive or desirable examples o& respondent conditionin" also can happen. Consider a modi&ication o& the example that % /ust "ave. (uppose the child that % /ust mentioned did not have the "ood &ortune o& bein" placed in your classroom. %nstead he &ound himsel& 1ith a less likeable teacher, 1hom 1e could simply call )r 6orrible. %nstead o& smilin" a lot and elicitin" the childJs unconditioned >happy response@, )r 6orrible o&ten &ro1ns and sco1ls at the child. %n this case, there&ore, the childJs initial unconditioned response is ne"ative 1henever )r 6orrible directs a &ro1n or sco1l at the child, the child automatically crin"es a little, his eyes 1iden in &ear, and his heart beat races. %& the child sees )r 6orrible doin" most o& his &ro1nin" and sco1lin" in the classroom, eventually the classroom itsel& 1ill acquire po1er as a ne"ative conditioned stimulus. #ventually, that is, the child 1ill not need )r 6orrible to be present in order to &eel apprehensiveI simply bein" in the classroom 1ill be enou"h. #xhibit 3 dia"rams this un&ortunate situation. Cbviously it is an outcome to be avoided, and in &act does not usually happen in such an extreme 1ay. 7ut hope&ully it makes the point any stimulus that is initially neutral, but that "ets
3:
A .lobal Text
2. The learning process associated 1ith an unconditioned stimulus and response, can eventually acquire the ability to elicit the response by itsel&. AnythingK1hether it is desirable or not. 7e&ore Conditionin" ( UCS) Mr Horrible Frowns Student Cringes (UCR) Mr Horribles Classroom No response *urin" Conditionin" Mr Horrible Frowns + Sight o Classroom Student Cringes A&ter Conditionin" ( CS) Seeing Classroom Student Cringes ( CR) #xhibit 3 -espondent conditionin" o& student to classroom. +efore conditioning, the student cringes only hen he sees @r 9orri%le smile, and the sight of the classroom has no effect. After conditioning, the student cringes at the sight of the classroom even ithout @r 9orri%le *resent.
The chan"es described in these t1o examples are important because they can a&&ect studentsJ attitude about school, and there&ore also their motivation to learn. %n the positive case, the child becomes more inclined to please the teacher and to attend to 1hat he or she has to o&&erI in the ne"ative case, the opposite occurs. (ince the chan"es in attitude happen >inside@ the child, they are best thou"ht o& as one 1ay that a child can acquire i intrinsic motivation, meanin" a desire or tendency to direct attention and ener"y in a particular 1ay that ori"inates &rom the child himsel& or hersel&. %ntrinsic motivation is sometimes contrasted to e"trinsic motivation/ a tendency to direct attention and ener"y that ori"inates &rom outside o& the child. As 1e 1ill see, classical conditionin" can in&luence studentsJ intrinsic motivation in directions that are either positive or ne"ative. As you mi"ht suspect, there are other 1ays to in&luence motivation as 1ell. )any o& these are described in Chapter : <>(tudent motivation@=. First, thou"h, let us look at three other &eatures o& classical conditionin" that complicate the picture a bit, but also render conditionin" a bit more accurate, an appropriate description o& studentsJ learnin".
Three #ey ideas a%out res*ondent conditioning

!"tinction$ This term does not re&er to the &ate o& dinosaurs, but to the disa**earance o& a link bet1een the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. %ma"ine a third variation on the conditionin" >story@ described above. (uppose, as % su""ested above, that the child be"ins by associatin" your happy behaviorsKyour smilesKto his bein" present in the classroom, so that the classroom itsel& becomes enou"h to elicit his o1n smiles. 7ut no1 suppose there is a sad turn o& events you become sick and must there&ore leave the classroom in the middle o& the school year. A substitute is called in 1ho is not )r 6orrible, but simply someone 1ho is not very expressive, someone 1e can call )s Beutral. At &irst the child continues to &eel "ood <that is, to smile= 1henever present in the classroom. 7ut because the link bet1een the classroom and your particular smile is no lon"er repeated or associated, the childJs response "radually e4tinguishes, or &ades until it has disappeared entirely. %n a sense the childJs initial learnin" is >unlearned@. 3;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License #xtinction can also happen 1ith ne"ative examples o& classical conditionin". %& )r 6orrible leaves mid$year <perhaps because no one could stand 1orkin" 1ith him any lon"erL=, then the childJs ne"ative responses <crin"in", eyes 1idenin", heart beat racin", and so on= 1ill also extin"uish eventually. Bote, thou"h, that 1hether the conditioned stimulus is positive or ne"ative, extinction does not happen suddenly or immediately, but un&olds over time. This &act can sometimes obscure the process i& you are a busy teacher attendin" to many students. 0enerali1ation$ 5hen ,avlov studied conditionin" in do"s, he noticed that the ori"inal conditioned stimulus 1as not the only neutral stimulus that elicited the conditioned response. %& he paired a particular bell 1ith the si"ht o& &ood, &or example, so that the bell became a conditioned stimulus &or salivation, then it turned out that other bells, perhaps 1ith a di&&erent pitch or type or sound, also acquired some ability to tri""er salivationKthou"h not as much as the ori"inal bell. ,sycholo"ists call this process "enerali2ation, or the tendency &or similar stimuli to elicit a conditioned response. The child bein" conditioned to your smile, &or example, mi"ht learn to associate your smile not only 1ith bein" present in your classroom, but also to bein" present in other, similar classrooms. 6is conditioned smiles may be stron"est 1here he learned them initially <that is, in your o1n room=, but nonetheless visible to a si"ni&icant extent in other teachersJ classrooms. To the extent that this happens, he has generali/ed his learnin". %t is o& course "ood ne1sI it means that 1e can say that the child is be"innin" to >learn to like school@ in "eneral, and not /ust your particular room. 4n&ortunately, the opposite can also happen i& a child learns ne"ative associations &rom )r 6orrible, the childJs &ear, caution, and stress mi"ht "enerali2e to other classrooms as 1ell. The lesson &or teachers is there&ore clear 1e have a responsibility, 1herever possible, to make classrooms pleasant places to be. Discrimination$ .enerali2ation amon" similar stimuli can be reduced i& only one o& the similar stimuli is associated consistently 1ith the unconditioned response, 1hile the others are not. 5hen this happens, psycholo"ists say that discrimination learning has occurred, meanin" that the individual has learned to distin"uish or respond di&&erently to one stimulus than to another. From an educational point o& vie1, discrimination learnin" can be either desirable or not, dependin" on the particulars o& the situation. %ma"ine a"ain <&or the &ourth timeL= the child 1ho learns to associate your classroom 1ith your smiles, so that he eventually produces smiles o& his o1n 1henever present in your room. 7ut no1 ima"ine yet another variation on his story the child is old enou"h to attend middle school, and there&ore has several teachers across the day. MouK1ith your smilesKare one, but so are )r 6orrible and )s Beutral. At &irst the child may "enerali2e his classically conditioned smiles to the other teachersJ classrooms. 7ut the other teachers do not smile like you do, and this &act causes the childJs smilin" to extin"uish some1hat in their rooms. )ean1hile, you keep smilin" in your room. #ventually the child is smilin" only in your room and not in the other rooms. 5hen this happens, 1e say that discrimination has occurred, meanin" that the conditioned associations happen only to a sin"le version o& the unconditioned stimuliK in this case, only to your smiles, and not to the <rather rare= occurrences o& smiles in the other classrooms. +ud"in" by his behavior, the child is makin" a distinction bet1een your room and others. %n one sense the discrimination in this story is un&ortunate in that it prevents the child &rom acquirin" a likin" &or school that is "enerali2ed. 7ut notice that an opposin", more desirable process is happenin" at the same time the child is also *revented &rom acquirin" a "enerali2ed disli#e o& school. The &ear$producin" stimuli &rom )r 6orrible, in particular, become discriminated &rom the happiness$producin" smiles &rom you, so the childJs learns to con&ine his &ear&ul responses to that particular classroom, and does not "enerali2e them to other >innocent@ Educational Psychology
3D
A .lobal Text
2. The learning process classrooms, includin" your o1n. This is still not an ideal situation &or the student, but maybe it is more desirable than dislikin" school alto"ether.
8*erant conditioning" ne
%ehaviors %ecause of ne
conse&uences
%nstead o& &ocusin" on associations bet1een stimuli and responses, operant conditioning &ocuses on ho1 the e&&ects o& consequences on behaviors. The operant model o& learnin" be"ins 1ith the idea that certain consequences tend to make certain behaviors happen more &requently. %& % compliment a student &or a "ood comment durin" a discussion, there is more o& a chance that % 1ill hear comments &rom the student more o&ten in the &uture <and hope&ully they 1ill also be "ood onesL=. %& a student tells a /oke to several classmates and they lau"h at it, then the student is more likely to tell additional /okes in the &uture and so on. As 1ith respondent conditionin", the ori"inal research about this model o& learnin" 1as not done 1ith people, but 1ith animals. Cne o& the pioneers in the &ield 1as a 6arvard pro&essor named 7. F. (kinner, 1ho published numerous books and articles about the details o& the process and 1ho pointed out many parallels bet1een operant conditionin" in animals and operant conditionin" in humans <893D, 89FD, 89DD=. (kinner observed the behavior o& rather tame laboratory rats <not the unpleasant kind that sometimes live in "arba"e dumps=. 6e or his assistants 1ould put them in a ca"e that contained little except a lever and a small tray /ust bi" enou"h to hold a small amount o& &ood. <#xhibit F sho1s the basic set$up, 1hich is sometimes nicknamed a >(kinner box@.= At &irst the rat 1ould sni&& and >putter around@ the ca"e at random, but sooner or later it 1ould happen upon the lever and eventually happen to press it. ,restoL The lever released a small pellet o& &ood, 1hich the rat 1ould promptly eat. .radually the rat 1ould spend more time near the lever and press the lever more &requently, "ettin" &ood more &requently. #ventually it 1ould spend most o& its time at the lever and eatin" its &ill o& &ood. The rat had >discovered@ that the consequence o& pressin" the level 1as to receive &ood. (kinner called the chan"es in the ratJs behavior an example o& operant conditioning/ and "ave special names to the di&&erent parts o& the process. 6e called the &ood pellets the reinforcement and the lever$pressin" the operant <because it >operated@ on the ratJs environment=. (ee belo1.
2perant
-einforcement
,ress lever Food pellet
#xhibit F Cperant conditionin" 1ith a laboratory rat (kinner and other behavioral psycholo"ists experimented 1ith usin" various rein&orcers and operants. They also experimented 1ith various patterns o& rein&orcement <or schedules of reinforcement=, as 1ell as 1ith various 39
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License cues or si"nals to the animal about 1hen rein&orcement 1as available . %t turned out that all o& these &actorsKthe operant, the rein&orcement, the schedule, and the cuesKa&&ected ho1 easily and thorou"hly operant conditionin" occurred. For example, rein&orcement 1as more e&&ective i& it came immediately a&ter the crucial operant behavior, rather than bein" delayed, and rein&orcements that happened intermittently <only part o& the time= caused learnin" to take lon"er, but also caused it to last lon"er. 2perant conditioning and students% learning$ As 1ith respondent conditionin", it is important to ask 1hether operant conditionin" also describes learnin" in human bein"s, and especially in students in classrooms. Cn this point the ans1er seems to be clearly >yes@. There are countless classroom examples o& consequences a&&ectin" studentsJ behavior in 1ays that resemble operant conditionin", althou"h the process certainly does not account &or all &orms o& student learnin" <Alberto P Troutman, 300A=. Consider the &ollo1in" examples. %n most o& them the operant behavior tends to become more &requent on repeated occasions
A seventh$"rade boy makes a silly &ace <the operant= at the "irl sittin" next to him. Classmates sittin" around
them "i""le in response <the rein&orcement=.

A kinder"arten child raises her hand in response to the teacherJs question about a story <the operant=. The
teacher calls on her and she makes her comment <the rein&orcement=.
Another kinder"arten child blurts out her comment 1ithout bein" called on <the operant=. The teacher &ro1ns,
i"nores this behavior, but be&ore the teacher calls on a di&&erent student, classmates are listenin" attentively <the rein&orcement= to the student even thou"h he did not raise his hand as he should have.
A t1el&th$"rade studentKa member o& the track teamKruns one mile durin" practice <the operant=. 6e notes
the time it takes him as 1ell as his increase in speed since /oinin" the team <the rein&orcement=.
A child 1ho is usually very restless sits &or &ive minutes doin" an assi"nment <the operant=. The teachin"
assistant compliments him &or 1orkin" hard <the rein&orcement=.

A sixth$"rader takes home a book &rom the classroom library to read overni"ht <the operant=. 5hen she
returns the book the next mornin", her teacher puts a "old star by her name on a chart posted in the room <the rein&orcement=. 6ope&ully these examples are enou"h to make &our points about operant conditionin". First, the process is 1idespread in classroomsKprobably more 1idespread than respondent conditionin". This &act makes sense, "iven the nature o& public education to a lar"e extent, teachin" is about makin" certain consequences &or students <like praise or marks= depend on studentsJ en"a"in" in certain activities <like readin" certain material or doin" assi"nments=. (econd, learnin" by operant conditionin" is not con&ined to any particular "rade, sub/ect area, or style o& teachin", but by nature happens in nearly every ima"inable classroom. Third, teachers are not the only persons controllin" rein&orcements. (ometimes they are controlled by the activity itsel& <as in the track team example=, or by classmates <as in the >"i""lin"@ example=. A result o& all o& the above points is the &ourth that multiple examples o& operant conditionin" o&ten happen at the same time. The skill builder &or this chapter 1The decline and fall of Jane Kladstone) su""ests ho1 this happened to someone completin" student teachin".
30
A .lobal Text
2. The learning process 7ecause operant conditionin" happens so 1idely, its e&&ects on motivation are a bit more complex than the e&&ects o& respondent conditionin". As in respondent conditionin", operant conditionin" can encoura"e intrinsic motivation to the extent that the rein&orcement &or an activity can sometimes be the activity itsel&. 5hen a student reads a book &or the sheer en/oyment o& readin", &or example, he is rein&orced by the readin" itsel&I then 1e o&ten say that his readin" is >intrinsically motivated@. )ore o&ten, ho1ever, operant conditionin" stimulates %oth intrinsic and extrinsic motivation at the same time. The combinin" o& both is noticeable in the examples that % listed above. %n each example, it is reasonable to assume that the student &elt intrinsically motivated to some partial extent, even 1hen re1ard came &rom outside the student as 1ell. This 1as because *art o& 1hat rein&orced their behavior 1as the behavior itsel&K1hether it 1as makin" &aces, runnin" a mile, or contributin" to a discussion. At the same time, thou"h, note that each student probably 1as also e"trinsically motivated/ meanin" that another part o& the rein&orcement came &rom consequences or experiences not inherently part o& the activity or behavior itsel&. The boy 1ho made a &ace 1as rein&orced not only by the pleasure o& makin" a &ace, &or example, but also by the "i""les o& classmates. The track student 1as rein&orced not only by the pleasure o& runnin" itsel&, but also by kno1led"e o& his improved times and speeds. #ven the usually restless child sittin" still &or &ive minutes may have been rein&orced partly by this brie& experience o& unusually &ocused activity, even i& he 1as also rein&orced by the teacher aideJs compliment. Bote that the extrinsic part o& the rein&orcement may sometimes be more easily observed or noticed than the intrinsic part, 1hich by de&inition may sometimes only be experienced 1ithin the individual and not also displayed out1ardly. This latter &act may contribute to an impression that sometimes occurs, that operant conditionin" is really /ust >bribery in dis"uise@, that only the e4ternal rein&orcements operate on studentsJ behavior. %t is true that external rein&orcement may sometimes alter the nature or stren"th o& internal <or intrinsic= rein&orcement, but this is not the same as sayin" that it destroys or replaces intrinsic rein&orcement. 7ut more about this issue laterL <(ee especially Chapter :, >(tudent motivation@.= Comparing operant conditioning and respondent conditioning$ Cperant conditionin" is made more complicated, but also more realistic, by many o& the same concepts as used in respondent conditionin". %n most cases, ho1ever, the additional concepts have sli"htly di&&erent meanin"s in each model o& learnin". (ince this circumstance can make the terms con&usin", let me explain the di&&erences &or three ma/or concepts used in both modelsKextinction, "enerali2ation, and discrimination. Then % 1ill comment on t1o additional conceptsK schedules o& rein&orcement and cuesKthat are sometimes also used in talkin" about both &orms o& conditionin", but that are important primarily &or understandin" operant conditionin". The explanations and comments are also summari2ed in Table 3. Table 3 Comparison o& terms common to operant and respondent conditionin" 3erm 4s defined in respondent conditioning 4s defined in operant conditioning #xtinction *isappearance o& an association bet1een a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response .enerali2ation Ability o& stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response 38
*isappearance o& the operant behavior due to lack o& rein&orcement Tendency o& behaviors similar to operant to be conditioned alon" 1ith
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License the ori"inal operant *iscrimination Learnin" not to respond to stimuli that are similar to the ori"inally conditioned stimulus Learnin" not to emit behaviors that are similar to the ori"inally conditioned operant (chedule o& -ein&orcement The pattern or &requency by 1hich a C( is paired 1ith the 4C( durin" learnin" The pattern or &requency by 1hich a rein&orcement is a consequence o& an operant durin" learnin" Cue Bot applicable (timulus prior to the operant that si"nals the availability or not o& rein&orcement
%n both respondent and operant conditionin", e"tinction re&ers to the disappearance o& >somethin"@. %n operant conditionin", 1hat disappears is the o*erant %ehavior because o& a lack o& rein&orcement. A student 1ho stops receivin" "old stars or compliments &or proli&ic readin" o& library books, &or example, may extin"uish <i.e. decrease or stop= book$readin" behavior. %n respondent conditionin", on the other hand, 1hat disappears is association bet1een the conditioned stimulus <the C(= and the conditioned response <C-=. %& you stop smilin" at a student, then the student may extin"uish her association bet1een you and her pleasurable response to your smile, or bet1een your classroom and the studentJs pleasurable response to your smile. %n both &orms o& conditionin", generali1ation means that somethin" >extra@ "ets conditioned i& it is someho1 similar to >somethin"@. %n operant conditionin", the extra conditionin" is to behaviors similar to the ori"inal o*erant. %& "ettin" "old stars results in my readin" more library books, then % may "enerali2e this behavior to other similar activities, such as readin" the ne1spaper, even i& the activity is not rein&orced directly. %n respondent conditionin", ho1ever, the extra conditionin" re&ers to stimuli similar to the ori"inal conditioned stimulus. %& % am a student and % respond happily to my teacherJs smiles, then % may &ind mysel& respondin" happily to other people <like my other teachers= to some extent, even i& they do not smile at me. .enerali2ation is a lot like the concept o& transfer that % discussed early in this chapter, in that it is about extendin" prior learnin" to ne1 situations or contexts. From the perspective o& operant conditionin", thou"h, 1hat is bein" extended <or >trans&erred@ or "enerali2ed= is a behavior, not kno1led"e or skill. %n both &orms o& conditionin", discrimination means learnin" not to "enerali2e. %n operant conditionin", thou"h, 1hat is not bein" over"enerali2ed is the operant behavior. %& % am a student 1ho is bein" complimented <rein&orced= &or contributin" to discussions, % must also learn to discriminate 1hen to make verbal contributions &rom 1hen not to make verbal contributionsKsuch as 1hen classmates or the teacher are busy 1ith other tasks. %n respondent conditionin", 1hat are not bein" over"enerali2ed are the conditioned stimuli that elicit the conditioned response. %& %, as a student, learn to associate the mere si"ht o& a smilin" teacher 1ith my o1n happy, contented behavior, then % also have to learn not to associate this same happy response 1ith similar, but sli"htly di&&erent si"hts, such as a teacher lookin" annoyed.
33
A .lobal Text
2. The learning process %n both &orms o& conditionin", the schedule of reinforcement re&ers to the pattern or &requency by 1hich >somethin"@ is paired 1ith >somethin" else@. %n operant conditionin", 1hat is bein" paired is the pattern by 1hich rein&orcement is linked 1ith the operant. %& a teacher praises me &or my 1ork, does she do it every time, or only sometimes? Frequently or only once in a1hile? %n respondent conditionin", ho1ever, the schedule in question is the pattern by 1hich the conditioned stimulus is paired 1ith the unconditioned stimulus. %& % am student 1ith )r 6orrible as my teacher, does he sco1l every time he is in the classroom, or only sometimes? Frequently or rarely? 7ehavioral psycholo"ists have studied schedules o& rein&orcement extensively <&or example, Ferster, et al., 899;I )a2ur, 300A=, and &ound a number o& interestin" e&&ects o& di&&erent schedules. For teachers, ho1ever, the most important &indin" may be this partial or intermittent schedules o& rein&orcement "enerally cause learnin" to take lon"er, but also cause extinction o& learnin" to take lon"er. This dual principle is important &or teachers because so much o& the rein&orcement 1e "ive is partial or intermittent. Typically, i& % am teachin", % can compliment a student a lot o& the time, &or example, but there 1ill inevitably be occasions 1hen % cannot do so because % am busy else1here in the classroom. For teachers concerned both about motivatin" students and about minimi2in" inappropriate behaviors, this is both "ood ne1s and bad. The "ood ne1s is that the bene&its o& my praisin" studentsJ constructive behavior 1ill be more lastin", because they 1ill not extin"uish their constructive behaviors immediately i& % &ail to support them every sin"le time they happen. The bad ne1s is that studentsJ ne"ative behaviors may take lon"er to extin"uish as 1ell, because those too may have developed throu"h partial rein&orcement. A student 1ho clo1ns around inappropriately in class, &or example, may not be >supported@ by classmatesJ lau"hter every time it happens, but only some o& the time. Cnce the inappropriate behavior is learned, thou"h, it 1ill take some1hat lon"er to disappear even i& everyoneKboth teacher and classmatesKmake a concerted e&&ort to i"nore <or extin"uish= it. Finally, behavioral psycholo"ists have studied the e&&ects o& cues. %n operant conditionin", a cue is a stimulus that happens /ust prior to the operant behavior and that si"nals that per&ormin" the behavior may lead to rein&orcement. %ts e&&ect is much like discrimination learnin" in respondent conditionin", except that 1hat is >discriminated@ in this case is not a conditioned behavior that is re&lex$like, but a voluntary action, the operant. %n the ori"inal conditionin" experiments, (kinnerJs rats 1ere sometimes cued by the presence or absence o& a small electric li"ht in their ca"e. -ein&orcement 1as associated 1ith pressin" a lever 1hen, and only 1hen, the li"ht 1as on. %n classrooms, cues are sometimes provided by the teacher or simply by the established routines o& the class. Callin" on a student to speak, &or example, can be a cue that if the student does say somethin" at that moment, then he or she may be rein&orced 1ith praise or ackno1led"ment. 7ut i& that cue does not occurKi& the student is not called onKspeakin" may not be re1arded. %n more everyday, non$behaviorist terms, the cue allo1s the student to learn 1hen it is acceptable to speak, and 1hen it is not.
Constructivism chan"es in ho1 students think

7ehaviorist models o& learnin" may be help&ul in understandin" and in&luencin" 1hat students do, but teachers usually also 1ant to kno1 1hat students are thin#ing, and ho1 to enrich 1hat students are thinkin". For this "oal o& teachin", some o& the best help comes &rom constructivism/ 1hich is a perspective on learnin" &ocused on ho1 students actively create <or >construct@= kno1led"e out o& experiences. Constructivist models o& learnin" di&&er about ho1 much a learner constructs kno1led"e independently, compared to ho1 much he or she takes cues &rom people 1ho may be more o& an expert and 1ho help the learnerEs e&&orts <Fosnot, 300AI -ockmore, 300A=. For 33
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License convenience these are called psychological constructivism and social constructivism/ even thou"h both versions are in a sense explanations about thinkin" 1ithin individuals.
Psychological constructivism" the inde*endent investigator

The main idea o& psycholo"ical constructivism is that a person learns by mentally or"ani2in" and reor"ani2in" ne1 in&ormation or experiences. The or"ani2ation happens partly by relatin" ne1 experiences to prior kno1led"e that is already meanin"&ul and 1ell understood. (tated in this "eneral &orm, individual constructivism is sometimes associated 1ith a 1ell$kno1n educational philosopher o& the early t1entieth century, 5ohn De(ey <893D$899D=. Althou"h *e1ey himsel& did not use the term constructivism in most o& his 1ritin", his point o& vie1 amounted to a type o& constructivism, and he discussed in detail its implications &or educators. 6e ar"ued, &or example, that i& students indeed learn primarily by buildin" their o1n kno1led"e, then teachers should ad/ust the curriculum to &it studentsJ prior kno1led"e and interests as &ully as possible. 6e also ar"ued that a curriculum could only be /usti&ied i& it related as &ully as possible to the activities and responsibilities that students 1ill probably have later, a&ter leavin" school. To many educators these days, his ideas may seem merely like "ood common sense, but they 1ere indeed innovative and pro"ressive at the be"innin" o& the t1entieth century. A more recent example o& psycholo"ical constructivism is the co"nitive theory o& 5ean Piaget <,ia"et, 3008I .ruber P Goneche, 899A=. ,ia"et described learnin" as interplay bet1een t1o mental activities that he called assimilation and accommodation. 4ssimilation is the interpretation o& ne1 in&ormation in terms o& pre$existin" concepts, in&ormation or ideas. A preschool child 1ho already understands the concept o& %ird, &or example, mi"ht initially label any &lyin" ob/ect 1ith this termKeven butter&lies or mosquitoes. Assimilation is there&ore a bit like the idea o& generali/ation in operant conditionin", or the idea o& transfer described at the be"innin" o& this chapter. %n ,ia"etJs vie1point, thou"h, 1hat is bein" trans&erred to a ne1 settin" is not simply a behavior <(kinnerEs >operant@ in operant conditionin"=, but a mental representation &or an ob/ect or experience. Assimilation operates /ointly 1ith accommodation/ 1hich is the revision or modi&ication o& pre$existin" concepts in terms o& ne1 in&ormation or experience. The preschooler 1ho initially "enerali2es the concept o& %ird to include any &lyin" ob/ect, &or example, eventually revises the concept to include only particular kinds o& &lyin" ob/ects, such as robins and sparro1s, and not others, like mosquitoes or airplanes. For ,ia"et, assimilation and accommodation 1ork to"ether to enrich a childJs thinkin" and to create 1hat ,ia"et called cognitive e6uilibrium, 1hich is a balance bet1een reliance on prior in&ormation and openness to ne1 in&ormation. At any "iven time, co"nitive equilibrium consists o& an ever$"ro1in" repertoire o& mental representations &or ob/ects and experiences. ,ia"et called each mental representation a schema <all o& them to"etherKthe pluralK1as called schemata=. A schema 1as not merely a concept, but an elaborated mixture o& vocabulary, actions, and experience related to the concept. A childJs schema &or %ird, &or example, includes not only the relevant verbal kno1led"e <like kno1in" ho1 to de&ine the 1ord >bird@=, but also the childJs experiences 1ith birds, pictures o& birds, and conversations about birds. As assimilation and accommodation about birds and other &lyin" ob/ects operate to"ether over time, the child does not /ust revise and add to his vocabulary <such as acquirin" a ne1 1ord, >butter&ly@=, but also adds and remembers relevant ne1 experiences and actions. From these collective revisions and additions the child "radually constructs 1hole ne1 schemata about birds, butter&lies, and other &lyin" ob/ects. %n more everyday <but also less precise= terms, ,ia"et mi"ht then say that >the child has learned more about birds@.
3F
A .lobal Text
2. The learning process The upper part o& #xhibit A dia"rams the relationships amon" the ,ia"etian version o& psycholo"ical
constructivist learnin". Bote that the model o& learnin" in the #xhibit is rather >individualistic@, in the sense that it does not say much about ho1 other people involved 1ith the learner mi"ht assist in assimilatin" or accommodatin" in&ormation. ,arents and teachers, it 1ould seem, are le&t lin"erin" on the sidelines, 1ith &e1 si"ni&icant responsibilities &or helpin" learners to construct kno1led"e. 7ut the ,ia"etian picture does nonetheless imply a role &or help&ul others someone, a&ter all, has to tell or model the vocabulary needed to talk about and compare birds &rom airplanes and butter&liesL ,ia"et did reco"ni2e the importance o& help&ul others in his 1ritin"s and theori2in", callin" the process o& support or assistance social transmission. 7ut he did not emphasi2e this aspect o& constructivism. ,ia"et 1as more interested in 1hat children and youth could &i"ure out on their o1n, so to speak, than in ho1 teachers or parents mi"ht be able to help the youn" to &i"ure out <(alkind, 300F=. ,artly &or this reason, his theory is o&ten considered less about learnin" and more about develo*ment, 1hich is lon"$term chan"e in a person resultin" &rom multiple experiences. For the same reason, educators have o&ten &ound ,ia"etJs ideas especially help&ul &or thinkin" about studentsJ readiness to learn, another one o& the lastin" educational issues that % discussed at the be"innin" o& this chapter. % 1ill there&ore return to ,ia"et later to discuss development and its importance &or teachin" in more detail. 'earning 4ccording to Piaget$ Assimilation W Accommodation #quilibrium (chemata 'earning 4ccording to 7ygots8y$ Bovice <0,*= #xhibit A Constructivist models o& learnin" 0one o& ,roximal *evelopment #xpert
Social Constructivism" assisted *erformance

4nlike ,ia"etJs rather individually oriented version o& constructivism, some psycholo"ists and educators have explicitly &ocused on the relationships and interactions bet1een a learner and more kno1led"eable and experienced individuals. Cne early expression o& this vie1point came &rom the American psycholo"ist 5erome *runer <89:0, 89::, 899:=, 1ho became convinced that students could usually learn more than had been traditionally expected as lon" as they 1ere "iven appropriate "uidance and resources. 6e called such support instructional scaffoldingK literally meanin" a temporary &rame1ork, like one used in constructin" a buildin", that allo1s a much stron"er structure to be built 1ithin it. %n a comment that has been quoted 1idely <and sometimes disputed=, he 1rote >5e Xconstructivist educatorsY be"in 1ith the hypothesis that any sub/ect can be tau"ht e&&ectively in some intellectually honest &orm to any child at any sta"e o& development.@ <89:0, p. 33=. The reason &or such a bold assertion 1as 7runerJs belie& in sca&&oldin"Khis belie& in the importance o& providin" "uidance in the ri"ht 1ay and at the ri"ht time. 5hen sca&&oldin" is provided, students seem more competent and >intelli"ent,@ and they learn more. (imilar ideas 1ere proposed independently by the -ussian psycholo"ist 'ev 7ygots8y <89;D=, 1hose 1ritin" &ocused on ho1 a childJs or noviceJs thinkin" is in&luenced by relationships 1ith others 1ho are more capable,
3A
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License kno1led"eable, or expert than the learner. Gy"otsky proposed that 1hen a child <or any novice= is learnin" a ne1 skill or solvin" a ne1 problem, he or she can per&orm %etter i& accompanied and helped by an expert than i& per&ormin" aloneKthou"h still not as 1ell as the expert. (omeone 1ho has played very little chess, &or example, 1ill probably compete a"ainst an opponent better i& helped by an expert chess player than i& competin" alone a"ainst an opponent. Gy"otsky called the di&&erence bet1een solo per&ormance and assisted per&ormance the 1one of pro"imal development <or 9PD &or short=Kmeanin" the place or area <&i"uratively speakin"= o& immediate chan"e. From this perspective learnin" is like assisted *erformance <Tharp P .allimore, 8998=. %nitially durin" learnin", kno1led"e or skill is &ound mostly >in@ the expert helper. %& the expert is skilled and motivated to help, then the expert arran"es experiences that allo1 the novice to practice crucial skills or to construct ne1 kno1led"e. %n this re"ard the expert is a bit like the coach o& an athleteKo&&erin" help and su""estin" 1ays o& practicin", but never doin" the actual athletic 1ork himsel& or hersel&. .radually, by providin" continued experiences matched to the novice learnerJs emer"in" competencies, the expert$coach makes it possible &or the novice or apprentice to appropriate <or make his or her o1n= the skills or kno1led"e that ori"inally resided only 1ith the expert. These relationships are dia"rammed in the lo1er part o& #xhibit A. %n both the psycholo"ical and social versions o& constructivist learnin", the novice is not really >tau"ht@ so much as /ust allo1ed to learn. The social version o& constructivism, ho1ever, hi"hli"hts the responsibility o& the expert &or makin" learnin" possible. 6e or she must not only have kno1led"e and skill, but also kno1 ho1 to arran"e experiences that make it easy and sa&e &or learners to "ain kno1led"e and skill themselves. These requirements sound, o& course, a lot like the requirements &or classroom teachin". %n addition to kno1in" 1hat is to be learned, the expert <i.e. the teacher= also has to break the content into mana"eable parts, o&&er the parts in a sensible sequence, provide &or suitable and success&ul practice, brin" the parts back to"ether a"ain at the end, and someho1 relate the entire experience to kno1led"e and skills already meanin"&ul to the learner. 7ut o& course, no one said that teachin" is easyL
%mplications o& constructivism &or teachin"

Fortunately there are strate"ies that teachers can use &or "ivin" students this kind o& helpKin &act they constitute a ma/or portion o& this book, and are a ma/or theme throu"hout the entire preservice teacher education pro"rams. For no1, let me /ust point brie&ly to t1o o& them, savin" a complete discussion &or later. Cne strate"y that teachers o&ten &ind help&ul is to or"ani2e the content to be learned as systematically as possible, because doin" this allo1s the teacher to select and devise learnin" activities that are more e&&ective. Cne o& the most 1idely used &rame1orks &or or"ani2in" content, &or example, is a classi&ication scheme proposed by the educator 7en/amin 7loom, published 1ith the some1hat imposin" title o& Ta4onomy of Educational 8%$ectives" 9and%oo# HB" Cognitive !omain <7loom, et al., 89A:I Anderson P 'rath1ohl, 3008=. *loom%s ta"onomy, as it is usually called, describes six kinds o& learnin" "oals that teachers can in principle expect &rom students, ran"in" &rom simple recall o& kno1led"e to complex evaluation o& kno1led"e. <The levels are de&ined brie&ly in Table 3.3 1ith examples &rom Koldiloc#s and the Three +ears.= 7loomJs taxonomy makes use&ul distinctions amon" possible kinds o& kno1led"e needed by students, and there&ore potentially helps in selectin" activities that truly tar"et studentsJ >2ones o& proximal development@ in the sense meant by Gy"otsky. A student 1ho kno1s &e1 terms &or the species studied in biolo"y unit <a problem at 7loomJs #no ledge and com*rehension levels=, &or example, may initially need support at rememberin" and Educational Psychology
3:
A .lobal Text
2. The learning process de&inin" the terms be&ore he or she can make use&ul comparisons amon" species <7loomJs analysis level=. ,inpointin" the most appropriate learnin" activities to accomplish this ob/ective remains the /ob o& the teacher$ expert <thatJs you=, but the learnin" itsel& has to be accomplished by the student. ,ut in more social constructivist terms, the teacher arran"es a 2one o& proximal development that allo1s the student to compare species success&ully, but the student still has to construct or appropriate the comparisons &or him or hersel&. Table F 7loomJs taxonomy o& educational ob/ectives co"nitive domain Category or type of thin8ing Definition !"ample +(ith apologies to 0oldiloc8s and her bear friends:. 'no1led"e -ememberin" or recallin" &acts, in&ormation, or procedures Comprehension 4nderstandin" &acts, interpretin" in&ormation Application 4sin" concepts in ne1 situations, solvin" particular problems List three thin"s .oldilocks did in the three bearsJ house. #xplain 1hy .oldilocks liked the little bearJs chair the best. ,redict some o& the thin"s that .oldilocks mi"ht have used i& she had entered your house. Analysis *istin"uish parts o& in&ormation, a concept, or a procedure (elect the part o& the story 1here .oldilocks seemed most com&ortable. (ynthesis Combinin" elements or parts into a ne1 Tell ho1 the story 1ould have been ob/ect, idea, or procedure di&&erent i& it had been about three &ishes. #valuation Assessin" and /ud"in" the value or ideas, ob/ects, or materials in a particular situation *ecide 1hether .oldilocks 1as a bad "irl, and /usti&y your position.
A second strate"y may be coupled 1ith the &irst. As students "ain experience as students, they become able to think about ho1 they themselves learn best, and you <as the teacher= can encoura"e such sel&$re&lection as one o& your "oals &or their learnin". These chan"es allo1 you to trans&er some o& your responsibilities &or arranging learnin" to the students themselves. For the biolo"y student mentioned above, &or example, you may be able not only to plan activities that support comparin" species, but also to devise 1ays &or the student to think about ho1 he or she mi"ht learn the same in&ormation independently. The resultin" sel&$assessment and sel&$direction o& learnin" o&ten "oes by the name o& metacognitionKan ability to think about and re"ulate oneJs o1n thinkin" <%srael, 300A=. )etaco"nition can sometimes be di&&icult &or students to achieve, but it is an important "oal &or social constructivist learnin" because it "radually &rees learners &rom dependence on expert teachers to "uide their learnin". -e&lective learners, you mi"ht say, become their o1n expert "uides. Like 1ith usin" 7loomJs taxonomy, 3;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License thou"h, promotin" metaco"nition and sel&$directed learnin" is important enou"h that % 1ill come back to it later in more detail <especially in Chapter 9, >Facilitatin" complex thinkin"@=. 7y assi"nin" a more visible role to expert helpersKand by implication also to teachersKthan does the psycholo"ical constructivism, social constructivism is seemin"ly more complete as a description o& 1hat teachers usually do in classrooms, and o& 1hat they usually hope students 1ill experience there. As 1e 1ill see in the next chapter, ho1ever, there are more uses to a theory than 1hether it describes the moment$to$moment interactions bet1een teacher and students. As % explain there, some theories can be help&ul &or plannin" instruction rather than &or doin" it. %t turns out that this is the case &or psycholo"ical constructivism, 1hich o&&ers important ideas about the appropriate sequencin" o& learnin" and development. This &act makes the psycholo"ical constructivism valuable in its o1n 1ay, even thou"h it <and a &e1 other learnin" theories as 1ell= seem to >omit@ mentionin" teachers, parents, or experts in detail. (o do not make up your mind about the relative merits o& di&&erent learnin" theories yetL
Chapter summary
Althou"h the term learnin" has many possible meanin"s, the term as used by teachers emphasi2es its relationship to curriculum, to teachin", and to the issues o& sequencin", readiness, and trans&er. Gie1ed in this li"ht, the t1o ma/or psycholo"ical perspectives o& learnin"Kbehaviorist and constructivistKhave important ideas to o&&er educators. 5ithin the behaviorist perspective are t1o ma/or theories or models o& learnin", called respondent conditionin" and operant conditionin". -espondent conditionin" describes ho1 previously neutral associations can acquire the po1er to elicit si"ni&icant responses in students. Cperant conditionin" describes ho1 the consequences and cues &or a behavior can cause the behavior to become more &requent. %n either case, &rom a teacherJs point o& vie1, the learned behaviors or responses can be either desirable or un1anted. The other ma/or psycholo"ical perspectiveKconstructivismKdescribes ho1 individuals build or >construct@ kno1led"e by en"a"in" actively 1ith their experiences. The psycholo"ical version o& constructivism emphasi2es the learnersJ individual responses to experienceKtheir tendency both to assimilate it and to accommodate to it. The social version o& constructivism emphasi2es ho1 other, more expert individuals can create opportunities &or the learner to construct ne1 kno1led"e. (ocial constructivism su""ests that a teacherJs role must include deliberate instructional plannin", such as &acilitated by 7loomJs taxonomy o& learnin" ob/ectives, but also that teachers need to encoura"e metaco"nition, 1hich is studentsJ ability to monitor their o1n learnin".
Cn the %nternet
Qhttp$))seab.envmed.rochester.edu) abaR This is the 1ebsite &or the +ournal o& Applied 7ehavior Analysis, and as such it is an excellent source o& examples o& ho1 behaviorist learnin" principles can be applied to a 1ide variety o& behavior$related di&&iculties. Any article older than one year is available in &ull$text, &ree o& char"e &rom the 1ebsite. <%& it is &rom the most recent three issues, ho1ever, you have to subscribe to the /ournal.= Q(((.piaget.orgR This is the 1ebsite &or the +ean ,ia"et (ociety, 1hich in spite o& its name is not /ust about ,ia"et, but about all &orms o& constructivist research about learnin" and development, includin" social constructivist versions. They have excellent brie& publications about this perspective, available &ree o& char"e at the 1ebsite, as 1ell as in&ormation about ho1 to &ind additional in&ormation.
3D
A .lobal Text
2. The learning process
'ey terms
Appropriate <verb= 7ehaviorism 7loomJs taxonomy Classical conditionin" Constructivism ,sycholo"ical constructivism +ohn *e1ey +ean ,ia"et Assimilation Accommodation #quilibrium (chema (ocial constructivism +erome 7runer %nstructional sca&&oldin" Lev Gy"otsky 0one o& proximal development *iscrimination #xtinction #xtrinsic motivation .enerali2ation Learnin" %ntrinsic motivation )etaco"nition Cperant conditionin" Cue Cperant -ein&orcement (chedule o& rein&orcement %van ,avlov -eadiness -espondent conditionin" Conditioned response Conditioned stimulus 4nconditioned response 4nconditioned stimulus 7. F. (kinner Trans&er
-e&erences
Alberto, ,. P Troutman, A. <300A=. A**lied %ehavior analysis for teachers, =th edition. 4pper (addle -iver, B+ ,rentice 6all. Anderson, L. P 'rath1ohl, *. <#ds.=. <3008=. A ta4onomy for learning, teaching, and assessing" A revision of +loom(s ta4onomy of educational o%$ectives. Be1 Mork Lon"man. 7runer, +. <89:0=. The *rocess of education. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. 7runer, +. <89::=. To ard a theory of instruction. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. 7runer, +. <899:=. The culture of education. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. Copple, C. P 7redekamp, (. <300:=. +asics of develo*mentally a**ro*riate *ractice. 5ashin"ton, *.C. Bational Association &or the #ducation o& Moun" Children. *e1ey, +. <893DU899D=. 9o e thin#. 7oston 6ou"hton )i&&lin.
Ferster, C., (kinner, 7. F., Cheney, C., )orse, 5., P *e1s, *. Schedules of reinforcement. Be1 Mork Copley ,ublishin" .roup. Fosnot, C. <#d.=. <300A=. Constructivism" Theory, *ers*ectives, and *ractice, Cnd edition. Be1 Mork Teachers Colle"e ,ress. .ardner, 6. <8999=. ,ntelligence reframed" @ulti*le intelligences for the CBst century. Be1 Mork 7asic 7ooks. .ardner, 6. <300:=. The develo*ment and education of the mind. Be1 Mork -outled"e.
39
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License .oldman, +. <300:=. 5eb$based desi"ned activities &or youn" people in health education A constructivist approach. 9ealth Education Journal :?<8=, 8F$3;. .ruber, 6. P Goneche, +. <#ds.=. <899A=. The essential Piaget. Be1 Mork 7asic 7ooks. %srael, (. <#d.=. <300A=. @etacognition in literacy learning. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. Lavond, *. P (teinmet2, +. <3003=. 9and%oo# of classical conditioning. 7oston 'lu1er Academic ,ublishin". )a2ur, +. <300A=. 2earning and %ehavior, :th edition. 4pper (addle -iver, B+ ,rentice 6all. Cnslo1, )., )en2ies, -., P ,ackman, A. <3008=. An operant intervention &or early stutterin". +ehavior modification C?<8=, 88:$839. ,avlov, %. <893;=. Conditioned refle4es. London, 4' Cx&ord 4niversity ,ress. ,ia"et, +. <3008=. The *sychology of intelligence. London, 4' -outled"e. -ockmore, T. <300A=. 8n constructivist e*istemology. Lanham, )* -o1man P Little&ield ,ublishers. (alkind, B. <300F=. An introduction to theories of human develo*ment. Thousand Caks, CA (a"e ,ublications. (kinner, 7. F. <893D=. The %ehavior of organisms. Be1 Mork Appleton$Century$Cro&ts. (kinner, 7. F. <89FD=. Ealden T o. Be1 Mork )acmillan. (kinner, 7. F. <89DD=. The selection of %ehavior" The o*erant %ehaviorism of +. 7. S#inner. Be1 Mork Cambrid"e 4niversity ,ress. Tharp, -. P .allimore, -. <8998=. Rousing minds to life" Teaching, learning, and schooling in social conte4t. Cambrid"e, 4' Cambrid"e 4niversity ,ress. Gy"otsky, L. <89;D=. @ind in society" The develo*ment of higher *sychological *rocesses. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress.
F0
A .lobal Text
'. Student development

Ehen one of our authors 1Kelvin Seifert) *ractice as gro ing u*, he as *rovided ith *iano lessons. !aily as deli%erately #e*t &uiet ith only occasional as a sta*le of childhood33;:? days a year, and in a home that to facilitate *ractice. @usic.es*ecially the *iano.defined a ma$or *art of his emerging self3identity. Altogether he studied *iano for B; years, from age > to the end of high school, interru*tions. At any one time, Kelvin itnessed small changes in his s#ills. 9e *erformed a sim*le *iece a %it ee#, or he *layed more of it from memory. There ould have stated ere direct,
%etter than he had the *revious then, if you had as#ed him that they ere %ecause he
o%vious connections %et een his s#ills at one moment and at the moment $ust %efore or after. +ac# hat accounted for the changes, he as 'learning) s*ecific *iano *ieces. ere more dramatic. Kelvin learned ith as even listening to ithout hesitation
Across %roader s*ans of time, ho ever, he noticed changes that
much more com*le4 *ieces than he had several years earlier, for e4am*le. 9e also *layed significantly more 'finesse), sensitivity and *olish than as a young child. 9e
classical music on the radio some of the time6 KelvinLs musical talent %ecame transformed over the long term, and in some sense he did not have the 'same) talent that he had had as a %eginner. ,f you had as#ed ans ering than hat accounted for these longer3term changes, he ould have had a harder time ould
hen as#ed a%out the short3term changes. 9e might have said sim*ly and a %it and gradual, and idely s#illed
vaguely" ', have %een getting %etter at *iano.) ,f you as# the same &uestion no , ho ever, he say that his music s#ills had developed, that their develo*ment had %een slo a%out music in general. that the changes resulted not $ust from sim*le *ractice, %ut also from %ecoming more
Development re&ers to lon"$term personal chan"es that have multiple sources and multiple e&&ects. %t is like the di&&erence bet1een 'elvinEs music at a"e &i&teen compared to his music at a"e &ive, rather than the di&&erence bet1een his music one 1eek and his music the next. (ome human developments are especially broad and take years to un&old &ullyI a personEs ever$evolvin" ability to >read@ otherEs moods, &or example, may take a li&etime to develop &ully. Cther developments are &aster and more &ocused, like a personEs increasin" skill at solvin" cross1ord pu22les. The &aster and simpler is the chan"e, the more likely 1e are to call the chan"e >learnin"@ instead o& development. The di&&erence bet1een learning and develo*ment is a matter o& de"ree. 5hen a child learns to name the planets o& the solar system, &or example, the child may not need a lot o& time, nor does the learnin" involve a multitude o& experiences. (o it is probably better to think o& that particular experienceKlearnin" to name the planetsKas an example o& learning rather than o& develo*ment <(alkind, 300FI Le1is, 899;=.
F8
A .lobal Text
3. Student development
(hy development matters

(tudentsJ development matters &or teachers, but the ay it matters depends partly on ho1 schoolin" is or"ani2ed. %n teachin" a sin"le, >sel&$contained@ "rade$level, the bene&its o& kno1in" about development 1ill be less explicit, but /ust as real, as i& you teach many "rade levels. 5orkin" exclusively 1ith a sin"le "rade <like, say, a third$ "rade classroom= hi"hli"hts differences amon" students that happen in s*ite of their similar a"es, and obscures similarities that happen %ecause of havin" similar a"es. 4nder these conditions it is still easy to notice studentsJ diversity, but harder to kno1 ho1 much o& it comes &rom di&&erences in lon"$term development, compared to di&&erences in short$term experiences. 'no1led"e about lon" term chan"es is still use&ul, ho1ever, in plannin" appropriate activities and in holdin" appropriate expectations about students. 5hat chan"es in students can you expect relatively soon simply &rom your current pro"ram o& activities, and 1hich ones may take a year or more to sho1 up? This is a question that developmental psycholo"y can help to ans1er. %& you teach multiple "rade levels, as o&ten is true o& specialists or teachers in middle school or hi"h school, then your need &or developmental kno1led"e 1ill be more obvious because you 1ill con&ront 1ide a"e di&&erences on a daily basis. As a physical education teacher, &or example, you may teach kinder"arten children at one time durin" the day, but sixth$"raders at another time, or teach seventh$"raders at one time but t1el&th$"raders at another. (tudents 1ill di&&er more obviously because o& a"e, in addition to di&&erin" because o& other &actors like their skills or kno1led"e learned recently. Bonetheless, the instructional challen"e 1ill be the same as the one &aced by teachers o& sin"le$"rade classes you 1ill 1ant to kno1 1hat activities and expectations are appropriate &or your students. To ans1er this question, you 1ill need to kno1 somethin" not only about ho1 your students are unique, but also about "eneral trends o& development durin" childhood and adolescence. Bote that developmental trends vary in t1o important 1ays. The &irst, as indicated already, is in their "enerality. (ome theories or models o& development boldly assert that certain chan"es happen to virtually every person on the planet, and o&ten at relatively predictable points in li&e. For example, a theory mi"ht assert that virtually every toddler acquires a spoken lan"ua"e, or that every teena"er &orms a sense o& personal identity. %ndividuals 1ho do not experience these developments 1ould be rare, thou"h not necessarily disabled as a result. Cther theories propose developmental chan"es that are more limited, claimin" only that the chan"es happen to some people or only under certain conditions. *evelopin" a &emale "ender role, &or example, does not happen to everyone, but only to the &emales in a population, and the details vary accordin" to the &amily, community, or society in 1hich a child lives. The second 1ay that developmental trends vary is in ho1 strictly they are sequenced and hierarchical. %n some vie1s o& development, chan"es are thou"ht to happen in a speci&ic order and to build on each otherKsort o& a >staircase@ model o& development <Case, 8998, 899:=. For example, a developmental psycholo"ist <and many o& the rest o& us= mi"ht ar"ue that youn" people must have tan"ible, hands$on experience 1ith ne1 materials be&ore they can reason about the materials in the abstract. The order cannot be reversed. %n other vie1s o& development, chan"e happens, but not 1ith a sequence or end point that is uni&orm. This sort o& chan"e is more like a >kaleidoscope@ than a staircase <Levinson, 8990I Le1is, 899;I 6arris, 300:=. A person 1ho becomes permanently disabled, &or example, may experience complex lon"$term chan"es in personal values and priorities that are di&&erent both in timin" and content &rom most peopleEs developmental path1ay.
F3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License %n "eneral, educational psycholo"ists have tended to emphasi2e explanations o& development that are relatively "eneral, universal and sequential, rather than speci&ic to particular cultures or that are unsequenced and kaleidoscopic <see, &or example, 5ool&olk, 300:, Chapter 3I or (lavin, 300A, Chapters D and 9=. (uch models <sometimes called >"rand theories@= have the advanta"e o& concisely inte"ratin" many &eatures o& development, 1hile also describin" the kind o& people children or adolescents usually end up to be. The pre&erence &or inte"rative perspectives makes sense "iven educatorsJ need to 1ork 1ith and teach lar"e numbers o& diverse students both e&&iciently and e&&ectively. 7ut the approach also risks over"enerali2in" or oversimpli&yin" the experiences o& particular children and youth. %t can also con&use 1hat does happen as certain children <like the middle$class ones= develop 1ith 1hat should happen to children. To understand this point, ima"ine t1o children o& about the same a"e 1ho have dramatically very di&&erent childhood experiencesK&or example, one 1ho "ro1s up in poverty and another 1ho "ro1s up &inancially 1ell$o&&. %n 1hat sense can 1e say that these t1o children experience the same underlyin" developmental chan"es as they "ro1 up? And ho1 much should they even be expected to do so? *evelopmental psycholo"y, and especially the broad theories o& developmental psycholo"y, hi"hli"ht the >sameness@ or common "round bet1een these t1o children. As such, it serves as counterpoint to kno1led"e o& their obvious uniqueness, and places their uniqueness in broader perspective.
Physical development during the school years

Althou"h it may be temptin" to think that physical development is the concern o& physical education teachers only, it is actually a &oundation &or many academic tasks. %n &irst "rade, &or example, it is important to kno1 1hether children can success&ully manipulate a pencil. %n later "rades, it is important to kno1 ho1 lon" students can be expected to sit still 1ithout discom&ortKa real physical challen"e. %n all "rades, it is important to have a sense o& studentsJ health needs related to their a"e or maturity, i& only to kno1 1ho may become ill, and 1ith 1hat illness, and to kno1 1hat physical activities are reasonable and needed.
Trends in hei"ht and 1ei"ht

Typical hei"ht and 1ei"ht &or 1ell$nourished, healthy students are sho1n in Table 9. The &i"ure sho1s avera"es &or several a"es &rom preschool throu"h the end o& hi"h school. 7ut the table does not sho1 the diversity amon" children. At a"e :, &or example, 1hen children be"in school, the avera"e boy or "irl is about 88A centimeters tall, but some are 809 and others are 83A centimeters. Avera"e 1ei"ht at a"e : is about 30 kilo"rams, but ran"es bet1een about 8: and 3F kilo"ramsKabout 30Z variation in either direction. Table A Avera"e hei"ht and 1ei"ht o& 1ell$nourished children 4ge 3 : 80 8F 8D ;eight +cm. DA 88A 83A 8:3 8:9 <eight +8g. ;.0 30.0 38.0 A3.0 :0.A
F3
A .lobal Text
3. Student development There are other points to keep in mind about avera"e hei"ht and 1ei"ht that are not evident &rom Table 9. The &irst is that boys and "irls, on avera"e, are quite similar in hei"ht and 1ei"ht durin" childhood, but diver"e in the early teena"e years, 1hen they reach puberty. For a time <approximately a"e 80$8F=, the avera"e "irl is taller, but not much heavier, than the avera"e boy. A&ter that the avera"e boy becomes both taller and heavier than the avera"e "irlKthou"h there remain individual exceptions <)alina, et al., 300F=. The pre$teen di&&erence can there&ore be a1k1ard &or some children and youth, at least amon" those 1ho aspire to lookin" like older teena"ers or youn" adults. For youn" teens less concerned 1ith >ima"e@, thou"h, the &act that "irls are taller may not be especially important, or even noticed <Friedman, 3000=. A second point is that as children "et older, individual di&&erences in 1ei"ht diver"e more radically than di&&erences in hei"ht. Amon" 8D$year$olds, the heaviest youn"sters 1ei"h almost t1ice as much as the li"htest, but the tallest ones are only about 80 per cent taller than the shortest. Bonetheless, both hei"ht and 1ei"ht can be sensitive issues &or some teena"ers. )ost modern societies <and the teena"ers in them= tend to &avor relatively short 1omen and tall men, as 1ell as a some1hat thin body build, especially &or "irls and 1omen. Met neither >socially correct@ hei"ht nor thinness is the destiny &or many individuals. 7ein" over1ei"ht, in particular, has become a common, serious problem in modern society <Tartamella, et al., 300F= due to the prevalence o& diets hi"h in &at and li&estyles lo1 in activity. The educational system has un&ortunately contributed to the problem as 1ell, by "radually restrictin" the number o& physical education courses and classes in the past t1o decades. The third point to keep in mind is that avera"e hei"ht and 1ei"ht is related some1hat to racial and ethnic back"round. %n "eneral, children o& Asian back"round tend to be sli"htly shorter than children o& #uropean and Borth American back"round. The latter in turn tend to be shorter than children &rom A&rican societies <#veleth P Tanner, 8990=. 7ody shape di&&ers sli"htly as 1ell, thou"h the di&&erences are not al1ays visible until a&ter puberty. Asian youth tend to have arms and le"s that are a bit short relative to their torsos, and A&rican youth tend to have relatively lon" arms and le"s. The di&&erences are only averagesM there are lar"e individual di&&erences as 1ell, and these tend to be more relevant &or teachers to kno1 about than broad "roup di&&erences.
,uberty and its e&&ects on students

A universal physical development in students is puberty/ 1hich is the set o& chan"es in early adolescence that brin" about sexual maturity. Alon" 1ith internal chan"es in reproductive or"ans are out1ard chan"es such as "ro1th o& breasts in "irls and the penis in boys, as 1ell as relatively sudden increases in hei"ht and 1ei"ht. 7y about a"e 80 or 88, most children experience increased sexual attraction to others <usually heterosexual, thou"h not al1ays= that a&&ects social li&e both in school and out <)cClintock P 6erdt, 899:=. 7y the end o& hi"h school, more than hal& o& boys and "irls report havin" experienced sexual intercourse at least onceKthou"h it is hard to be certain o& the proportion because o& the sensitivity and privacy o& the in&ormation. <Center &or *isease Control, 300FbI -osenbaum, 300:=. At about the same time that puberty accentuates "ender, role di&&erences also accentuate &or at least some teena"ers. (ome "irls 1ho excelled at math or science in elementary school may curb their enthusiasm and displays o& success at these sub/ects &or &ear o& limitin" their popularity or attractiveness as "irls <Taylor P .illi"an, 899AI (adker, 300F=. (ome boys 1ho 1ere not especially interested in sports previously may be"in dedicatin" themselves to athletics to a&&irm their masculinity in the eyes o& others. (ome boys and "irls 1ho once 1orked to"ether
FF
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License success&ully on class pro/ects may no lon"er &eel com&ortable doin" soKor alternatively may no1 seek to be 1orkin" partners, but &or social rather than academic reasons. (uch chan"es do not a&&ect all youn"sters equally, nor a&&ect any one youn"ster equally on all occasions. An individual student may act like a youn" adult on one day, but more like a child the next. 5hen teachin" children 1ho are experiencin" puberty, , teachers need to respond &lexibly and supportively.
*evelopment o& motor skills

(tudentsJ &undamental motor skills are already developin" 1hen they be"in kinder"arten, but are not yet per&ectly coordinated. Five$year$olds "enerally can 1alk satis&actorily &or most school$related purposes <i& they could not, schools 1ould have to be or"ani2ed very di&&erentlyL=. For some &ives, runnin" still looks a bit like a hurried 1alk, but usually it becomes more coordinated 1ithin a year or t1o. (imilarly 1ith /umpin", thro1in", and catchin" most children can do these thin"s, thou"h o&ten clumsily, by the time they start school, but improve their skills noticeably durin" the early elementary years <,ayne P %saacs, 300A=. Assistin" such developments is usually the /ob either o& physical education teachers, 1here they exist, or else o& classroom teachers durin" desi"nated physical education activities. 5hoever is responsible, it is important to notice i& a child does not keep more$or$less to the usual developmental timetable, and to arran"e &or special assessment or supports i& appropriate. Common procedures &or arran"in" &or help are described in Chapter A <>(pecial education@=. #ven i& physical skills are not a special &ocus o& a classroom teacher,, they can be quite important to students themselves. 5hatever their "rade level, students 1ho are clumsy are a1are o& that &act and ho1 it could potentially ne"atively e&&ect respect &rom their peers. %n the lon" term, sel&$consciousness and poor sel&$esteem can develop &or a child 1ho is clumsy, especially i& peers <or teachers and parents= place hi"h value on success in athletics. Cne research study &ound, &or example, 1hat teachers and coaches sometimes suspect that losers in athletic competitions tend to become less sociable and are more apt to miss subsequent athletic practices than 1inners <,etlichko&&, 899:=.
6ealth and illness

7y 1orld standards, children and youth in economically developed societies tend, on avera"e, to be remarkably healthy. #ven so, much depends on precisely ho1 1ell$o&& &amilies are and on ho1 much health care is available to them. Children &rom hi"her$income &amilies experience &ar &e1er serious or li&e$threatenin" illnesses than children &romlo1er$income &amilies. 5hatever their income level, parents and teachers o&ten ri"htly note that childrenK especially the youn"est onesK"et &ar more illnesses than do adults. %n 300F, &or example, a "overnment survey estimated that children "et an avera"e o& :$80 colds per year, but adults "et only about 3$F per year <Bational %nstitute o& Aller"ies and %n&ectious *iseases, 300F=. The di&&erence probably exists because childrenJs immune systems are not as &ully &ormed as adultsJ, and because children at school are continually exposed to other children, many o& 1hom may be conta"ious themselves. An indirect result o& childrenJs &requent illnesses is that teachers <alon" 1ith airline &li"ht attendants, incidentallyL= also report more &requent minor illnesses than do adults in "eneralKabout &ive colds per year, &or example, instead o& /ust 3$F <5helen, et al., 300A=. The >simple@ illnesses are not li&e threatenin", but they are responsible &or many lost days o& school, both &or students and &or teachers, as 1ell as days 1hen a student may be present physically, but &unctions belo1 par 1hile simultaneously in&ectin" classmates. %n these 1ays, learnin" and teachin" o&ten su&&er because health is su&&erin".
FA
A .lobal Text
3. Student development The problem is not only the prevalence o& illness as such <in 1inter, even in the 4nited (tates, approximately one person "ets in&ected 1ith a minor illness every &e1 seconds), but the &act that illnesses are not distributed uni&ormly amon" students, schools, or communities. 5hether it is a simple cold or somethin" more serious, illness is particularly common 1here livin" conditions are cro1ded, 1here health care is scarce or una&&ordable, and 1here individuals live 1ith &requent stresses o& any kind. C&ten, but not al1ays, these are the circumstances o& poverty. Table : summari2es these e&&ects &or a variety o& health problems, not /ust &or colds or &lu. Table : 6ealth e&&ects o& childrenEs economic level ;ealth program *elayed immuni2ations Asthma Lead poisonin" *eaths in childhood &rom accidents *eaths in childhood &rom disease 6avin" a condition that limits school activity *ays sick in bed (eriously impaired vision (evere iron$de&iciency <anemia= Comparison$ poor vs non=poor 3 times hi"her (ome1hat hi"her 3 times hi"her 3$3 times hi"her 3$F times hi"her 3$3 times hi"her F0 per cent hi"her 3$3 times hi"her 3 times hi"her
Source -ichardson, +R <300A=. The Cost of +eing Poor. Be1 Mork ,rae"er. (pencer, B. <3000=. Poverty and Child 9ealth, 3nd edition. Abin"ton, 4' -adcli&&e )edical ,ress. Allender, +. <300A=. Community 9ealth 0ursing. ,hiladelphia Lippinsott, 5illiams P 5ilkins.
As students "et older, illnesses become less &requent, but other health risks emer"e. The most 1idespread is the consumption o& alcohol and the smokin" o& ci"arettes. As o& 300F, about ;A per cent o& teena"ers reported drinkin" an alcoholic bevera"e at least occasionally, and 33 per cent reported smokin" ci"arettes <Center &or *isease Control, 300Fa=. The "ood ne1s is that these proportions sho1 a small, but steady decline in the &requencies over the past 80 years or so. The bad ne1s is that teena"ers also sho1 increases in the abuse o& some prescription dru"s, such as inhalants, that act as stimulants <+ohnston, et al., 300:=. As 1ith the prevalence o& illnesses, the prevalence o& dru" use is not uni&orm, 1ith a relatively small &raction o& individuals accountin" &or a disproportionate proportion o& usa"e. Cne survey, &or example, &ound that a teena"er 1as 3$A times more likely to smoke or to use alcohol, smoke mari/uana, or use dru"s i& he or she has a si%ling 1ho has also indul"ed these habits <Fa"an P Ba/man, 300A=. (iblin"s, it seems, are more in&luential in this case than parents.
Cognitive development) the theory of *ean Piaget

Cognition re&ers to thinkin" and memory processes, and cognitive development re&ers to lon"$term chan"es in these processes. Cne o& the most 1idely kno1n perspectives about co"nitive development is the
F:
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License co"nitive sta"e theory o& a (1iss psycholo"ist named 5ean Piaget. ,ia"et created and studied an account o& ho1 children and youth "radually become able to think lo"ically and scienti&ically. 7ecause his theory is especially popular amon" educators, 1e &ocus on it in this chapter. 5e 1ill look at other co"nitive perspectivesKones that are not as &ully >developmental@, in later chapters, especially Chapter 9 <>Facilitatin" complex thinkin"@=. %n brie& comments in Chapter 3 <see >,sycholo"ical constructivism@= about ho1 ,ia"et explained learnin", 1e described ,ia"et as a *sychological constructivist" in his vie1, learnin" proceeded by the interplay o& assimilation <ad/ustin" ne1 experiences to &it prior concepts= and accommodation <ad/ustin" concepts to &it ne1 experiences=. The to$and$&ro o& these t1o processes leads not only to short$term learnin", as pointed out in Chapter 8, but also to lon"$term develo*mental change. The lon"$term developments are really the main &ocus o& ,ia"etJs co"nitive theory. A&ter observin" children closely, ,ia"et proposed that co"nition developed throu"h distinct sta"es &rom birth throu"h the end o& adolescence. 7y sta"es he meant a sequence o& thinkin" patterns 1ith &our key &eatures 8. They al1ays happen in the same order. 3. Bo sta"e is ever skipped. 3. #ach sta"e is a si"ni&icant trans&ormation o& the sta"e be&ore it. F. #ach later sta"e incorporated the earlier sta"es into itsel&. 7asically this is the >staircase@ model o& development mentioned at the be"innin" o& this chapter. ,ia"et proposed &our ma/or sta"es o& co"nitive development, and called them <8= sensorimotor intelli"ence, <3= preoperational thinkin", <3= concrete operational thinkin", and <F= &ormal operational thinkin". #ach sta"e is correlated 1ith an a"e period o& childhood, but only approximately.
The sensorimotor sta"e birth to a"e 3

%n ,ia"etJs theory, the sensorimotor stage is &irst, and is de&ined as the period 1hen in&ants >think@ by means o& their senses and motor actions. As every ne1 parent 1ill attest, in&ants continually touch, manipulate, look, listen to, and even bite and che1 ob/ects. Accordin" to ,ia"et, these actions allo1 them to learn about the 1orld and are crucial to their early co"nitive development. The in&antJs actions allo1 the child to represent <or construct simple concepts o&= ob/ects and events. A toy animal may be /ust a con&usin" array o& sensations at &irst, but by lookin", &eelin", and manipulatin" it repeatedly, the child "radually or"ani2es her sensations and actions into a stable concept, toy animal. The representation acquires a permanence lackin" in the individual experiences o& the ob/ect, 1hich are constantly chan"in". 7ecause the representation is stable, the child >kno1s@, or at least believes, that toy animal exists even i& the actual toy animal is temporarily out o& si"ht. ,ia"et called this sense o& stability ob ect permanence/ a belie& that ob/ects exist 1hether or not they are actually present. %t is a ma/or achievement o& sensorimotor development, and marks a qualitative trans&ormation in ho1 older in&ants <3F months= think about experience compared to youn"er in&ants <: months=. *urin" much o& in&ancy, o& course, a child can only barely talk, so sensorimotor development initially happens 1ithout the support o& lan"ua"e. %t mi"ht there&ore seem hard to kno1 1hat in&ants are thinkin", but ,ia"et devised several simple, but clever experiments to "et around their lack o& lan"ua"e, and that su""est that in&ants do indeed Educational Psychology
F;
A .lobal Text
3. Student development represent ob/ects even 1ithout bein" able to talk <,ia"et, 89A3=. %n one, &or example, he simply hid an ob/ect <like a toy animal= under a blanket. 6e &ound that doin" so consistently prompts older in&ants <8D$3F months= to search &or the ob/ect, but &ails to prompt youn"er in&ants <less than six months= to do so. <Mou can try this experiment yoursel& i& you happen to have access to youn" in&ant.= >(omethin"@ motivates the search by the older in&ant even 1ithout the bene&it o& much lan"ua"e, and the >somethin"@ is presumed to be a permanent concept or representation o& the ob/ect.
The preoperational sta"e a"e 3 to ;

%n the preoperational stage/ children use their ne1 ability to represent ob/ects in a 1ide variety o& activities, but they do not yet do it in 1ays that are or"ani2ed or &ully lo"ical. Cne o& the most obvious examples o& this kind o& co"nition is dramatic play/ the improvised make$believe o& preschool children. %& you have ever had responsibility &or children o& this a"e, you have likely 1itnessed such play. Ashley holds a plastic banana to her ear and says >6ello, )om? Can you be sure to brin" me my baby doll? C'L@ Then she han"s up the banana and pours tea &or +eremy into an invisible cup. +eremy "i""les at the si"ht o& all o& this and exclaims >-innn"L Ch Ashley, the phone is rin"in" a"ainL Mou better ans1er it.@ And on it "oes. %n a 1ay, children immersed in make$believe seem >mentally insane@, in that they do not think realistically. 7ut they are not truly insane because they have not really taken leave o& their senses. At some level, Ashley and +eremy al1ays kno1 that the banana is still a banana and not really a telephoneI they are merely re*resenting it as a telephone. They are thinkin" on t1o levels at onceKone ima"inative and the other realistic. This dual processin" o& experience makes dramatic play an early example o& metacognition/ or re&lectin" on and monitorin" o& thinkin" itsel&. As 1e explained in Chapter 3, metaco"nition is a hi"hly desirable skill &or success in school, one that teachers o&ten encoura"e <7redekamp P Copple, 899;I ,aley, 300A=. ,artly &or this reason, teachers o& youn" children <preschool, kinder"arten, and even &irst or second "rade= o&ten make time and space in their classrooms &or dramatic play, and sometimes even participate in it themselves to help develop the play &urther.
The concrete operational sta"e a"e ; to 88

As children continue into elementary school, they become able to represent ideas and events more &lexibly and lo"ically. Their rules o& thinkin" still seem very basic by adult standards and usually operate unconsciously, but they allo1 children to solve problems more systematically than be&ore, and there&ore to be success&ul 1ith many academic tasks. %n the concrete operational sta"e, &or example, a child may unconsciously &ollo1 the rule >%& nothin" is added or taken a1ay, then the amount o& somethin" stays the same.@ This simple principle helps children to understand certain arithmetic tasks, such as in addin" or subtractin" 2ero &rom a number, as 1ell as to do certain classroom science experiments, such as ones involvin" /ud"ments o& the amounts o& liquids 1hen mixed. ,ia"et called this period the concrete operational stage because children mentally >operate@ on concrete ob/ects and events. They are not yet able, ho1ever, to operate <or think= systematically about re*resentations o& ob/ects or events. )anipulatin" representations is a more abstract skill that develops later, durin" adolescence. Concrete operational thinkin" di&&ers &rom preoperational thinkin" in t1o 1ays, each o& 1hich renders children more skilled as students. Cne di&&erence is reversibility/ or the ability to think about the steps o& a process in any order. %ma"ine a simple science experiment, &or example, such as one that explores 1hy ob/ects sink or &loat by havin" a child place an assortment o& ob/ects in a basin o& 1ater. 7oth the preoperational and concrete operational
FD
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License child can recall and describe the steps in this experiment, but only the concrete operational child can recall them in any order. This skill is very help&ul on any task involvin" multiple stepsKa common &eature o& tasks in the classroom. %n teachin" ne1 vocabulary &rom a story, &or another example, a teacher mi"ht tell students >First make a list o& 1ords in the story that you do not kno1, then &ind and 1rite do1n their de&initions, and &inally "et a &riend to test you on your list@. These directions involve repeatedly rememberin" to move back and &orth bet1een a second step and a &irstKa task that concrete operational studentsKand most adultsK&ind easy, but that preoperational children o&ten &or"et to do or &ind con&usin". %& the youn"er children are to do this task reliably, they may need external prompts, such as havin" the teacher remind them periodically to "o back to the story to look &or more unkno1n 1ords. The other ne1 &eature o& thinkin" durin" the concrete operational sta"e is the childJs ability to decenter/ or &ocus on more than one &eature o& a problem at a time. There are hints o& decentration in preschool childrenJs dramatic play, 1hich requires bein" a1are on t1o levels at onceKkno1in" that a banana can be both a banana and a >telephone@. 7ut the decentration o& the concrete operational sta"e is more deliberate and conscious than preschoolersJ make$believe. Bo1 the child can attend to t1o thin"s at once quite purposely. (uppose you "ive students a sheet 1ith an assortment o& subtraction problems on it, and ask them to do this >Find all o& the problems that involve t1o$di"it subtraction and that involve borro1in"J &rom the next column. Circle and solve only those problems.@ Follo1in" these instructions is quite possible &or a concrete operational student <as lon" as they have been listenin"L= because the student can attend to the t1o subtasks simultaneouslyK&indin" the t1o$di"it problems and identi&yin" 1hich actually involve borro1in". <5hether the student actually kno1s ho1 to >borro1@ ho1ever, is a separate question.= %n real classroom tasks, reversibility and decentration o&ten happen to"ether. A 1ell$kno1n example o& /oint presence is ,ia"etJs experiments 1ith conservation/ the belie& that an amount or quantity stays the same even i& it chan"es apparent si2e or shape <,ia"et, 3008I )atthe1s, 899D=. %ma"ine t1o identical balls made o& clay. Any child, 1hether preoperational or concrete operational, 1ill a"ree that the t1o indeed have the same amount o& clay in them simply because they look the same. 7ut i& you no1 squish one ball into a lon", thin >hot do"@, the preoperational child is likely to say that the amount o& that ball has chan"edKeither because it is lon"er or because it is thinner, but at any rate because it no1 looks di&&erent. The concrete operational child 1ill not make this mistake, thanks to ne1 co"nitive skills o& reversibility and decentration &or him or her, the amount is the same because >you could squish it back into a ball a"ain@ <reversibility= and because >it may be lon"er, but it is also thinner@ <decentration=. ,ia"et 1ould say the concrete operational child >has conservation o& quantity@. The classroom examples described above also involve reversibility and decentration. As already mentioned, the vocabulary activity described earlier requires reversibility <"oin" back and &orth bet1een identi&yin" 1ords and lookin" up their meanin"s=I but it can also be construed as an example o& decentration <keepin" in mind t1o tasks at onceK1ord identi&ication and dictionary search=. And as mentioned, the arithmetic activity requires decentration <lookin" &or problems that meet t1o criteria and also solvin" them=, but it can also be construed as an example o& reversibility <"oin" back and &orth bet1een subtasks, as 1ith the vocabulary activity=. #ither 1ay, the development o& concrete operational skills support students in doin" many basic academic tasksI in a sense they make ordinary school1ork possible.
F9
A .lobal Text
3. Student development
The &ormal operational sta"e a"e 88 and beyond

%n the last o& the ,ia"etian sta"es, the child becomes able to reason not only about tan"ible ob/ects and events, but also about hypothetical or abstract ones. 6ence it has the name formal operational stageKthe period 1hen the individual can >operate@ on >&orms@ or representations. 5ith students at this level, the teacher can pose hypothetical <or contrary$to$&act= problems >5hat if the 1orld had never discovered oil?@ or >5hat if the &irst #uropean explorers had settled &irst in Cali&ornia instead o& on the #ast Coast o& the 4nited (tates?@ To ans1er such questions, students must use hypothetical reasoning/ meanin" that they must manipulate ideas that vary in several 1ays at once, and do so entirely in their minds. The hypothetical reasonin" that concerned ,ia"et primarily involved scienti&ic problems. 6is studies o& &ormal operational thinkin" there&ore o&ten look like problems that middle or hi"h school teachers pose in science classes. %n one problem, &or example, a youn" person is presented 1ith a simple pendulum, to 1hich di&&erent amounts o& 1ei"ht can be hun" <%nhelder P ,ia"et, 89AD=. The experimenter asks >5hat determines ho1 &ast the pendulum s1in"s the len"th o& the strin" holdin" it, the 1ei"ht attached to it, or the distance that it is pulled to the side?@ The youn" person is not allo1ed to solve this problem by trial$and$error 1ith the materials themselves, but must reason a 1ay to the solution mentally. To do so systematically, he or she must ima"ine varyin" each &actor separately, 1hile also ima"inin" the other &actors that are held constant. This kind o& thinkin" requires &acility at manipulatin" mental representations o& the relevant ob/ects and actionsKprecisely the skill that de&ines &ormal operations. As you mi"ht suspect, students 1ith an ability to think hypothetically have an advanta"e in many kinds o& school 1ork by de&inition, they require relatively &e1 >props@ to solve problems. %n this sense they can in principle be more sel&$directed than students 1ho rely only on concrete operationsKcertainly a desirable quality in the opinion o& most teachers. Bote, thou"h, that &ormal operational thinkin" is desirable but not sufficient &or school success, and that it is &ar &rom bein" the only 1ay that students achieve educational success. Formal thinkin" skills do not insure that a student is motivated or 1ell$behaved, &or example, nor does it "uarantee other desirable skills, such as ability at sports, music, or art. The &ourth sta"e in ,ia"etJs theory is really about a particular kind o& &ormal thinkin", the kind needed to solve scienti&ic problems and devise scienti&ic experiments. (ince many people do not normally deal 1ith such problems in the normal course o& their lives, it should be no surprise that research &inds that many people never achieve or use &ormal thinkin" &ully or consistently, or that they use it only in selected areas 1ith 1hich they are very &amiliar <Case P Ckomato, 899:=. For teachers, the limitations o& ,ia"etEs ideas su""est a need &or additional theories about developmentKones that &ocus more directly on the social and interpersonal issues o& childhood and adolescence. The next sections describe some o& these.
Social development) relationships+personal motives+ and morality

Social development re&ers to the lon"$term chan"es in relationships and interactions involvin" sel&, peers, and &amily. %t includes both positive chan"es, such as ho1 &riendships develop, and ne"ative chan"es, such as a""ression or bullyin". The social developments that are the most obviously relevant to classroom li&e &all into three main areas <8= chan"es in sel&$concept and in relationships amon" students and teachers, <3= chan"es in basic needs or personal motives, and <3= chan"es in sense o& ri"hts and responsibilities. As 1ith co"nitive development, each o& these areas has a broad, 1ell$kno1n theory <and theorist= that provides a &rame1ork &or thinkin" about ho1 the area relates to teachin". For development o& sel&$concept and relationships, it is the theory o& !ri8 !ri8son> &or development o& personal motives, it is the theory o& 4braham ?aslo(> and &or development o& ethical A0
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License kno1led"e and belie&s, it is the 1ork o& 'a(rence Kohlberg and his critic, Carol 0illigan. Their theories are de&initely not the only ones related to social development o& students, and their ideas are o&ten debated by other researchers. 7ut their accounts do explain much about social development that is relevant to teachin" and education.
#rik #rikson ei"ht psychosocial crises o& development

Like ,ia"et, #rik #rikson developed a theory o& social development that relies on sta"es, except that #rikson thou"ht o& sta"es as a series o& psycholo"ical or social <or psychosocial= crisesKturnin" points in a personJs relationships and &eelin"s about himsel& or hersel& <#rikson, 89:3, 89D0=. #ach crisis consists o& a dilemma or choice that carries both advanta"es and risks, but in 1hich one choice or alternative is normally considered more desirable or >healthy@. 6o1 one crisis is resolved a&&ects ho1 later crises are resolved. The resolution also helps to create an individualJs developin" personality. #rikson proposed ei"ht crises that extend &rom birth throu"h old a"eI they are summari2ed in Table ;. Four o& the sta"es occur durin" the school years, so 1e "ive these special attention here, but it is help&ul also to kno1 1hat crises are thou"ht to come both be&ore and a&ter those in the school years. Table ; #i"ht psychosocial crises accordin" to #rikson Psychosocial crisis Trust and mistrust Autonomy and shame %nitiative and "uilt %ndustry and in&eriority 4ppro"imate age Description 7irth to one year A"e 8$3 A"e 3$: A"e :$83 *evelopment o& trust bet1een care"iver and child *evelopment o& control over bodily &unctions and activities Testin" limits o& sel&$assertion and purpose&ulness *evelopment o& sense o& mastery and competence *evelopment o& identity and ackno1led"e o& identity by others Formation o& intimate relationships and commitments *evelopment o& creative or productive activities that contribute to &uture "enerations A"e A0W Acceptance o& personal li&e history and &or"iveness o& sel& and others
%dentity and role con&usion A"e 83$89 %ntimacy and isolation .enerativity and sta"nation %nte"rity and despair A"e 89$3AW A"e 3A$A0W
Crises of infants and *reschoolers" trust, autonomy, and initiative

Almost &rom the day they are born, in&ants &ace a crisis <in #riksonJs sense= about trust and mistrust. They are happiest i& they can eat, sleep, and excrete accordin" to their o1n physiolo"ical schedules, re"ardless o& 1hether their schedules are convenient &or the care"iver <o&ten the mother=. 4n&ortunately, thou"h, a youn" in&ant is in no position to control or in&luence a motherJs care "ivin" or schedulin" needsI so the baby &aces a dilemma about ho1 much to trust or mistrust the motherJs help&ulness. %t is as i& the baby asks, >%& % demand &ood <or sleep or a clean diaper= no , 1ill my mother actually be able to help me meet this need?@ 6ope&ully, bet1een the t1o o& them, mother and child resolve this choice in &avor o& the babyEs trust the mother proves hersel& at least >"ood enou"h@ in her attentiveness, and the baby risks trustin" motherEs motivation and skill at care "ivin". Educational Psychology
A8
A .lobal Text
3. Student development Almost as soon as this crisis is resolved, ho1ever, a ne1 one develops over the issue o& autonomy and shame. The child <1ho is no1 a toddler= may no1 trust his or her care"iver <mother=, but the very trust contributes to a desire to assert autonomy by takin" care o& basic personal needs, such as &eedin", toiletin", or dressin". .iven the childJs lack o& experience in these activities, ho1ever, sel&$care is risky at &irstKthe toddler may &eed <or toilet or dress= clumsily and ine&&ectively. The childJs care"iver, &or her part, risks overprotectin" the child and critici2in" his early e&&orts unnecessarily and thus causin" the child to &eel shame &or even tryin". 6ope&ully, as 1ith the earlier crisis o& trust, the ne1 crisis "ets resolved in &avor o& autonomy throu"h the combined e&&orts o& the child to exercise autonomy and o& the care"iver to support the childJs e&&orts. #ventually, about the time a child is o& preschool a"e, the autonomy exercised durin" the previous period becomes more elaborate, extended, and &ocused on ob/ects and people other than the child and basic physical needs. The child at a day care center may no1 undertake, &or example, to build the >bi""est city in the 1orld@ out o& all available unit blocksKeven i& other children 1ant some o& the blocks &or themselves. The childJs pro/ects and desires create a ne1 crisis o& initiative and guilt/ because the child soon reali2es that actin" on impulses or desires can sometimes have ne"ative e&&ects on othersKmore blocks &or the child may mean &e1er &or someone else. As 1ith the crisis over autonomy, care"ivers have to support the childJs initiatives 1here possible, but also not make the child &eel "uilty /ust &or desiring to have or to do somethin" that a&&ects othersE 1el&are. 7y limitin" behavior 1here necessary but not limitin" internal &eelin"s, the child can develop a lastin" ability to take initiative. #xpressed in #riksonJs terms, the crisis is then resolved in &avor o& initiative. #ven thou"h only the last o& these three crises overlaps 1ith the school years, all three relate to issues &aced by students o& any a"e, and even by their teachers. A child or youth 1ho is &undamentally mistrust&ul, &or example, has a serious problem in copin" 1ith school li&e. %& you are a student, it is essential &or your lon"$term survival to believe that teachers and school o&&icials have your best interests at heart, and that they are not imposin" assi"nments or makin" rules, &or example, >/ust &or the heck o& it.@ #ven thou"h students are not in&ants any more, teachers &unction like #riksonJs care"ivin" parents in that they need to prove 1orthy o& studentsJ trust throu"h their initial &lexibility and attentiveness. ,arallels &rom the classroom also exist &or the crises o& autonomy and o& initiative. To learn e&&ectively, students need to make choices and undertake academic initiatives at least some o& the time, even thou"h not every choice or initiative may be practical or desirable. Teachers, &or their part, need to make true choices and initiatives possible, and re&rain &rom critici2in", even accidentally, a choice or intention behind an initiative even i& the teacher privately believes that it is >bound to &ail@. (upport &or choices and initiative should be &ocused on providin" resources and on "uidin" the studentJs e&&orts to1ard more likely success. %n these 1ays teachers &unction like parents o& toddlers and preschoolers in #riksonJs theory o& development, re"ardless o& the a"e o& their students.
The crisis of childhood" industry and inferiority

Cnce into elementary school, the child is &aced &or the &irst time 1ith becomin" competent and 1orthy in the eyes o& the 1orld at lar"e, or more precisely in the eyes o& classmates and teachers. To achieve their esteem, he or she must develop skills that require e&&ort that is sustained and some1hat &ocused. The challen"e creates the crisis o& industry and inferiority. To be respected by teachers, &or example, the child must learn to read and to behave like a >true student@. To be respected by peers, he or she must learn to cooperate and to be &riendly, amon" other
A3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License thin"s. There are risks involved in 1orkin" on these skills and qualities, because there can be no "uarantee o& success 1ith them in advance. %& the child does succeed, there&ore, he or she experiences the satis&action o& a /ob 1ell done and o& skills 1ell learnedKa &eelin" that #riks0n called industry. %& not, ho1ever, the child risks &eelin" lastin" inferiority compared to others. Teachers there&ore have a direct, explicit role in helpin" students to resolve this crisis in &avor o& industry or success. They can set realistic academic "oals &or studentsKones that tend to lead to successKand then provide materials and assistance &or students to reach their "oals. Teachers can also express their con&idence that students can in &act meet their "oals i& and 1hen the students "et discoura"ed, and avoid hintin" <even accidentally= that a student is simply a >loser@. ,aradoxically, these strate"ies 1ill 1ork best i& the teacher is also tolerant o& less$than$per&ect per&ormance by students. Too much emphasis on per&ection can undermine some studentsJ con&idenceK&oster #riksonJs inferiorityKby makin" academic "oals seem beyond reach.
The crisis of adolescence" identity and role confusion

As the child develops lastin" talents and attitudes as a result o& the crisis o& industry, he be"ins to &ace a ne1 question 1hat do all the talents and attitudes add up to be? 5ho is the >me@ embedded in this pro&ile o& qualities? These questions are the crisis o& identity and role confusion. *e&inin" identity is riskier than it may appear &or a person simply because some talents and attitudes may be poorly developed, and some even may be undesirable in the eyes o& others. <%& you are poor at math, ho1 do you live 1ith &amily and &riends i& they think you should be "ood at this skill?= (till others may be valuable but &ail to be noticed by other people. The result is that 1ho a person 1ants to be may not be the same as 1ho he or she is in actual &act , nor the same as 1ho other people 1ant the person to be. %n #riksonEs terms, role confusion is the result. Teachers can minimi2e role con&usion in a number o& 1ays. Cne is to o&&er students lots o& diverse role modelsK by identi&yin" models in studentsJ readin" materials, &or example, or by invitin" diverse "uests to school. The point o& these strate"ies 1ould be to express a key idea that there are many 1ays to be respected, success&ul, and satis&ied 1ith li&e. Another 1ay to support studentsJ identity development is to be alert to studentsJ con&usions about their &utures, and re&er them to counselors or other services outside school that can help sort these out. (till another strate"y is to tolerate chan"es in studentsJ "oals and prioritiesKsudden chan"es in extra$curricular activities or in personal plans a&ter "raduation. (ince students are still tryin" roles out, discoura"in" experimentation may not be in studentsJ best interests.
The crises of adulthood" intimacy, generativity, and integrity

7eyond the school years, accordin" to #rikson, individuals continue psychosocial development by &acin" additional crises. Moun" adults, &or example, &ace a crisis o& intimacy and isolation. This crisis is about the risk o& establishin" close relationships 1ith a select number o& others. 5hether the relationships are heterosexual, homosexual, or not sexual at all, their de&inin" qualities are depth and sustainability. 5ithout them, an individual risks &eelin" isolated. Assumin" that a person resolves this crisis in &avor o& intimacy, ho1ever, he or she then &aces a crisis about generativity and stagnation. This crisis is characteristic o& most o& adulthood, and not surprisin"ly there&ore is about carin" &or or makin" a contribution to society, and especially to its youn"er "eneration. .enerativity is about makin" li&e productive and creative so that it matters to others. Cne obvious 1ay &or some to achieve this &eelin" is by raisin" children, but there are also many other 1ays to contribute to the 1el&are o& others. The &inal crisis is about integrity and despair/ and is characteristically &elt durin" the &inal years o& li&e. At the end o& li&e, a person is likely to revie1 the past and to ask 1hether it has been lived as 1ell as Educational Psychology
A3
A .lobal Text
3. Student development possible, even i& it 1as clearly not lived per&ectly. (ince personal history can no lon"er be altered at the end o& li&e, it is important to make peace 1ith 1hat actually happened and to &or"ive onesel& and others &or mistakes that may have been made. The alternative is des*air, or depression &rom believin" not only that oneJs li&e 1as lived badly, but also that there is no lon"er any hope o& correctin" past mistakes. #ven thou"h #rikson conceives o& these crises as primarily concerns o& adulthood, there are precursors o& them durin" the school years. %ntimacy, &or example, is a concern o& many children and youth in that they o&ten desire, but do not al1ays &ind, lastin" relationships 1ith others <7eidel, 300AI 0imbardo P -adl, 8999=. ,ersonal isolation is a particular risk &or students 1ith disabilities, as 1ell as &or students 1hose cultural or racial back"rounds di&&er &rom classmatesJ or the teacherJs. .enerativityK&eelin" help&ul to others and to the youn"Kis needed not only by many adults, but also by many children and youthI 1hen "iven the opportunity as part o& their school pro"ram, they &requently 1elcome a chance to be o& authentic service to others as part o& their school pro"rams <#yler P .iles, 8999I 'ay, 3003=. %nte"rityKtakin" responsibility &or your personal past, >1arts and all@, is o&ten a &elt need &or anyone, youn" or old, 1ho has lived lon" enou"h to have a past on 1hich to look. #ven children and youth have a past in this sense, thou"h their pasts are o& course shorter than persons 1ho are older.
Abraham )aslo1 a hierarchy o& motives and needs

Abraham )aslo1Es theory &rames personal needs or motives as a hierarchy, meanin" that basic or >lo1er$level@ needs have to be satis&ied be&ore hi"her$level needs become important or motivatin" <89;:, 89D;=. Compared to the sta"e models o& ,ia"et and #rikson, )aslo1Js hierarchy is only loosely >developmental@, in that )aslo1 1as not concerned 1ith trackin" universal, irreversible chan"es across the li&espan. )aslo1Es sta"es are universal, but they are not irreversibleI earlier sta"es sometimes reappear later in li&e, in 1hich case they must be satis&ied a"ain be&ore later sta"es can redevelop. Like the theories o& ,ia"et and #rikson, )aslo1Js is a rather broad >story@, one that has less to say about the e&&ects o& a personJs culture, lan"ua"e, or economic level, than about 1hat 1e all have in common. %n its ori"inal version, )aslo1Js theory distin"uishes t1o types o& needs, called deficit needs and being needs <or sometimes deficiency needs and gro th needs). Table D summari2es the t1o levels and their sublevels. *e&icit needs are prior to bein" needs, not in the sense o& happenin" earlier in li&e, but in that de&icit needs must be satis&ied %efore bein" needs can be addressed. As pointed out, de&icit needs can reappear at any a"e, dependin" on circumstances. %& that happens, they must be satis&ied a"ain be&ore a personJs attention can shi&t back to >hi"her@ needs. Amon" students, in &act, de&icit needs are likely to return chronically to those 1hose &amilies lack economic or social resources or 1ho live 1ith the stresses associated 1ith poverty <,ayne, 300A=. Table D )aslo1Es hierarchy o& motives and needs ,hysiolo"ical needs *e&icit Beeds (a&ety and security needs Love and belon"in" needs Co"nitive needs
AF
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 7ein" Beeds Aesthetic needs (el&$actuali2ation needs
!eficit needs" getting the %asic necessities of life

*e&icit needs are the basic requirements o& physical and emotional 1ell$bein". First are *hysiological needsK &ood, sleep, clothin", and the like. 5ithout these, nothin" else matters, and especially nothin" very >elevated@ or sel&$&ul&illin". A student 1ho is not "ettin" enou"h to eat is not "oin" to &eel much interest in learnin"L Cnce physiolo"ical needs are met, ho1ever, safety and security needs become important. The person looks &or stability and protection, and 1elcomes a bit o& structure and limits i& they provide these conditions. A child &rom an abusive &amily, &or example, may be "ettin" enou"h to eat, but may 1orry chronically about personal sa&ety. %n school, the student may appreciate a 1ell$or"ani2ed classroom 1ith rules that insures personal sa&ety and predictability, 1hether or not the classroom provides much in the 1ay o& real learnin". A&ter physiolo"ical and sa&ety needs are met, love and %elonging needs emer"e. The person turns attention to makin" &riends, bein" a &riend, and cultivatin" positive personal relationships in "eneral. %n the classroom, a student motivated at this level may make approval &rom peers or teachers into a top priority. 6e or she may be provided &or materially and &ind the classroom and &amily li&e sa&e enou"h, but still miss a key in"redient in li&eK love. %& such a student <or anyone else= eventually does &ind love and belon"in", ho1ever, then his or her motivation shi&ts a"ain, this time to esteem needs. Bo1 the concern is 1ith "ainin" reco"nition and respectKand even more importantly, "ainin" sel&$respect. A student at this level may be unusually concerned 1ith achievement, &or example, thou"h only i& the achievement is visible or public enou"h to earn public reco"nition.
+eing needs" %ecoming the %est that you can %e

*eing needs are desires to become &ul&illed as a person, or to be the best person that you can possibly be. They include cognitive needs <a desire &or kno1led"e and understandin"=, aesthetic needs <an appreciation o& beauty and order=, and most importantly, self3actuali/ation needs <a desire &or &ul&illment o& oneJs potential=. 7ein" needs emer"e only a&ter all o& a personJs de&icit needs have been lar"ely met. 4nlike de&icit needs, bein" needs be"et more bein" needsI they do not disappear once they are met, but create a desire &or even more satis&action o& the same type. A thirst &or kno1led"e, &or example, leads to &urther thirst &or kno1led"e, and aesthetic appreciation leads to more aesthetic appreciation. ,artly because bein" needs are lastin" and permanent once they appear, )aslo1 sometimes treated them as less hierarchical than de&icit needs, and instead "rouped co"nitive, aesthetic, and sel&$ actuali2ation needs into the sin"le cate"ory self3actuali/ation needs. ,eople 1ho are motivated by sel&$actuali2ation have a variety o& positive qualities, 1hich )aslo1 1ent to some len"ths to identi&y and describe <)aslo1, 89;:=. (el&$actuali2in" individuals, he ar"ued, value deep personal relationships 1ith others, but also value solitudeI they have a sense o& humor, but do not use it a"ainst othersI they accept themselves as 1ell as othersI they are spontaneous, humble, creative, and ethical. %n short, the sel&$ actuali2in" person has /ust about every "ood quality ima"inableL Bot surprisin"ly, there&ore, )aslo1 &elt that true sel&$actuali2ation is rare. %t is especially unusual amon" youn" people, 1ho have not yet lived lon" enou"h to satis&y earlier, de&icit$based needs.
AA
A .lobal Text
3. Student development %n a 1ay this last point is discoura"in" ne1s &or teachers, 1ho apparently must spend their lives providin" as best they can &or individualsKstudentsKstill immersed in de&icit needs. Teachers, it seems, have little hope o& ever meetin" a student 1ith &ully &led"ed bein" needs. Taken less literally, thou"h, )aslo1Js hierarchy is still use&ul &or thinkin" about studentsJ motives. )ost teachers 1ould ar"ue that studentsKyoun" thou"h they areKcan display positive qualities similar to the ones described in )aslo1Js sel&$actuali2in" person. 6o1ever annoyin" students may sometimes be, there are also moments 1hen they sho1 care and respect &or others, &or example, and moments 1hen they sho1 spontaneity, humility, or a sound ethical sense. (el&$actuali2ation is an appropriate 1ay to think about these momentsKthe times 1hen students are at their best. At the same time, o& course, students sometimes also have de&icit needs. 'eepin" in mind the entire hierarchy outlined by )aslo1 can there&ore deepen teachersE understandin" o& the &ull humanity o& students.
&oral development) forming a sense of rights and responsibilities

?orality is a system o& belie&s about 1hat is ri"ht and "ood compared to 1hat is 1ron" or bad. ?oral development re&ers to chan"es in moral belie&s as a person "ro1s older and "ains maturity. )oral belie&s are related to, but not identical 1ith, moral %ehavior" it is possible to kno1 the ri"ht thin" to do, but not actually do it. %t is also not the same as kno1led"e o& social conventions, 1hich are arbitrary customs needed &or the smooth operation o& society. (ocial conventions may have a moral element, but they have a primarily practical purpose. Conventionally, &or example, motor vehicles all keep to the same side o& the street <to the ri"ht in the 4nited (tates, to the le&t in .reat 7ritain=. The convention allo1s &or smooth, accident$&ree &lo1 o& tra&&ic. 7ut &ollo1in" the convention also has a moral element, because an individual 1ho chooses to drive on the 1ron" side o& the street can cause in/uries or even death. %n this sense, choosin" the 1ron" side o& the street is 1ron" morally, thou"h the choice is also unconventional. 5hen it comes to schoolin" and teachin", moral choices are not restricted to occasional dramatic incidents, but are 1oven into almost every aspect o& classroom li&e. %ma"ine this simple example. (uppose that you are teachin", readin" to a small "roup o& second$"raders, and the students are takin" turns readin" a story out loud. (hould you "ive every student the same amount o& time to read, even thou"h some mi"ht bene&it &rom havin" additional time? Cr should you "ive more time to the students 1ho need extra help, even i& doin" so bores classmates and deprives others o& equal shares o& >&loor time@? 5hich option is more &air, and 1hich is more considerate? (imple dilemmas like this happen every day at all "rade levels simply because students are diverse, and because class time and a teacherJs ener"y are &inite. #mbedded in this rather ordinary example are moral themes about &airness or /ustice, on the one hand, and about consideration or care on the other. %t is important to keep both themes in mind 1hen thinkin" about ho1 students develop belie&s about ri"ht or 1ron". A morality of ustice is about human ri"htsKor more speci&ically, about respect &or &airness, impartiality, equality, and individualsJ independence. A morality of care, on the other hand, is about human responsibilitiesKmore speci&ically, about carin" &or others, sho1in" consideration &or individualsJ needs, and interdependence amon" individuals. (tudents and teachers need both &orms o& morality. %n the next sections there&ore 1e explain a ma/or example o& each type o& developmental theory, be"innin" 1ith the morality o& /ustice.
A:
'ohlber"Js morality o& /ustice

Cne o& the best$kno1n explanations o& ho1 morality o& /ustice develops 1as developed by La1rence 'ohlber" and his associates <'ohlber", Levine, P 6e1er, 89D3I ,o1er, 6i""ins, P 'ohlber", 8998=. 4sin" a sta"e model similar to ,ia"etJs, 'ohlber" proposed six sta"es o& moral development, "rouped into three levels. %ndividuals experience the sta"es universally and in sequence as they &orm belie&s about /ustice. 6e named the levels simply preconventional, conventional, and <you "uessed it= postconventional. The levels and sta"es are summari2ed in Table A. Table 9 )oral sta"es accordin" to 'ohlber" ?oral stage ,reconventional Level (ta"e 8 Cbedience and punishment (ta"e 3 )arket exchan"e Conventional Level (ta"e 3 ,eer opinion (ta"e F La1 and order ,ostconventional Level (ta"e A (ocial contract (ta"e : 4niversal principles Action that &ollo1s social accepted 1ays o& makin" decisions Action that is consistent 1ith sel&$chosen, "eneral principles Action that 1ins approval &rom &riends or peers Action that con&orms to community customs or la1s Action that is re1arded and not punished Action that is a"reeable to the child and childEs partner Definition of (hat is @goodA
Preconventional $ustice" o%edience and mutual advantage

The *reconventional level o& moral development coincides approximately 1ith the preschool period o& li&e and 1ith ,ia"etJs preoperational period o& thinkin". At this a"e the child is still relatively sel&$centered and insensitive to the moral e&&ects o& actions on others. The result is a some1hat short$si"hted orientation to morality. %nitially <'ohlber"Js (ta"e 8=, the child adopts an ethics of obedience and punishmentKa sort o& >morality o& keepin" out o& trouble@. The ri"htness and 1ron"ness o& actions is determined by 1hether actions are re1arded or punished by authorities such as parents or teachers. %& helpin" yoursel& to a cookie brin"s a&&ectionate smiles &rom adults, then takin" the cookie is considered morally >"ood@. %& it brin"s scoldin" instead, then it is morally >bad@. The child does not think about 1hy an action mi"ht be praised or scoldedI in &act, says 'ohlber", he 1ould be incapable at (ta"e 8 o& considerin" the reasons even i& adults o&&ered them. #ventually the child learns not only to respond to positive consequences, but also learns ho1 to *roduce them by exchan"in" &avors 1ith others. The ne1 ability creates (ta"e 3, an ethics of mar8et e"change. At this sta"e the morally >"ood@ action is one that &avors not only the child, but another person directly involved. A >bad@ action is one that lacks this reciprocity. %& tradin" the sand1ich &rom your lunch &or the cookies in your &riendJs lunch is Educational Psychology
A;
A .lobal Text
3. Student development mutually a"reeable, then the trade is morally "oodI other1ise it is not. This perspective introduces a type o& &airness into the childJs thinkin" &or the &irst time. 7ut it still i"nores the lar"er context o& actionsKthe e&&ects on people not present or directly involved. %n (ta"e 3, &or example, it 1ould also be considered morally >"ood@ to pay a classmate to do another studentEs home1orkKor even to avoid bullyin" or to provide sexual &avorsKprovided that both parties re"ard the arran"ement as bein" &air.
Conventional $ustice" conformity to *eers and society

As children move into the school years, their lives expand to include a lar"er number and ran"e o& peers and <eventually= o& the community as a 1hole. The chan"e leads to conventional morality, 1hich are belie&s based on 1hat this lar"er array o& people a"ree onKhence 'ohlber"Js use o& the term >conventional@. At &irst, in (ta"e 3, the childJs re&erence "roup are immediate peers, so (ta"e 3 is sometimes called the ethics of peer opinion. %& peers believe, &or example, that it is morally "ood to behave politely 1ith as many people as possible, then the child is likely to a"ree 1ith the "roup and to re"ard politeness as not merely an arbitrary social convention, but a moral >"ood@. This approach to moral belie& is a bit more stable than the approach in (ta"e 3, because the child is takin" into account the reactions not /ust o& one other person, but o& many. 7ut it can still lead astray i& the "roup settles on belie&s that adults consider morally 1ron", like >(hop li&tin" &or candy bars is &un and desirable.@ #ventually, as the child becomes a youth and the social 1orld expands even more, he or she acquires even lar"er numbers o& peers and &riends. 6e or she is there&ore more likely to encounter disa"reements about ethical issues and belie&s. -esolvin" the complexities lead to (ta"e F, the ethics of la( and order/ in 1hich the youn" person increasin"ly &rames moral belie&s in terms o& 1hat the ma/ority o& society believes. Bo1, an action is morally "ood i& it is le"al or at least customarily approved by most people, includin" people 1hom the youth does not kno1 personally. This attitude leads to an even more stable set o& principles than in the previous sta"e, thou"h it is still not immune &rom ethical mistakes. A community or society may a"ree, &or example, that people o& a certain race should be treated 1ith deliberate disrespect, or that a &actory o1ner is entitled to dump 1aste 1ater into a commonly shared lake or river. To develop ethical principles that reliably avoid mistakes like these require &urther sta"es o& moral development.
Postconventional $ustice" social contract and universal *rinci*les

As a person becomes able to think abstractly <or >&ormally@, in ,ia"etJs sense=, ethical belie&s shi&t &rom acceptance o& 1hat the community does believe to the *rocess by 1hich community belie&s are &ormed. The ne1 &ocus constitutes (ta"e A, the ethics of social contract. Bo1 an action, belie&, or practice is morally "ood i& it has been created throu"h &air, democratic processes that respect the ri"hts o& the people a&&ected. Consider, &or example, the la1s in some areas that require motorcyclists to 1ear helmets. %n 1hat sense are the la1s about this behavior ethical? 5as it created by consultin" 1ith and "ainin" the consent o& the relevant people? 5ere cyclists consulted and did they "ive consent? Cr ho1 about doctors or the cyclistsE &amilies? -easonable, thou"ht&ul individuals disa"ree about ho1 thorou"hly and &airly these consultation processes should be. %n &ocusin" on the processes by 1hich the la1 1as created, ho1ever, individuals are thinkin" accordin" to (ta"e A, the ethics o& social contract, re"ardless o& the position they take about 1earin" helmets. %n this sense, belie&s on both sides o& a debate about an issue can sometimes be morally sound even i& they contradict each other.
AD
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License ,ayin" attention to due process certainly seems like it should help to avoid mindless con&ormity to conventional moral belie&s. As an ethical strate"y, thou"h, it too can sometimes &ail. The problem is that an ethics o& social contract places more &aith in democratic process than the process sometimes deserves, and does not pay enou"h attention to the content o& 1hat "ets decided. %n principle <and occasionally in practice=, a society could decide democratically to kill o&& every member o& a racial minority, &or example, but 1ould decidin" this by due process make it ethical? The reali2ation that ethical means can sometimes serve unethical ends leads some individuals to1ard (ta"e :, the ethics of self=chosen/ universal principles. At this &inal sta"e, the morally "ood action is based on personally held principles that apply both to the personJs immediate li&e as 1ell as to the lar"er community and society. The universal principles may include a belie& in democratic due process <(ta"e A ethics=, but also other principles, such as a belie& in the di"nity o& all human li&e or the sacredness o& the natural environment. At (ta"e :, the universal principles 1ill "uide a personJs belie&s even i& the principles mean disa"reein" occasionally 1ith 1hat is customary <(ta"e F= or even 1ith 1hat is le"al <(ta"e A=.
.illi"anJs morality o& care

As lo"ical as they sound, 'ohlber"Js sta"es o& moral /ustice are not su&&icient &or understandin" the development o& moral belie&s. To see 1hy, suppose that you have a student 1ho asks &or an extension o& the deadline &or an assi"nment. The /ustice orientation o& 'ohlber"Js theory 1ould prompt you to consider issues o& 1hether "rantin" the request is &air. 5ould the late student be able to put more e&&ort into the assi"nment than other students? 5ould the extension place a di&&icult demand on you, since you 1ould have less time to mark the assi"nments? These are important considerations related to the ri"hts o& students and the teacher. %n addition to these, ho1ever, are considerations havin" to do 1ith the responsibilities that you and the requestin" student have &or each other and &or others. *oes the student have a valid personal reason <illness, death in the &amily, etc.= &or the assi"nment bein" late? 5ill the assi"nment lose its educational value i& the student has to turn it in prematurely? These latter questions have less to do 1ith &airness and ri"hts, and more to do 1ith takin" care o& and responsibility &or students. They require a &rame1ork di&&erent &rom 'ohlber"Js to be understood &ully. Cne such &rame1ork has been developed by Carol .illi"an, 1hose ideas center on a morality of care/ or system o& belie&s about human responsibilities, care, and consideration &or others. .illi"an proposed three moral positions that represent di&&erent extents or breadth o& ethical care. 4nlike 'ohlber", ,ia"et, or #rikson, she does not claim that the positions &orm a strictly developmental sequence, but only that they can be ranked hierarchically accordin" to their depth or subtlety. %n this respect her theory is >semi$developmental@ in a 1ay similar to )aslo1Js theory o& motivation <7ro1n P .illi"an, 8993I Taylor, .illi"an, P (ullivan, 899A=. Table 80 summari2es the three moral positions &rom .illi"anJs theory Table 80 ,ositions o& moral development accordin" to .illi"an ?oral position ,osition 8 (urvival orientation ,osition 3 Conventional care Action that considers othersE needs or pre&erences, but not oneEs o1n Definition of (hat is morally good Action that considers oneEs personal needs only
A9
A .lobal Text
3. Student development ,osition 3 %nte"rated care Action that attempts to coordinate oneEs o1n personal needs 1ith those o& others
Position B" caring as survival

The most basic kind o& carin" is a survival orientation/ in 1hich a person is concerned primarily 1ith his or her o1n 1el&are. %& a teena"e "irl 1ith this ethical position is 1onderin" 1hether to "et an abortion, &or example, she 1ill be concerned entirely 1ith the e&&ects o& the abortion on hersel&. The morally "ood choice 1ill be 1hatever creates the least stress &or hersel& and that disrupts her o1n li&e the least. -esponsibilities to others <the baby, the &ather, or her &amily= play little or no part in her thinkin". As a moral position, a survival orientation is obviously not satis&actory &or classrooms on a 1idespread scale. %& every student only looked out &or himsel& or hersel&, classroom li&e mi"ht become rather unpleasantL Bonetheless, there are situations in 1hich &ocusin" primarily on yoursel& is both a si"n o& "ood mental health and relevant to teachers. For a child 1ho has been bullied at school or sexually abused at home, &or example, it is both healthy and morally desirable to speak out about ho1 bullyin" or abuse has a&&ected the victim. *oin" so means essentially lookin" out &or the victimJs o1n needs at the expense o& othersJ needs, includin" the bullyJs or abuserJs. (peakin" out, in this case, requires a survival orientation and is healthy because the child is takin" carin" o& hersel&.
Position C" conventional caring

A more subtle moral position is caring for others/ in 1hich a person is concerned about othersJ happiness and 1el&are, and about reconcilin" or inte"ratin" othersJ needs 1here they con&lict 1ith each other. %n considerin" an abortion, &or example, the teena"er at this position 1ould think primarily about 1hat other people pre&er. *o the &ather, her parents, andUor her doctor 1ant her to keep the child? The morally "ood choice becomes 1hatever 1ill please others the best. This position is more demandin" than ,osition 8, ethically and intellectually, because it requires coordinatin" several personsJ needs and values. 7ut it is o&ten morally insu&&icient because it i"nores one crucial person the sel&. %n classrooms, students 1ho operate &rom ,osition 3 can be very desirable in some 1aysI they can be ea"er to please, considerate, and "ood at &ittin" in and at 1orkin" cooperatively 1ith others. 7ecause these qualities are usually 1elcome in a busy classroom, teachers can be tempted to re1ard students &or developin" and usin" them. The problem 1ith re1ardin" ,osition 3 ethics, ho1ever, is that doin" so ne"lects the studentJs developmentKhis or her o1n academic and personal "oals or values. (ooner or later, personal "oals, values, and identity need attention and care, and educators have a responsibility &or assistin" students to discover and clari&y them.
Position ;" integrated caring

The most developed &orm o& moral carin" in .illi"anJs model is integrated caring/ the coordination o& personal needs and values 1ith those o& others. Bo1 the morally "ood choice takes account o& everyone including yoursel&, not everyone e4ce*t yoursel&. %n considerin" an abortion, a 1oman at ,osition 3 1ould think not only about the consequences &or the &ather, the unborn child, and her &amily, but also about the consequences &or hersel&. 6o1 1ould bearin" a child a&&ect her o1n needs, values, and plans? This perspective leads to moral belie&s that are more comprehensive, but ironically are also more prone to dilemmas because the 1idest possible ran"e o& individuals are bein" considered. :0
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License %n classrooms, inte"rated carin" is most likely to sur&ace 1henever teachers "ive students 1ide, sustained &reedom to make choices. %& students have little &lexibility about their actions, there is little room &or considerin" anyone(s needs or values, 1hether their o1n or othersJ. %& the teacher says simply >*o the home1ork on pa"e A0 and turn it in tomorro1 mornin"@, then the main issue becomes compliance, not moral choice. 7ut suppose instead that she says somethin" like this >Cver the next t1o months, &i"ure out an inquiry pro/ect about the use o& 1ater resources in our to1n. Cr"ani2e it any 1ay you 1antKtalk to people, read 1idely about it, and share it 1ith the class in a 1ay that all o& us, includin" yoursel&, 1ill &ind meanin"&ul.@ An assi"nment like this poses moral challen"es that are not only educational, but also moral, since it requires students to make value /ud"ments. 5hy? For one thin", students must decide 1hat aspect o& the topic really matters to them. (uch a decision is partly a matter o& personal values. For another thin", students have to consider ho1 to make the topic meanin"&ul or important to others in the class. Third, because the time line &or completion is relatively &ar in the &uture, students may have to 1ei"h personal priorities <like spendin" time 1ith &riends or &amily= a"ainst educational priorities <1orkin" on the assi"nment a bit more on the 1eekend=. As you mi"ht suspect, some students mi"ht have trouble makin" "ood choices 1hen "iven this sort o& &reedomKand their teachers mi"ht there&ore be cautious about "ivin" such an assi"nment. 7ut the di&&iculties in makin" choices are part o& .illi"anJs point inte"rated carin" is indeed more demandin" than the carin" based only on survival or on consideration o& others. Bot all students may be ready &or it.
,nderstanding -the typical student. versus understanding students

%n this chapter, in keepin" 1ith the "eneral nature o& developmental theory, 1e have o&ten spoken o& students in a "enerali2ed 1ay, re&errin" to >the@ child, student, or youn"ster, as i& a sin"le typical or avera"e individual exists and develops throu"h sin"le, predictable path1ays. As every teacher kno1s, ho1ever, development is not that simple. A class o& 3A or 30 students 1ill contain 3A or 30 individuals each learnin" and developin" alon" distinct path1ays. 5hy then study developmental patterns at all? 7ecause underlyin" their obvious diversity, students indeed sho1 important similarities. This chapter has indicated some o& the similarities and ho1 they relate to the /ob o& teachin". Cur re&erences to >the@ student should not be understood, there&ore, as supportin" simple$minded stereotypesI they re&er instead to common tendencies o& real, live children and youth. ,ointin" to developmental chan"es is like pointin" to a &lock o& birds in &li"ht the &lock has a "eneral location, but individual birds also have their o1n locations and take individual &li"ht paths. *evelopment and diversity there&ore have to be understood /ointly, not separately. There are indeed similarities 1oven amon" the di&&erences in students, but also di&&erences 1oven amon" studentsJ commonalities. 5e recommend there&ore that you read this chapter on development to"ether 1ith the next one, 1hich looks explicitly at student diversity.
Chapter summary
4nderstandin" development, or the lon"$term chan"es in "ro1th, behavior, and kno1led"e, helps teachers to hold appropriate expectations &or students as 1ell as to keep studentsJ individual diversity in perspective. From kinder"arten throu"h the end o& hi"h school, students double their hei"ht, triple their 1ei"ht, experience the social and hormonal e&&ects o& puberty, and improve basic motor skills. Their health is "enerally "ood, thou"h illnesses are a&&ected si"ni&icantly by studentsJ economic and social circumstances. Co"nitively, students develop ma/or ne1 abilities to think lo"ically and abstractly, based on a &oundation o& sensory and motor experiences 1ith the ob/ects and people around them. +ean ,ia"et has one 1ell$kno1n theory detailin" ho1 these chan"es un&old. Educational Psychology
:8
A .lobal Text
3. Student development (ocially, students &ace and resolve a number o& issuesKespecially the issue o& industry <dedicated, sustained 1ork= durin" childhood and the issue o& identity durin" adolescence. #rik #rikson has described these crises in detail, as 1ell as social crises that precede and &ollo1 the school years. (tudents are motivated both by basic human needs <&ood, sa&ety, belon"in", esteem= and by needs to enhance themselves psycholo"ically <sel&$actuali2ation=. Abraham )aslo1 has described these motivations and ho1 they relate to each other. )orally, students develop both a sense o& /ustice and o& care &or others, and their thinkin" in each o& these realms under"oes important chan"es as they mature. La1rence 'ohlber" has described chan"es in children and youthJs belie&s about /ustice, and Carol .illi"an has described chan"es in their belie&s about care.
Cn the %nternet
N(((.srcd.org)pressO This is part o& the 1ebsite &or the (ociety &or -esearch in Child *evelopment, an or"ani2ation that supports research about children and youth, and that advocates &or "overnment policies on their behal&. The speci&ic 1eb pa"e recommended here contains their press releases, 1hich summari2e &indin"s &rom current research and their implications &or childrenJs 1el&are. Mou 1ill need to re"ister to use this pa"e, but re"istration is &ree. Q(((.apa.orgR This is the 1ebsite &or the American ,sycholo"ical Association, the lar"est pro&essional association o& psycholo"ists in the #n"lish$speakin" 1orld. From the homepa"e you can "o to a section called >psycholo"y topics@, 1hich o&&ers a variety o& interestin" articles and press releases &ree o& char"e. Amon" other topics, &or example, there are articles about obesity and its e&&ects, as 1ell as about &actors that support <andUor detract &rom= childrenJs 1ell$bein".
'ey terms
*evelopment ,uberty Co"nition Co"nitive sta"es +ean ,ia"et (ensorimotor sta"e Cb/ect permanence ,reoperational sta"e *ramatic play Concrete operational sta"e *ecenter Conservation Formal operational sta"e 6ypothetical reasonin" (ocial development #rik #rikson Abraham )aslo1 La1rence 'ohlber" Carol .illi"an ,sychosocial crises Trust, autonomy, and initiative %ndustry %dentity %ntimacy, "enerativity, and inte"rity )aslo1Js hierarchy o& needs *e&icit needs 7ein" needs (el&$actuali2ation )oral development La1rence 'ohlber" Carol .illi"an )orality o& /ustice ,reconventional /ustice #thics o& obedience #thics o& mutual advanta"e Conventional /ustice #thics o& peer opinion #thics o& la1 and order ,ostconventional /ustice #thics o& social contract #thics o& universal principles )orality o& care (urvival Crientation Conventional care
:3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License %nte"rated care
-e&erences
Allender, +. <300A=. Community health nursing, :th edition. ,hiladelphia Lippincott, 5illiams, P 5ilkins. 7a1a, (. <300A=. The role o& the consumption o& bevera"es in the obesity epidemic. Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of 9ealth, BC?<3=, 83F$83D. 7eidel, 7. <300A=. Childhood an4iety disorders. Cx&ord, 4' 7runner$-outled"e. 7redekamp, (. P Copple, C. <899;=. !evelo*mentally a**ro*riate *ractice, Revised edition. 5ashin"ton, *.C. Bational Association &or the #ducation o& Moun" Children. 7ro1n, L. P .illi"an, C. <8993=. @eeting at the crossroads" Eomen(s *sychology and girls( develo*ment. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. Case, -. <8998=. The mind(s staircase" E4*loring the conce*tual under*innings of children(s thought and #no ledge. 6illsdale, B+ #rlbaum. Case, -. P Ckamoto, M. <899:=. The role of central conce*tual structures in children(s thought. Chica"o (ociety &or -esearch on Child *evelopment. Center &or *isease Control. <300Fa=. 0ational survey on drug use and health. 7ethesda, )* *epartment o& 6ealth and 6uman (ervices. Center &or *isease Control <300Fb=. Trends in the *revalence of se4ual %ehaviors, BFFB3C<<;. 7ethesda, )* Author. #veleth, ,. P Tanner, +. <8990=. Eorld ide variation in human gro th <3nd edition=. Be1 Mork Cambrid"e 4niversity ,ress. #yler, +. P .iles, *. <8999=. Ehere(s the learning in service learning- (an Francisco +ossey$7ass. Fa"an, A. P Ba/man, +. <300A=. The relative contribution o& parental and siblin" substance use to adolescent alcohol, tobacco, and other dru" use. Journal of !rug ,ssues, 3A, D:9$DD3. Friedman, (. <3000=. Ehen girls feel fat" 9el*ing girls through adolescence. Toronto Fire&ly 7ooks. 6arris, +. <300:=. 0o t o ali#e" 9uman nature and human individuality. Be1 Mork Borton. %nhelder, 7. P ,ia"et, +. <89AD=. The gro th of logical thin#ing from childhood to adolescence" An essay on the gro th of formal o*erational structures. Be1 Mork 7asic 7ooks. +ohnston, L., CJ)alley, ,., 7achman, +., P (chulenber", +. <300:=. @onitoring the future" 0ational results on adolescent drug use" 8vervie Abuse. 'ay, C. <3003=. The com*lete guide to service learning. Be1 Mork Free (pirit ,ublishin". 'ohlber", L., Levine, C., P 6e1er, A. <89D3=. @oral stages" A current formulation and a res*onse to critics. 7asel (. 'ar"er. Le1is, ). <899;=. Altering fate" Ehy the *ast does not *redict the future. Be1 Mork .uil&ord ,ress. Educational Psychology
of #ey findings, C<<?. 7ethesda, )* Bational %nstitute on *ru"
:3
A .lobal Text
3. Student development )alina, -., 7ouchard, C., P 7ar$Cr C. <300F=. Kro th, maturation, and *hysical activity. Champai"n, %L 6uman 'inetics ,ress. )aslo1, A. <89D;=. @otivation and *ersonality, ;rd edition. Be1 Mork 6arper P -o1. )aslo1, A. <89;:=. The 7arther Reaches of 9uman 0ature, C nd edition. Be1 Mork ,en"uin 7ooks. )atthe1s, .. <899D=. The *hiloso*hy of childhood. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. )cClintock, ). P 6erdt, .. <899:=. -ethinkin" puberty The development o& sexual attraction. Current !irections in Psychological Science, ?, 8;D$8D3. Barayan, '., 7oyle, +., Thompson, T., (orensen, (., P 5illiamson, *. <3003=. Li&etime risk &or diabetes mellitus in the 4nited (tates. Journal of the American @edical Association, CF<<8F=, 8DDF$8D90. Bational %nstitute o& Aller"ies and %n&ectious *iseases. <300A=. The common cold. 7ethesda, )* Author. Also available at Qhttp UU111.niaid.nih."ovU&actsUcold.htmR. C"den, C., Fle"a, '., Carroll, ). P +ohnson, C. <3003=. ,revalence and trends in over1ei"ht amon" 4.(. children and adolescents, 8999$3000. Journal of the American @edical Association, CAA<8F=, 8;3D$8;33. ,aley, G. <300A=. A child(s or#" The im*ortance of fantasy *lay. Chica"o 4niversity o& Chica"o ,ress.
,ayne, -. <300A=. A frame or# for understanding *overty. 6i"hlands, TS ahaL,rocess, %nc. ,ayne, G. P %saacs, L. <300A=. 9uman motor develo*ment" A lifes*an a**roach, :th edition. 7oston )c.ra1$6ill. ,ia"et, +. <89A3=. The origins of intelligence in children. Be1 Mork %nternational 4niversities ,ress. ,ia"et, +. <89D3=. ,ia"etJs theory. %n ,. )ussen <#d.=, 9and%oo# of child *sychology, volume B. Be1 Mork 5iley. ,ia"et, +. <3008=. The *sychology of intelligence. Cx&ord, 4' -outled"e. ,etlichko&&, L. <899:=. The drop$out dilemma in youth sports. %n C. 7ar$Cr <#d.=, The child and adolescent athlete <pp. F8D$F33=. Cx&ord, 4' 7lack1ell. ,o1er, F., 6i""ins, A., P 'ohlber", L. <8998=. 2a rence Kohl%erg(s a**roach to moral education. Be1 Mork Columbia 4niversity ,ress. -ichardson, +. <300A=. The cost of %eing *oor. 5estport, CB ,rae"er. -osenbaum, +. <300:=. -eborn a Gir"in AdolescentsE -etractin" o& Gir"inity ,led"es and (exual 6istories. American Journal of Pu%lic 9ealth, F:<:=, xxx$yyy. (adker, ). <300F=. .ender equity in the classroom The un&inished a"enda. %n ). 'immel <#d.=, The gendered society reader, Cnd edition. Be1 Mork Cx&ord 4niversity ,ress. (alkind, B. <300F=. An introduction to theories of human develo*ment. Thousand Caks, CA (a"e ,ublications. (lavin, -. <300A=. Educational *sychology, =th edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. :F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (pencer, B. <3000=. Poverty and child health, Cnd edition. Abin"don, 4' -adcli&&e )edical ,ress. Tartamella, L., 6erscher, #., 5oolston, C. <300F=. Keneration e4tra large" Rescuing our children from the o%esity e*idemic. Be1 Mork 7asic 7ooks. Taylor, +. P .illi"an, C., P (ullivan, A. <899A=. +et een voice and silence" Eomen and girls, race and relationshi*. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. 4nited (tates .overnment ,rintin" C&&ice. <3003=. 0o Child 2eft +ehind Act" A des#to* reference. 5ashin"ton, *.C. Author. 5helen, #., La1son, C., .ra/e1ski, 7., ,etersen, )., ,inkerton, L., 5ard, #., P (chnorr, T. <3003=. ,revalence o& respiratory symptoms amon" &emale &li"ht attendants and teachers. 8ccu*ational and Environmental @edicine, :<, 939$93F. 5ool&olk, A. <300:=. Educational *sychology, B<th edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. Min, 0., 6anes, +., )oore, +., 6umbles, ,., 7arbeau, P .utin, 7. <300A=. An a&ter$school physical activity pro"ram &or obesity prevention in children. Evaluation and the 9ealth Professions, CA<8=, :;$D9. 0imbardo, ,. P -adl, (. <8999=. The shy child" 8vercoming and *reventing shyness from %irth to adulthood. Cambrid"e, )A )alor 7ooks.
:A
A .lobal Text
/. Student diversity
,(ll tell you this" There are some *eo*le, and then there are others. 1Anna 9arris) Anna 9arris as Kelvin SeifertLs grandmother as ell as a schoolteacher from a%out BFB< to BF;<. She used to ma#e comments, li#e the one a%ove, that sounded odd %ut that also contained a grain of isdom. ,n this case her remar# ma#es a good theme for this cha*ter.and even for teaching in general. Students do differ in a multitude of ays, %oth individually and %ecause of mem%ershi*s in families, communities or cultural grou*s. Sometimes the differences can ma#e classroom3style teaching more challenging, %ut other times, as Anna 9arris im*lied, they sim*ly enrich classroom life. To teach students themselves, and ell, e need to understand the im*ortant ays that they differ among hen or ho the differences really matter for their education. This cha*ter offers you might use it in order to ma#e learning effective
some of that understanding and suggests ho and en$oya%le for everyone, including yourself. 7or convenience e
ill ma#e a ma$or distinction %et een differences among individuals and
differences among grou*s of students. As the term im*lies, individual differences are &ualities that are uni&ueM $ust one *erson has them at a time. Gariation in hair color, for e4am*le, is an individual differenceM even though some *eo*le have nearly the same hair color, no t o *eo*le are e4actly the same. Group differences are &ualities shared %y mem%ers of an identifia%le grou* or community, %ut not shared %y everyone in society. An e4am*le is gender role" for %etter or for orse, one *ortion of society 1the males) is *erceived differently and e4*ected to %ehave a %it differently than another *ortion of society 1the females). 0otice that distinguishing %et een individual and grou* differences is convenient, %ut a %it ar%itrary. ,ndividuals lot of individual diversity ith similar, %ut nonetheless uni&ue &ualities sometimes grou* themselves together for certain *ur*oses, and grou*s unusually contain a ithin them. ,f you ha**en to en$oy *laying soccer and have some talent for it 1an individual &uality), for e4am*le, you may end u* as a mem%er of a soccer team or clu% 1a grou* defined %y mem%ers( common desire and a%ility to *lay soccer). +ut though everyone on the team fits a 'soccer *layer(s *rofile) at some level, individual mem%ers ill *ro%a%ly vary in level of s#ill and motivation. The grou*, %y its very nature, may o%scure these signs of individuality. To %egin, then, e loo# at several differences normally considered to %e individually rather than ill necessarily %e incom*lete sim*ly %ecause individual differences are ith three im*ortant forms of grou* diversity" gender differences,
grou* %ased. This discussion sections of this cha*ter deal
so numerous and im*ortant in teaching that some of them are also discussed in later cha*ters. 2ater cultural differences, and language differences.
::
A .lobal Text
4. Student diversity
0ndividual styles of learning and thin1ing

All o& us, includin" our students, have pre&erred 1ays o& learnin". Teachers o&ten re&er to these di&&erences as learning styles/ thou"h this term may imply that students are more consistent across situations than is really the case. Cne student may like to make dia"rams to help remember a readin" assi"nment, 1hereas another student may pre&er to 1rite a sketchy outline instead. Met in many cases, the students could in principle reverse the strate"ies and still learn the material i& coaxed <or perhaps required=, the dia"ram$maker could take notes &or a chan"e and the note$taker could dra1 dia"rams. 7oth 1ould still learn, thou"h neither mi"ht &eel as com&ortable as 1hen usin" the strate"ies that they pre&er. This reality su""ests that a balanced, middle$o&$the$road approach may be a teacherJs best response to studentsJ learnin" styles. Cr put another 1ay, it is "ood to support studentsJ pre&erred learnin" strate"ies 1here possible and appropriate, but neither necessary nor desirable to do so all o& the time <Loo, 300FI (tahl, 3003=. )ost o& all, it is neither necessary nor possible to classi&y or label students accordin" to seemin"ly &ixed learnin" styles and then allo1 them to learn only accordin" to those styles. A student may pre&er to hear ne1 material rather than see itI he may pre&er &or you to explain somethin" orally, &or example, rather than to see it demonstrated in a video. 7ut he may nonetheless tolerate or sometimes even pre&er to see it demonstrated. %n the lon" run, in &act, he may learn it best by encounterin" the material in both 1ays, re"ardless o& his habitual pre&erences. That said, there is evidence that individuals, includin" students, do di&&er in ho1 they habitually think. These di&&erences are more speci&ic than learnin" styles or pre&erences, and psycholo"ists sometimes call them cognitive styles/ meanin" typical 1ays o& perceivin" and rememberin" in&ormation, and typical 1ays o& solvin" problems and makin" decisions <0han" P (ternber", 300:=. %n a style o& thinkin" called field dependence/ &or example, individuals perceive patterns as a 1hole rather than &ocus on the parts o& the pattern separately. %n a complementary tendency, called field independence/ individuals are more inclined to analy2e overall patterns into their parts. Co"nitive research &rom the 89F0s to the present has &ound &ield dependenceUindependence di&&erences to be some1hat stable &or any "iven person across situations, thou"h not completely so <5itkin, )oore, .oodenou"h, P Cox, 89;;I 0han" P (ternber", 300A=. (omeone 1ho is &ield dependent <perceives "lobally or >1holistically@= in one situation, tends to a modest extent to perceive thin"s "lobally or 1holistically in other situations. Field dependence and independence can be important in understandin" students because the styles a&&ect studentsJ behaviors and pre&erences in school and classrooms. Field dependent persons tend to 1ork better in "roups, it seems, and to pre&er >open$ended@ &ields o& study like literature and history. Field independent persons, on the other hand, tend to 1ork better alone and to pre&er hi"hly analytic studies like math and science. The di&&erences are only a tendency, ho1ever, and there are a lot o& students 1ho contradict the trends. As 1ith the broader notion o& learnin" styles, the co"nitive styles o& &ield dependence and independence are use&ul &or tailorin" instruction to particular students, but their "uidance is only approximate. They neither can nor should be used to >lock@ students to particular modes o& learnin" or to replace studentsJ o1n expressed pre&erences and choices about curriculum. Another co"nitive style is impulsivity as compared to reflectivity. As the names imply, an im*ulsive co"nitive style is one in 1hich a person reacts quickly, but as a result makes comparatively more errors. A reflective style is the opposite the person reacts more slo1ly and there&ore makes &e1er errors. As you mi"ht expect, the re&lective style 1ould seem better suited to many academic demands o& school. -esearch has &ound that this is indeed the :;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License case &or academic skills that clearly bene&it &rom re&lection, such as mathematical problem solvin" or certain readin" tasks <#vans, 300F=. (ome classroom or school$related skills, ho1ever, may actually develop better i& a student is relatively impulsive. 7ein" a "ood partner in a cooperative learnin" "roup, &or example, may depend partly on respondin" spontaneously <i.e. /ust a bit >impulsively@= to othersJ su""estionsI and bein" an e&&ective member o& an athletic team may depend on not takin" time to re&lect care&ully on every move that you or your team mates make. There are t1o ma/or 1ays to use kno1led"e o& studentsJ co"nitive styles <,ritchard, 300A=. The &irst and the more obvious is to build on studentsJ existin" style stren"ths and pre&erences. A student 1ho is &ield independent and re&lective, &or example, can be encoura"ed to explore tasks and activities that are relatively analytic and that require relatively independent 1ork. Cne 1ho is &ield dependent and impulsive, on the other hand, can be encoura"ed and supported to try tasks and activities that are more social or spontaneous. 7ut a second, less obvious 1ay to use kno1led"e o& co"nitive styles is to encoura"e more balance in co"nitive styles &or students 1ho need it. A student 1ho lac#s &ield independence, &or example, may need explicit help in or"ani2in" and analy2in" key academic tasks <like or"ani2in" a lab report in a science class=. Cne 1ho is already hi"hly re&lective may need encoura"ement to try ideas spontaneously, as in a creative 1ritin" lesson.
&ultiple intelligences
For nearly a century, educators and psycholo"ists have debated the nature o& intelli"ence, and more speci&ically 1hether intelli"ence is /ust one broad ability or can take more than one &orm. )any classical de&initions o& the concept have tended to de&ine intelligence as a sin"le broad ability that allo1s a person to solve or complete many sorts o& tasks, or at least many academic tasks like readin", kno1led"e o& vocabulary, and the solvin" o& lo"ical problems <.arlick, 3003=. There is research evidence o& such a "lobal ability, and the idea o& "eneral intelli"ence o&ten &its 1ith societyJs everyday belie&s about intelli"ence. ,artly &or these reasons, an entire mini$industry has "ro1n up around publishin" tests o& intelli"ence, academic ability, and academic achievement. (ince these tests a&&ect the 1ork o& teachers, % return to discussin" them later in this book. 7ut there are also problems 1ith de&inin" intelli"ence as one "eneral ability. Cne 1ay o& summin" up the problems is to say that conceivin" o& intelli"ence as somethin" "eneral tends to put it beyond teachersJ in&luence. 5hen vie1ed as a sin"le, all$purpose ability, students either have a lot o& intelli"ence or they do not, and stren"thenin" their intelli"ence becomes a ma/or challen"e, or perhaps even an impossible one <.ott&redson, 300FI Lubinski, 300F=. This conclusion is troublin" to some educators, especially in recent years as testin" school achievements have become more common and as students have become more diverse. 7ut alternate vie1s o& intelli"ence also exist that portray intelli"ence as havin" multiple &orms, 1hether the &orms are subparts o& a sin"le broader ability or are multiple >intelli"ences@ in their o1n ri"ht. For various reasons such this perspective has "ained in popularity amon" teachers in recent years, probably because it re&lects many teachersJ belie&s that students cannot simply be rated alon" a sin"le scale o& ability, but are &undamentally diverse <'ohn, 300F=. Cne o& the most prominent o& these models is ;o(ard 0ardner%s theory of multiple intelligences <.ardner, 89D3, 3003=. .ardner proposes that there are ei"ht di&&erent &orms o& intelli"ence, each o& 1hich &unctions independently o& the others. <The ei"ht intelli"ences are summari2ed in Table 88. #ach person has a mix Educational Psychology
:D
A .lobal Text
4. Student diversity o& all ei"ht abilitiesKmore o& one and less o& anotherKthat helps to constitute that personJs individual co"nitive pro&ile. (ince most tasksKincludin" most tasks in classroomsKrequire several &orms o& intelli"ence and can be completed in more than one 1ay, it is possible &or people 1ith various pro&iles o& talents to succeed on a task equally 1ell. %n 1ritin" an essay, &or example, a student 1ith hi"h interpersonal intelli"ence but rather avera"e verbal intelli"ence mi"ht use his or her interpersonal stren"th to "et a lot o& help and advice &rom classmates and the teacher. A student 1ith the opposite pro&ile mi"ht 1ork 1ell alone, but 1ithout the bene&it o& help &rom others. 7oth students mi"ht end up 1ith essays that are "ood, but "ood &or di&&erent reasons. Table 88 )ultiple intelli"ences accordin" to 6o1ard .ardner Borm of intelligence Lin"uistic verbal skillI ability to use lan"ua"e 1ell !"amples of activities using the intelligence
verbal persuasion 1ritin" a term paper skill&ully
)usical ability to create and understand music
sin"in", playin" a musical instrument composin" a tune
Lo"ical )athematical lo"ical skillI ability to reason, o&ten usin" mathematics
solvin" mathematical problems easily and
accurately
developin" and testin" hypotheses
(patial ability to ima"ine and manipulate the arran"ement o& ob/ects in the environment
completin" a di&&icult /i"sa1 pu22le assemblin" a complex appliance <e.". a bicycle=
7odily kinesthetic sense o& balanceI coordination in use o& oneEs body
dancin" "ymnastics
%nterpersonal ability to discern othersE nonverbal &eelin"s and thou"hts
sensin" 1hen to be tact&ul sensin" a >subtext@ or implied messa"e in a
personEs statements %ntrapersonal sensitivity to oneEs o1n thou"hts and &eelin"s

noticin" complex o& ambivalent &eelin"s in
onesel&
identi&yin" true motives &or an action in onesel&
Baturalist sensitivity to subtle di&&erences and patterns &ound in the natural environment
identi&yin" examples o& species o& plants or
animals
noticin" relationships amon" species and
natural processes in the environment :9

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Source .ardner, 89D3, 3003
As evidence &or the possibility o& multiple intelli"ences, .ardner cites descriptions o& individuals 1ith exceptional talent in one &orm o& intelli"ence <&or example, in playin" the piano= but 1ho are neither above nor belo1 avera"e in other areas. 6e also cites descriptions o& individuals 1ith brain dama"e, some o& 1hom lose one particular &orm o& intelli"ence <like the ability to talk= but retain other &orms. %n the opinion o& many psycholo"ists, ho1ever, the evidence &or multiple intelli"ences is not stron" enou"h to "ive up the >classical@ vie1 o& "eneral intelli"ence. ,art o& the problem is that the evidence &or multiple intelli"ences relies primarily on anecdotesK examples or descriptions o& particular individuals 1ho illustrate the modelKrather than on more 1idespread in&ormation or data <#isner, 300F=. Bonetheless, 1hatever the status o& the research evidence, the model itsel& can be use&ul as a 1ay &or teachers to think about their 1ork. )ultiple intelli"ences su""est the importance o& diversi&yin" instruction in order to honor and to respond to diversity in studentsJ talents and abilities. Gie1ed like this, 1hether .ardnerJs classi&ication scheme is actually accurate is probably less important than the &act there is <or may be= more than one 1ay to be >smart@. %n the end, as 1ith co"nitive and learnin" styles, it may not be important to label studentsJ talents or intellectual stren"ths. %t may be more important simply to provide important learnin" and kno1led"e in several modes or styles, 1ays that dra1 on more than one possible &orm o& intelli"ence or skill. A "ood example o& this principle is your o1n development in learnin" to teach. %t is 1ell and "ood to read books about teachin" <like this one, perhaps=, but it is even better to read books and talk 1ith classmates and educators about teachin" and "ettin" actual experience in classrooms. The combination both invites and requires a 1ide ran"e o& your talents and usually proves more e&&ective than any sin"le type o& activity, 1hatever your pro&ile o& co"nitive styles or intellectual abilities happens to be.
2ifted and talented students

The idea o& multiple intelli"ences leads to ne1 1ays o& thinkin" about students 1ho have special "i&ts and talents. Traditionally, the term gifted re&erred only to students 1ith unusually hi"h verbal skills. Their skills 1ere demonstrated especially 1ell, &or example, on standardi2ed tests o& "eneral ability or o& school achievement, like those described in Chapter 83 <>(tandardi2ed and other &ormal assessments@=. )ore recently, ho1ever, the meanin" o& gifted has broadened to include unusual talents in a ran"e o& activities, such as music, creative 1ritin", or the arts <.. *avis P -imm, 300F=. To indicate the chan"e, educators o&ten use the dual term gifted and talented.
Tualities o& the "i&ted and talented

5hat are students 1ho are "i&ted and talented like? .enerally they sho1 some combination o& the &ollo1in" qualities
They learn more quickly and independently than most students their o1n a"e. They o&ten have 1ell$developed vocabulary, as 1ell as advanced readin" and 1ritin" skills. They are very motivated, especially on tasks that are challen"in" or di&&icult. They hold themselves to hi"her than usual standards o& achievement.
;0
A .lobal Text
4. Student diversity Contrary to a common impression, students 1ho are "i&ted or talented are not necessarily a1k1ard socially, less healthy, or narro1 in their interestsKin &act, quite the contrary <(teiner P Carr, 3003=. They also come &rom all economic and cultural "roups. %ronically, in spite o& their obvious stren"ths as learners, such students o&ten lan"uish in school unless teachers can provide them 1ith more than the challen"es o& the usual curriculum. A kinder"arten child 1ho is precociously advanced in readin", &or example, may make little &urther pro"ress at readin" i& her teachers do not reco"ni2e and develop her skillI her talent may e&&ectively disappear &rom vie1 as her peers "radually catch up to her initial level. 5ithout accommodation to their unusual level o& skill or kno1led"e, students 1ho are "i&ted or talented can become bored by school, and eventually the boredom can even turn into behavior problems. ,artly &or these reasons, students 1ho are "i&ted or talented have sometimes been re"arded as the responsibility o& special education, alon" 1ith students 1ith other sorts o& disabilities. C&ten their needs are discussed, &or example, in textbooks about special education, alon"side discussions o& students 1ith intellectual disabilities, physical impairments, or ma/or behavior disorders <Friend, 300D=. There is some lo"ic to this 1ay o& thinkin" about their needsI a&ter all, they are quite exceptional, and they do require modi&ications o& the usual school pro"rams in order to reach their &ull potential. 7ut it is also misleadin" to i"nore obvious di&&erences bet1een exceptional "i&tedness and exceptional disabilities o& other kinds. The key di&&erence is in studentsE potential. 7y de&inition, students 1ith "i&ts or talents are capable o& creative, committed 1ork at levels that o&ten approach talented adults. Cther studentsKincludin" students 1ith disabilitiesKmay reach these levels, but not as soon and not as &requently. )any educators there&ore think o& the "i&ted and talented not as examples o& students 1ith disabilities, but as examples o& diversity. As such they are not so much the responsibility o& special education specialists, as the responsibility o& all teachers to di&&erentiate their instruction.
(upportin" students 1ho are "i&ted and talented

(upportin" the "i&ted and talented usually involves a mixture o& acceleration and enrichment o& the usual curriculum <(chiever P )aker, 3003=. 4cceleration involves either a childEs skippin" a "rade, or else the teacherEs redesi"nin" the curriculum 1ithin a particular "rade or classroom so that more material is covered &aster. #ither strate"y 1orks, but only up to a point children 1ho have skipped a "rade usually &unction 1ell in the hi"her "rade, both academically and socially. 4n&ortunately skippin" "rades cannot happen repeatedly unless teacher, parents, and the students themselves are prepared to live 1ith lar"e a"e and maturity di&&erences 1ithin sin"le classrooms. %n itsel&, too, there is no "uarantee that instruction in the ne1, hi"her$"rade classroom 1ill be any more stimulatin" than it 1as in the &ormer, lo1er$"rade classroom. -edesi"nin" the curriculum is also bene&icial to the student, but impractical to do on a 1idespread basisI even i& teachers had the time to redesi"n their pro"rams, many non$"i&ted students 1ould be le&t behind as a result. #nrichment involves providin" additional or di&&erent instruction added on to the usual curriculum "oals and activities. %nstead o& books at more advanced readin" levels, &or example, a student mi"ht read a 1ider variety o& types o& literature at the studentEs current readin" level, or try 1ritin" additional types o& literature himsel&. %nstead o& movin" ahead to more di&&icult kinds o& math pro"rams, the student mi"ht 1ork on unusual lo"ic problems not assi"ned to the rest o& the class. Like acceleration, enrichment 1orks 1ell up to a point. #nrichment curricula exist to help classroom teachers 1orkin" 1ith "i&ted students <and save teachers the time and 1ork o& creatin"
;8
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License enrichment materials themselves=. (ince enrichment is not part o& the normal, o&&icially sanctioned curriculum, ho1ever, there is a risk that it 1ill be perceived as busy1ork rather than as intellectual stimulation, particularly i& the teacher hersel& is not &amiliar 1ith the enrichment material or is other1ise unable to involve hersel& in the material &ully. Cbviously acceleration and enrichment can sometimes be combined. A student can skip a "rade and also be introduced to interestin" >extra@ material at the ne1 "rade level. A teacher can move a student to the next unit o& study &aster than she moves the rest o& the class, 1hile at the same time o&&erin" additional activities not related to the unit o& study directly. For a teacher 1ith a student 1ho is "i&ted or talented, ho1ever, the real challen"e is not simply to choose bet1een acceleration and enrichment, but to observe the student, "et to kno1 him or her as a unique individual, and o&&er activities and supports based on that kno1led"e. This is essentially the challen"e o& differentiating instruction, somethin" needed not /ust by the "i&ted and talented, but by students o& all sorts. As you mi"ht suspect, di&&erentiatin" instruction poses challen"es about mana"in" instructionI 1e discuss it a"ain in more detail in Chapter 9 <>Facilitatin" complex thinkin"@= and Chapter 80 <>%nstructional plannin"@=.
2ender differences in the classroom

0ender roles are the patterns o& behaviors, attitudes, and expectations associated 1ith a particular sexK1ith bein" either male or &emale. For clarity, psycholo"ists sometimes distin"uish gender differences, 1hich are related to social roles, &rom se4 differences, 1hich are related only to physiolo"y and anatomy. 4sin" this terminolo"y, "ender matters in teachin" more than sex <in spite o& any /okes told about the latterL=. Althou"h there are many exceptions, boys and "irls do di&&er on avera"e in 1ays that parallel conventional "ender stereotypes and that a&&ect ho1 the sexes behave at school and in class. The di&&erences have to do 1ith physical behaviors, styles o& social interaction, academic motivations, behaviors, and choices. They have a variety o& sourcesKprimarily parents, peers, and the media. Teachers are certainly not the primary cause o& "ender role di&&erences, but sometimes teachers in&luence them by their responses to and choices made on behal& o& students.
,hysical di&&erences in "ender roles

,hysically, boys tend to be more active than "irls, and by the same token more restless i& they have to sit &or lon" periods. They are also more prone than "irls to rely on physical a""ression i& they are &rustrated <#spela"e P (1earer, 300F=. 7oth tendencies are inconsistent 1ith the usual demands o& classroom li&e, o& course, and make it a little more likely that school 1ill be a di&&icult experience &or boys, even &or boys 1ho never actually "et in trouble &or bein" restless or a""ressive. *urin" the &irst t1o or three years o& elementary school, "ross motor skills develop at almost the same avera"e rate &or boys and "irls. As a grou*, both sexes can run, /ump, thro1 a ball, and the like 1ith about equal ease, thou"h there are o& course 1ide si"ni&icant di&&erences amon" individuals o& both sexes. To1ard the end o& elementary school, ho1ever, boys pull ahead o& "irls at these skills even thou"h neither sex has be"un yet to experience puberty. The most likely reason is that boys participate more actively in &ormal and in&ormal sports because o& expectations and support &rom parents, peers, and society <7raddock, (okol$'at2, .reene, P 7asin"er$ Fleischman, 300AI )essner, *uncan, P Cooky, 3003=. ,uberty eventually adds to this advanta"e by makin" boys taller and stron"er than "irls, on avera"e, and there&ore more suited at least &or sports that rely on hei"ht and stren"th. Educational Psychology
;3
A .lobal Text
4. Student diversity %n thinkin" about these di&&erences, keep in mind that they re&er to avera"e trends and that there are numerous individual exceptions. #very teacher kno1s o& individual boys 1ho are not athletic, &or example, or o& particular "irls 1ho are especially restless in class. The individual di&&erences mean, amon" other thin"s, that it is hard to /usti&y providin" di&&erent levels o& support or resources to boys than to "irls &or sports, athletics, or physical education. The di&&erences also su""est, thou"h, that individual students 1ho contradict "ender stereotypes about physical abilities may bene&it &rom emotional support or a&&irmation &rom teachers, simply because they may be less likely than usual to "et such a&&irmation &rom else1here.
(ocial di&&erences in "ender roles

5hen relaxin" socially, boys more o&ten "ravitate to lar"e "roups. 5hether on the play"round, in a school hall1ay, or on the street, boysJ social "roups tend literally to &ill up a lot o& space, and o&ten include si"ni&icant amounts o& rou"hhousin" as 1ell as or"ani2ed and >semi$or"ani2ed@ competitive "ames or sports <)accoby, 3003=. .irls, &or their part, are more likely to seek and maintain one or t1o close &riends and to share more intimate in&ormation and &eelin"s 1ith these individuals. To the extent that these "ender di&&erences occur, they can make "irls less visible or noticeable than boys, at least in leisure play situations 1here children or youth choose their companions &reely. As 1ith physical di&&erences, ho1ever, keep in mind that di&&erences in social interactions do not occur uni&ormly &or all boys and "irls. There are boys 1ith close &riends, contradictin" the "eneral trend, and "irls 1ho play primarily in lar"e "roups. *i&&erences in social interaction styles happen in the classroom as 1ell. 7oys, on avera"e, are more likely to speak up durin" a class discussionKsometimes even i& not called on, or even i& they do not kno1 as much about the topic as others in the class <(adker, 3003=. 5hen 1orkin" on a pro/ect in a small co$ed "roup, &urthermore they have a tendency to i"nore "irlsJ comments and contributions to the "roup. %n this respect co$ed student "roups parallel interaction patterns in many parts o& society, 1here men also have a tendency to i"nore 1omenJs comments and contributions <Tannen, 3008=.
Academic and co"nitive di&&erences in "ender

Cn avera"e, "irls are more motivated than boys to per&orm 1ell in school, at least durin" elementary school. 7y the time "irls reach hi"h school, ho1ever, some may try to do1n play their o1n academic ability in order make themselves more likeable by both sexes <*avies, 300A=. #ven i& this occurs, thou"h, it does not a&&ect their "rades &rom kinder"arten throu"h t1el&th "rade, "irls earn sli"htly hi"her avera"e "rades than boys <Freeman, 300F=. This &act does not lead to similar achievement, ho1ever, because as youn"sters move into hi"h school, they tend to choose courses or sub/ects conventionally associated 1ith their "enderKmath and science &or boys, in particular, and literature and the arts &or "irls. 7y the end o& hi"h school, this di&&erence in course selection makes a measurable di&&erence in boysJ and "irlsJ academic per&ormance in these sub/ects. 7ut a"ain, consider my caution about stereotypin" there are individuals o& both sexes 1hose behaviors and choices run counter to the "roup trends. <% have made this point as 1ell in >,reparin" &or Licensure %nterpretin" .ender$-elated 7ehavior@ by deliberately concealin" the "ender o& a student described.= *i&&erences 1ithin each "ender "roup "enerally are &ar lar"er than any di&&erences bet1een the "roups. A "ood example is the >di&&erence@ in co"nitive ability o& boys and "irls. )any studies have &ound none at all. A &e1 others have &ound small di&&erences, 1ith boys sli"htly better at math and "irls sli"htly better at readin" and literature. (till other studies have &ound the
;3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License di&&erences not only are small, but have been "ettin" smaller in recent years compared to earlier studies. Collectively the &indin"s about co"nitive abilities are virtually >non$&indin"s@, and it is 1orth askin" 1hy "ender di&&erences have there&ore been studied and discussed so much &or so many years <6yde, 300A=. 6o1 teachers in&luence "ender roles? Teachers o&ten intend to interact 1ith both sexes equally, and &requently succeed at doin" so. -esearch has &ound, thou"h, that they do sometimes respond to boys and "irls di&&erently, perhaps 1ithout reali2in" it. Three kinds o& di&&erences have been noticed. The &irst is the overall amount o& attention paid to each sexI the second is the visibility or >publicity@ o& conversationsI and the third is the type o& behavior that prompts teachers to support or critici2e students.
Attention *aid
%n "eneral, teachers interact 1ith boys more o&ten than 1ith "irls by a mar"in o& 80 to 30 percent, dependin" on the "rade level o& the students and the personality o& the teacher <)easor P (ykes, 8993=. Cne possible reason &or the di&&erence is related to the "reater assertiveness o& boys that % already notedI i& boys are speakin" up more &requently in discussions or at other times, then a teacher may be >&orced@ to pay more attention to them. Another possibility is that some teachers may &eel that boys are especially prone to "ettin" into mischie&, so they may interact 1ith them more &requently to keep them &ocused on the task at hand <#rden P 5ol&"an", 300F=. (till another possibility is that boys, compared to "irls, may interact in a 1ider variety o& styles and situations, so there may simply be richer opportunities to interact 1ith them. This last possibility is partially supported by another "ender di&&erence in classroom interaction, the amount o& public versus private talk.
Pu%lic tal# versus *rivate tal#

Teachers have a tendency to talk to boys &rom a "reater physical distance than 1hen they talk to "irls <5ilkinson P )arrett, 89DA=. The di&&erence may be both a cause and an e&&ect o& "eneral "ender expectations, expressive nurturin" is expected more o&ten o& "irls and 1omen, and a businesslike task orientation is expected more o&ten o& boys and men, particularly in mixed$sex "roups <7aso1 P -uben&eld, 3003I )yaskovsky, 4nikel, P *e1, 300A=. 5hatever the reason, the e&&ect is to "ive interactions 1ith boys more >publicity@. 5hen t1o people converse 1ith each other &rom across the classroom, many others can overhear themI 1hen they are at each otherJs elbo1s, thou"h, &e1 others can overhear.
!istri%uting *raise and criticism

%n spite o& most teachersJ desire to be &air to all students, it turns out that they sometimes distribute praise and criticism di&&erently to boys and "irls. The di&&erences are summari2ed in Table F.3. The tendency is to praise boys more than "irls &or displayin" kno1led"e correctly, but to critici2e "irls more than boys &or displayin" kno1led"e incorrectly <.olombok P Fivush, 899FI *elamont, 899:=. Another 1ay o& statin" this di&&erence is by 1hat teachers tend to overlook 1ith boys, they tend to overlook rong ans1ers, but 1ith "irls, they tend to overlook right ans1ers. The result <1hich is probably unintended= is a tendency to make boysJ kno1led"e seem more important and boys themselves more competent. A second result is the other side o& this coin a tendency to make "irlsJ kno1led"e less visible and "irls themselves less competent. Table 83 .ender di&&erences in ho1 teachers praise and critici2e students 3ype of response from Educational Psychology
*oys ;F
0irls A .lobal Text

4. Student diversity teacher ,raises Cverlooks or i"nores Correct kno1led"e >.ood@ or compliant behaviorI incorrect kno1led"e Critici2es Source .olobuk P Fivush, 899F @isbehavior ,ncorrect kno1led"e >.ood@ or compliant behavior @isbehaviorI correct kno1led"e
.ender di&&erences also occur in the realm o& classroom behavior. Teachers tend to praise "irls &or >"ood@ behavior, re"ardless o& its relevance to content or to the lesson at hand, and tend to critici2e boys &or >bad@ or inappropriate behavior <.olombok P Fivush, 899F=. This di&&erence can also be stated in terms o& 1hat teachers overlook 1ith "irls, they tend to overlook behavior that is not appropriate, but 1ith boys they tend to overlook behavior that is appropriate. The net result in this case is to make "irlsJ seem more "ood than they may really be, and also to make their >"oodness@ seem more important than their academic competence. 7y the same token, the teacherJs patterns o& response imply that boys are more >bad@ than they may really be. At &irst "lance, the "ender di&&erences in interaction can seem discoura"in" and critical o& teachers because they imply that teachers as a "roup are biased about "ender. 7ut this conclusion is too simplistic &or a couple o& reasons. Cne is that like all di&&erences bet1een "roups, interaction patterns are trends, and as such they hide a lot o& variation 1ithin them. The other is that the trends su""est 1hat o&ten tends in &act to happen, not 1hat can in &act happen i& a teacher consciously sets about to avoid interaction patterns like the ones % have described. Fortunately &or us all, teachin" does not need to be unthinkin"I 1e have choices that 1e can make, even durin" a busy classL
3ifferences in cultural e4pectations and styles

A culture is the system o& attitudes, belie&s, and behaviors that constitute the distinctive 1ay o& li&e o& a people. Althou"h sometimes the term is also used to re&er speci&ically to the artistic, intellectual and other >hi"h$bro1@ aspects o& li&e, % use it here more broadly to re&er to everythin" that characteri2es a 1ay o& li&eKbaseball "ames as 1ell as symphony concerts, and )c*onaldJs as 1ell as expensive restaurants. %n this broad sense culture is nearly synonymous 1ith ethnicity, 1hich re&ers to the common lan"ua"e, history, and &uture experienced by a "roup 1ithin society. Culture has elements that are obvious, like unique holidays or customs, but also &eatures that are subtle or easy &or outsiders to overlook, like belie&s about the nature o& intelli"ence or about the proper 1ay to tell a story. 5hen a classroom dra1s students &rom many cultures or ethnic "roups, there&ore, the students brin" to it considerable diversity. Teachers need to understand that diversityKunderstand ho1 studentsJ habitual attitudes, belie&s, and behaviors di&&er &rom each other, and especially ho1 they di&&er &rom the teacherJs. 7ut this kind o& understandin" can "et complicated. To or"ani2e the topic, there&ore, % 1ill discuss aspects o& cultural diversity accordin" to ho1 directly they relate to lan"ua"e di&&erences compared to di&&erences in other social and psycholo"ical &eatures o& culture. The distinction is convenient, but it is also a bit arbitrary because, as you 1ill see, the &eatures o& a culture overlap and in&luence each other.
;A
7ilin"ualism lan"ua"e di&&erences in the classroom

Althou"h monolin"ual speakers o&ten do not reali2e it, the ma/ority o& children around the 1orld are bilin"ual, meanin" that they understand and use t1o lan"ua"es <)eyers$(cotton, 300A=. #ven in the 4nited (tates, 1hich is a relatively monolin"ual society, more than F; million people speak a lan"ua"e other than #n"lish at home, and about 80 million o& these people 1ere children or youths in public schools <4nited (tates *epartment o& Commerce, 3003=. The lar"e ma/ority o& bilin"ual students <;A per cent= are 6ispanic, but the rest represent more than a hundred di&&erent lan"ua"e "roups &rom around the 1orld. %n lar"er communities throu"hout the 4nited (tates, it is there&ore common &or a sin"le classroom to contain students &rom several lan"ua"e back"rounds at once. %n classrooms as in other social settin"s, bilin"ualism exists in di&&erent &orms and de"rees. At one extreme are students 1ho speak both #n"lish and another lan"ua"e &luentlyI at the other extreme are those 1ho speak only limited versions o& both lan"ua"es. %n bet1een are students 1ho speak their home <or herita"e= lan"ua"e much better than #n"lish, as 1ell as others 1ho have partially lost their herita"e lan"ua"e in the process o& learnin" #n"lish <Tse, 3008=. Commonly, too, a student may speak a lan"ua"e satis&actorily, but be challen"ed by readin" or 1ritin" itKthou"h even this pattern has individual exceptions. 5hatever the case, each bilin"ual student poses unique challen"es to teachers.
+alanced or fluent %ilingualism

The student 1ho speaks both lan"ua"es &luently has a de&inite co"nitive advanta"e. As you mi"ht suspect and as research has con&irmed, a &ully &luent bilin"ual student is in a better position than usual to express concepts or ideas in more than one 1ay, and to be a1are o& doin" so <+imene2, et al. 899AI Francis, 300:=. The question >5hat i& a do" 1ere called a cat?@ is less likely to con&use even a very youn" bilin"ual child. Bor 1ill the &ollo1$up question >Could the [catJ meo1?@ con&use them. (uch skill in re&lectin" on lan"ua"e is a &orm o& metacognition, 1hich % discussed in Chapter 3 and de&ined as usin" lan"ua"e as an o%$ect o& thou"ht. )etaco"nition can be help&ul &or a variety o& academic purposes, such as 1ritin" stories and essays, or interpretin" complex text materials.
In%alanced %ilingualism
4n&ortunately, the bilin"ualism o& many students is >unbalanced@ in the sense that they are either still learnin" #n"lish, or else they have lost some earlier ability to use their ori"inal, herita"e lan"ua"eKor occasionally a bit o& both. The &irst sort o& studentKsometimes called an English language learner +!''. or limited English learner +'!'.Chas received the "reatest attention and concern &rom educators, since #n"lish is the dominant lan"ua"e o& instruction and skill and obviously helps prepare a student &or li&e in American society. #LL students essentially present teachers 1ith this dilemma ho1 to respect the ori"inal lan"ua"e and culture o& the student 1hile also helpin" the student to /oin more &ully in the mainstreamKi.e. #n"lish$speakin"Kculture? ,ro"rams to address this question have ran"ed &rom total immersion in #n"lish &rom a youn" a"e <the >sink or s1im@ approach= to phasin" in #n"lish over a period o& several years <sometimes called an additive approach to bilin"ual education=. %n "eneral, evaluations o& bilin"ual pro"rams have &avored the more additive approaches <7eykont, 3003=. 7oth lan"ua"es are developed and supported, and students ideally become able to use either lan"ua"e permanently, thou"h o&ten &or di&&erent situations or purposes. A student may end up usin" #n"lish in the classroom or at 1ork, &or example, but continue usin" (panish at home or 1ith &riends, even thou"h he or she is per&ectly capable o& speakin" #n"lish 1ith them.
;:
A .lobal Text
4. Student diversity
2anguage loss
5hat about the other kind o& imbalance, in 1hich a student is acquirin" #n"lish but losin" ability 1ith the studentJs home or herita"e lan"ua"e? This sort o& bilin"ualism is quite common in the 4nited (tates and other nations 1ith immi"rant populations <Tse, 3008=. %ma"ine this situation First$"eneration immi"rants arrive, and they soon learn /ust enou"h #n"lish to mana"e their 1ork and daily needs, but continue usin" their ori"inal lan"ua"e at home 1ith &amily and &riends &rom their &ormer country. Their children, ho1ever, experience stron" expectations and pressure to learn and use #n"lish, and this circumstance dilutes the childrenJs experience 1ith the herita"e lan"ua"e. 7y the time the children become adults, they are likely to speak and 1rite #n"lish better than their herita"e lan"ua"e, and may even be unable or un1illin" to use the herita"e lan"ua"e 1ith their o1n children <the "randchildren o& the ori"inal immi"rants=. This situation mi"ht not at &irst seem like a problem &or 1hich 1e, as teachers, need to take responsibility, since the children immi"rants, as students, are acquirin" the dominant lan"ua"e o& instruction. %n &act, ho1ever, thin"s are not that simple. -esearch &inds that lan"ua"e loss limits studentsJ ability to learn #n"lish as 1ell or as quickly as they other1ise can do. 6avin" a lar"e vocabulary in a &irst lan"ua"e, &or example, has been sho1n to save time in learnin" vocabulary in a second lan"ua"e <6ansen, 4meda P )c'inney, 3003=. 7ut students can only reali2e the savin"s i& their &irst lan"ua"e is preserved. ,reservin" the &irst lan"ua"e is also important i& a student has impaired skill in all lan"ua"es and there&ore needs intervention or help &rom a speech$lan"ua"e specialist. -esearch has &ound, in such cases, that the specialist can be more e&&ective i& the specialist speaks and uses the &irst lan"ua"e as 1ell as #n"lish <'ohnert, et al., 300A=. .enerally, thou"h also more indirectly, minimi2in" lan"ua"e loss helps all bilin"ual studentsJ education because preservation tends to enrich studentsJ and parentsJ ability to communicate 1ith each other. 5ith t1o lan"ua"es to 1ork 1ith, parents can stay >in the loop@ better about their childrenJs educations and support the teacherJs 1orkK&or example, by assistin" more e&&ectively 1ith home1ork <#bert, 300A=. Bote that in the early years o& schoolin", lan"ua"e loss can be minimi2ed to some extent by the additive or parallel$track bilin"ual pro"rams that % mentioned above. For a &e1 years, thou"h not &orever, youn" students are encoura"ed to use %oth o& their lan"ua"es. %n hi"h school, in addition, some conventional &orei"n lan"ua"e classesK notably in (panishKcan be ad/usted to include and support students 1ho are already native speakers o& the lan"ua"e alon"side students 1ho are learnin" it &or the &irst time <Tse, 3008=. 7ut &or herita"e lan"ua"es not normally o&&ered as >&orei"n@ lan"ua"es in school, o& course, this approach 1ill not 1ork. (uch lan"ua"es are especially at risk &or bein" lost.
Cultural di&&erences in lan"ua"e use

Cultures and ethnic "roups di&&er not only in lan"ua"es, but also in ho1 lan"ua"es are used. (ince some o& the patterns di&&er &rom those typical o& modern classrooms, they can create misunderstandin"s bet1een teachers and students <Ca2den, 3008I -o"ers, et al., 300A=. Consider these examples %n some cultures, it is considered polite or even intelli"ent not to speak unless you have somethin" truly important to say. >Chitchat@, or talk that simply a&&irms a personal tie bet1een people, is considered immature or intrusive <)inami, 3003=. %n a classroom, this habit can make it easier &or a child to learn not to interrupt others, but it can also make the child seem un&riendly.
;;

Eye contact varies by culture. %n many A&rican American and Latin American communities, it is considered
appropriate and respect&ul &or a child not to look directly at an adult 1ho is speakin" to them <Torres$ .u2man, 899D=. %n classrooms, ho1ever, teachers o&ten expect a lot o& eye contact <as in >% 1ant all eyes on meL@= and may be tempted to construe lack o& eye contact as a si"n o& indi&&erence or disrespect.
Social distance varies by culture. %n some cultures, it is common to stand relatively close 1hen havin" a
conversationI in others, it is more customary to stand relatively &ar apart <7eaulieu, 300F=. ,roblems may happen 1hen a teacher and a student pre&er di&&erent social distances. A student 1ho expects a closer distance than does the teacher may seem overly &amiliar or intrusive, 1hereas one 1ho expects a lon"er distance may seem overly &ormal or hesitant.
Eait time varies by culture. 5ait time is the "ap bet1een the end o& one personJs comment or question and
the next personJs reply or ans1er. %n some cultures 1ait time is relatively lon"Kas lon" as three or &our seconds <Tharp P .allimore, 89D9=. %n others it is a >ne"ative@ "ap, meanin" that it is acceptable, even expected, &or a person to interrupt be&ore the end o& the previous comment. %n classrooms the 1ait time is customarily about one secondI a&ter that, the teacher is likely to move on to another question or to another student. A student 1ho habitually expects a 1ait time lon" than one second may seem hesitant, and not be "iven many chances to speak. A student 1ho expects a >ne"ative@ 1ait time, on the other hand, may seem overea"er or even rude.
%n most non$An"lo cultures, &uestions are intended to "ain in&ormation, and it is assumed that a person
askin" the question truly does not have the in&ormation requested <-o"o&&, 3003=. %n most classrooms, ho1ever, teachers re"ularly ask test &uestions, 1hich are questions to 1hich the teacher already kno1s the ans1er and that simply assess 1hether a student kno1s the ans1er as 1ell <)acbeth, 3003=. The question '9o much is C P C-) &or example, is a test question. %& the student is not a1are o& this purpose, he or she may become con&used, or think that the teacher is surprisin"ly i"norantL 5orse yet, the student may &eel that the teacher is tryin" deliberately to shame the student by revealin" the studentJs i"norance or incompetence to others.
Cultural di&&erences in attitudes and belie&s

%n addition to di&&erences in lan"ua"e and in practices related to lan"ua"e, cultural "roups di&&er in a variety o& other attitudes and belie&s. Complete descriptions o& the details o& the di&&erences have &illed entire books o& encyclopedias <see, &or example, 7irx, 300A=. For teachers, ho1ever, the most important ones center on belie&s about identity/ or the sense o& sel&, or o& >1ho you are@. A number o& other cultural belie&s and practices can be understood as resultin" &rom ho1 members o& a culture think about personal identity. %n 1hite, middle$class American culture, the sel& is usually thou"ht o& as unique and independentKa unitary, livin" source o& decisions, choices, and actions that stands <or should eventually stand= by itsel& <.reen&ield, et al., 3003I -o"o&&, 3003=. This vie1 o& the sel& is 1ell entrenched in schools, as &or example 1hen students are expected to take responsibility &or their o1n successes or &ailures and 1hen they are tested and evaluated individually rather than as a "roup or team. As teachers, &urthermore, most o& us subscribe to the idea that all students are unique, even i& 1e cannot implement this idea &ully in teachin" because o& the constraints o& lar"e classes. 5hatever the circumstances, teachers tend to believe in an independent self. Educational Psychology
;D
A .lobal Text
4. Student diversity To a "reater or lesser extent, ho1ever, the ma/ority o& non$1hite cultures and ethnic "roups believe in somethin" closer to an interdependent self/ or a belie& that it is your relationships and responsibilities, and not uniqueness and autonomy, that de&ines a person <.reen&ield, 899FI .reen&ield, et al., 3003=. %n these cultures, the most 1orthy person is not the one 1ho is unusual or 1ho stands out in a cro1d. (uch a person mi"ht actually be re"arded as lonely or isolated. The 1orthy person is instead the one 1ho "ets alon" 1ell 1ith &amily and &riends, and 1ho meets obli"ations to them reliably and skill&ully. At some level, o& course, 1e all value interpersonal skill and to this extent think o& ourselves as interdependent. The di&&erence bet1een individual and interdependent sel& is one o& emphasis, 1ith many non$1hite cultures emphasi2in" interdependence si"ni&icantly more than 1hite middle$class society in "eneral and more than schools in particular. There can be consequences o& the di&&erence in ho1 the students respond to school. 6ere are some o& the possibilitiesKthou"h keep in mind that there are also di&&erences amon" students as individuals, 1hatever their cultural back"round. % am talkin" about tendencies, not strai"ht&or1ard predictions.
Preference for activities that are coo*erative rather than com*etitive" )any activities in school are
competitive, even 1hen teachers try to de$emphasi2e the competition. Cnce past the &irst year or second year o& school, students o&ten become attentive to 1ho receives the hi"hest marks on an assi"nment, &or example, or 1ho is the best athlete at various sports or 1hose contributions to class discussion the most verbal reco"nition &rom the teacher <+ohnson P +ohnson, 899D=. (uppose, in addition, that a teacher deliberately or"ani2es important activities or assi"nments competitively <as in >LetJs see 1ho &inishes the math sheet &irst.@=. Classroom li&e can then become explicitly competitive, and the competitive atmosphere can inter&ere 1ith cultivatin" supportive relationships amon" students or bet1een students and the teacher <Cohen, 300F=. For students 1ho "ive priority to these relationships, competition can seem con&usin" at best and threatenin" at 1orst. 5hat sort o& sharin" or helpin" 1ith ans1ers, the student may ask, is truly le"itimate? %& the teacher ans1ers this question more narro1ly than does the student, then 1hat the student vie1s as cooperative sharin" may be seen by the teacher as la2iness, >&reeloadin"@, or even cheatin".
Avoidance of standing out *u%licly" #ven 1hen 1e, as teachers, avoid obvious &orms o& competition, 1e
may still interact &requently 1ith students one at a time 1hile allo1in" or invitin" many others to observe the conversation. An especially common pattern &or such conversations is sometimes called the &-! cycle, an abbreviation &or the teacher initiating, a student res*onding, and the teacher then evaluating the response <)ehan, 89;9=. 5hat is sometimes taken &or "ranted is ho1 o&ten %-# cycles are 1itnessed publicly, and ho1 much the publicity can be stress&ul or embarrassin" &or students 1ho do not value standin" out in a "roup but 1ho do value belon"in" to the "roup. The embarrassment can be especially acute i& they &eel unsure about 1hether they have correct kno1led"e or skill to display. To keep such students &rom >clammin" up@ completely, there&ore, teachers should consider limitin" %-# cycles to times 1hen they are truly productive. %-# conversations may o&ten 1ork best 1hen talkin" 1ith a student privately, or 1hen con&irmin" kno1led"e that the student is likely to be able to display competently already, or 1hen >choral@ speakin" <respondin" to"ether in unison= is appropriate.
,nter*ersonal time versus cloc# time" %n order to &unction, all schools rely on &airly precise units o& time as
measured on clocks. Teachers typically allot a &ixed number o& minutes to one lesson or class, another &ixed
;9
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License number o& minutes &or the next, another &or recess or lunch time, and so on. %n more 1ays than one, there&ore, bein" on time becomes especially valued in schools, as it is in many parts o& society. ,unctuality is not al1ays conducive, ho1ever, to stron" personal relationships, 1hich develop best 1hen individuals do not end /oint activities unilaterally or arbitrarily, but allo1 activities to >&inish themselves@, so to speakKto &inish naturally. %& personal relationships are a broad, important priority &or a student, there&ore, it may take e&&ort and practice by the student to learn the extent to 1hich schools and teachers expect punctuality. ,unctuality includes the obvious, like sho1in" up &or school 1hen school is actually scheduled to be"in. 7ut it also includes subtleties, like startin" and &inishin" tasks 1hen the teacher tells students to do so, or ans1erin" a question promptly at the time it is asked rather than sometime later 1hen discussion has already moved on.
ccommodating diversity in practice

6ope&ully % have persuaded youKi& you did need persuadin"Kthat students are indeed diverse. The important question that &ollo1s &rom this point is 1hat to do about the diversity. % have be"un ans1erin" that question by includin" a number o& su""estions in the sections and para"raphs o& this chapter. 7ut there is obviously more to be said about accommodating diversityKabout actually 1orkin" 1ith studentsJ diversity and turnin" it into a resource rather than a burden or challen"e. %n the rest o& this book there&ore % o&&er more su""estions not only about kno1in" ho1 di&&erent one student can be &rom another, but also about diversi&yin" teachin" to ackno1led"e this &act. *i&&erences amon" students remain a challen"e durin" all phases o& teachin", &rom plannin" instruction, to implementin" lessons and activities, to assessin" studentsJ learnin" a&ter lessons or activities are all &inished. %n the next chapter, % illustrate this reality by describin" ho1 students 1ith disabilities can be included in classroom li&eK one o& the more tellin" examples o& accommodatin" to diversity.
Chapter summary
(tudents di&&er in a multitude o& 1ays, both individually and as "roups. %ndividually, &or example, students have a pre&erred learnin" style as 1ell as pre&erred co"nitive or thinkin" styles. They also have unique pro&iles or intelli"ence or competence that a&&ect ho1 and 1hat they learn most success&ully. %n addition to individual diversity, students tend to di&&er accordin" to their "ender, althou"h there are numerous individual exceptions. )otor abilities as 1ell as motivation and experience 1ith athletics "radually di&&erentiate boys and "irls, especially 1hen they reach and be"in hi"h school. (ocially, boys tend to adopt relationships that are more active and 1ide$ran"in" than do "irls. Academically, "irls tend to be a bit more motivated to receive sli"htly hi"her marks in school. Teachers sometimes contribute to "ender role di&&erencesK perhaps 1ithout intendin"Kby payin" attention to boys more &requently and more publicly in class, and by distributin" praise and criticism in 1ays di&&erentiated by sex. (tudents also di&&er accordin" to cultures, lan"ua"e, and ethnic "roups o& their &amilies. )any students are bilin"ual, 1ith educational consequences that depend on their &luency in each o& their t1o lan"ua"es. %& they have more di&&iculty 1ith #n"lish, then pro"rams that add their &irst lan"ua"e to"ether 1ith #n"lish have proved to be help&ul. %& they have more di&&iculty 1ith their &irst lan"ua"e, they are risk &or lan"ua"e loss, and the consequences are also ne"ative even i& more hidden &rom teachersJ vie1s.
D0
A .lobal Text
4. Student diversity %n addition to lan"ua"e di&&erences as such, students di&&er accordin" to culture in ho1 lan"ua"e is used or practicedKin takin" turns at speakin", in eye contact, social distance, 1ait time, and the use o& questions. (ome o& these di&&erences in practice stem &rom cultural di&&erences in attitudes about sel&$identity, 1ith non$An"lo culturally tendin" to support a more interdependent vie1 o& the sel& than An"lo culture or the schools. *i&&erences in attitudes and in use o& lan"ua"e have several consequences &or teachers. %n particularK1here appropriateKthey should consider usin" cooperative activities, avoid hi"hli"htin" individualsJ accomplishments or &ailures, and be patient about studentsJ learnin" to be punctual.
Cn the %nternet
<(((.nabe.org> This is the 1ebsite &or the Bational Association o& 7ilin"ual #ducators, 1hich represents both #n"lish Lan"ua"e Learners and their teachers. The 1ebsite o&&ers a variety o& in&ormation, &ree o& char"e, about all aspects o& bilin"ual education, includin" introductory summaries o& the &ield, position papers released to the "overnment and the press, and research articles &rom their /ournals. Q(((.singlese"schools.orgR This 1ebsite represents the Bational Association &or (in"le (ex ,ublic #ducation, 1hich as its name implies advocates &or all$"irl and all$boy classes and schools. The 1ebsite contains thou"ht&ul summaries o& the advanta"es to both boys and "irls i& they are educated separately and in public schools. 5hether you a"ree 1ith their point o& vie1 or not, their point o& vie1 is 1orth considerin"I thou"h keep in mind that their supportin" in&ormation tends to come &rom media sources <e.". ne1spapers= instead o& &ull$&led"ed research studies.
'ey terms
A&rican$American #n"lish 7alanced bilin"ualism 7ilin"ual Co"nitive styles Culture *ialect #bonics #n"lish lan"ua"e learner <#LL= #thnicity #ye contact Field dependence Field independence .ender roles .roup di&&erences %dentity %mpulsivity %ndependent sel& %ndividual di&&erences %nterdependent sel& %-# cycle Lan"ua"e loss Learnin" styles Limited #n"lish learner <L#L= )etaco"nition )ultiple intelli"ences -e&lectivity (ocial distance Test questions 4nbalanced bilin"ualism 5ait time
-e&erences
7aso1, (. P -uben&eld, '. <3003=. >Troubles talk@ #&&ects o& "ender and "ender$typin". Se4 Roles, >A<3UF=, 8D3$8DD. 7eykont, 0. <#d.=. <3003=. The *o er of culture" Teaching across language difference. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard #ducation ,ublishin" .roup. 7eaulieu, C. <300F=. %ntercultural study o& personal space A case study. Journal of A**lied Social Psychology, ;><F=, ;9F$D0A. D8
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 7irx, 6. +. <300A=. Encyclo*edia of human anthro*ology. Thousand Caks, CA (a"e ,ublications. 7ohn, A. <3003=. Familiar voices 4sin" #bonics communication techniques in the primary classroom. Ir%an Education, ;A<:=, :DD$;0;. 7raddock, +., (okol$'at2, +., .reene, A., P 7asin"er$Fleischman, L. <300A=. 4neven playin" &ields (tate variations in boysJ and "irlsJ access to and participation in hi"h school interscholastic sports. Sociological S*ectrum, 3A<3=, 338$3A0. Ca2den, C. <3008=. Classroom discourse, Cnd edition. ,ortsmouth, B6 6eineman ,ublishers. Cohen, #. <300F=. Teaching coo*erative learning" The challenge for teacher education. Albany, BM (tate 4niversity o& Be1 Mork ,ress. *avies, +. <300A=. #xpressions o& "ender An analysis o& pupilsJ "endered discourse styles in small "roup classroom discussions. !iscourse and Society, B><3=, 88A$833. *avis, .. P -imm, (. <300F=. Education of the gifted and talented, ?th edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. *elamont, (. <899:=. Eomen(s *lace in education. 7rook&ield, )A Avebury ,ublishers. #bert, +. <300A=. Lin"uistics Ton"ue tied. 0ature, >;A, 8FD$8F9. #rden, F. P 5ol&"an", C. <300F=. An exploration o& the di&&erences in teachersJ belie&s related to discipline 1hen dealin" 1ith male and &emale students. Early Child !evelo*ment and Care, B=><8=, 3$88. #isner, #. <300F=. )ultiple intelli"ences %ts tensions and possibilities. Teachers College Record, B<:<8=, 38. #spela"e, *. P (1earer, (. <300F=. +ullying in American schools" A socio3ecological *ers*ective on *revention and intervention. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. #vans, C. <300F=. #xplorin" the relationship bet1een co"nitive style and teachin" style. Educational *sychology, C><F=, A09$A30. Francis, B. <300:=. The development o& secondary discourse ability and metalin"uistic a1areness in second lan"ua"e learners. ,nternational Journal of A**lied 2inguistics, B:, 3;$F;. Freeman, *. <300F=. Trends in educational e&uity of girls and omen. 5ashin"ton, *.C. 4nited (tates
*epartment o& #ducation, Bational Center &or #ducational (tatistics. Friend, ). <300;=. S*ecial education" Contem*orary *ers*ectives for school *rofessionals, Cnd edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. .ardner, 6. <89D3=. 7rames of mind" The theory of multi*le intelligences. Be1 Mork 7asic 7ooks. .ardner, 6. <3003, April 38=. @ulti*le intelligences after t enty years. ,aper presented at the American #ducational -esearch Association, Chica"o, %L. .arlick, '. <3003=. 4nderstandin" the nature o& the "eneral &actor o& intelli"ence. Psychological revie , B<F<8=, 88:$83:. .olombok, (. P Fivush, -. <899F=. Kender develo*ment. Be1 Mork Cambrid"e 4niversity ,ress.
D3
A .lobal Text
4. Student diversity .reen&ield, ,. <899F=. %ndependence and interdependence as cultural scripts. %n ,. .reen&ield P -. Cockin" <#ds.=, Cross3cultural roots of minority child develo*ment, pp. 8$F0. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. .reen&ield, ,., 'eller, 6., Fuli"ni, A., P )aynard, A. <3003=. Cultural path1ays throu"h universal development. Annual Revie of Psychology, ?>, F:8$F90.
.ott&redson, L. <300F=. %ntelli"ence %s it the epidemiolo"istsJ elusive >&undamental cause@ o& social class inequalities in health? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, A:<8=, 8;F$899. 6ansen, L., 4meda, M., P )c'inney, ). <3003=. (avin"s in the relearnin" o& second lan"ua"e vocabulary The e&&ects o& time and pro&iciency. 2anguage 2earning, ?C, :A3$::3. 6yde, +. <300A=. The "ender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, :<<:=, AD8$A93. +imene2, -., .arcia, .., P ,earson. *. <899A=. Three children, t1o lan"ua"es, and strate"ic readin" Case studies in bilin"ualUmonolin"ual readin". American Educational Research Journal, ;C<8=, :;$9;. +ohnson, *. P +ohnson, -. <899D=. 2earning together and alone" Coo*erative, com*etitive, and individualistic learning, ?th edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. 'ohn, A. <300F=. Test today, privati2e tomorro1. Phi !elta Ka**an, A?<D=, A:D$A;;. 'ohnert, '., Mim, *., Bett, '., 'an, ,., P *uran, L. <300A=. %ntervention 1ith lin"uistically diverse preschool children. 2anguage, S*eech, and 9earing Services in Schools, ;:, 3A8$3:3. Loo, -. <300F=. 'olbJs learnin" styles and learnin" pre&erences %s there a linka"e? Educational *sychology, C><8=, 99$80D. Lubinski, *. <300F=. 800 years a&ter (pearmanJs >[.eneral %ntelli"ence,J Cb/ectively *etermined and )easured@. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, A:<8=, 9:$888. )acbeth, *. <3003=. 6u"h )ehanJs >Learnin" Lessons@ reconsidered Cn the di&&erences bet1een naturalistic and critical analysis o& classroom discourse. American Educational Research Journal, ><<8=, 339$3D0. )accoby, #. <3003=. Kender and social e4change" A develo*mental *ers*ective. (an Francisco +ossey$7ass. )artine2$-oldan, C. P )alave, .. <300F=. Lan"ua"e ideolo"ies mediatin" literacy and identity in bilin"ual contexts. Journal of early childhood literacy, ><3=, 8AA$8D0. )easor, L. P (ykes, ,. <8993=. Kender and schools. Be1 Mork Cassell. )ehan, 6. <89;9=. 2earning lessons" social organi/ation in the classroom. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. )essner, )., *unca, )., P Cooky, C. <3003=. (ilence, sports bras, and 1restlin" porn. Journal of S*ort and Social ,ssues, C=<8=, 3D$A8. )eyers$(utton, C. <300A=. @ulti*le voices" An introduction to %ilingualism. )alden, )A 7lack1ell ,ublishers.
D3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License )inami, ). <3003=. Culture3s*ecific language styles" The develo*ment of oral narrative and literacy. Clevedon, 4' )ultilin"ual )atters. )yaskovsky, L, 4nikel, #., P *e1, ). <300A=. #&&ects o& "ender diversity on per&ormance and interpersonal behavior in small 1ork "roups. Se4 Roles, ?C<9U80=, :FA$:A;. ,ritchard, A. <300A=. Eays of learning" 2earning theories and learning styles in the classroom. London, 4' *avid Fulton. -o"ers, -., )alancharuvil$7erkes, #., )osely, )., 6ui, *., P CJ.arro, .. <300A=. Critical discourse analysis in education A revie1 o& the literature. Revie of Educational Research, =?<3=, 3:A$F8:.
-o"o&&, 7. <3003=. The culture of human develo*ment. Be1 Mork Cx&ord 4niversity ,ress. (adker, *. <3003=. An educatorJs primer on the "ender 1ar. Phi !elta Ka**an, A><3=, 33A$3F0. (hiever, (. P )aker, C. <3003=. Be1 directions in enrichment and acceleration. %n B. Colan"elo P .. *avis <#ds.=, 9and%oo# fo gifted education, ;rd edition <pp. 8:3$8;3=. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. (tahl, (. <3003=. *i&&erent strokes &or di&&erent &olks? %n L. Abbeduto <#d.=, Ta#ing sides" Clashing on controversial issue sin educational *sychology <pp. 9D$80;=. .uil&ord, CT )c.ra1 6ill. (teiner, 6. P Carr, ). <3003=. Co"nitive development in "i&ted children To1ard a more precise understandin" o& emer"in" di&&erences in intelli"ence. Educational Psychology Revie , B?, 38A$3F:. Tannen, *. <3008=. Qou $ust don(t understand" @en and omen in conversation. Be1 Mork Tuill.
Tharp, -. P .allimore, -. <89D9=. Rousing minds to life. Be1 Mork Cambrid"e 4niversity ,ress. Torres$.u2man, ). <899D=. Lan"ua"e culture, and literacy in ,uerto -ican communities. %n 7. ,ere2 <#d.=, Sociocultural conte4ts of language and literacy. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. Tse, L. <3008=. Ehy don(t they learn English- Be1 Mork TeachersJ Colle"e ,ress. 4nited (tates *epartment o& Commerce, 7ureau o& the Census. <3003=. American community survey. 5ashin"ton, *.C. Author. 5ilkinson, L. P )arrett, C. <#ds.=. <89DA=. Kender influences in classroom interaction. Crlando, FL Academic ,ress. 0han", L. P (ternber", -. <300A=. Three$&old model o& intellectual styles. Educational *sychology revie , B=<8=. 0han", L. P (ternber", -. <300:=. The nature o& intellectual styles. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum
DF
A .lobal Text
5. Students #ith special educational needs

Three people on the margins
3he first person$ %n 8;:8 a six$year$old "irl 1as captured &rom 5est A&rica, "iven the name ,hillis 5heatley, and sold into slavery in the City o& 7oston in Colonial America. 7y the time she 1as 8;, ,hillis had tau"ht hersel& to read and 1rite and had developed a special love and talent &or poetry. 6er o1ner 1as a 1ealthy businessman and sou"ht to improve his reputation by publishin" an antholo"y o& her poems. 4n&ortunately he encountered sti&& resistance &rom publishers because &e1 people at that time believed A&ricans to be capable o& the thou"ht and ima"ination needed to 1rite poetry. ,eople 1ho heard o& her poetry 1ere skeptical and inclined to think that it 1as &aked. #ventually, to save his o1n reputation, the o1ner assembled a tribunal o& 8D prominent /ud"esKincludin" the "overnor o& )assachusetts and +ohn 6ancock, one o& the si"ners o& the *eclaration o& %ndependenceKto assess the youn" 1omanJs mental capacity. A&ter cross$examinin" her, the /ud"es &inally decided that )s 5heatley 1as, a&ter all, capable o& 1ritin" poetry <-obinson, 89D3=. 3he second person$ A century later, a child named 6elen 'eller lost her si"ht and hearin" as a result o& illness durin" in&ancy. %n spite o& this mis&ortune, thou"h, 6elen devised a lan"ua"e o& "estural si"ns &or communicatin" 1ith a tutor, and 1as soon also usin" 7raille to study both French and Latin. At ten, she 1rote and published a short story. Met like )s 5heatley, )s 'eller also &aced substantial, chronic skepticism about her capacities. ,rominent educators accused her o& pla"iari2in" othersJ 1ritin"s and merely >parrotin"@ othersJ ideas 1ithout understandin" them <'eller, 89AFI 7o"dan, 300:=. #ventually, as 1ith 5heatley, a panel 1as assembledKthou"h this time the members 1ere pro&essional experts about disabilitiesKto determine 1hether )s 'eller 1as in &act capable o& 1ritin" 1hat she published. The panel decided that she 1as indeed capable, thou"h only by a slim mar"in <&ive /ud"es vs &our=. 3he third person$ %n 89;D, (ue -ubin 1as born 1ith a disability that limited her speech to disordered bursts o& sound and occasionally echoin" phrases o& other people. (he 1as labeled autistic because o& her symptoms, and assumed to be pro&oundly retarded. 5ith support and encoura"ement &rom her mother and others, ho1ever, (ue eventually learned to type on a keyboard 1ithout assistance. (he learned to communicate e&&ectively 1hen she 1as about 83 and 1as able to "o to school. (ince then she has made many presentations about autism at con&erences and recently co$edited a book about autism, titled Autism" The @yth of the Person Alone <7o"dan, et al., 300A=. Cne o& these individuals experienced racial discrimination and the other t1o experienced physical disabilities, but notice somethin" important that all three 1ere de&ined by society as disabled intellectually. %nitially, their
DA
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs achievements 1ere dismissed because o& 1idespread assumptionsK1hether about race or disabilityKo& their inherent incompetence. All three had to 1ork harder than usual, not only to acquire literacy itsel&, but also to prove that their literacy 1as "enuine and 1orthy o& respect. (ince the time o& ,hillis 5heatley, Borth American society has eliminated slavery and made some pro"ress at reducin" certain &orms o& racism, thou"h much remains to be done. %n 89AF, &or example, the 4nited (tates (upreme Court ruled that public schools could not be se"re"ated by race, and in doin" so reco"ni2ed, at least le"ally, the intellectual competence o& A&rican$Americans as 1ell as the moral obli"ation o& society to provide all citi2ens 1ith the best possible education. %t has taken lon"er to reco"ni2e le"ally the ri"hts and competence o& persons 1ith disabilities, but events and trends be"innin" in the 89;0s have be"un to make it happen. This chapter be"ins by explainin" some o& these and ho1 they have altered the 1ork o& teachers.
2ro#ing support for people #ith disabilities) legislation and its effects
(ince the 89;0s political and social attitudes have moved increasin"ly to1ard includin" people 1ith disabilities into a 1ide variety o& >re"ular@ activities. %n the 4nited (tates, the shi&t is illustrated clearly in the Federal le"islation that 1as enacted durin" this time. The le"islation partly stimulated the chan"e in attitudes, but at the same time they partly resulted &rom the chan"e. Three ma/or la1s 1ere passed that "uaranteed the ri"hts o& persons 1ith disabilities, and o& children and students 1ith disabilities in particular. Althou"h the &irst t1o a&&ected teachersJ 1ork in the classroom, the third has had the bi""est impact on education.
-ehabilitation Act o& 89;3, (ection A0F

This la1Kthe &irst o& its kindKrequired that individuals 1ith disabilities be accommodated in any pro"ram or activity that receives Federal &undin" <,L 93$883, 89;3=. Althou"h this la1 1as not intended speci&ically &or education, in practice it has protected studentsJ ri"hts in some extra$curricular activities <&or older students= and in some child care or a&ter$school care pro"rams <&or youn"er students=. %& those pro"rams receive Federal &undin" o& any kind, the pro"rams are not allo1ed to exclude children or youths 1ith disabilities, and they have to &ind reasonable 1ays to accommodate the individualsJ disabilities.
Americans 1ith *isabilities Act o& 8990 <or A*A=.

This le"islation also prohibited discrimination on the basis o& disability, /ust as (ection A0F o& the -ehabilitation Act had done <,L 808$33:, 8990=. Althou"h the A*A also applies to all people <not /ust to students=, its provisions are more speci&ic and >stron"er@ than those o& (ection A0F. %n particular, A*A extends to all employment and /obs, not /ust those receivin" Federal &undin". %t also speci&ically requires accommodations to be made in public &acilities such as 1ith buses, restrooms, and telephones. A*A le"islation is there&ore responsible &or some o& the >minor@ renovations in schools that you may have noticed in recent years, like 1heelchair$accessible doors, ramps, and restrooms, and public telephones 1ith volume controls.
%ndividuals 1ith *isabilities #ducation Act <or %*#A=

As its name implied this le"islation 1as more &ocused on education than either (ection A0F or A*A. %t 1as &irst passed in 89;A and has been amended several times since, includin" most recently in 300F <,L 80D$FF:, 300F=. %n its current &orm, the la1 "uarantees the &ollo1in" ri"hts related to education &or anyone 1ith a disability &rom birth to a"e 38. The &irst t1o in&luence schoolin" in "eneral, but the last three a&&ect the 1ork o& classroom teachers rather directly D:

7ree, a**ro*riate education" An individual or an individualJs &amily should not have to pay &or education
simply because the individual has a disability, and the educational pro"ram should be truly educational <i.e. not merely care$takin" or >babysittin"@ o& the person=.
!ue *rocess" %n case o& disa"reements bet1een an individual 1ith a disability and the schools or other
pro&essionals, there must be procedures &or resolvin" the disa"reements that are &air and accessible to all partiesKincludin" the person himsel& or hersel& or the personJs representative.
7air evaluation of *erformance in s*ite of disa%ility" Tests or other evaluations should not assume test$
takin" skills that a person 1ith a disability cannot reasonably be expected to have, such as holdin" a pencil, hearin" or seein" questions, 1orkin" quickly, or understandin" and speakin" orally. #valuation procedures should be modi&ied to allo1 &or these di&&erences. This provision o& the la1 applies %oth to evaluations made by teachers and to school$1ide or >hi"h$stakes@ testin" pro"rams.
Education in the 'least restrictive environment)" #ducation &or someone 1ith a disability should provide as
many educational opportunities and options &or the person as possible, both in the short term and in the lon" term. %n practice this requirement has meant includin" students in re"ular classrooms and school activities as much as possible, thou"h o&ten not totally.
An individuali/ed educational *rogram" .iven that every disability is unique, instructional plannin" &or a
person 1ith a disability should be unique or individuali2ed as 1ell. %n practice this provision has led to classroom teachers plannin" individuali2ed pro"rams /ointly 1ith other pro&essionals <like readin" specialists, psycholo"ists, or medical personnel= as part o& a team. Considered to"ether, these provisions are both a cause and an e&&ect o& basic democratic philosophy. The le"islation says, in e&&ect, that all individuals should have access to society in "eneral and to education in particular. Althou"h teachers certainly support this philosophy in broad terms, and many have 1elcomed the %*#A le"islation, others have &ound the prospect o& applyin" it in classrooms leads to a number o& questions and concerns. (ome ask, &or example, 1hether a student 1ith a disability 1ill disrupt the classI others, 1hether the student 1ill inter&ere 1ith coverin" the curriculumI still others, 1hether the student mi"ht be teased by classmates. (ince these are le"itimate concerns, % 1ill return to them at the end o& this chapter. First, ho1ever, let me clari&y exactly ho1 the %*#A le"islation a&&ects the 1ork o& teachers, and then describe in more detail the ma/or disabilities that you are likely to encounter in students.
Responsibilities of teachers for students #ith disabilities

The %*#A le"islation has a&&ected the 1ork o& teachers by creatin" three ne1 expectations. The &irst expectation is to provide alternative methods o& assessment &or students 1ith disabilitiesI the second is to arran"e a learnin" environment that is as normal or as >least restrictive@ as possibleI and the third is to participate in creatin" individual educational plans &or students 1ith disabilities.
Alternative assessments
%n the context o& students 1ith disabilities, assessment re&ers to "atherin" in&ormation about a student in order both to identi&y the stren"ths o& the student, and to decide 1hat special educational support, i& any, the student needs. %n principle, o& course, these are tasks that teachers have &or all students assessment is a ma/or
D;
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs reason 1hy 1e "ive tests and assi"nments, &or example, and 1hy 1e listen care&ully to the quality o& studentsJ comments durin" class discussions. For students 1ith disabilities, ho1ever, such traditional or conventional strate"ies o& assessment o&ten seriously underestimate the studentsJ competence <'oret2 P 7arton, 3003U300FI ,ullin, 300A=. *ependin" on the disability, a student may have trouble 1ith <a= holdin" a pencil, <b= hearin" a question clearly, <c= &ocusin" on a picture, <d= markin" an ans1er in time even 1hen he or she kno1s the ans1er, <e= concentratin" on a task in the presence o& other people, or <&= ans1erin" a question at the pace needed by the rest o& the class. Traditionally, teachers have assumed that all students either have these skills or can learn them 1ith /ust modest amounts o& coachin", encoura"ement, and 1ill po1er. For many other students, &or example, it may be enou"h to say somethin" like >-emember to listen to the question care&ullyL@ For students 1ith disabilities, ho1ever, a comment like this may not 1ork and may even be insensitive. A student 1ith visual impairment does not need be reminded to >look closely at 1hat % am 1ritin" on the board@I doin" so 1ill not cause the student to see the chalkboard more clearlyKthou"h the reminder mi"ht increase the studentJs anxiety and sel&$consciousness. There are a number o& strate"ies &or modi&yin" assessments in 1ays that attempt to be &air and that at the same time reco"ni2e ho1 busy teachers usually are. Cne is to consider supplementin" conventional assi"nments or tests 1ith portfolios, 1hich are collections o& a studentJs 1ork that demonstrate a studentJs development over time, and 1hich usually include some sort o& re&lective or evaluative comments &rom the student, the teacher, or both <Carothers P Taylor, 3003I 5esson P 'in", 899:=. Another is to devise a system &or observin" the student re"ularly, even i& brie&ly, and in&ormally recordin" notes about the observations &or later consideration and assessment. A third strate"y is to recruit help &rom teacher assistants, 1ho are sometimes present to help a student 1ith a disabilityI an assistant can o&ten conduct a brie& test or activity 1ith the student, and later report on and discuss the results 1ith you. %& you re&lect on these strate"ies, you may reali2e that they may sometimes create issues about &airness. %& a student 1ith a disability demonstrates competence one 1ay but other students demonstrate it another, should they be "iven similar credit? Cn the other hand, is it &air &or one student to "et a lo1er mark because the student lacks an abilityKsuch as normal hearin"Kthat teachers cannot, in principle, ever teach? These ethical issues are le"itimate and important, and % there&ore return to them in Chapters 88 and 83, 1hich discuss assessment in much more detail.
Least restrictive environment

The %*#A le"islation calls &or placin" students 1ith disabilities in the least restrictive environment <or '-!=, de&ined as the combination o& settin"s that involve the student 1ith re"ular classrooms and school pro"rams as much as possible. The precise combination is determined by the circumstances o& a particular school and o& the student. A kinder"arten child 1ith a mild co"nitive disability, &or example, may spend the ma/ority o& time in a re"ular kinder"arten class, 1orkin" alon"side and playin" 1ith non$disabled classmates and relyin" on a teacher assistant &or help 1here needed. An individual 1ith a similar disability in hi"h school, ho1ever, mi"ht be assi"ned primarily to classes specially intended &or slo1 learners, but nonetheless participate in some school$1ide activities alon"side non$disabled students. The di&&erence in L-#s mi"ht re&lect teachersJ perceptions o& ho1 di&&icult it is to modi&y the curriculum in each caseI ri"htly or 1ron"ly, teachers are apt to re"ard adaptation as more challen"in" at >hi"her@ "rade levels. 7y the same token, a student 1ith a disability that is strictly physical mi"ht spend virtually all
DD
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License his or her time in re"ular classes throu"hout the studentJs school careerI in this case, ad/ustment o& the curriculum 1ould not be an issue. For you, the policy &avorin" the least restrictive environment means that i& you continue teachin" lon" enou"h, you 1ill very likely encounter a student 1ith a disability in one or more o& your classes, or at least have one in a school$related activity &or 1hich you are responsible. %t also means that the special educational needs o& these students 1ill most o&ten be the >mildest@. (tatistically, the most &requent &orms o& special needs are learning disa%ilities, 1hich are impairments in speci&ic aspects o& learnin", and especially o& readin". Learnin" disabilities account &or about hal& o& all special educational needsKas much as all other types put to"ether. (ome1hat less common are s*eech and language disorders, cognitive disa%ilities, and attention deficit hy*eractivity disorders <or A!9!). 7ecause o& their &requency and o& the likelihood that you 1ill meet students &or 1hom these labels have been considered, % describe them more &ully later in this chapter, alon" 1ith other disability conditions that you 1ill encounter much less &requently.
%ndividual educational plan

The third 1ay that %*#A le"islation and current educational approaches a&&ect teachers is by requirin" teachers and other pro&essional sta&& to develop an annual individual educational plan <or &!P= &or each student 1ith a disability. The plan is created by a team o& individuals 1ho kno1 the studentJs stren"ths and needsI at a minimum it includes one or more classroom teachers, a >resource@ or special education teacher, and the studentJs parents or "uardians. (ometimes, too, the team includes a school administrator <like a vice$principal= or other pro&essionals &rom outside the school <like a psycholo"ist or physician=, dependin" on the nature o& the childJs disability. An %#, can take many &orms, but it al1ays describes a studentJs current social and academic stren"ths as 1ell as the studentJs social or academic needs. %t also speci&ies educational "oals or ob/ectives &or the comin" year, lists special services to be provided, and describes ho1 pro"ress to1ard the "oals 1ill be assessed at the end o& the year. #xhibit : sho1s a simple, ima"inary %#,. <7ut keep in mind that the actual visual &ormats o& %#, plans vary 1idely amon" states, provinces, and school /urisdictions.= This particular plan is &or a student named (ean, a boy havin" di&&iculties 1ith readin". %#,s, like the one in the &i"ure, ori"inally served mainly students in the youn"er "rades, but more recently they have been extended and modi&ied to serve transition planning &or adolescents 1ith disabilities 1ho are approachin" the end o& their public schoolin" <5est, et al., 8999=. For these students, the "oals o& the plan o&ten include activities <like &indin" employment= to extend beyond schoolin". (ee belo1.
D9
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs
Student$ (ean Cortine2
*irth Date$ 3: )ay 3003
Period Covered by &!P$ (eptember 30xx \ +uly 30xy
Address School$ .rant ,ark )iddle (chool (upport Team 0rade 'evel$ 3
,hone 3eacher+s.$ .. #idse
List specialists <educational, medical, or other= involved in assistin" the student -esource teacher, instructional aide <part time= (pecial Curriculum Beeds to be Addressed List "eneral needs hereI use separate sheet<s= &or speci&ic, short$term ob/ectives as appropriate (ean can read short, &amiliar 1ords sin"ly, but cannot read connected text even 1hen &amiliar. Beeds help especially 1ith decodin" and other >1ord attack@ skills. (ome trouble &ocusin" on readin" tasks. (ean speaks clearly and o&ten listens 1ell 1hen the topic interests him. (pecial )aterials or #quipment Beeded )odi&ied test procedures and readin" materials as required. (i"natures
Parent or guardian"
'. Cortine2
Teacher1s)" .. #idse
Princi*al"
L. (tau&&er
!ate of ,EP @eeting" 3: Cctober 30xx #xhibit : A sample individual educational plan. <Bote that actual visual &ormats o& %#, plans vary.= %& you have a student 1ith an %#,, you can expect t1o consequences &or teachin". The &irst is that you should expect to make de&inite, clear plans &or the student, and to put the plans in 1ritin". This consequence does not, o& 90
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License course, prevent you &rom takin" advanta"e o& unexpected or spontaneous classroom events as 1ell in order to enrich the curriculum. 7ut it does mean that an educational pro"ram &or a student 1ith a disability cannot consist only o& the unexpected or spontaneous. The second consequence is that you should not expect to construct an educational plan alone, as is commonly done 1hen plannin" re"ular classroom pro"rams. 5hen it comes to students 1ith disabilities, expect instead to plan as part o& a team. 5orkin" 1ith others ensures that everyone 1ho is concerned about the student has a voice. %t also makes it possible to improve the quality o& %#,s by poolin" ideas &rom many sourcesKeven i&, as you mi"ht suspect, it also challen"es pro&essionals to communicate clearly and cooperate respect&ully 1ith team members in order to serve a student as 1ell as possible.
Categories of disabilities6and their ambiguities

(o &ar % have said a lot about 1hy inclusion has come to be important &or teachers, but not much about the actual nature o& studentsJ disabilities. ,art o& the reason &or delayin" 1as because, to put it simply, disabilities are inherently ambi"uous. Bamin" and describin" >types@ o& them implies that disabilities are relatively &ixed, stable, and distinct, like di&&erent kinds o& &ruit or ve"etables. As many teachers discover, thou"h, the reality is some1hat di&&erent. The behavior and qualities o& a particular student 1ith a disability can be hard to cate"ori2e. The student may be challen"ed not only by the disability, but also by experiences common to all students, disabled or not. Any particular disability, &urthermore, poses problems more in some situations than in others. A student 1ith a readin" di&&iculty may have trouble in a lan"ua"e arts class, &or example, but not in a physical education classI a student 1ith a hearin" impairment may have more trouble >hearin"@ a topic that he dislikes compared to one that he likes. 7ecause o&&icial descriptions o& types or cate"ories o& disabilities overlook these complexities, they risk stereotypin" the real, live people to 1hom they are applied <.reen, et al., 300A=. #ven the simpli&ications mi"ht not be a serious problem i& the resultin" stereotypes 1ere complimentaryKmost o& us 1ould not mind bein" called a >"enius@, &or example, even i& the description is not al1ays true. (tereotypes about disabilities, ho1ever, are usually sti"mati2in", not complimentary. (till, cate"ories o& disabilities do serve use&ul purposes by "ivin" teachers, parents, and other pro&essionals a lan"ua"e or &rame o& re&erence &or talkin" about disabilities. They also can help educators 1hen arran"in" special support services &or students, since a student has to >have@ an identi&iable, nameable need i& pro&essionals are to provide help. #ducational authorities have there&ore continued to use cate"ories <or >labels@= to classi&y disabilities in spite o& expressin" continuin" concern about 1hether the practice hurts studentsJ sel&$esteem or standin" in the eyes o& peers <7iklen P 'lie1er, 300:=. For classroom teachers, the best strate"y may be simply to understand ho1 cate"ories o& disabilities are de&ined, 1hile also keepin" their limitations in mind and bein" ready to explain their limitations <tact&ully, o& course= to parents or others 1ho use the labels inappropriately. That said, 1hat in &act are the ma/or types o& disabilities encountered by teachers? Let us take them one at a time, be"innin" 1ith the more common ones.
7earning disabilities
A learning disability <or 'D= is a speci&ic impairment o& academic learnin" that inter&eres 1ith a speci&ic aspect o& school1ork and that reduces a studentJs academic per&ormance si"ni&icantly. An L* sho1s itsel& as a ma/or discrepancy bet1een a studentJs ability and some &eature o& achievement the student may be delayed in readin", 1ritin", listenin", speakin", or doin" mathematics, but not in all o& these at once. A learnin" problem is not
98
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs considered a learning disability i& it stems &rom physical, sensory, or motor handicaps, or &rom "enerali2ed intellectual impairment <or mental retardation=. %t is also not an L* i& the learnin" problem really re&lects the challen"es o& learnin" #n"lish as a second lan"ua"e. .enuine L*s are the learnin" problems le&t over a&ter these other possibilities are accounted &or or excluded. Typically, a student 1ith an L* has not been helped by teachersJ ordinary e&&orts to assist the student 1hen he or she &alls behind academicallyKthou"h 1hat counts as an >ordinary e&&ort@, o& course, di&&ers amon" teachers, schools, and students. )ost importantly, thou"h, an L* relates to a &airly speci&ic area o& academic learnin". A student may be able to read and compute 1ell enou"h, &or example, but not be able to 1rite. L*s are by &ar the most common &orm o& special educational need, accountin" &or hal& o& all students 1ith special needs in the 4nited (tates and any1here &rom A to 30 per cent o& all students, dependin" on ho1 the numbers are estimated <4nited (tates *epartment o& #ducation, 300AI Msseldyke P 7ielinski, 3003=. (tudents 1ith L*s are so common, in &act, that most teachers re"ularly encounter at least one per class in any "iven school year, re"ardless o& the "rade level they teach.
*e&inin" learnin" disabilities clearly

5ith so many students de&ined as havin" learnin" disabilities, it is not surprisin" that the term itsel& becomes ambi"uous in the truest sense o& >havin" many meanin"s@. (peci&ic &eatures o& L*s vary considerably. Any o& the &ollo1in" students, &or example, quali&y as havin" a learnin" disability, assumin" that they have no other disease, condition, or circumstance to account &or their behavior
Albert, an ei"hth$"rader, has trouble solvin" 1ord problems that he reads, but can solve them easily i& he
hears them orally.

7ill, also in ei"hth "rade, has the reverse problem he can solve 1ord problems only 1hen he can read them,
not 1hen he hears them.

Carole, a &i&th$"rader, constantly makes errors 1hen she reads textual material aloud, either leavin" out
1ords, addin" 1ords, or substitutin" her o1n 1ords &or the printed text.
#mily, in seventh "rade, has terrible hand1ritin"I her letters vary in si2e and 1obble all over the pa"e,
much like a &irst$ or second$"rader.

*enny reads very slo1ly, even thou"h he is in &ourth "rade. 6is comprehension su&&ers as a result, because
he sometimes &or"ets 1hat he read at the be"innin" o& a sentence by the time he reaches the end.
.arnetJs spellin" 1ould have to be called >inventive@, even thou"h he has practiced conventionally correct
spellin" more than other students. .arnet is in sixth "rade.

6armin, a ninth$"rader has particular trouble decodin" individual 1ords and letters i& they are un&amiliarI
he reads conceal as >concol@ and alternate as >al&oonite@.

%rma, a tenth$"rader, adds multiple$di"it numbers as i& they 1ere sin"le$di"it numbers stuck to"ether >C P
?F equals FBB rather than B<B, thou"h C; P ?> correctly equals ==. 5ith so many expressions o& L*s, it is not surprisin" that educators sometimes disa"ree about their nature and about the kind o& help students need as a consequence. (uch controversy may be inevitable because L*s by 93
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License de&inition are learnin" problems 1ith no obvious ori"in. There is "ood ne1s, ho1ever, &rom this state o& a&&airs, in that it opens the 1ay to try a variety o& solutions &or helpin" students 1ith learnin" disabilities.
Assistin" students 1ith learnin" disabilities

There are various 1ays to assist students 1ith learnin" disabilities, dependin" not only on the nature o& the disability, o& course, but also on the concepts or theory o& learnin" "uidin" you. Take %rma, the "irl mentioned above 1ho adds t1o$di"it numbers as i& they 1ere one di"it numbers. (tated more &ormally, %rma adds t1o$di"it numbers 1ithout carryin" di"its &or1ard &rom the ones column to the tens column, or &rom the tens to the hundreds column. #xhibit ; sho1s the e&&ect that her strate"y has on one o& her home1ork papers. 5hat is "oin" on here and ho1 could a teacher help %rma? *irections Add the &ollo1in" numbers. F3 W A9 988 33 W AF ;; 88 W FD A9 F; W 33 :80 9; W :F 8A88 F8 W 3; :D
Three out o& the six problems are done correctly, even thou"h %rma seems to use an incorrect strate"y systematically on all six problems. #xhibit ; %rmaJs math home1ork about t1o$di"it addition
+ehaviorism" reinforcement for
rong strategies
Cne possible approach comes &rom the behaviorist theory discussed in Chapter 3. %rma may persist 1ith the sin"le$di"it strate"y because it has been rein&orced a lot in the past. )aybe she 1as re1arded so much &or addin" sin"le$di"it numbers <;P?, =PA etc.= correctly that she "enerali2ed this skill to t1o$di"it problemsKin &act over "enerali2ed it. This explanation is plausible because she 1ould still "et many t1o$di"it problems ri"ht, as you can con&irm by lookin" at it. %n behaviorist terms, her incorrect strate"y 1ould still be rein&orced, but no1 only on a >partial schedule o& rein&orcement@. As % pointed out in Chapter 3, partial schedules are especially slo1 to extin"uish, so %rma persists seemin"ly inde&initely 1ith treatin" t1o$di"it problems as i& they 1ere sin"le$di"it problems. From the point o& vie1 o& behaviorism, chan"in" %rmaJs behavior is tricky since the desired behavior <borro1in" correctly= rarely happens and there&ore cannot be rein&orced very o&ten. %t mi"ht there&ore help &or the teacher to re1ard behaviors that compete directly 1ith %rmaJs inappropriate strate"y. The teacher mi"ht reduce credit &or simply &indin" the correct ans1er, &or example, and increase credit &or a student sho1in" her 1orkKincludin" the 1ork o& carryin" di"its &or1ard correctly. Cr the teacher mi"ht make a point o& discussin" %rmaJs math 1ork 1ith %rma &requently, so as to create more occasions 1hen she can praise %rma &or 1orkin" problems correctly.
@etacognition and res*onding reflectively

,art o& %rmaJs problem may be that she is thou"htless about doin" her math the minute she sees numbers on a 1orksheet, she stu&&s them into the &irst arithmetic procedure that comes to mind. 6er learnin" style, that is, seems
93
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs too impulsive and not re&lective enou"h, as discussed in Chapter F. 6er style also su""ests a &ailure o& metaco"nition <remember that idea &rom Chapter 3?=, 1hich is her sel&$monitorin" o& her o1n thinkin" and its e&&ectiveness. As a solution, the teacher could encoura"e %rma to think out loud 1hen she completes t1o$di"it problemsKliterally "et her to >talk her 1ay throu"h@ each problem. %& participatin" in these conversations 1as sometimes impractical, the teacher mi"ht also arran"e &or a skilled classmate to take her place some o& the time. Cooperation bet1een %rma and the classmate mi"ht help the classmate as 1ell, or even improve overall social relationships in the classroom.
Constructivism, mentoring, and the /one of *ro4imal develo*ment

,erhaps %rma has in &act learned ho1 to carry di"its &or1ard, but not learned the procedure 1ell enou"h to use it reliably on her o1nI so she constantly &alls back on the earlier, better$learned strate"y o& sin"le$di"it addition. %n that case her problem can be seen in the constructivist terms, like those that % discussed in Chapter 3. %n essence, %rma has lacked appropriate mentorin" &rom someone more expert than hersel&, someone 1ho can create a >2one o& proximal development@ in 1hich she can display and consolidate her skills more success&ully. (he still needs mentorin" or >assisted coachin"@ more than independent practice. The teacher can arran"e some o& this in much the 1ay she encoura"es to be more re&lective, either by 1orkin" 1ith %rma hersel& or by arran"in" &or a classmate or even a parent volunteer to do so. %n this case, ho1ever, 1hoever serves as mentor should not only listen, but also actively o&&er %rma help. The help has to be /ust enou"h to insure that %rma completes t1o$di"it problems correctly Kneither more nor less. Too much help may prevent %rma &rom takin" responsibility &or learnin" the ne1 strate"y, but too little may cause her to take the responsibility prematurely.
ttention deficit hyperactivity disorder

4ttention deficit hyperactivity disorder <or 4D;D= is a problem 1ith sustainin" attention and controllin" impulses. As students, almost all o& us have these problems at one time or another, but a student 1ith A*6* sho1s them much more &requently than usual, and o&ten at home as 1ell as at school. %n the classroom, the student 1ith A*6* may &id"et and squirm a lot, or have trouble remainin" seated, or continually "et distracted and o&& task, or have trouble 1aitin" &or a turn, or blurt out ans1ers and comments. The student may shi&t continually &rom one activity to another, or have trouble playin" quietly, or talk excessively 1ithout listenin" to others. Cr the student may misplace thin"s and seem "enerally disor"ani2ed, or be inclined to try risky activities 1ithout enou"h thou"ht to the consequences. Althou"h the list o& problem behaviors is obviously quite extensive, keep in mind that the student 1ill not do all o& these thin"s. %t is /ust that over time, the student 1ith A*6* is likely to do several o& them chronically or repeatedly, and in more than one settin" <American ,sychiatric Association, 3000=. %n the classroom, o& course, the behaviors may annoy classmates and &rustrate teachers.
*i&&erences in perceptions A*6* versus hi"h activity

%t is important to note that classrooms are places that make heavy demands on not sho1in" A*6*$like behaviors students are o&ten supposed to sit &or lon" periods, avoid interruptin" others, &inish tasks a&ter be"innin" them, and keep their minds <and materials= or"ani2ed. %ronically, there&ore, classroom li&e may sometimes a""ravate A*6* 1ithout the teacher intendin" &or it to do so. A student 1ith only a mild or occasional tendency to be restless, &or example, may &it in 1ell outdoors playin" soccer, but &eel unusually restless indoors durin" class. %t also should not be surprisin" that teachers sometimes mistake a student 1ho is merely rather active &or a student 1ith A*6*, since any tendency to be physically active may contribute to problems 1ith classroom mana"ement. 9F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License The tendency to >over$dia"nose@ is more likely &or boys than &or "irls <)aniadaki, et al., 3003=, presumably because "ender role expectations cause teachers to be especially alert to hi"h activity in boys. Cver$dia"nosis is also especially likely &or students 1ho are culturally or lin"uistically non$An"lo <Chamberlain, 300A=, presumably because cultural and lan"ua"e di&&erences may sometimes lead teachers to misinterpret studentsJ behavior. To avoid makin" such mistakes, it is important to keep in mind that in true A*6*, restlessness, activity, and distractibility are 1idespread and sustained. A student 1ho sho1s such problems at school but never at home, &or example, may not have A*6*I he may simply not be "ettin" alon" 1ith his teacher or classmates.
Causes o& A*6*

)ost psycholo"ists and medical specialists a"ree that true A*6*, as opposed to >mere@ intermittent distractibility or hi"h activity, re&lects a problem in ho1 the nervous system &unctions, but they do not kno1 the exact nature or causes o& the problem <-utter, 300F, 300A=. -esearch sho1s that A*6* tends to run in &amilies, 1ith childrenKespecially boysKo& parents 1ho had A*6* some1hat more likely than usual to experience the condition themselves. The association does not necessarily mean, thou"h, that A*6* is inborn or "enetic. 5hy? %t is because it is possible that parents 1ho &ormerly had A*6* may raise their children more strictly in an e&&ort to prevent their o1n condition in their childrenI yet their strictness, ironically, may tri""er a bit more tendency, rather than less, to1ard the restless distractibility characteristic o& A*6*. Cn the other hand <or is it >on the third hand@?=, the parentsJ strictness may also be a result, as 1ell as a cause o&, a childJs restlessness. The bottom line &or teachers sortin" out causes &rom e&&ects is con&usin", i& not impossible, and in any case may not help much to determine actual teachin" strate"ies to help the students learn more e&&ectively.
Teachin" students 1ith A*6*

-esearch also sho1s that A*6* can be reduced &or many students i& they take certain medications, o& 1hich the most common is methyl*henidate, commonly kno1n by the name -italin <5ilens, 300AI Cl&son, 3003=. This dru" and others like it act by stimulatin" the nervous system, 1hich reduces symptoms by helpin" a student pay better attention to the choices he or she makes and to the impact o& actions on others. 4n&ortunately the medications do not 1ork on all students 1ith A*6*, especially a&ter they reach adolescence, and in any case has certain practical problems. *ru"s cost money, &or one thin", 1hich is a problem &or a &amily 1ithout much money to be"in 1ith, or &or a &amily lackin" medical insurance that pays &or medicationsKa particularly common situation in the 4nited (tates. For another thin", dru"s must be taken re"ularly in order to be e&&ective, includin" on 1eekends. 'eepin" a re"ular schedule can be di&&icult i& parentsJ o1n schedules are irre"ular or simply di&&er &rom the childJs, &or example because o& ni"ht shi&ts at 1ork or because parents are separated and share custody o& the child. %n any case, since teachers are not doctors and medications are not under teachersJ control, it may be more important simply to provide an environment 1here a student 1ith A*6* can or"ani2e choices and actions easily and success&ully. Clear rules and procedures, &or example, can reduce the >noise@ or chaotic quality in the childJs classroom li&e si"ni&icantly. The rules and procedures can be "enerated /ointly 1ith the childI they do not have to be imposed arbitrarily, as i& the student 1ere incapable o& thinkin" about them reasonably. (ometimes a classmate can be enlisted to model slo1er, more re&lective styles o& 1orkin", but in 1ays that do not imply undue criticism o& the student 1ith A*6*. The more re&lective student can complete a set o& math problems, &or example, 1hile explainin" 1hat he or she is thinkin" about 1hile doin" the 1ork. (ometimes the teacher can help by makin" lists o& tasks or o& steps in lon" tasks. %t can help to divide &ocused 1ork into small, short sessions rather than "roupin" it Educational Psychology
9A
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs into sin"le, lon"er sessions. 5hatever the strate"ies that you use, they should be consistent, predictable, and "enerated by the student as much as possible. 7y havin" these qualities, the strate"ies can stren"then the studentJs sel&$direction and ability to screen out the distractions o& classroom li&e. The "oal &or teachers, in essence, is to build the studentJs metaco"nitive capacity, 1hile at the same time, o& course, treatin" the student 1ith respect.
0ntellectual disabilities
An intellectual disability is a si"ni&icant limitation in a studentJs co"nitive &unctionin" and daily adaptive behaviors <(chalock P Luckasson, 300FI American Association on )ental -etardation, 3003=. The student may have limited lan"ua"e or impaired speech and may not per&orm 1ell academically. Compared to students 1ith learnin" disabilities discussed earlier, students 1ith intellectual disabilities have impairments to learnin" that are broader and more si"ni&icant. They score poorly on standardi2ed tests o& intelli"ence <like the ones discussed later, in Chapter 83=. #veryday tasks that most people take &or "ranted, like "ettin" dressed or eatin" a meal, may be possible, but they may also take more time and e&&ort than usual. 6ealth and sa&ety can sometimes be a concern <&or example, kno1in" 1hether it is sa&e to cross a street=. For older individuals, &indin" and keepin" a /ob may require help &rom supportive others. The exact combination o& challen"es varies &rom one person to another, but it al1ays <by de&inition= involves limitations in %oth intellectual and daily &unctionin". As a teacher, you may hear more than one term &or describin" students 1ith intellectual disabilities. %& the disability is mild, teachers sometimes re&er to a student 1ith the disability simply as a slo( learner, particularly i& the student has no &ormal, special supports &or the disability, such as a teachin" assistant hired speci&ically to assist the student. %& the disability is more marked, then the student is more likely to be re&erred to either as havin" an intellectual disability or as havin" mental retardation. %n this chapter % primarily use the term intellectual disa%ility, because it has &e1er ne"ative connotations 1hile still describin" one key educational aspect o& the disability, co"nitive impairment. 'eep in mind, ho1ever, that actual intellectual disabilities are al1ays more than co"nitive they also involve challen"es about adaptin" to everyday livin".
Levels o& support &or individuals 1ith intellectual disabilities

%ntellectual disabilities happen in di&&erent de"rees or amounts, thou"h most o&ten are relatively mild. Traditionally the intensity or >amount@ o& the disability 1as de&ined by scores on a standardi2ed test o& scholastic aptitude <or >%T test@=, 1ith lo1er scores indicatin" more severe disability. <)ore about these tests in Chapter 83.= 7ecause o& the insensitivity o& such tests to individualsJ daily social &unctionin", ho1ever, current trends are to1ard de&inin" intensities by the amount o& support needed by the individual. Table 83 summari2es the most commonly used scheme &or this purpose, one created by the American Association on %ntellectual and *evelopmental *isabilities <AA)-, 3003=. Levels o& support ran"e &rom intermittent </ust occasional or >as needed@ &or speci&ic activities= to *ervasive <continuous in all realms o& livin"=. Table 83 Levels and areas o& support &or intellectual disabilities 'evel of support Duration of support Bre6uency of support Setting of support 4mount of professional assistance %ntermittent Cnly as needed Cccasional or 4sually only one Cccasional
9:
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License in&requent or t1o <e.". 8$3 classes or activities= consultation or monitorin" by pro&essional Limited As needed, but sometimes continuin" -e"ular, but &requency varies (everal settin"s, but not usually all Cccasional or re"ular contact 1ith pro&essionals #xtensive 4sually continuin" -e"ular, but &requency varies (everal settin"s, but not usually all -e"ular contact 1ith pro&essionals at least once a 1eek ,ervasive )ay be li&elon" Frequent or continuous Bearly all settin"s Continuous contact and monitorin" by pro&essionals Source" American Association on )ental -etardation, 3003 (chalock P Luckassen, 300F.
As a classroom teacher, the intellectual disabilities that you are most likely to see are the ones requirin" the least support in your classroom. A student requirin" only intermittent support may require special help 1ith some learnin" activities or classroom routines, but not othersI he or she mi"ht need help 1ith readin" or puttin" on 1inter clothes, &or example, but primarily on occasions 1hen there is pressure to do these thin"s relatively quickly. (tudents requirin" some1hat more support are likely to spend some1hat less time in your classroom and more time receivin" special help &rom other pro&essionals, such as a special education teacher, a speech and lan"ua"e specialist, or an assistant to these pro&essionals. These circumstances have distinct implications &or 1ays o& teachin" these students.
Teachin" students 1ith intellectual disabilities

There are many speci&ic techniques that can help in teachin" students 1ith mild or moderate intellectual disabilities, but most can be summari2ed into three more "eneral strate"ies. The &irst is to "ive more time and practice than usualI the second is to embed activities into the context o& daily li&e or &unctionin" 1here possibleI and the third is to include the child both in social and in academic activities, rather than /ust one or the other. Let us look brie&ly at each o& these ideas.
Kiving more time and *ractice than usual

%& a student has only a mild intellectual disability, he or she can probably learn important &undamentals o& the academic curriculumKbasic arithmetic, &or example, and basic readin". 7ecause o& the disability, thou"h, the student may need more time or practice than most other students. 6e or she may be able to read many 1ords by si"ht 1day, night, morning, afternoon, etc.), but need lon"er than other students to reco"ni2e and say them. Cr the student may kno1 that C P ; R ?, but need help applyin" this math &act to real ob/ectsI you <or a helper= mi"ht need to sho1 the student that t1o *encils plus three *encils make &ive *encils.
9;
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs .ivin" extra help takes time and perseverance, and can try the patience o& the student <and o& you, too=. To deal 1ith this problem, it may help to re1ard the student &requently &or e&&ort and successes 1ith 1ell$timed praise, especially i& it is &ocused on speci&ic, actual achievementsI >Mou added that one correctly@, may be more help&ul than >MouJre a hard 1orker@, even i& both comments are true. .ivin" appropriate praise is in turn easier i& you set reasonable, >do$able@ "oals by breakin" skills or tasks into steps that the student is likely to learn 1ithout becomin" overly discoura"ed. At the same time, it is important not to insult the student 1ith "oals or activities that are too easy or by usin" curriculum materials clearly intended &or children 1ho are much youn"er. (ettin" expectations too lo1 actually deprives a student 1ith an intellectual disability o& ri"ht&ul opportunities to learnKa serious ethical and pro&essional mistake <7o"dan, 300:=. %n many curriculum areas, &ortunately, there already existin" materials that are simpli&ied, yet also appropriate &or older students <(nell, et al., 300A=. (pecial education teacher$specialists can o&ten help in &indin" them and in devisin" e&&ective 1ays o& usin" them.
Ada*tive and functional s#ills

(tudents 1ith intellectual disabilities present especially clear examples o& a universal dilemma o& teachin" since there is not enou"h time to teach everythin", ho1 do 1e choose 1hat to teach? Cne basis &or selectin" activities is to relate learnin" "oals to studentsJ everyday lives and activities, /ust as you 1ould 1ith all students. This strate"y addresses the other de&inin" &eature o& mental retardation, the studentJs di&&iculties 1ith adaptin" to and &unctionin" in everyday livin". %n teachin" addition and subtraction, &or example, you can create examples about the purchasin" o& common &amiliar ob/ects <e.". &ood= and about the need to make or receive chan"e &or the purchases. (imilar considerations apply to learnin" ne1 readin" or oral lan"ua"e vocabulary. %nstead o& simply learnin" 1ords in a >basic readin"@ series <or readin" textbook=, try encoura"in" the student to learn 1ords that are especially use&ul to the studentJs o1n li&e. C&ten the student, not you yoursel&, is the best person to decide 1hat these 1ords actually are. An adaptive, &unctional approach can help in nonacademic areas as 1ell. %n learnin" to read or >tell time@ on a clock, &or example, try &ocusin" initially on tellin" the times important to the student, such as 1hen he or she "ets up in the mornin" or 1hen schools starts. As you add additional times that are personally meanin"&ul to the student, he or she 1orks "radually to1ards &ull kno1led"e o& ho1 to read the hands on a clock. #ven i& the &ull kno1led"e proves slo1 to develop, ho1ever, the student 1ill at least have learned the most use&ul clock kno1led"e &irst.
,nclude the student deli%erately in grou* activities

The key 1ord here is inclusion" the student should participate in and contribute to the li&e o& the class as much as possible. This means that 1herever possible, the student attends special events <assemblies, &ield days= 1ith the classI that i& the class plays a "roup "ame, then the student 1ith the disability is part o& the "ameI that i& classmates do an assi"nment as a "roup, then i& at all possible the student is assi"ned to one o& the "roups. The chan"es resultin" &rom these inclusions are real, but can be positive &or everyone. Cn the one hand, they &oster acceptance and help&ulness to1ard the child 1ith the disabilityI classmates learn that school is partly about providin" opportunities &or everyone, and not /ust about evaluatin" or comparin" individualsJ skills. Cn the other hand, the chan"es caused by inclusion stimulate the student 1ith the disability to learn as much as possible &rom classmates, socially and academically. Amon" other bene&its, "roup activities can "ive the student chances to practice >belon"in"@ skillsKho1 to "reet classmates appropriately, or 1hen and ho1 to ask the teacher a question. These are 9D
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License skills, % mi"ht add, that are bene&icial &or everyone to learn, disabled or not. <% discuss "roup 1ork more thorou"hly in Chapter 9, >Facilitatin" complex thinkin"@=
8ehavioral disorders
*ehavioral disorders are a diverse "roup o& conditions in 1hich a student chronically per&orms hi"hly inappropriate behaviors. A student 1ith this condition mi"ht seek attention, &or example, by actin" out disruptively in class. Cther students 1ith the condition mi"ht behave a""ressively, be distractible and overly active, seem anxious or 1ithdra1n, or seem disconnected &rom everyday reality. As 1ith learnin" disabilities, the sheer ran"e o& si"ns and symptoms de&ies concise description. 7ut the problematic behaviors do have several "eneral &eatures in common <'au&&man, 300AI 6allahan P 'au&&man, 300:=
they tend to be extreme they persist &or extended periods o& time they tend to be socially unacceptable <e.". un1anted sexual advances or vandalism a"ainst school property= they a&&ect school 1ork they have no other obvious explanation <e.". a health problem or temporary disruption in the &amily=
The variety amon" behavioral disorders means that estimates o& their &requency also tend to vary amon" states, cities, and provinces. %t also means that in some cases, a student 1ith a behavioral disorder may be classi&ied as havin" a di&&erent condition, such as A*6* or a learnin" disability. %n other cases, a behavioral problem sho1n in one school settin" may seem serious enou"h to be labeled as a behavioral disorder, even thou"h a similar problem occurrin" in another school may be perceived as serious, but not serious enou"h to deserve the label. %n any case, available statistics su""est that only about one to t1o per cent o& students, or perhaps less, have true behavioral disordersKa &i"ure that is only about one hal& or one third o& the &requency &or intellectual disabilities <'au&&man, 300A=. 7ecause o& the potentially disruptive e&&ects o& behavioral disorders, ho1ever, students 1ith this condition are o& special concern to teachers. +ust one student 1ho is hi"hly a""ressive or disruptive can inter&ere 1ith the &unctionin" o& an entire class, and challen"e even the best teacherJs mana"ement skills and patience.
(trate"ies &or teachin" students 1ith behavioral disorders

The most common challen"es o& teachin" students 1ith behavioral disorders have to do 1ith classroom mana"ementKa topic discussed more thorou"hly in Chapter ; <>Classroom mana"ement@=. Three important ideas discussed there, ho1ever, also deserve special emphasis here <8= identi&yin" circumstances that tri""er inappropriate behaviors, <3= teachin" o& interpersonal skills explicitly, and <3= disciplinin" a student &airly.
,dentifying circumstances that trigger ina**ro*riate %ehaviors

*ealin" 1ith a disruption is more e&&ective i& you can identi&y the speci&ic circumstances or event that tri""ers it, rather than &ocusin" on the personality o& the student doin" the disruptin". A 1ide variety o& &actors can tri""er inappropriate behavior <6eineman, *unlap, P 'incaid, 300A=
physiolo"ical e&&ectsKincludin" illness, &ati"ue, hun"er, or side$e&&ects &rom medications physical &eatures o& the classroomKsuch as the classroom bein" too 1arm or too cold, the chairs bein"
exceptionally uncom&ortable &or sittin", or seatin" patterns that inter&ere 1ith hearin" or seein" Educational Psychology
99
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs

instructional choices or strate"ies that &rustrate learnin"Kincludin" restrictin" studentsJ choices unduly,
"ivin" instructions that are unclear, choosin" activities that are too di&&icult or too lon", or preventin" students &rom askin" questions 1hen they need help 7y identi&yin" the speci&ic variables o&ten associated 1ith disruptive behaviors, it is easier to devise 1ays to prevent the behaviors, either by avoidin" the tri""ers i& this is possible, or by teachin" the student alternative but quite speci&ic 1ays o& respondin" to the tri""erin" circumstance.
Teaching inter*ersonal s#ills e4*licitly

7ecause o& their history and behavior, some students 1ith behavior disorders have had little opportunity to learn appropriate social skills. (imple courtesies <like rememberin" to say *lease or than#s) may not be totally unkno1n, but may be unpracticed and seem unimportant to the student, as mi"ht body lan"ua"e <like eye contact or sittin" up to listen to a teacher rather than slouchin" and lookin" a1ay=. These skills can be tau"ht in 1ays that do not make them part o& punishment, make them seem >preachy@, or put a student to shame in &ront o& classmates. *ependin" on the a"e or "rade$level o& the class, one 1ay is by readin" or assi"nin" books and stories in 1hich the characters model "ood social skills. Another is throu"h "ames that require courteous lan"ua"e to succeedI one that % recall &rom my o1n school days, &or example, 1as called >)other, )ay %?@ <(ullivan P (tran", 3003=. (till another is throu"h pro"rams that link an older student or adult &rom the community as a partner to the student at risk &or behavior problemsI a prominent example o& such a pro"ram in the 4nited (tates is 7i" 7rothers 7i" (isters o& America, 1hich arran"es &or older individuals to act as mentors &or youn"er boys and "irls <Tierney, .rossman, P -esch, 899AI Be1burn P (hiner, 300:=. %n addition, strate"ies based on behaviorist theory have proved e&&ective &or many students, especially i& the student needs opportunities simply to practice social skills that he has learned only recently and may still &eel a1k1ard or sel&$conscious in usin" <Al"o22ine P Msseldyke, 300:=. (everal behaviorist techniques 1ere discussed in Chapter 3, includin" the use o& positive rein&orcement, extinction, "enerali2ation, and the like. %n addition to these, teachers can arran"e &or contingency contracts/ 1hich are a"reements bet1een the teacher and a student about exactly 1hat 1ork the student 1ill do, ho1 it 1ill be re1arded, and 1hat the consequences 1ill be i& the a"reement is not &ul&illed <5ilkinson, 3003=. An advanta"e o& all such behaviorist techniques is their precision and clarity there is little room &or misunderstandin" about /ust 1hat your expectations are as the teacher. The precision and clarity in turn makes it less temptin" or necessary &or you, as teacher, to become an"ry about in&ractions o& rules or a studentJs &ailure to &ul&ill contracts or a"reements, since the consequences tend already to be relatively obvious and clear. >'eepin" your cool@ can be especially help&ul 1hen dealin" 1ith behavior that is by nature annoyin" or disruptin".
7airness in disci*lining
)any strate"ies &or helpin" a student 1ith a behavior disorder may be spelled out in the studentJs individual educational *lan, such as discussed earlier in this chapter. The plan can <and indeed is supposed to= serve as a "uide in devisin" daily activities and approaches 1ith the student. 'eep in mind, ho1ever, that since an %#, is akin to a le"al a"reement amon" a teacher, other pro&essionals, a student and the studentJs parents, departures &rom it should be made only cautiously and care&ully, i& ever. Althou"h such departures may seem unlikely, a student 1ith a behavior disorder may sometimes be exasperatin" enou"h to make it temptin" to use stron"er or more s1eepin"
800
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License punishments than usual <&or example, isolatin" a student &or extended times=. %n case you are tempted in this direction, remember that every %#, also "uarantees the student and the studentJs parents due *rocess be&ore an %#, can be chan"ed. %n practice this means consultin" 1ith everyone involved in the caseKespecially parents, other specialists, and the student himsel&Kand reachin" an a"reement be&ore adoptin" ne1 strate"ies that di&&er si"ni&icantly &rom the past. %nstead o& >increasin" the volume@ o& punishments, a better approach is to #ee* careful records o& the studentJs behavior and o& your o1n responses to it, documentin" the reasonableness o& your rules or responses to any ma/or disruptions. 7y havin" the records, collaboration 1ith parents and other pro&essionals can be more productive and &air$minded, and increase othersJ con&idence in your /ud"ments about 1hat the student needs in order to &it in more com&ortably 1ith the class. %n the lon" term, more e&&ective collaboration leads both to better support and to more learnin" &or the student <as 1ell as to better support &or you as teacherL=.
Physical disabilities and sensory impairments

A &e1 students have serious physical, medical, or sensory challen"es that inter&ere 1ith their learnin". 4sually, the physical and medical challen"es are medical conditions or diseases that require on"oin" medical care. The sensory challen"es are usually a loss either in hearin" or in vision, or more rarely in both. 5hatever the speci&ic problem, it is serious enou"h to inter&ere 1ith activities in re"ular classroom pro"rams and to quali&y the student &or special educational services or pro"rams. ,hysical challen"es that are this serious are relatively in&requent compared to some o& the other special needs discussed in this chapter, thou"h they are o& course important in the lives o& the students and their &amilies, as 1ell as important &or teachers to accommodate. Cnly about one per cent o& 4( students have a hearin" loss serious enou"h to be served by special pro"rams &or such students <4nited (tates *epartment o& #ducation, 300A=. Cnly about hal& that number have visual impairments that lead them to be served by special pro"rams. For t1o reasons, thou"h, these &i"ures are a bit misleadin". Cne reason is that many more students have vision or hearin" problems that are too mild <such as 1earin" eye"lasses &or >ordinary@ nearsi"htedness=. Another is that some students 1ith serious sensory impairments may also have other disabilities and there&ore not be counted in statistics about sensory impairments.
6earin" loss
A child can acquire a hearin" loss &or a variety o& reasons, ran"in" &rom disease early in childhood, to di&&iculties durin" childbirth, to reactions to toxic dru"s. %n the classroom, ho1ever, the cause o& the loss is virtually irrelevant because it makes little di&&erence in ho1 to accommodate a studentJs educational needs. )ore important than the cause o& the loss is its extent. (tudents 1ith only mild or moderate loss o& hearin" are sometimes called hearing im*aired or hard of hearingM only those 1ith nearly complete loss are called deaf. As 1ith other sorts o& disabilities, the milder the hearin" loss, the more likely you are to encounter the student in a re"ular classroom, at least &or part o& the day.
Signs of hearing loss

Althou"h determinin" 1hether a student has a hearin" loss may seem strai"ht&or1ard <>+ust "ive a hearin" testL@=, the assessment is o&ten not clear cut i& it takes the studentJs daily experiences into account. A serious or pro&ound hearin" loss tends to be noticed relatively quickly and there&ore o&ten receive special help <or at least Educational Psychology
808
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs receives additional dia"nosis= sooner. )ild or moderate hearin" loss is much more common, ho1ever, and is more likely to be overlooked or mistaken &or some other sort o& learnin" problem <(herer, 300F=. (tudents 1ith a mild hearin" loss sometimes have some1hat depressed <or lo1ered= lan"ua"e and literacy skillsKthou"h not al1ays, and in any case so do some students ithout any loss. They may also seem not to listen or attend to a speaker because o& ithout loss also &ail to listen, thou"h trouble in locatin" the source o& soundsKbut then a"ain, sometimes students
&or entirely di&&erent reasons. (tudents 1ith hearin" loss may &requently "ive incorrect ans1ers to questionsKbut so do certain other students 1ith normal hearin". %n addition, partial hearin" loss can be hidden i& the student teaches himsel& or hersel& to lip read, &or example, or is care&ul in choosin" 1hich questions to ans1er in a class discussion. And so on. (ystematic hearin" tests "iven by medical or hearin" specialists can resolve some o& these ambi"uities. 7ut even they can "ive a misleadin" impression, since studentsJ true ability to mana"e in class depends on ho1 1ell they combine cues and in&ormation &rom the entire context o& classroom li&e. %n identi&yin" a student 1ho may have a hearin" loss, there&ore, teachers need to observe the student over an extended period o& time and in as many situations as possible. %n particular, look &or a persistent combination o& some o& the &ollo1in", but look &or them over repeated or numerous occasions <Luckner P Carter, 3008=
delayed lan"ua"e or literacy skills, both 1ritten and oral some ability <usually partial= to read lips less 1orldly kno1led"e than usual because o& lack o& involvement 1ith oral dialo"ue andUor delayed literacy occasionally, tendency to social isolation because o& a1k1ardness in communication
Teaching students
ith hearing loss
%n principle, ad/ustments in teachin" students 1ith hearin" loss are relatively easy to make thou"h they do require deliberate actions or choices by the teacher and by &ello1 students. %nterestin"ly, many o& the strate"ies make "ood advice &or teachin" all studentsL
Ta#e advantage of the student(s residual hearing. (eat the student close to you i& you are doin" the talkin",
or close to key classmates i& the students are in a 1ork "roup. 'eep competin" noise, such as unnecessary talkin" or 1hisperin", to a minimum <because such noise is especially distractin" to someone 1ith a hearin" loss=. 'eep instructions concise and to$the$point. Ask the student occasionally 1hether he or she is understandin".
Ise visual cues li%erally. )ake charts and dia"rams 1herever appropriate to illustrate 1hat you are sayin".
Look directly at the student 1hen you are speakin" to him or her <to &acilitate lip readin"=. .esture and point to key 1ords or ob/ectsKbut 1ithin reason, not excessively. ,rovide handouts or readin"s to revie1 visually the points that you make orally.
,nclude the student in the community of the classroom. -ecruit one or more classmates to assist in
>translatin"@ oral comments that the student may have missed. %& the student uses American (i"n Lan"ua"e <A(L= at home or else1here, then learn a &e1 basic, important si"ns o& A(L yoursel& <>6ello@ >thank you@ >6o1 are you?@=. Teach them to classmates as 1ell.
803
Gisual impairment
(tudents 1ith visual impairments have di&&iculty seein" even 1ith corrective lenses. )ost commonly the di&&iculty has to do 1ith re&raction <the ability to &ocus=, but some students may also experience a limited &ield o& vie1 <called tunnel vision) or be overly sensitive to li"ht in "eneral. As 1ith hearin" loss, labels &or visual impairment depend some1hat on the extent and nature o& the problem. 2egal %lindness means that the person has si"ni&icant tunnel vision or else visual acuity <sharpness o& vision= o& 30U300 or less, 1hich means that he or she must be 30 &eet a1ay &rom an ob/ect that a person 1ith normal eyesi"ht can see at 300 &eet. 2o vision means that a person has some vision usable &or readin", but o&ten needs a special optical device such as a ma"ni&yin" lens &or doin" so. As 1ith hearin" loss, the milder the impairment, the more likely that a student 1ith a vision problem 1ill spend some or even all the time in a re"ular class.
Signs of visual im*airment

(tudents 1ith visual impairments o&ten sho1 some o& the same si"ns as students 1ith simple, common nearsi"htedness. The students may rub their eyes a lot, &or example, blink more than usual, or hold books very close to read them. They may complain o& itchiness in their eyes, or o& headaches, di22iness, or even nausea a&ter doin" a lot o& close eye 1ork. The di&&erence bet1een the students 1ith visual impairment and those 1ith >ordinary@ nearsi"htedness is primarily a matter o& de"ree the ones 1ith impairment sho1 the si"ns more o&ten and more obviously. %& the impairment is serious enou"h or has roots in certain physical conditions or disease, they may also have additional symptoms, such as crossed eyes or s1ollen eyelids. As 1ith hearin" loss, the milder &orms ironically can be the most subtle to observe and there&ore the most prone to bein" overlooked at &irst. For classroom teachers, the best strate"y may be to keep track o& a student 1hose physical si"ns happen in com%ination 1ith learnin" di&&iculties, and &or 1hom the combination persists &or many 1eeks.
Teaching students
ith visual im*airment
%n "eneral, advice &or teachin" students 1ith mild or moderate visual impairment parallels the advice &or teachin" students 1ith hearin" loss, thou"h 1ith obvious di&&erences because o& the nature o& the studentsJ disabilities.
Ta#e advantage of the student(s residual vision. %& the student still has some use&ul vision, place him or her
1here he can easily see the most important parts o& the classroomK1hether that is you, the chalkboard, a video screen, or particular &ello1 students. )ake sure that the classroom, or at least the studentJs part o& it, is 1ell lit <because "ood li"htin" makes readin" easier 1ith lo1 vision=. )ake sure that handouts, books and other readin" materials have "ood, sharp contrast <also help&ul 1ith a visual impairment=.
Ise non3visual information li%erally. -emember not to expect a student 1ith visual impairment to learn
in&ormation that is by nature only visual, such as the layout o& the classroom, the appearance o& photo"raphs in a textbook or o& story lines in a video. #xplain these to the student someho1. 4se hands$on materials 1herever they 1ill 1ork, such as maps printed in three$dimensional relie& or 1ith di&&erent textures. %& the student kno1s ho1 to read 7raille <an alphabet &or the blind usin" patterns o& small bumps on a pa"e=, allo1 him to do so.
,nclude the student in the community of the classroom. )ake sure that the student is accepted as 1ell as
possible into the social li&e o& the class. -ecruit classmates to help explain visual material 1hen necessary. Educational Psychology
803
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs Learn a bit o& basic 7raille and encoura"e classmates to do the same, even i& none o& you ever become as skilled 1ith it as the student himsel& or hersel&.
The value of including students #ith special needs

% have hinted at it already in this chapter, but it is 1orth sayin" a"ain includin" students 1ith disabilities in re"ular classrooms is valuable &or everyone concerned. The students 1ith disabilities themselves tend to experience a richer educational environment, both socially and academically. +ust as 1ith racial se"re"ation, separate education is not equal education, or at least cannot be counted on to be equal. 7ut classmates o& students 1ith disabilities also experience a richer educational environmentI they potentially meet a 1ider ran"e o& classmates and to see a 1ider ran"e o& educational purposes in operation. Teachers also experience these bene&its, but their pro"rams o&ten bene&it in other 1ays as 1ell. The most notable additional bene&it is that many teachin" strate"ies that are "ood &or students 1ith disabilities also turn out to bene&it all studentsKbene&its like care&ul plannin" o& ob/ectives, attention to individual di&&erences amon" students, and establishment o& a positive social atmosphere in the classroom. Later <in Chapters 9 and 80= 1e 1ill return to these topics because o& their importance &or hi"h$ quality teachin". 7ut at that point 1e 1ill &rame the topics around the needs o& all students, 1hatever their individual qualities.
Chapter summary
(ince the 89;0s support &or people 1ith disabilities has "ro1n si"ni&icantly, as re&lected in the 4nited (tates by three key pieces o& le"islation the -ehabilitation Act o& 89;3, Americans 1ith *isabilities Act o& 8990, and the %ndividuals 1ith *isabilities #ducation Act <%*#A=. The support has led to ne1 educational practices, includin" alternative assessments &or students 1ith disabilities, placement in the least restrictive environment, and individual educational plans. There are many 1ays o& classi&yin" people 1ith disabilities, all o& 1hich carry risks o& stereotypin" and oversimpli&yin" individualsJ stren"ths and needs. For the purposes o& education, the most &requent cate"ory is learnin" disabilities, 1hich are di&&iculties 1ith speci&ic aspects o& academic 1ork. The hi"h prevalence o& learnin" disabilities makes this cate"ory especially ambi"uous as a description o& particular students. Assistance &or students 1ith learnin" disabilities can be &ramed in terms o& behaviorist rein&orcement, metaco"nitive strate"ies, or constructivist mentorin". Attention de&icit hyperactivity disorder <A*6*= is a problem in sustainin" attention and controllin" impulses. %t can o&ten be controlled 1ith medications, but usually it is also important &or teachers to provide a structured environment &or the student as 1ell. %ntellectual disabilities <or mental retardation= are "eneral limitations in co"nitive &unctionin" as 1ell as in the tasks o& daily livin". Contemporary experts tend to classi&y individuals 1ith these disabilities accordin" to the amount and &requency o& support they need &rom others. Teachers can assist these students by "ivin" more time and practice than usual, by includin" adaptive and &unctional skills in 1hat they teach, and by makin" sure that the student is included in the daily li&e o& the classroom. 7ehavioral disorders are conditions in 1hich students chronically per&orm hi"hly inappropriate behaviors. (tudents 1ith these problems present challen"es &or classroom mana"ement, 1hich teachers can meet by
80F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License identi&yin" circumstances that tri""er inappropriate behaviors, by teachin" interpersonal skills explicitly, and by makin" sure that punishments or disciplinary actions are &air and have been previously a"reed upon. ,hysical and sensory disabilities are si"ni&icant limitations in health, hearin", or vision. The si"ns both o& hearin" loss and o& vision loss can be subtle, but can sometimes be observed over a period o& time. Teachin" students 1ith either a hearin" loss or a vision loss primarily involves makin" use o& the studentsJ residual sensory abilities and insurin" that the student is included in and supported by the class as 1ell as possible.
'ey terms
Alternative assessment Americans 1ith *isabilities Act o& 8990 Attention de&icit hyperactivity disorder <A*6*= 7ehavioral disorders Contin"ency contracts 6earin" loss %ndividuals 1ith *isabilities #ducation Act %ndividual educational plan <%#,= %ntellectual disabilities Least restrictive environment <L-#= Learnin" disabilities )ental retardation ,ort&olio assessment -ehabilitation Act o& 89;3 (ensory impairment Transition plannin" Gisual impairment
Cn the %nternet
#ach o& the &ollo1in" 1ebsites represents an or"ani2ation &ocused on the needs o& people 1ith one particular type o& disability. #ach includes &ree access to archives o& non$current /ournals and other publications, as 1ell as in&ormation about con&erences, pro&essional trainin" events, and political ne1s relevant to persons 1ith disabilities. <Bote that the sponsorin" or"ani2ations about hearin" loss and about intellectual disabilities chan"ed their names recently, thou"h not their purposes, so their 1ebsites may eventually chan"e names as 1ell.= N(((.ldanatl.orgO This is primarily about learnin" disabilities, but also some1hat about A*6*. N(((.add.orgO This 1ebsite is primarily about A*6*. Bote that its 1ebsite name uses an older terminolo"y &or this disability, A** <no >6@= &or attention deficit disorder <1ith the term hy*eractivity). N(((.shhh.orgO This one primarily discusses about hearin" loss . Q(((.navh.orgR This 1ebsite is primarily about visual impairment. Q(((.aamr.orgR This one is primarily about intellectual disabilities or mental retardation.
-e&erences
Al"o22ine, -. P Msseldyke, +. <300:=. Teaching students every teacher. Thousand Caks, CA Cor1in ,ress. American Association on )ental -etardation. <3003=. !efinition, classification, and system of su**orts, B<th edition. 5ashin"ton, *.C. Author. American ,sychiatric Association. <3000=. !iagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, !S@3,G3 TR 1te4t revision). Arlin"ton, GA American ,sychiatric Association. 7iklen, (. P 'lie1er, C. <300:=. Constructin" competence Autism, voice and the >disordered@ body. ,nternational Journal of ,nclusive Education, B<<3U3=, 8:9$8DD. ith emotional distur%ance" A *ractical guide for
80A
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs 7o"dan, *., Att&ield, -., 7issonnette, L., 7lackman, L., 7urke, +., )ukopadhyay, T., P -ubin, (. <#ds.=. <300A=. Autism" The myth of the *erson alone. Be1 Mork Be1 Mork 4niversity ,ress. 7o"dan, *. <300:=. 5ho may be literate? *isability and resistance to the cultural denial o& competence. American Educational Research Journal, >;<3=, 8:3$893. 7radley, ). P )andell, *. <300A=. Cppositional de&iant disorder A systematic revie1 o& the evidence o& intervention e&&ectiveness. Journal of E4*erimental Criminology, ;><8=, 3F3$3:A. Carothers, *. P Taylor, -. <3003=. 4se o& port&olios &or students 1ith autism. 7ocus on Autism and 8ther !evelo*mental !isorders, BA<3=, 838$83F. Chamberlain, (. <300A=. -eco"ni2in" and respondin" to cultural di&&erences in the education o& culturally and lin"uistically diverse learners. ,ntervention in School and Clinic, ><<F=, 89A$388. .reen, (., *avis, C., 'arshmer, #., )arch, ,. P (trai"ht, 7. <300A=. Livin" sti"ma The impact o& labelin", stereotypin", separation, status loss, and discrimination in the lives o& individuals 1ith disabilities and their &amilies. Sociological ,n&uiry, =?<3=, 89;$38A. 6allahan, *. P 'au&&man, +. <300:=. E4ce*tional learners" ,ntroduction to s*ecial education, B<th edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. 6eineman, )., *unlap, .., P 'incaid, *. <300A=. ,ositive support strate"ies &or students 1ith behavioral disorders in re"ular classrooms. Psychology in the Schools, >C<D=, ;;9$;9F. 'au&&man, +. <300A=. Characteristics of children ith emotional and %ehavioral disorders, Ath edition.
4pper (addle -iver, B+ ,earsonU)errill ,rentice 6all. 'eller, 6. <89A3=. The story of my life. Be1 Mork *oubleday. 'elly, (. <300F=. Are teachers tracked? Cn 1hat basis and 1ith 1hat consequences. Social *sychology in education, =<8=, AA$;3. 'oret2, *. P 7arton, '. <3003U300F=. Assessin" students 1ith disabilities %ssues and evidence. Assessment and Evaluation, F<8 P 3=, 39$:0. Luckner, +. L. P Carter, '. <3008=. Essential Com*etencies for Teaching Students Additional !isa%ilities. 8F:<8=, ;$8A. Be1burn, T. P (hiner, ). <300:=. Moun" people, mentorin" and social inclusion. Qouth Justice, :<8=, 33$F8. Cakes, +. <300A=. Kee*ing trac#" 9o 4niversity ,ress. Cl&son, )., .amero&&, )., )arcus, (., P +ensen, ,. <3003=. Bational trends in the treatment o& A*6*. American Journal of Psychiatry, B:<, 80;8$80;;. ,ublic La1 93$883, D; (tat. 39F <(ept. 3:, 89;3=. Reha%ilitation Act of BF=;. 5ashin"ton, *.C. 4nited (tates .overnment ,rintin" C&&ice. schools structure ine&uality, Cnd edition. Be1 6aven, CT Male ith 9earing 2oss and
80:
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License ,ublic La1 808$33:, 80F (tat. 33; <+uly 3:, 8990=. Americans *.C. 4nited (tates .overnment ,rintin" C&&ice. ,ublic La1 80D$FF:, 88D (tat. 3:F; <*ecember 3, 300F=. ,ndividuals ith !isa%ilities Education ith !isa%ilities Act of BFF<. 5ashin"ton,
,m*rovement Act. 5ashin"ton, *.C. 4nited (tates .overnment ,rintin" C&&ice. ,ullin, *. <300A=. 5hen one si2e does not &it all The special challen"es o& accountability testin" &or students 1ith disabilities. Qear%oo# of the 0ational Society for Studies in Education, B<><3=, 899. Tuinn, ). <3003=. Chan"in" antisocial behavior patterns in youn" boys a structured cooperative learnin" approach. Education and treatment of young children, C?<F=, 3D0$39A. -obinson, 5. <89D3=. Critical essays on Phillis Eheatley. 7oston 6all ,ublishers. -utter, ). <300F=. ,ath1ays o& "enetic in&luences in psychopatholo"y. Euro*ean Revie , BC, 89$33. -utter, ). <300A=. )ultiple meanin"s o& a developmental perspective on psychopatholo"y. Euro*ean Journal of !evelo*mental Psychology, C<3=, 338$3A3. (chalock, -. P Luckasson, -. <300F=. American Association on )ental -etardationJs !efinition, Classification, S System of Su**orts, B<th edition. Journal of Policy and Practice in ,ntellectual !isa%ilities, B<3UF=, 83:$8F:. (herer, ). <300F=. Connecting to learn" Educational and assistive technology for *eo*le 5ashin"ton, *.C. American ,sycholo"ical Association. (nell, )., +anney, -., #lliott, +., 7eck, )., Colley, '., P 7urton, C. <300A=. Colla%orative teaming" Teachers( guide to inclusive *ractices. 7altimore, )* 7rookes ,ublishin" Co. (to1itschek, +., Lovitt, T., P -odri"ue2, +. <3008=. ,atterns o& collaboration in secondary education &or youth 1ith special needs ,ro&iles o& three hi"h schools. Ir%an Education, ;:<8=, 93$83D. (ullivan, A. '. P (tran", 6. -. <3003U3003=. 7ibliotherapy in the Classroom 4sin" Literature to ,romote the *evelopment o& #motional %ntelli"ence. Childhood Education =F<3=, ;F$D0. Tierney, +., .rossman, +., P -esch, B. <899A=. @a#ing a difference" An im*act study of %ig %rothers %ig sisters. ,hiladelphia ,ublicU,rivate Gentures. 4nited (tates *epartment o& #ducation. <300A=. C=th Annual Re*ort to Congress on the im*lementation of the ,ndividuals ith !isa%ilities Education Act. 5ashin"ton, *.C. Author. ith disa%ilities.
5esson, C. P 'in", -. <899:=. ,ort&olio assessment and special education students. Teaching E4ce*tional Children, CA<3=, FF$FD. 5est, L., Corbey, (., 7oyer$(tephens, A., +ones, 7. )iller, -., P (arkees$5ircenski, ). <8999=. ,ntegrating transition *lanning into the ,EP *rocess, Cnd edition. Alexandria, GA Council &or #xceptional Children. 5ilens, T., )c7urnett, '., (tein, )., Lerner, )., (pencer, T., P 5olraich, ). <300A=. A*6* treatment 1ith once$daily methylphenidate. Journal of American Academy of Child S Adolescent Psychiatry, >><80=, 808A$8033.
80;
A .lobal Text
5. Students with special educational needs 5ilkinson, L. <3003=. 4sin" behavioral consultation to reduce challen"in" behavior in the classroom. Psychology in the schools, >=<3=, 800$80A. Msseldyke, +. P 7ielinski, +. <3003=. #&&ect o& di&&erent methods o& reportin" and reclassi&ication on trends in test scores &or students 1ith disabilities. E4ce*tional Children, :A<3=, 8D9$308.
80D
9. Student motivation
0ot so long ago, a teacher named +ar%ara 7uller taught general science to elementary years students, and one of her units as a%out insects and s*iders. As *art of the unit she had students search for insects and s*iders around their o n homes or a*artments. They %rought the creatures to school 1safely in $ars), ans ered a num%er of &uestions a%out them in their $ournals, and eventually gave %rief oral re*orts a%out their findings to the class. The assignment seemed straightfor ard, %ut +ar%ara found that students res*onded to it in very different +ar%ara descri%ed their res*onses" ', remem%er Jose couldn(t them in his $ournal and had filmed it, he 'Then there ait to get started, and couldn(t %ear to end the assignment either6 Every *ictures of ish , rote co*ious notes a%out them. At the end he gave the %est oral ays. 2oo#ing %ac#, here is ho
day he %rought more %ugs or s*iders.eventually C? different #inds. Every day he dre
*resentation ,(ve ever seen from a third3graderM he called it 5They 9ave Is 8utnum%ered6( , as so *oised and so enthusiastic. ho as al ays
as 2indsey.the one
anted to %e the %est in everything, regardless of %ugs and only as %ringing, and ho much. Ehen she sa
hether it interested her. She started off the one s*ider. +ut she #e*t an eye on ho much Jose
or# rather slo ly.$ust %rought in a fe
hat everyone else
as doing, though, she *ic#ed u* her *ace, li#e she
as trying to match his level. as 8K.,
E4ce*t that instead of %ringing a diversity of creatures as Jose really could not give her a %ad mar# for it.%ut it
as doing, she $ust %rought more and
more of the same ones.almost t enty dead house flies, as , recall6 9er *resentation as more concerned a%out her mar# than a%out the material. 'And there as To%ias.discouraging old To%ias. 9e did the hat the %asic level of or#
asn(t as creative or insightful as Jose(s. , thin# she
or#, %ut $ust %arely. , noticed him asn(t cheating, , as
loo#ing a lot at other students( insect collections and at their $ournal entries. 9e %elieve, $ust figuring out acce*ta%le. 9e also
as for the assignment. hat he needed to do
sim*ly to avoid failing it. 9e %rought in fe er %ugs than most others, though still a num%er that as all acce*ta%le, %ut not much more than that. 'And Toey" she as &uite a case6 , never #ne
rote shorter ans ers in his $ournal and gave one of the shortest oral re*orts. ,t
hether to laugh or cry a%out her. She didn(t e4actly ith other students. So she as easily or# done, es*ecially a%out her $ournal entries. Ehat ith the assignment
resist doing the assignment, %ut she certainly li#ed to chat distracted, and that cut do n on getting her really saved her. hat #e*t her ended u* chatting *resentations. So ith. The other t o
or# at a reasona%ly high level of &uality. ere the t o girls she ere already *retty motivated to do a lot rite good $ournal entries, and ma#e interesting oral ith them, the conversations often ended u*
.create fine loo#ing %ug collections,
hen Toey attem*ted chitchat
809
A .lobal Text
6. Student motivation focusing on the assignment any ay6 She had them to than# for #ee*ing her mind on the #no hat Toey ould have done ithout them.) or#. , don(t
As 7arbara FullerJs recollections su""est, students assi"n various meanin"s and attitudes to academic activities Kpersonal meanin"s and attitudes that arouse and direct their ener"ies in di&&erent 1ays. 5e call these and their associated ener"i2in" and directin" e&&ects by the term motivation/ or sometimes motivation to learn. As you 1ill see, di&&erences in motivation are an important source o& diversity in classrooms, comparable in importance to di&&erences in prior kno1led"e, ability, or developmental readiness. 5hen it comes to school learnin", &urthermore, studentsJ motivations take on special importance because studentsJ mere presence in class is <o& course= no "uarantee that students really 1ant to learn. %t is only a si"n that students live in a society requirin" youn" people to attend school. (ince modern education is compulsory, teachers cannot take studentsJ motivation &or "ranted, and they have a responsibility to insure studentsJ motivation to learn. (omeho1 or other, teachers must persuade students to 1ant to do 1hat students have to do any1ay. This taskKunderstandin" and there&ore in&luencin" studentsJ motivations to learnKis the &ocus o& this chapter. Fortunately, as you 1ill see, there are 1ays o& accomplishin" this task that respect studentsJ choices, desires, and attitudes. Like motivation itsel&, theories o& it are &ull o& diversity. For convenience in navi"atin" throu"h the diversity, 1e have or"ani2ed the chapter around six ma/or theories or perspectives about motives and their sources. 5e call the topics <8= motives as behavior chan"e, <3= motives as "oals, <3= motives as interests, <F= motives as attributions about success, <A= motives as belie&s about sel&$e&&icacy, and <:= motives as sel&$determination. 5e end 1ith a perspective called e4*ectancy3value theory 1hich inte"rates ideas &rom some o& the other six theories, and partly as a result implies some additional su""estions &or in&luencin" studentsJ motivations to learn in positive 1ays.
&otives as behavior
(ometimes it is use&ul to think o& motivation not as somethin" >inside@ a student drivin" the studentJs behavior, but as e&uivalent to the studentJs out1ard behaviors. This is the perspective o& behaviorism, 1hich 1e discussed in Chapter 8 <>(tudent learnin"@= as a 1ay to think about the learnin" process. %n its most thorou"h$"oin" &orm, behaviorism &ocuses almost completely on 1hat can be directly seen or heard about a personJs behavior, and has relatively &e1 comments about 1hat may lie behind <or >underneath@ or >inside@= the behavior. 5hen it comes to motivation, this perspective means minimi2in" or even i"norin" the distinction bet1een the inner drive or ener"y o& students, and the out1ard behaviors that express the drive or ener"y. The t1o are considered the same, or nearly so. #quatin" the inner and the out1ard mi"ht seem to violate common sense. 6o1 can a student do somethin" 1ithout some sort o& &eelin" or thou"ht to make the action happen? As 1e 1ill explain, this very question has led to alternative models o& motivation that are based on co"nitive rather than behaviorist theories o& learnin". 5e 1ill explain some o& these later in this chapter. 7e&ore "ettin" to them, ho1ever, 1e encoura"e you to consider the advanta"es o& a behaviorist perspective on motivation. (ometimes the circumstances o& teachin" limit teachersJ opportunities to distin"uish bet1een inner motivation and out1ard behavior. Certainly teachers see plenty o& student behaviorsKsi"ns o& motivation o& some sort. 7ut the multiple demands o& teachin" can limit the time needed to determine 1hat the behaviors mean. %& a student asks a lot o& questions durin" discussions, &or example, is he or she curious about the material itsel&, or /ust 1antin" to 880
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License look intelli"ent in &ront o& classmates and the teacher? %n a class 1ith many students and a busy a"enda, there may not be a lot o& time &or a teacher to decide bet1een these possibilities. %n other cases, the problem may not be limited time as much as communication di&&iculties 1ith a student. Consider a student 1ho is still learnin" #n"lish, or 1ho belon"s to a cultural community that uses patterns o& conversation that are un&amiliar to the teacher, or 1ho has a disability that limits the studentJs "eneral lan"ua"e skill. %n these cases discernin" the studentJs inner motivations may take more time and e&&ort. %t is important to invest the extra time and e&&ort &or such students, but 1hile a teacher is doin" so, it is also important &or her to "uide and in&luence the studentsJ behavior in constructive directions. That is 1here behaviorist approaches to motivation can help.
Cperant conditionin" as a 1ay o& motivatin"

The most common version o& the behavioral perspective on motivation is the theory o& o*erant conditioning associated 1ith 7. F. (kinner <893D, 89A;=, 1hich 1e discussed in Chapter 8 <>Learnin" process@=. The description in that chapter &ocused on behavioral learnin", but the same operant model can be trans&ormed into an account o& motivation. %n the operant model, you may recall, a behavior bein" learned <the >operant@= increases in &requency or likelihood because per&ormin" it makes a rein&orcement available. To understand this model in terms o& motivation, think o& the li#elihood o& response as the motivation and the reinforcement as the motivator. %ma"ine, &or example, that a student learns by operant conditionin" to ans1er questions durin" class discussions each time the student ans1ers a question <the operant=, the teacher praises <rein&orces= this behavior. %n addition to thinkin" o& this situation as behavioral learning, ho1ever, you can also think o& it in terms o& motivation" the likelihood o& the student ans1erin" questions <the motivation= is increasin" because o& the teacherJs praise <the motivator=. )any concepts &rom operant conditionin", in &act, can be understood in motivational terms. Another one, &or example, is the concept o& e4tinction, 1hich 1e de&ined in Chapter 8 as the tendency &or learned behaviors to become less likely 1hen rein&orcement no lon"er occursKa sort o& >unlearnin"@, or at least a decrease in per&ormance o& previously learned. The decrease in per&ormance &requency can be thou"ht o& as a loss o& motivation, and removal o& the rein&orcement can be thou"ht o& as removal o& the motivator. Table 8F summari2es this 1ay o& re&ramin" operant conditionin" in terms o& motivation, both &or the concepts discussed in Chapter 8 and &or other additional concepts. Table 8F Cperant conditionin" as learnin" and as motivation Concept Definition phrased in terms of learning Cperant 7ehavior that becomes more likely because o& rein&orcement -ein&orcement (timulus that increases likelihood o& a behavior ,ositive rein&orcement (timulus that increases likelihood o& a behavior by (timulus that motivates by its *resenceI an (timulus that motivates Definition phrased in terms of motivation 7ehavior that su""ests an increase in motivation (tudent listens to teacherJs comments durin" lecture or discussion Teacher praises student &or listenin" Teacher makes encoura"in" remarks about studentJs home1ork Classroom e"ample
bein" introduced or added >incentive@
888
A .lobal Text
6. Student motivation to a situation Be"ative rein&orcement (timulus that increases (timulus that motivates Teacher stops na""in" student about late home1ork
the likelihood o& a behavior by its a%sence or by bein" removed or taken avoidance a1ay &rom a situation ,unishment (timulus that decreases the likelihood o& a behavior by bein" introduced or added to a situation #xtinction -emoval o& rein&orcement &or a behavior (hapin" successive approximations -ein&orcements &or behaviors that "radually resemble <approximate= a &inal "oal behavior -emoval o& motivatin" stimulus that leads to decrease in motivation (timuli that "radually shi&t motivation to1ard a &inal "oal motivation (timulus that *resence
Teacher deducts points
decreases motivation by its &or late home1ork
Teacher stops commentin" alto"ether about studentJs home1ork Teacher praises student &or returnin" home1ork a bit closer to the deadlineI "radually she praises &or actually bein" on time
Continuous rein&orcement
-ein&orcement that occurs each time that an operant behavior occurs
)otivator that occurs si"n o& motivation occurs
Teacher praises hi"hly time he 1orks &or &ive minutes 1ithout interruption
each time that a behavioral active student &or every
%ntermittent rein&orcement
-ein&orcement that sometimes occurs &ollo1in" an operant behavior, but not on every occasion
)otivator that occurs sometimes 1hen a behavioral si"n o& motivation occurs, but not on every occasion
Teacher praises hi"hly active student sometimes 1hen he 1orks 1ithout interruption, but not every time
Cautions about behavioral perspectives on motivation

As 1e mentioned, behaviorist perspectives about motivation do re&lect a classroom reality that teachers sometimes lack time and there&ore must &ocus simply on studentsJ appropriate out1ard behavior. 7ut there are nonetheless cautions about adoptin" this vie1. An obvious one is the ambi"uity o& studentsJ speci&ic behaviorsI 1hat looks like a si"n o& one motive to the teacher may in &act be a si"n o& some other motive to the student <*e.randpre, 3000=. %& a student looks at the teacher intently 1hile she is speakin", does it mean the student is motivated to learn, or only that the student is daydreamin"? %& a student invariably looks a1ay 1hile the teacher is
883
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License speakin", does it mean that the student is disrespect&ul o& the teacher, or that student comes &rom a &amily or cultural "roup 1here avoiding eye contact actually sho1s more respect &or a speaker than direct eye contact? Another concern about behaviorist perspectives, includin" operant conditionin", is that it leads teachers to i"nore studentsJ choices and pre&erences, and to >play .od@ by makin" choices on their behal& <'ohn, 899:=. Accordin" to this criticism, the distinction bet1een >inner@ motives and expressions o& motives in out1ard behavior does not disappear /ust because a teacher <or a psycholo"ical theory= chooses to treat a motive and the behavioral expression o& a motive as equivalent. (tudents usually do kno1 1hat they 1ant or desire, and their 1ants or desires may not al1ays correspond to 1hat a teacher chooses to rein&orce or i"nore. This, in a ne1 "uise, is once a"ain the issue o& intrinsic versus e4trinsic motivation that 1e discussed in Chapter 8. Approaches that are exclusively behavioral, it is ar"ued, are not sensitive enou"h to studentsJ intrinsic, sel&$sustainin" motivations. As 1e pointed out in Chapter 8, there is truth to this alle"ation i& a teacher actually does rely on re1ardin" behaviors that she alone has chosen, or even i& she persists in rein&orcin" behaviors that students already &ind motivatin" 1ithout external rein&orcement. %n those cases rein&orcements can back&ire instead o& servin" as an incentive to desired behavior, rein&orcement can become a reminder o& the teacherJs po1er and o& studentsJ lack o& control over their o1n actions. A classic research study o& intrinsic motivation illustrated the problem nicely. %n the study, researchers re1arded university students &or t1o activitiesKsolvin" pu22les and 1ritin" ne1spaper headlines Kthat they already &ound interestin". (ome o& the students, ho1ever, 1ere *aid to do these activities, 1hereas others 1ere not. 4nder these conditions, the students 1ho 1ere paid 1ere less likely to en"a"e in the activities &ollo1in" the experiment than 1ere the students 1ho 1ere not paid, even thou"h both "roups had been equally interested in the activities to be"in 1ith <*eci, 89;8=. The extrinsic re1ard o& payment, it seemed, inter&ered 1ith the intrinsic re1ard o& 1orkin" the pu22les. Later studies con&irmed this e&&ect in numerous situations, thou"h they have also &ound certain conditions 1here extrinsic re1ards do not reduce intrinsic re1ards. #xtrinsic re1ards are not as harm&ul, &or example, i& a person is paid >by the hour@ <i.e. by a &lat rate= rather than piecemeal <by the number o& items completed= <Cameron P ,ierce, 899FI #isenber"er P Cameron, 899:=. They also are less harm&ul i& the task itsel& is relatively 1ell$de&ined <like 1orkin" math problems or playin" solitaire= and hi"h$quality per&ormance is expected at all times. (o there are still times and 1ays 1hen externally determined rein&orcements are use&ul and e&&ective. %n "eneral, ho1ever, extrinsic re1ards do seem to undermine intrinsic motivation o&ten enou"h that they need to be used selectively and thou"ht&ully <*eci, 'oestner, P -yan, 3008=. As it happens, help 1ith bein" selective and thou"ht&ul can be &ound in the other, more co"nitively oriented theories o& motivation. These use the "oals, interests, and belie&s o& students as 1ays o& explainin" di&&erences in studentsJ motives and in ho1 the motives a&&ect en"a"ement 1ith school. 5e turn to these co"nitively oriented theories next, be"innin" 1ith those &ocused on studentsJ "oals.
&otives as goals
Cne 1ay motives vary is by the kind o& "oals that students set &or themselves, and by ho1 the "oals support studentsJ academic achievement. As you mi"ht suspect, some "oals encoura"e academic achievement more than others, but even motives that do not concern academics explicitly tend to a&&ect learnin" indirectly.
883
A .lobal Text
.oals that contribute to achievement

5hat kinds o& achievement "oals do students hold? %ma"ine three individuals, )aria, (ara, and Lindsay, 1ho are takin" al"ebra to"ether. )ariaJs main concern is to learn the material as 1ell as possible because she &inds it interestin" and because she believes it 1ill be use&ul to her in later courses, perhaps at university. 6ers is a mastery "oal because she 1ants primarily to learn or master the material. (ara, ho1ever, is concerned less about al"ebra than about "ettin" top marks on the exams and in the course. 6ers is a per&ormance "oal because she is &ocused primarily on lookin" success&ulI learnin" al"ebra is merely a vehicle &or per&ormin" 1ell in the eyes o& peers and teachers. Lindsay, &or her part, is primarily concerned about avoidin" a poor or &ailin" mark. 6ers is a per&ormance$ avoidance "oal or &ailure$avoidance "oal because she is not really as concerned about learnin" al"ebra, as )aria is, or about competitive success, as (ara isI she is simply intendin" to avoid &ailure. As you mi"ht ima"ine, mastery, per&ormance, and per&ormance$avoidance "oals o&ten are not experienced in pure &orm, but in combinations. %& you play the clarinet in the school band, you mi"ht 1ant to improve your technique simply because you en/oy playin" as 1ell as possibleKessentially a mastery orientation. 7ut you mi"ht also 1ant to look talented in the eyes o& classmatesKa per&ormance orientation. Another part o& 1hat you may 1ish, at least privately, is to avoid lookin" like a complete &ailure at playin" the clarinet. Cne o& these motives may predominate over the others, but they all may be present. )astery "oals tend to be associated 1ith en/oyment o& learnin" the material at hand, and in this sense represent an outcome that teachers o&ten seek &or students. 7y de&inition there&ore they are a &orm o& intrinsic motivation. As such mastery "oals have been &ound to be better than per&ormance "oals at sustainin" studentsJ interest in a sub/ect. %n one revie1 o& research about learnin" "oals, &or example, students 1ith primarily mastery orientations to1ard a course they 1ere takin" not only tended to express "reater interest in the course, but also continued to express interest 1ell beyond the o&&icial end o& the course, and to enroll in &urther courses in the same sub/ect <6arackie1ic2, et al., 3003I 5olters, 300F=. ,er&ormance "oals, on the other hand, imply e4trinsic motivation, and tend to sho1 the mixed e&&ects o& this orientation. A positive e&&ect is that students 1ith a per&ormance orientation do tend to "et hi"her "rades than those 1ho express primarily a mastery orientation. The advanta"e in "rades occurs both in the short term <1ith individual assi"nments= and in the lon" term <1ith overall "rade point avera"e 1hen "raduatin"=. 7ut there is evidence that per&ormance oriented students do not actually learn material as deeply or permanently as students 1ho are more mastery oriented <)id"ley, 'aplan, P )iddleton, 3008=. A possible reason is that measures o& per&ormanceKsuch as test scoresKo&ten re1ard relatively shallo1 memori2ation o& in&ormation and there&ore "uide per&ormance$oriented students a1ay &rom processin" the in&ormation thou"ht&ully or deeply. Another possible reason is that a per&ormance orientation, by &ocusin" on "ainin" reco"nition as the best amon" peers, encoura"es competition amon" peers. .ivin" and receivin" help &rom classmates is thus not in the sel&$interest o& a per&ormance$oriented student, and the resultin" isolation limits the studentJs learnin".
.oals that a&&ect achievement indirectly 7ailure3avoidant goals

As 1e mentioned, &ailure$avoidant "oals by nature undermine academic achievement. C&ten they are a ne"ative byproduct o& the competitiveness o& per&ormance "oals <4rdan, 300F=. %& a teacher <and sometimes also &ello1
88F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License students= put too much emphasis on bein" the best in the class, and i& interest in learnin" the material as such there&ore su&&ers, then some students may decide that success is beyond their reach or may not be desirable in any case. The alternativeKsimply avoidin" &ailureKmay seem 1iser as 1ell as more &easible. Cnce a student adopts this attitude, he or she may underachieve more or less deliberately, doin" only the minimum 1ork necessary to avoid lookin" &oolish or to avoid serious con&lict 1ith the teacher. Avoidin" &ailure in this 1ay is an example o& self= handicappingKdeliberate actions and choices that the reduce chances o& success. (tudents may sel&$handicap in a number o& 1aysI in addition to not 1orkin" hard, they may procrastinate about completin" assi"nments, &or example, or set "oals that are unrealistically hi"h.
Social goals
)ost students need and value relationships, both 1ith classmates and 1ith teachers, and o&ten <thou"h not al1ays= they "et a "ood deal o& positive support &rom the relationships. 7ut the e&&ects o& social relationships are complex, and at times can 1ork both &or and a"ainst academic achievement. %& a relationship 1ith the teacher is important and reasonably positive, then the student is likely to try pleasin" the teacher by 1orkin" hard on assi"nments <*o1son P )c%nerney, 3003=. Bote, thou"h, that this e&&ect is closer to per&ormance than masteryI the student is primarily concerned about lookin" "ood to someone else. %&, on the other hand, a student is especially concerned about relationships 1ith peers, the e&&ects on achievement depend on the studentJs motives &or the relationship, as 1ell as on peersJ attitudes. *esirin" to be close to peers personally may lead a student to ask &or help &rom, and "ive help to peersKa behavior that may support hi"her achievement, at least up to a point. 7ut desirin" to impress peers 1ith skills and kno1led"e may lead to the opposite as 1e already mentioned, the competitive ed"e o& such a per&ormance orientation may keep the student &rom collaboratin", and in this indirect 1ay reduce a studentJs opportunities to learn. The abilities and achievement motivation o& peers themselves can also make a di&&erence, but once a"ain the e&&ects vary dependin" on the context. Lo1 achievement and motivation by peers a&&ects an individualJs academic motivation more in elementary school than in hi"h school, more in learnin" mathematics than learnin" to read, and more i& their is a 1ide range o& abilities in a classroom than i& there is a more narro1 ran"e <7urke P (ass, 300:=. %n spite o& these complexities, social relationships are valued so hi"hly by most students that teachers should "enerally &acilitate them, thou"h also keep an eye on their nature and their consequent e&&ects on achievement. As 1e explain &urther, many assi"nments can be accomplished productively in "roups, &or example, as lon" as the "roups are &ormed thou"ht&ullyI in that chapter 1e discuss some 1ays o& insurin" that such "roups are success&ul, such as by choosin" "roup tasks 1isely and reco"ni2in" all membersJ contributions are &ully as possible. -elationships can also be supported 1ith activities that involve students or adults &rom another class or &rom outside the school, as o&ten happens 1ith school or community service pro/ects. These can provide considerable social satis&action and can sometimes be connected to current curriculum needs <7utin, 300A=. 7ut the ma/ority o& studentsJ social contacts are likely al1ays to come &rom studentsJ o1n initiatives 1ith each other in simply takin" time to talk and interact. The teacherJs /ob is to encoura"e these in&ormal contacts, especially 1hen they happen at times that support rather than inter&ere 1ith learnin".
#ncoura"in" mastery "oals

#ven thou"h a de"ree o& per&ormance orientation may be inevitable in school because o& the mere presence o& classmates, it does not have to take over studentsJ academic motivation completely. Teachers can encoura"e Educational Psychology
88A
A .lobal Text
6. Student motivation mastery "oals in various 1ays, and should in &act do so because a mastery orientation leads to more sustained, thou"ht&ul learnin", at least in classrooms, 1here classmates may sometimes debate and disa"ree 1ith each other <*arnon, 7utera, P 6arackie1ic2, 300:=. 6o1 can teachers do so? Cne 1ay is to allo1 students to choose speci&ic tasks or assi"nments &or themselves, 1here possible, because their choices are more likely than usual to re&lect prior personal interests, and hence be motivated more intrinsically than usual. The limitation o& this strate"y, o& course, is that students may not see some o& the connections bet1een their prior interests and the curriculum topics at hand. %n that case it also helps &or the teacher to look &or and point out the relevance o& current topics or skills to studentsJ personal interests and "oals. (uppose, &or example, that a student en/oys the latest styles o& music. This interest may actually have connections 1ith a 1ide ran"e o& school curriculum, such as
biolo"y <because o& the physiolo"y o& the ear and o& hearin"= physics or "eneral science <because o& the nature o& musical acoustics= history <because o& chan"es in musical styles over time= #n"lish <because o& relationships o& musical lyrics and themes 1ith literary themes= &orei"n lan"ua"es <because o& comparisons o& music and son"s amon" cultures=
(till another 1ay to encoura"e mastery orientation is to &ocus on studentsJ individual e&&ort and improvement as much as possible, rather than on comparin" studentsJ successes to each other. Mou can encoura"e this orientation by "ivin" students detailed &eedback about ho1 they can improve per&ormance, or by arran"in" &or students to collaborate on speci&ic tasks and pro/ects rather than to compete about them, and in "eneral by sho1in" your o1n enthusiasm &or the sub/ect at hand.
&otives as interests
%n addition to holdin" di&&erent kinds o& "oalsK1ith consequent di&&erences in academic motivationKstudents sho1 obvious di&&erences in levels o& interest in the topics and tasks o& the classroom. (uppose that t1o hi"h school classmates, Frank and +ason, both are takin" chemistry, and speci&ically learnin" ho1 to balance chemical equations. Frank &inds the material borin" and has to &orce himsel& to study itI as a result he spends only the time needed to learn the basic material and to complete the assi"nments at a basic level. +ason, on the other hand, en/oys the challen"es o& balancin" chemical equations. 6e thinks o& the task as an intri"uin" pu22leI he not only solves each o& them, but also compares the problems to each other as he "oes throu"h them. FrankJs learnin" is based on effort compared to +asonJs, 1hose learnin" is based more &ully on interest. As the example implies, 1hen students learn &rom interest they tend to devote more attention to the topic than i& they learn &rom e&&ort <6idi P -ennin"er, 300:=. The &indin" is not surprisin" since interest is another aspect o& intrinsic motivationKener"y or drive that comes &rom 1ithin. A distinction bet1een e&&ort and interest is o&ten arti&icial, ho1ever, because the t1o motives o&ten "et blended or combined in studentsJ personal experiences. )ost o& us can remember times 1hen 1e 1orked at a skill that 1e en/oyed and &ound interestin", but that also required e&&ort to learn. The challen"e &or teachers is there&ore to dra1 on and encoura"e studentsJ interest as much as possible, and thus keep the required e&&ort 1ithin reasonable boundsKneither too hard nor too easy.
88:
(ituational interest versus personal interest

(tudentsJ interests vary in ho1 deeply or permanently they are located 1ithin students. Situational interests are ones that are tri""ered temporarily by &eatures o& the immediate situation. 4nusual si"hts, sounds, or 1ords can stimulate situational interest. A teacher mi"ht sho1 an interestin" ima"e on the overhead pro/ector, or play a brie& bit o& music, or make a surprisin" comment in passin". At a more abstract level, unusual or surprisin" topics o& discussion can also arouse interest 1hen they are &irst introduced. Personal interests are relatively permanent pre&erences o& the student, and are usually expressed in a variety o& situations. %n the classroom, a student may <or may not= have a personal interest in particular topics, activities, or sub/ect matter. Cutside class, thou"h, he or she usually has additional personal interests in particular non$academic activities <e.". sports, music= or even in particular people <a celebrity, a &riend 1ho lives nearby=. The non$academic personal interests may sometimes con&lict 1ith academic interestI it may be more interestin" to "o to the shoppin" mall 1ith a &riend than to study even your most &avorite sub/ect.
+enefits of *ersonal interest

%n "eneral, personal interest in an academic topic or activity tends to correlate 1ith achievement related to the topic or activity. As you mi"ht suppose, a student 1ho is truly interested is more likely to &ocus on the topic or activity more &ully, to 1ork at it &or lon"er periods, to use more thou"ht&ul strate"ies in learnin"Kand to en/oy doin" so <6idi, 3008I 6idi P -ennin"er, 300:=. (mall 1onder that the student achieves moreL Bote, thou"h, a persistent ambi"uity about this bene&it it is o&ten not clear 1hether personal interest leads to hi"her achievement, or hi"her achievement leads to stron"er interest. #ither possibility seems plausible. -esearch to sort them out, ho1ever, has su""ested that at least some o& the in&luence "oes in the direction &rom interest to achievementI 1hen elementary students 1ere "iven books &rom 1hich to learn about a ne1 topic, &or example, they tended to learn more &rom books 1hich they chose themselves than &rom books that 1ere simply assi"ned <-eynolds P (ymons, 3008=. (o interest seemed to lead to learnin". 7ut this conclusion does not rule out its converse, that achievement may stimulate interest as 1ell. As +oe learns more about history, he steadily &inds history more interestin"I as )c'en2ie learns more about biolo"y, she "radually 1ants to learn more o& it.
(timulatin" situational interests

%& a student has little prior personal interest in a topic or activity, the teacher is &aced 1ith stimulatin" initial, situational interest, in hopes that the initial interest 1ill "radually become more permanent and personal. There are a number o& strate"ies &or meetin" this challen"e
%t helps to include surprises in your comments and in classroom activities &rom time to time tell students
&acts that are true but counter$intuitive, &or example, or demonstrate a science experiment that turns out di&&erently than students expect <.uthrie, 5i"&ield, P 6umenick, 300:=.
%t also helps to relate ne1 material to studentsJ prior experiences even i& their experiences are not related to
academics or to school directly. The concepts o& "ravitation and acceleration, &or example, operate every time a ball is hit or thro1n in a so&tball "ame. %& this connection is pointed out to a student 1ho en/oys playin" a lot o& so&tball, the concepts can make concepts more interestin".
88;
A .lobal Text
%t helps to encoura"e students to respond to ne1 material actively. 7y havin" students talk about the
material to"ether, &or example, students can be"in makin" their o1n connections to prior personal interests, and the social interaction itsel& helps to link the material to their personal, social interests as 1ell.
A caution" seductive details

#ven thou"h it is important to stimulate interest in ne1 material someho1, it is also possible to mislead or distract students accidentally by addin" inappropriate, but stimulatin" &eatures to ne1 material <.arner, et al., 8993I 6arp P )ayer, 899D=. *istractions happen a number o& 1ays, such as any o& these amon" others
deliberately tellin" /okes in class usin" color&ul illustrations or pictures addin" interestin" bits o& in&ormation to a 1ritten or verbal explanation
5hen 1ell chosen, all o& these moves can indeed arouse studentsJ interest in a ne1 topic. 7ut i& they do not really relate to the topic at hand, they may simply create misunderstandin"s or prevent students &rom &ocusin" on key material. As 1ith most other learnin" processes, ho1ever, there are individual di&&erences amon" students in distractability, students 1ho are stru""lin", and are more prone to distraction and misunderstandin" than students 1ho are already learnin" more success&ully <(anche2 P 5iley, 300:=. Cn balance the best advice is probably there&ore to use strate"ies to arouse situational interest, but to assess studentsJ responses to them continually and as honestly as possible. The key issue is 1hether students seem to learn because o& stimulatin" strate"ies that you provide, or in spite o& them.
&otives related to attributions

4ttributions are perceptions about the causes o& success and &ailure. (uppose that you "et a lo1 mark on a test and are 1onderin" 1hat caused the lo1 mark. Mou can construct various explanations &orKmake various attributions aboutKthis &ailure. )aybe you did not study very hardI maybe the test itsel& 1as di&&icultI maybe you 1ere unluckyI maybe you /ust are not smart enou"h. #ach explanation attributes the &ailure to a di&&erent &actor. The explanations that you settle upon may re&lect the truth accuratelyKor then a"ain, they may not. 5hat is important about attributions is that they re&lect personal belie&s about the sources or causes o& success and &ailure. As such, they tend to a&&ect motivation in various 1ays, dependin" on the nature o& the attribution <5einer, 300A=.
Locus, stability, and controllability

Attributions vary in three underlyin" 1ays locus, stability, and controllability. 'ocus o& an attribution is the location <&i"uratively speakin"= o& the source o& success or &ailure. %& you attribute a top mark on a test to your ability, then the locus is internalM i& you attribute the mark to the testJs havin" easy questions, then the locus is e4ternal. The stability o& an attribution is its relative permanence. %& you attribute the mark to your ability, then the source o& success is relatively sta%le.by de&inition, ability is a relatively lastin" quality. %& you attribute a top mark to the e&&ort you put in to studyin", then the source o& success is unsta%le.e&&ort can vary and has to be rene1ed on each occasion or else it disappears. The controllability o& an attribution is the extent to 1hich the individual can in&luence it. %& you attribute a top mark to your e&&ort at studyin", then the source o& success is relatively controlla%le.you can in&luence e&&ort simply by decidin" ho1 much to study. 7ut i& you attribute the
88D
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License mark to simple luck, then the source o& the success is uncontrolla%le.there is nothin" that can in&luence random chance. As you mi"ht suspect, the 1ay that these attributions combine a&&ects studentsJ academic motivations in ma/or 1ays. %t usually helps both motivation and achievement i& a student attributes academic successes and &ailures to &actors that are internal and controllable, such as e&&ort or a choice to use particular learnin" strate"ies <*1eck, 3000=. Attributin" successes to &actors that are internal but stable or controllable <like ability=, on the other hand, is both a blessin" and a curse sometimes it can create optimism about prospects &or &uture success <>% al1ays do 1ell@=, but it can also lead to indi&&erence about correctin" mistakes <*1eck, 300:=, or even create pessimism i& a student happens not to per&orm at the accustomed level <>)aybe %Jm not as smart as % thou"ht@=. 5orst o& all &or academic motivation are attributions, 1hether stable or not, related to external &actors. 7elievin" that per&ormance depends simply on luck <>The teacher 1as in a bad mood 1hen markin"@= or on excessive di&&iculty o& material removes incentive &or a student to invest in learnin". All in all, then, it seems important &or teachers to encoura"e internal, stable attributions about success.
%n&luencin" studentsJ attributions

6o1 can they do so? Cne 1ay or another, the e&&ective strate"ies involve &ramin" teachersJ o1n explanations o& success and &ailure around internal, controllable &actors. %nstead o& tellin" a student >.ood 1orkL MouJre smartL@, try sayin" >.ood 1orkL Mour e&&ort really made a di&&erence, didnJt it?@ %& a student &ails, instead o& sayin",>Too badL This material is /ust too hard &or you,@ try sayin", >LetJs &ind a strate"y &or practicin" this more, and then you can try a"ain.@ %n both cases the &irst option emphasi2es uncontrollable &actors <e&&ort, di&&iculty level=, and the second option emphasi2es internal, controllable &actors <e&&ort, use o& speci&ic strate"ies=. (uch attributions 1ill only be convincin", ho1ever, i& teachers provide appropriate conditions &or students to learnKconditions in 1hich studentsJ e&&orts really do pay o&&. There are three conditions that have to be in place in particular. First, academic tasks and materials actually have to be at about the ri"ht level o& di&&iculty. %& you "ive problems in advanced calculus to a &irst$"rade student, the student 1ill not only &ail them but also be /usti&ied in attributin" the &ailure to an external &actor, task di&&iculty. %& assi"nments are assessed in 1ays that produce hi"hly variable, unreliable marks, then students 1ill ri"htly attribute their per&ormance to an external, unstable source luck. 7oth circumstances 1ill inter&ere 1ith motivation. (econd, teachers also need to be ready to "ive help to individuals 1ho need itKeven i& they believe that an assi"nment is easy enou"h or clear enou"h that students should not need individual help. -eadiness to help is al1ays essential because it is o&ten hard to kno1 in advance exactly ho1 hard a task 1ill prove to be &or particular students. 5ithout assistance, a task that proves di&&icult initially may remain di&&icult inde&initely, and the student 1ill be tempted to make unproductive, thou"h correct, attributions about his or her &ailure <>% 1ill never understand this@, >%Jm not smart enou"h@, or >%t doesnJt matter ho1 hard % study@=. Third, teachers need to remember that abilityKusually considered a relatively stable &actorKo&ten actually chan"es incrementally over the lon" term. -eco"ni2in" this &act is one o& the best 1ays to brin" about actual increases in studentsJ abilities <7lack1ell, Tr2nie1ski, P *1eck, 300;I (chunk, ,intrich, P )eese, 300D=. A middle$ years student mi"ht play the trumpet in the school band at a hi"h level o& ability, but this ability actually re&lects a lot o& previous e&&ort and a "radual increase in ability. A second "rade student 1ho reads &luently, in this sense may Educational Psychology
889
A .lobal Text
6. Student motivation have hi"h current ability to readI but at some point in the distant past that same student could not read as 1ell, and even &urther back he may not have been able to read at all. The increases in ability have happened at least in part because o& e&&ort. 5hile these ideas may seem obvious, they can easily be &or"otten in the classroom because e&&ort and ability evolve accordin" to very di&&erent time &rames. #&&ort and its results appear relatively immediatelyI a student expends e&&ort this 1eek, this day, or even at this very moment, and the e&&ort <i& not the results= are visible ri"ht a1ay. 7ut ability may take lon"er to sho1 itsel&I a student o&ten develops it only over many 1eeks, months, or years.
&otivation as self:efficacy
%n addition to bein" in&luenced by their "oals, interests, and attributions, studentsJ motives are a&&ected by s*ecific belie&s about the studentJs personal capacities. %n self=efficacy theory the belie&s become a primary, explicit explanation &or motivation <7andura, 89;;, 89D:, 899;=. Self=efficacy is the belie& that you are capable o& carryin" out a speci&ic task or o& reachin" a speci&ic "oal. Bote that the belie& and the action or "oal are s*ecific. (el&$ e&&icacy is a belie& that you can 1rite an acceptable term paper, &or example, or repair an automobile, or make &riends 1ith the ne1 student in class. These are relatively speci&ic belie&s and tasks. (el&$e&&icacy is not about 1hether you believe that you are intelli"ent in "eneral, 1hether you al1ays like 1orkin" 1ith mechanical thin"s, or think that you are "enerally a likeable person. These more "eneral /ud"ments are better re"arded as various mixtures o& self3conce*ts <belie&s about "eneral personal identity= or o& self3esteem <evaluations o& identity=. They are important in their o1n ri"ht, and sometimes in&luence motivation, but only indirectly <7on" P (kaalvik, 300F=. (el&$e&&icacy belie&s, &urthermore, are not the same as >true@ or documented skill or ability. They are self3 constructed, meanin" that they are personally developed perceptions. There can sometimes there&ore be discrepancies bet1een a personJs sel&$e&&icacy belie&s and the personJs abilities. Mou can believe that you can 1rite a "ood term paper, &or example, 1ithout actually bein" able to do so, and vice versa you can believe yoursel& incapable o& 1ritin" a paper, but discover that you are in &act able to do so. %n this 1ay sel&$e&&icacy is like the everyday idea o& confidence, except that it is de&ined more precisely. And as 1ith con&idence, it is possible to have either too much or too little sel&$e&&icacy. The optimum level seems to be either at or sli"htly above true capacity <7andura, 899;=. As 1e indicate belo1, lar"e discrepancies bet1een sel&$e&&icacy and ability can create motivational problems &or the individual.
#&&ects o& sel&$e&&icacy on studentsJ behavior

(el&$e&&icacy may sound like a uni&ormly desirable quality, but research as 1ell as teachersJ experience su""ests that its e&&ects are a bit more complicated than they &irst appear. (el&$e&&icacy has three main e&&ects, each o& 1hich has both a >dark@ or undesirable side and a positive or desirable side.
Choice of tas#s
The &irst e&&ect is that sel&$e&&icacy makes students more 1illin" to choose tasks 1here they already &eel con&ident o& succeedin". This e&&ect is almost inevitable, "iven the de&inition o& the concept o& sel&$e&&icacy, it has also been supported by research on sel&$e&&icacy belie&s <,a/ares P (chunk, 3008=. For teachers, the e&&ect on choice can be either 1elcome or not, dependin" on circumstances. %& a student believes that he or she can solve mathematical problems, then the student is more likely to attempt the mathematics home1ork that the teacher assi"ns. 4n&ortunately the converse is also true. %& a student believes that he or she is incapable o& math, then the student is
830
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License less likely to attempt the math home1ork <perhaps tellin" himsel&, >5hatJs the use o& tryin"?@=, re"ardless o& the studentJs actual ability in math. (ince sel&$e&&icacy is sel&$constructed, &urthermore, it is also possible &or students to miscalculate or misperceive their true skill, and the misperceptions themselves can have complex e&&ects on studentsJ motivations. From a teacherJs point o& vie1, all is 1ell even i& students overestimate their capacity but actually do succeed at a relevant task any1ay, or i& they underestimate their capacity, yet discover that they can succeed and raise their sel&$e&&icacy belie&s as a result. All may not be 1ell, thou"h, i& students do not believe that they can succeed and there&ore do not even try, or i& students overestimate their capacity by a 1ide mar"in, but are disappointed unexpectedly by &ailure and lo1er their sel&$e&&icacy belie&s.
Persistence at tas#s
A second e&&ect o& hi"h sel&$e&&icacy is to increase a persistence at relevant tasks. %& you believe that you can solve cross1ord pu22les, but encounter one that takes lon"er than usual, then you are more likely to 1ork lon"er at the pu22le until you <hope&ully= really do solve it. This is probably a desirable behavior in many situations, unless the persistence happens to inter&ere 1ith other, more important tasks <1hat i& you should be doin" home1ork instead o& 1orkin" on cross1ord pu22les?=. %& you happen to have lo1 sel&$e&&icacy &or cross1ords, on the other hand, then you are more likely to "ive up early on a di&&icult pu22le. .ivin" up early may o&ten be undesirable because it deprives you o& a chance to improve your skill by persistin". Then a"ain <on the third hand?=, the consequent lack o& success because o& "ivin" up may provide a use&ul incentive to improve your cross1ord skills. And a"ain, misperceptions o& capacity make a di&&erence. Cverestimatin" your capacity by a lot <excessively hi"h sel&$e&&icacy= mi"ht lead you not to prepare &or or &ocus on a task properly, and thereby impair your per&ormance. (o as 1ith choosin" tasks, the e&&ects o& sel&$e&&icacy vary &rom one individual to another and one situation to another. The teacherJs task is there&ore t1o$&old &irst, to discern the variations, and second, to encoura"e the positive sel&$ e&&icacy belie&s. Table 8A o&&ers some additional advice about ho1 to do this. Table 8A 5ays o& encoura"in" sel&$e&&icacy belie&s Strategy 8. (et "oals 1ith students, and "et a commitment &rom them to reach the "oals. !"ample of (hat the teacher might say >7y the end o& the month, % 1ant you to kno1 all o& the times table up to 3A x 3A. Can % count on you to do that?@ 3. #ncoura"e students to compare their per&ormance 1ith their o1n previous per&ormance, not 1ith other students. 3. ,oint out links bet1een e&&ort and improvement. >% sa1 you studyin" &or this test more this 1eek. Bo 1onder you did better this timeL@ F. %n "ivin" &eedback about per&ormance, &ocus on in&ormation, not evaluative /ud"ments. >,art 8 o& the lab 1rite$up 1as very detailed, /ust as the assi"nment asked. ,art 3 has a lot o& "ood ideas in it, but it needs to be more detailed and stated more explicitly.@ Educational Psychology
>Compare that dra1in" a"ainst the one that you made last semester. % think youJll &ind improvementsL@
838
A .lobal Text
6. Student motivation A. ,oint out that increases in kno1led"e or skill happen "radually by sustained e&&ort, not because o& inborn ability. >#very time % read another one o& your essays, % see more "ood ideas than the last time. They are so much more complete than 1hen you started the year.@
Res*onse to failure
6i"h sel&$e&&icacy &or a task not only increases a personJs persistence at the task, but also improves their ability to cope 1ith stress&ul conditions and to recover their motivation &ollo1in" outri"ht &ailures. (uppose that you have t1o assi"nmentsKan essay and a science lab reportKdue on the same day, and this circumstance promises to make your li&e hectic as you approach the deadline. Mou 1ill cope better 1ith the stress o& multiple assi"nments i& you already believe yoursel& capable o& doin" both o& the tasks, than i& you believe yoursel& capable o& doin" /ust one o& them or <especially= o& doin" neither. Mou 1ill also recover better in the un&ortunate event that you end up 1ith a poor "rade on one or even both o& the tasks. That is the "ood ne1s. The bad ne1s, at least &rom a teacherJs point o& vie1, is that the same resilience can sometimes also serve non$academic and non$school purposes. 6o1 so? (uppose, instead o& t1o school assi"nments due on the same day, a student has only one school assi"nment due, but also holds a part$time evenin" /ob as a server in a local restaurant. (uppose, &urther, that the student has hi"h sel&$e&&icacy &or both o& these tasksI he believes, in other 1ords, that he is capable o& completin" the assi"nment as 1ell as continuin" to 1ork at the /ob. The result o& such resilient belie&s can easily be a student 1ho devotes less attention to school 1ork than ideal, and 1ho even ends up 1ith a lo er "rade on the assi"nment than he or she is capable o&.
Learned helplessness and sel&$e&&icacy

%& a personJs sense o& sel&$e&&icacy is very lo1, he or she can develop learned helplessness/ a perception o& complete lac# o& control in masterin" a task. The attitude is similar to depression, a pervasive &eelin" o& apathy and a belie& that e&&ort makes no di&&erence and does not lead to success. Learned helplessness 1as ori"inally studied &rom the behaviorist perspective o& classical and operant conditionin" by the psycholo"ist )artin (eli"man <899A=. The studies used a some1hat >"loomy@ experimental procedure in 1hich an animal, such as a rat or a do", 1as repeatedly shocked in a ca"e in a 1ay that prevented the animal &rom escapin" the shocks. %n a later phase o& the procedure, conditions 1ere chan"ed so that the animal could avoid the shocks by merely movin" &rom one side o& the ca"e to the other. Met &requently they did not bother to do soL (eli"man called this behavior learned hel*lessness. %n people, learned helplessness leads to characteristic 1ays o& dealin" 1ith problems. They tend to attribute the source o& a problem to themselves, to "enerali2e the problem to many aspects o& li&e, and to see the problem as lastin" or permanent. )ore optimistic individuals, in contrast, are more likely to attribute a problem to outside sources, to see it as speci&ic to a particular situation or activity, and to see it as temporary or time$limited. Consider, &or example, t1o students 1ho each &ail a test. The one 1ith a lot o& learned helplessness is more likely to explain the &ailure by sayin" somethin" like >%Jm stupidI % never per&orm 1ell on any school1ork, and % never 1ill per&orm 1ell at it.@ The other, more optimistic student is more likely to say somethin" like >The teacher made the test too hard this time, so the test doesnJt prove anythin" about ho1 % 1ill do next time or in other sub/ects.@
833
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 5hat is note1orthy about these di&&erences in perception is ho1 much the more optimistic o& these perspectives resembles hi"h sel&$e&&icacy and ho1 much learned helplessness seems to contradict or di&&er &rom it. As already noted, hi"h sel&$e&&icacy is a stron" belie& in oneJs capacity to carry out a s*ecific task success&ully. 7y de&inition there&ore sel&$e&&icacy &ocuses attention on a temporary or time$limited activity <the task=, even thou"h the cause o& success&ul completion <onesel&= is >internal@. Teachers can minimi2e learned helplessness in students, there&ore, by encoura"in" their sel&$e&&icacy belie&s. There are several 1ays o& doin" this, as 1e explain next.
(ources o& sel&$e&&icacy belie&s

,sycholo"ists 1ho study sel&$e&&icacy have identi&ied &our ma/or sources o& sel&$e&&icacy belie&s <,a/ares P (chunk, 3008, 3003=. %n order o& importance they are <8= prior experiences o& masterin" tasks, <3= 1atchin" othersJ masterin" tasks, <3= messa"es or >persuasion@ &rom others, and <F= emotions related to stress and discom&ort. Fortunately the &irst three can be in&luenced by teachers directly, and even the &ourth can sometimes be in&luenced indirectly by appropriate interpretive comments &rom the teacher or others.
Prior e4*eriences of mastery

Bot surprisin"ly, past successes at a task increase studentsJ belie&s that they 1ill succeed a"ain in the &uture. The implication o& this basic &act means that teachers need to help students build a history o& successes. 5hether they are math problems, readin" assi"nments, or athletic activities, tasks have to end 1ith success more o&ten than 1ith &ailure. Bote, thou"h, that the successes have to represent mastery that is "enuine or competence that is truly authentic. (uccess at tasks that are trivial or irrelevant do not improve sel&$e&&icacy belie&s, nor does praise &or successes that a student has not really had <#rikson, 89:DU899F=. As a practical matter, creatin" a "enuine history o& success is most convincin" i& teachers also 1ork to broaden a studentJs vision o& >the past@. Moun"er students <elementary$a"e= in particular have relatively short or limited ideas o& 1hat counts as >past experience@I they may "o back only a &e1 occasions 1hen &ormin" impressions o& 1hether they can succeed a"ain in the &uture <#ccles, et al., 899D=. Clder students <secondary school= "radually develop lon"er vie1s o& their personal >pasts@, both because o& improvements in memory and because o& accumulatin" a personal history that is truly lon"er. The challen"e &or 1orkin" 1ith any a"e, ho1ever, is to insure that students base sel&$e&&icacy belie&s on all relevant experiences &rom their pasts, not /ust on selected or recent experiences.
Eatching others( e4*eriences of mastery

A second source o& e&&icacy belie&s comes &rom vicarious e4*erience of mastery, or observin" othersJ successes <(chunk P 0immerman, 899;=. (imply seein" someone else succeed at a task, in other 1ords, can contribute to believin" that you, too, can succeed. The e&&ect is stron"er 1hen the observer lacks experience 1ith the task and there&ore may be unsure o& his or her o1n ability. %t is also stron"er 1hen the model is someone respected by the observer, such as a studentJs teacher, or a peer 1ith "enerally comparable ability. #ven under these conditions, thou"h, vicarious experience is not as in&luential as direct experience. The reasons are not hard to ima"ine. (uppose, &or example, you 1itness both your teacher and a respected &riend succeed at sin"in" a &avorite tune, but you are unsure 1hether you personally can sin". %n that case you may &eel encoura"ed about your o1n potential, but are likely still to &eel some1hat uncertain o& your o1n e&&icacy. %& on the other hand you do not 1itness othersJ sin"in", but you have a history o& sin"in" 1ell yoursel&, it is a di&&erent story. %n that case you are likely to believe in your e&&icacy, re"ardless o& ho1 others per&orm.
833
A .lobal Text
6. Student motivation All o& 1hich su""ests that to a modest extent, teachers may be able to enhance studentsJ sel&$e&&icacy by modelin" success at a task or by pointin" out classmates 1ho are success&ul. These strate"ies can 1ork because they not only sho1 ho1 to do a task, but also communicate a more &undamental messa"e, the &act that the task can in &act be done. %& students are learnin" a di&&icult arithmetic procedure, &or example, you can help by demonstratin" the procedure, or by pointin" out classmates 1ho are doin" it. Bote, thou"h, that vicarious mastery is help&ul only i& backed up 1ith real successes per&ormed by the students themselves. %t is also help&ul only i& the >model classmates@ are perceived as truly comparable in ability. Cveruse o& vicarious models, especially in the absence o& real success by learners, can cause learners to disquali&y a modelJs successI students may simply decide that the model is >out o& their lea"ue@ in skills and is there&ore irrelevant to /ud"in" their o1n potential.
Social messages and *ersuasion

A third source o& e&&icacy belie&s are encoura"ements, both implied and stated, that persuade a person o& his or her capacity to do a task. ,ersuasion does not create hi"h e&&icacy by itsel&, but it o&ten increases or supports it 1hen coupled 1ith either direct or vicarious experience, especially 1hen the persuasion comes &rom more than one person <.oddard, 6oy, P 6oy, 300F=. For teachers, this su""ests t1o thin"s. The &irst, o& course, is that encoura"ement can motivate students, especially 1hen it is &ocused on achievable, speci&ic tasks. %t can be motivatin" to say thin"s like >% think you can do it@ or >%Jve seen you do this be&ore, so % kno1 that you can do it a"ain@. 7ut the second implication is that teachers should arran"e 1herever possible to support their encoura"ement by desi"nin" tasks at hand that are in &act achievable by the student. (trikin" a balance o& encoura"ement and task di&&iculty may seem strai"ht&or1ard, but sometimes it can be challen"in" because students can sometimes perceive teachersJ comments and tasks quite di&&erently &rom ho1 teachers intend. .ivin" excessive amounts o& detailed help, &or example, may be intended as support &or a student, but be taken as a lack o& con&idence in the studentJs ability to do the task independently.
Emotions related to success, stress or discomfort

The previous three sources o& e&&icacy belie&s are all rather co"nitive or >thinkin" oriented@, but emotions also in&luence expectations o& success or &ailure. Feelin" nervous or anxious /ust be&ore speakin" to a lar"e "roup <sometimes even /ust a class &ull o& studentsL= can &unction like a messa"e that says >%Jm not "oin" to succeed at doin" this@, even i& there is in &act "ood reason to expect success. 7ut positive &eelin"s can also raise belie&s about e&&icacy. 5hen recallin" the excitement o& succeedin" at a previous, unrelated task, people may overestimate their chances o& success at a ne1 task 1ith 1hich they have no previous experience, and are there&ore in no position to predict their e&&icacy. For teachers, the most important implication is that studentsJ motivation can be a&&ected 1hen they "enerali2e &rom past experience 1hich they believe, ri"htly or 1ron"ly, to be relevant. 7y simply announcin" a test, &or example, a teacher can make some students anxious even be&ore the students &ind out anythin" about the testK 1hether it is easy or di&&icult, or even comparable in any 1ay to other experiences called >tests@ in their pasts. Conversely, it can be misleadin" to encoura"e students on the basis o& their success at past academic tasks i& the earlier tasks 1ere not really relevant to requirements o& the ne1 tasks at hand. (uppose, &or example, that a middle$ years student has previously 1ritten only brie& opinion$based papers, and never 1ritten a research$based paper. %n
83F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License that case boostin" the studentJs con&idence by tellin" him that >it is /ust like the papers you 1rote be&ore@ may not be help&ul or even honest.
A caution motivation as content versus motivation as process

A caution about sel&$e&&icacy theory is its heavy emphasis on /ust the process o& motivation, at the expense o& the content o& motivation. The basic sel&$e&&icacy model has much to say about ho1 belie&s a&&ect behavior, but relatively little to say about 1hich belie&s and tasks are especially satis&yin" or lead to the "reatest 1ell$bein" in students. The ans1er to this question is important to kno1, since teachers mi"ht then select tasks as much as possible that are intrinsically satis&yin", and not merely achievable. Another 1ay o& posin" this concern is by askin" >%s it possible to &eel hi"h sel&$e&&icacy about a task that you do not en/oy?@ %t does seem quite possible &or such a "ap to exist. As a youth, &or example, one o& us <'elvin (ei&ert= had considerable success 1ith solvin" mathematics problems in hi"h school al"ebra, and expended considerable e&&ort doin" al"ebra assi"nments as home1ork. 7e&ore lon", he had developed hi"h sel&$e&&icacy 1ith re"ard to solvin" such problems. 7ut 'elvin never really en/oyed solvin" the al"ebra problems, and later even turned a1ay permanently &rom math or science as a career <much to the disappointment o& his teachers and &amily=. %n this case sel&$e&&icacy theory nicely explained the process o& his motivationK'elvinJs belie& in his capacity led to persistence at the tasks. 7ut it did not explain the content o& his motivationKhis "ro1in" dislike o& the tasks. Accountin" &or such a "ap requires a di&&erent theory o& motivation, one that includes not only speci&ic belie&s, but >deeper@ personal needs as 1ell. An example o& this approach is sel&$determination theory, 1here 1e turn next.
&otivation as self:determination
Common sense su""ests that human motivations ori"inate &rom some sort o& inner >need@. 5e all think o& ourselves as havin" various >needs@, a need &or &ood, &or example, or a need &or companionshipKthat in&luences our choices and activities. This same idea also &orms part o& some theoretical accounts o& motivation, thou"h the theories di&&er in the needs that they emphasi2e or reco"ni2e. %n Chapter 3, &or example, 1e talked about )aslo1Js hierarchy o& needs as an example o& motivations that &unction like needs that in&luence lon"$term personal development. Accordin" to )aslo1, individuals must satis&y physical survival needs be&ore they seek to satis&y needs o& belon"in", they satis&y belon"in" needs be&ore esteem needs, and so on. %n theory, too, people have both de&icit needs and "ro1th needs, and the de&icit needs must be satis&ied be&ore "ro1th needs can in&luence behavior <)aslo1, 89;0=. %n )aslo1Js theory, as in others that use the concept, a need is a relatively lastin" condition or &eelin" that requires relie& or satis&action and that tends to in&luence action over the lon" term. (ome needs may decrease 1hen satis&ied <like hun"er=, but others may not <like curiosity=. #ither 1ay, needs di&&er &rom the sel&$ e&&icacy belie&s discussed earlier, 1hich are relatively speci&ic and co"nitive, and a&&ect particular tasks and behaviors &airly directly. A recent theory o& motivation based on the idea o& needs is sel&$determination theory, proposed by the psycholo"ists #d1ard *eci and -ichard -yan <3000=, amon" others. The theory proposes that understandin" motivation requires takin" into account three basic human needs
autonomyKthe need to &eel &ree o& external constraints on behavior competenceKthe need to &eel capable or skilled
83A
A .lobal Text
relatednessKthe need to &eel connected or involved 1ith others
Bote that these needs are all psycholo"ical, not physicalI hun"er and sex, &or example, are not on the list. They are also about personal "ro1th or development, not about de&icits that a person tries to reduce or eliminate. 4nlike &ood <in behaviorism= or sa&ety <in )aslo1Js hierarchy=, you can never "et enou"h o& autonomy, competence, or relatedness. Mou <and your students= 1ill seek to enhance these continually throu"hout li&e. The key idea o& sel&$determination theory is that 1hen persons <such as you or one o& your students= &eel that these basic needs are reasonably 1ell met, they tend to perceive their actions and choices to be intrinsically motivated or >sel&$determined@. %n that case they can turn their attention to a variety o& activities that they &ind attractive or important, but that do not relate directly to their basic needs. Amon" your students, &or example, some individuals mi"ht read books that you have su""ested, and others mi"ht listen attentively 1hen you explain key concepts &rom the unit that you happen to be teachin". %& one or more basic needs are not met 1ell, ho1ever, people 1ill tend to &eel coerced by outside pressures or external incentives. They may become preoccupied, in &act, 1ith satis&yin" 1hatever need has not been met and thus exclude or avoid activities that mi"ht other1ise be interestin", educational, or important. %& the persons are students, their learnin" 1ill su&&er.
(el&$determination and intrinsic motivation

%n proposin" the importance o& needs, then, sel&$determination theory is assertin" the importance o& intrinsic motivation, an idea that has come up be&ore in this book <see especially Chapter 8, about learnin" theory=, and that 1ill come a"ain later <see especially Chapter 9, about plannin" instruction=. The sel&$determination version o& intrinsic motivation, ho1ever, emphasi2es a personJs perception o& &reedom, rather than the presence or absence o& >real@ constraints on action. (el&$determination means a person &eels &ree, even i& the person is also operatin" 1ithin certain external constraints. %n principle, a student can experience sel&$determination even i& the student must, &or example, live 1ithin externally imposed rules o& appropriate classroom behavior. To achieve a &eelin" o& sel&$determination, ho1ever, the studentJs basic needs must be metKneeds &or autonomy, competence, and relatedness. %n motivatin" students, then, the bottom line is that teachers have an interest in helpin" students to meet their basic needs, and in not lettin" school rules or the teachersJ o1n leadership styles inter&ere 1ith or block satis&action o& studentsJ basic needs. >,ure@ sel&$determination may be the ideal &or most teachers and students, o& course, but the reality is usually di&&erent. For a variety o& reasons, teachers in most classrooms cannot be expected to meet all studentsJ basic needs at all times. Cne reason is the sheer number o& students, 1hich makes it impossible to attend to every student per&ectly at all times. Another reason is teachersJ responsibility &or a curriculum, 1hich can require creatin" expectations &or studentsJ activities that sometimes con&lict 1ith studentsJ autonomy or makes them &eel <temporarily= less than &ully competent. (till another reason is studentsJ personal histories, ran"in" &rom divorce to poverty, 1hich may create needs in some individuals 1hich are beyond the po1er o& teachers to remedy. The result &rom studentsJ point o& vie1 is usually only a partial perception o& sel&$determination, and there&ore a simultaneous mix o& intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. (el&$determination theory reco"ni2es this reality by su""estin" that the >intrinsic$ness@ o& motivation is really a matter o& de"ree, extendin" &rom hi"hly e4trinsic, throu"h various mixtures o& intrinsic and extrinsic, to hi"hly intrinsic <'oestner P Losier, 300F=. At the extrinsic end o& the scale is learnin" that is re"ulated primarily by external re1ards and constraints, 1hereas at the intrinsic 83:
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License end is learnin" re"ulated primarily by learners themselves. Table 8: summari2es and "ives examples o& the various levels and their e&&ects on motivation. 7y assumin" that motivation is o&ten a mix o& the intrinsic and extrinsic, the /ob o& the teacher becomes more realisticI the /ob is not to expect purely intrinsic motivation &rom students all the time, but simply to arran"e and encoura"e motivations that are as intrinsic as possible. To do this, the teacher needs to support studentsJ basic needs &or autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Table 8: Combinations o& intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Source of regulation of action >,ure@ extrinsic motivation ,erson lacks the intention to take any action, re"ardless o& pressures or incentives Gery external to person Actions re"ulated only by outside pressures and incentives, and controls (tudent completes no 1ork even 1hen pressured or 1hen incentives are o&&ered (tudent completes assi"nment only i& reminded explicitly o& the incentive o& "rades andUor ne"ative consequences o& &ailin" (ome1hat external (peci&ic actions re"ulated internally, but 1ithout re&lection or connection to personal needs (tudent completes assi"nment independently, but only because o& &ear o& shamin" sel& or because o& "uilt about consequences o& not completin" assi"nment (ome1hat internal Actions reco"ni2ed by individual as important or as valuable as a means to a more valued "oal (tudent "enerally completes school 1ork independently, but only because o& its value in "ainin" admission to colle"e Gery internal Actions adopted by individual as inte"ral to sel&$concept and to personJs ma/or personal values (tudent "enerally completes school 1ork independently, because bein" 1ell educated is part o& the studentJs concept o& himsel& >,ure@ intrinsic re"ulation Actions practiced solely because they are en/oyable and valued &or their o1n sake (tudent en/oys every topic, concept, and assi"nment that every teacher ever assi"ns, and completes school 1ork solely because o& his en/oyment Description !"ample
83;
A .lobal Text
4sin" sel&$determination theory in the classroom

5hat are some teachin" strate"ies &or supportin" studentsJ needs? #ducational researchers have studied this question &rom a variety o& directions, and their resultin" recommendations conver"e and overlap in a number o& 1ays. For convenience, the recommendations can be "rouped accordin" to the basic need that they address, be"innin" 1ith the need &or autonomy.
Su**orting autonomy in learners

A ma/or part o& supportin" autonomy is to "ive students choices 1herever possible <-yan P Lynch, 3003=. The choices that encoura"e the "reatest &eelin"s o& sel&$control, obviously, are ones that are about relatively ma/or issues or that have relatively si"ni&icant consequences &or students, such as 1hom to choose as partners &or a ma/or "roup pro/ect. 7ut choices also encoura"e some &eelin" o& sel&$control even 1hen they are about relatively minor issues, such as ho1 to or"ani2e your desk or 1hat kind o& &older to use &or storin" your papers at school. %t is important, &urthermore, to o&&er choices to all students, includin" students needin" explicit directions in order to 1ork success&ullyI avoid reservin" choices &or only the best students or "ivin" up o&&erin" choices alto"ether to students 1ho &all behind or 1ho need extra help. All students 1ill &eel more sel&$determined and there&ore more motivated i& they have choices o& some sort. Teachers can also support studentsJ autonomy more directly by minimi2in" external re1ards <like "rades= and comparisons amon" studentsJ per&ormance, and by orientin" and respondin" themselves to studentsJ expressed "oals and interests. %n teachin" elementary students about climate chan"e, &or example, you can support autonomy by explorin" 1hich aspects o& this topic have already come to studentsJ attention and aroused their concern. The point o& the discussion 1ould not be to &ind out >1ho kno1s the most@ about this topic, but to build and enhance studentsJ intrinsic motivations as much as possible. %n reality, o& course, it may not be possible to succeed at this "oal &ullyKsome students may simply have no interest in the topic, &or example, or you may be constrained by time or resources &rom individuali2in" certain activities &ully. 7ut any de"ree o& attention to studentsJ individuality, as 1ell as any de"ree o& choice, 1ill support studentsJ autonomy.
Su**orting the need for com*etence

The most obvious 1ay to make students &eel competent is by selectin" activities 1hich are challen"in" but nonetheless achievable 1ith reasonable e&&ort and assistance <#lliott, )c.re"or, P Thrash, 300F=. Althou"h &e1 teachers 1ould disa"ree 1ith this idea, there are times 1hen it is hard to put into practice, such as 1hen you &irst meet a class at the start o& a school year and there&ore are un&amiliar 1ith their back"rounds and interests. 7ut there are some strate"ies that are "enerally e&&ective even i& you are not yet in a position to kno1 the students 1ell. Cne is to emphasi2e activities that require active response &rom students. (ometimes this simply means selectin" pro/ects, experiments, discussions and the like that require students to do more than simply listen. Cther times it means expectin" active responses in all interactions 1ith students, such as by askin" questions that call &or >diver"ent@ <multiple or elaborated= ans1ers. %n a social studies class, &or example, try askin" >5hat are some 1ays 1e could &ind out more about our community?@ instead o& >Tell me the three best 1ays to &ind out about our community.@ The &irst question invites more diver"ent, elaborate ans1ers than the second. Another "enerally e&&ective 1ay to support competence is to respond and "ive &eedback as immediately as possible. Tests and term papers help subsequent learnin" more i& returned, 1ith comments, sooner rather than
83D
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License later. *iscussions teach more i& you include your o1n ideas in them, 1hile still encoura"in" studentsJ input. (mall "roup and independent activities are more e&&ective i& you provide a convenient 1ay &or students to consult authoritative sources &or "uidance 1hen needed, 1hether the source is you personally, a teachin" assistant, a specially selected readin", or even a computer pro"ram. %n addition, you can sometimes devise tasks that create a &eelin" o& competence because they have a >natural@ solution or endin" point. Assemblin" a /i"sa1 pu22le o& the community, &or example, has this quality, and so does creating a /i"sa1 pu22le o& the community i& the students need a "reater challen"e.
Su**orting the need to relate to others

The main 1ay o& support studentsJ need to relate to others is to arran"e activities in 1hich students 1ork to"ether in 1ays that are mutually supportive, that reco"ni2e studentsJ diversity, and minimi2e competition amon" individuals. 5e 1ill have more to say about this strate"y in Chapter D <>%nstructional strate"ies@=, 1here 1e describe several varieties o& cooperative learnin", as 1ell as some o& their pit&alls to be avoided. For no1, simply note that havin" students 1ork to"ether can happen in many 1ays. Mou can, &or example, deliberately arran"e pro/ects that require a variety o& talentsI some educators call such activities >rich "roup 1ork@ <Cohen, 899FI Cohen, 7rody, P (apon$(hevin, 300F=. %n studyin" in small "roups about medieval society, &or example, one student can contribute his dra1in" skills, another can contribute his 1ritin" skills, and still another can contribute his dramatic skills. The result can be a multi$&aceted presentationK1ritten, visual, and oral. The "roups needed &or rich "roup 1ork provide &or studentsJ relationships 1ith each other, 1hether they contain six individuals or only t1o. There are other 1ays to encoura"e relationships amon" students. %n the /i"sa1 classroom <Aronson P ,atnoe, 899;=, &or example, students 1ork to"ether in t1o phases. %n the &irst phase, "roups o& >experts@ 1ork to"ether to &ind in&ormation on a speciali2ed topic. %n a second phase the expert "roups split up and re&orm into >"eneralist@ "roups containin" one representative &rom each &ormer expert "roup. %n studyin" the animals o& A&rica, &or example, each expert "roup mi"ht &ind in&ormation about a di&&erent particular cate"ory o& animal or plantI one "roup mi"ht &ocus on mammal, another on bird, a third on reptiles, and so on. %n the second phase o& the /i"sa1, the "eneralist "roups 1ould pool in&ormation &rom the experts to "et a more 1ell$rounded vie1 o& the topic. The "eneralist "roups 1ould each have an expert about mammals, &or example, but also an expert about birds and about reptiles. As a teacher, you can add to these or"ani2ational strate"ies by encoura"in" the development o& your o1n relationships 1ith class members. Mour "oal, as teacher, is to demonstrate carin" and interest in your students not /ust as students, but as people. The "oal also involves behavin" as i& "ood relationships bet1een and amon" class members are not only possible, but ready to develop and perhaps even already developin". A simple tactic, &or example, is to speak o& >1e@ and >us@ as much as possible, rather than speakin" o& >you students@. Another tactic is to present cooperative activities and assi"nments 1ithout apolo"y, as i& they are in the best interests not /ust o& students, but o& >us all@ in the classroom, yoursel& included.
'eepin" sel&$determination in perspective

%n certain 1ays sel&$determination theory provides a sensible 1ay to think about studentsJ intrinsic motivation and there&ore to think about ho1 to "et them to mana"e their o1n learnin". A particular stren"th o& the theory is that it reco"ni2es degrees o& sel&$determination and bases many ideas on this reality. )ost people reco"ni2e
839
A .lobal Text
6. Student motivation combinations o& intrinsic and extrinsic motivation "uidin" particular activities in their o1n lives. 5e mi"ht en/oy teachin", &or example, but also do this /ob partly to receive a paycheck. To its credit, sel&$determination theory also relies on a list o& basic human needsKautonomy, competence, and relatednessKthat relate com&ortably 1ith some o& the lar"er purposes o& education. Althou"h these are positive &eatures &or understandin" and in&luencin" studentsJ classroom motivation, some educators and psycholo"ists nonetheless have lin"erin" questions about the limitations o& sel&$determination theory. Cne is 1hether merely providin" choices actually improves studentsJ learnin", or simply improves their satisfaction 1ith learnin". There is evidence supportin" both possibilities <Flo1erday P (chra1, 3003I *eci P -yan, 3003=, and it is likely that there are teachers 1hose classroom experience supports both possibilities as 1ell. Another question is 1hether it is possible to overdo attention to studentsJ needsKand a"ain there is evidence &or both &avorin" and contradictin" this possibility. Too many choices can actually make anyone <not /ust a student= &rustrated and dissatis&ied 1ith a choice the person actually does make <(ch1art2, 300F=. Furthermore, di&&erentiatin" activities to studentsJ competence levels may be impractical i& students are &unctionin" at extremely diverse levels 1ithin a sin"le class, as sometimes happens. *i&&erentiatin" may be inappropriate, too, i& it holds a teacher back &rom coverin" key curriculum ob/ectives 1hich students need and 1hich at least some students are able to learn. These are serious concerns, thou"h in our opinion not serious enou"h to "ive up o&&erin" choices to students or to stop di&&erentiatin" instruction alto"ether. %n Chapter ; <>Classroom mana"ement and the learnin" environment@=, there&ore, 1e explain the practical basis &or this opinion, by describin" 1orkable 1ays &or o&&erin" choices and reco"ni2in" studentsJ diversity.
E4pectancy 4 value) effects on students% motivation

As 1e have explained in this chapter, motivation is a&&ected by several &actors, includin" rein&orcement &or behavior, but especially also studentsJ "oals, interests, and sense o& sel&$e&&icacy and sel&$determination. The &actors combine to create t1o "eneral sources o& motivation studentsJ expectation o& success and the value that students place on a "oal. Gie1in" motivation in this 1ay is o&ten called the expectancy$value model o& motivation <5i"&ield P #ccles, 3003I 5i"&ield, Tonk, P #ccles, 300F=, and sometimes 1ritten 1ith a multiplicative &ormula expectancy x value ] motivation. The relationship bet1een expectation and value is >multiplicative@ rather than additive because in order to be motivated, it is necessary &or a person to have at least a modest expectation o& success and to assi"n a task at least some positive value. %& you have hi"h expectations o& success but do not value a task at all <mentally assi"n it a >0@ value=, then you 1ill not &eel motivated at all. Like1ise, i& you value a task hi"hly but have no expectation o& success about completin" it <assi"n it a >0@ expectancy=, then you also 1ill not &eel motivated at all. #xpectancies are the result o& various &actors, but particularly the "oals held by a student, and the studentJs sel&$ e&&icacy, 1hich 1e discussed earlier in this chapter. A student 1ith mastery "oals and stron" sel&$e&&icacy &or a task, &or example, is likely to hold hi"h expectations &or successKalmost by de&inition. Galues are also the result o& various &actors, but especially studentsJ interests and &eelin"s o& sel&$determination. A student 1ho has a lastin" personal interest in a task or topic and is allo1ed to choose it &reely is especially likely to value the taskKand there&ore to &eel motivated. %deally both expectancies and values are hi"h in students on any key learnin" task. The reality, ho1ever, is that students sometimes do not expect success, nor do they necessarily value it 1hen success is possible. 6o1 can a
830
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License teacher respond to lo1 expectations and lo1 valuin"? 5e have o&&ered a number o& su""estions to meet this challen"e throu"hout this chapter. %n brie&, raisin" lo1 expectations depends on ad/ustin" task di&&iculty so that success becomes a reasonable prospect a teacher must make tasks neither too hard nor too easy. -eachin" this "eneral "oal depends in turn on thou"ht&ul, appropriate plannin"Kselectin" reasonable ob/ectives, ad/ustin" them on the basis o& experience, &indin" supportive materials, and providin" students 1ith help 1hen needed. -aisin" the value o& academic tasks is equally important, but the "eneral strate"ies &or doin" so are di&&erent than &or raisin" expectations. %ncreasin" value requires linkin" the task to studentsJ personal interests and prior kno1led"e, sho1in" the utility o& the task to studentsJ &uture "oals, and sho1in" that the task is valuable to other people 1hom studentsJ respect. (ome o& these strate"ies 1ere discussed earlier in this chapter, but others <e.". linkin" ne1 learnin" 1ith prior kno1led"e= are discussed in Chapter 3, 1hich is called >The learnin" process@.
T R2ET) a model for integrating ideas about motivation
A model o& motivation that inte"rates many ideas about motivation, includin" those in this chapter, has been
developed by Carole Ames <8990, 8993=. The acronym or abbreviated name &or the pro"ram is TA-.#T, 1hich stands &or six elements o& e&&ective motivation

3ask 4uthority -eco"nition 0roupin" !valuatin" 3ime
#ach o& the elements contributes to studentsE motivation either directly or indirectly.
Task
As explained earlier, students experience tasks in terms o& their value, their expectation o& success, and their authenticity. The value o& a task is assessed by its importance, interest to the student, use&ulness or utility, and the cost in terms o& e&&ort and time to achieve it. #xpectation o& success is assessed by a studentEs perception o& the di&&iculty o& a task. .enerally a middlin" level o& di&&iculty is optimal &or studentsI too easy, and the task seems trivial <not valuable or meanin"&ul=, and too hard, and the task seems unlikely to succeed and in this sense useless. Authenticity re&ers to ho1 much a task relates to real$li&e experiences o& studentsI the more it does so, the more it can build on studentsE interests and "oals, and the more meanin"&ul and motivatin" it becomes.
Autonomy
)otivation is enhanced i& students &eel a de"ree o& autonomy or responsibility &or a learnin" task. Autonomy stren"thens sel&$e&&icacy and sel&$determinationKt1o valued and motivatin" attitudes described earlier in this chapter. 5here possible, teachers can enhance autonomy by o&&erin" studentsE choices about assi"nments and by encoura"in" them to take initiative about their o1n learnin".
-eco"nition
Teachers can support studentsE motivation by reco"ni2in" their achievements appropriately. )uch depends, ho1ever, on ho1 this is doneI as discussed earlier, praise sometimes undermines per&ormance. %t is not especially e&&ective i& praise is very "eneral and lackin" in detailed reasons &or the praiseI or i& praise is &or qualities 1hich a Educational Psychology
838
A .lobal Text
6. Student motivation student cannot in&luence <like intelli"ence instead o& e&&ort=I or i& praise is o&&ered so 1idely that it loses meanin" or even becomes a si"nal that per&ormance has been substandard. )any o& these paradoxical e&&ects are described by sel&$determination and sel&$e&&icacy theory <and 1ere explained earlier in this chapter=.
.roupin"
)otivation is a&&ected by ho1 students are "rouped to"ether &or their 1orkKa topic discussed in more detail in Chapter D <>%nstructional (trate"ies@=. There are many 1ays to "roup students, but they tend to &all into three types cooperative, competitive, and individualistic <+ohnson P +ohnson, 8999=. %n cooperative learnin", a set o& students 1ork to"ether to achieve a common "oal <&or example, producin" a "roup presentation &or the class=I o&ten they receive a &inal "rade, or part o& a &inal "rade, in common. %n competitive learnin", students 1ork individually, and their "rades re&lect comparisons amon" the students <&or example, their per&ormances are ranked relative to each other, or they are >"raded on a curve@=. %n individualistic learnin", students 1ork by themselves, but their "rades are unrelated to the per&ormance o& classmates. -esearch that compares these three &orms o& "roupin" tends to &avor cooperative learnin" "roups, 1hich apparently supports studentsE need &or belon"in"Kan idea important in sel&$determination theory discussed earlier in this chapter.
#valuation
.roupin" structures obviously a&&ect ho1 studentsE e&&orts are evaluated. A &ocus on comparin" students, as happens 1ith competitive structures, can distract students &rom thinkin" about the material to be learned, and to &ocus instead on ho1 they appear to external authoritiesI the question shi&ts &rom >5hat am % learnin"?@ to >5hat 1ill the teacher think about my per&ormance?@ A &ocus on cooperative learnin", on the other hand, can have double$ ed"ed e&&ects students are encoura"ed to help their "roup mates, but may also be tempted to rely excessively on othersE e&&orts or alternatively to i"nore each otherEs contributions and overspeciali2e their o1n contributions. (ome compromise bet1een cooperative and individualistic structures seems to create optimal motivation &or learnin" <(lavin, 899A=.
Time
As every teacher kno1s, students vary in the amount o& time needed to learn almost any material or task. Accommodatin" the di&&erences can be challen"in", but also important &or maximi2in" studentsE motivation. (chool days are o&ten &illed 1ith interruptions and &ixed intervals o& time devoted to non$academic activitiesK&acts that make it di&&icult to be &lexible about "rantin" individuals di&&erent amounts o& time to complete academic tasks. Bonetheless a de"ree o& &lexibility is usually possible lar"er blocks o& time can sometimes be created &or important activities <&or example, 1ritin" an essay=, and sometimes enrichment activities can be arran"ed &or some students 1hile others receive extra attention &rom the teacher on core or basic tasks. )ore about such strate"ies is discussed in Chapter D <>%nstructional (trate"ies@=.
The bottom line about motivation sustainin" &ocus on learnin"

(ooner or later 1hen you teach, there 1ill be situations appropriate &or each perspective about motivation described in this chapter. There 1ill be times 1hen &ocusin" exclusively on studentsJ appropriate behavior <or lack thereo&= 1ill be both necessary and su&&icient evidence o& motivation. 7ut there 1ill be other times 1hen it is important to encoura"e studentsJ belie&s that they can accomplish speci&ic tasks, and still other times 1hen
833
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License providin" &or studentsJ underlyin" needs &or competence or social connection is important. Think o& these perspectives as alternatives to be used either sin"ly or in combination 1hen the time is ri"ht. 7ecause o& your o1n values, attitudes, or belie&s, you may &ind one perspective more personally compatible than another. #ven i& you settle on &avorite 1ays o& motivatin" students, thou"h, 1e encoura"e you to keep the other, less &avored approaches in reserve any1ay, and to experiment 1ith them. 5e believe that an eclectic approach to motivation 1ill enrich your teachin" the most, and enrich your studentsJ motivation and learnin" as 1ell. %& there is a sin"le lesson &rom the concepts about motivation outlined in this chapter, it is this academic motivation has no sin"le source, and teachers motivate students the best 1hen they assume motivation is complex. The next t1o chapters look at 1ays o& reali2in" such >broad$mindedness@ in practice, &irst 1hen you prepare activities and classes and later 1hen you actually teach them.
Chapter summary
)otivationKthe ener"y or drive that "ives behavior direction and &ocusKcan be understood in a variety o& 1ays, each o& 1hich has implications &or teachin". Cne perspective on motivation comes &rom behaviorism, and equates underlyin" drives or motives 1ith their out1ard, visible expression in behavior. )ost others, ho1ever, come &rom co"nitive theories o& learnin" and development. )otives are a&&ected by the kind o& "oals set by studentsK1hether they are oriented to mastery, per&ormance, &ailure$avoidance, or social contact. They are also a&&ected by studentsJ interests, both personal and situational. And they are a&&ected by studentsJ attributions about the causes o& success and &ailureK1hether they perceive the causes are due to ability, e&&ort, task di&&iculty, or luck. A ma/or current perspective about motivation is based on sel&$e&&icacy theory, 1hich &ocuses on a personJs belie& that he or she is capable o& carryin" out or masterin" a task. 6i"h sel&$e&&icacy a&&ects studentsJ choice o& tasks, their persistence at tasks, and their resilience in the &ace o& &ailure. %t helps to prevent learned helplessness, a perception o& complete lack o& control over mastery or success. Teachers can encoura"e hi"h sel&$e&&icacy belie&s by providin" students 1ith experiences o& mastery and opportunities to see othersJ experiences o& mastery, by o&&erin" 1ell$ timed messa"es persuadin" them o& their capacity &or success, and by interpretin" studentsJ emotional reactions to success, &ailure and stress. An extension o& sel&$e&&icacy theory is sel&$determination theory, 1hich is based on the idea that everyone has basic needs &or autonomy, competence, and relatedness to others. Accordin" to the theory, students 1ill be motivated more intrinsically i& these three needs are met as much as possible. A variety o& strate"ies can assist teachers in doin" so. As a practical matter, the strate"ies can encoura"e motivation that is more intrinsic to students, but usually not completely intrinsic.
Cn the %nternet
N(((.des.emory.edu)mfp)self=efficacy.html> This is a rather extensive site maintained about all aspects o& sel&$e&&icacy theory. The site "ives access to a number o& published articles on the sub/ect as 1ell as to extensive >lecture@ notes by Frank ,a/ares, 1ho publishes and teaches about sel&$e&&icacy theory. N(((.psych.rochester.edu)SD3)faculty)inde".html> This, too, is a rather extensive site, maintained at the 4niversity o& -ochester by #d1ard *eci and -ichard -yan, t1o psycholo"ists 1ho have published extensively about sel&$determination theory. The site is especially thorou"h in revie1in" evidence contrary to the theory and in o&&erin" many o& the actual research questionnaires 1hich have been used to study sel&$determination. Educational Psychology
833
A .lobal Text
6. Student motivation N(((.indiana.edu)Dreading)ieo)bibs)mot=gen.html> 6ere is a 1ebsite that discusses many aspects o& motivation in education. %t is not limited to any one theory, perspective, or concept about this topic. )any o& the re&erences are to citations &rom the #-%C database <also available at Q(((.eric.ed.govR=, and there are links to biblio"raphies on additional topics about education.
'ey terms
Albert 7andura Attributions o& success or &ailure Autonomy, need &or 7ehaviorist perspective on motivation Competence, need &or Failure$avoidant "oals %ntrinsic motivation +i"sa1 classroom Learned helplessness )astery "oals )otivation Beed &or relatedness ,er&ormance "oals ,ersonal interests (el&$determination theory (el&$e&&icacy (ituational interests TA-.#T
-e&erences
Allison, '., *1yer, +., P )akin, (. <8999=. (el&$e&&icacy and participation in vi"orous physical activity by hi"h school students. 9ealth Education and +ehavior, C:<8=, 83$3F. Ames, C. <8990=. )otivation 5hat teachers need to kno1. Teachers College Record, FB, F09$F38. Ames. C. <8993=. Classrooms .oals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, A>, 3:8$3;8. Aronson, #. P ,atnoe, (. <899;=. The Jigsa Be1 Mork Lon"man. 7andura, A. <89;;=. (el&$e&&icacy To1ard a uni&yin" theory o& behavioral chan"e. Psychological Revie , A>, 898$38A. 7andura, A. <89D:=. Social foundations of thought and action" A social cognitive theory. #n"le1ood Cli&&s, B+ ,rentice 6all. 7andura, A. <899;=. Self3efficacy" The e4ercise of control. Be1 Mork Freeman. 7lack1ell, L., Tr2nie1ski, '., P *1eck, C. <300;=. %mplicit theories predict achievement across an adolescent transition a lon"itudinal study. Child !evelo*ment, =A, 3F:$3:3. 7on", ). P (kaalvik, #. <300F=. Academic sel&$concept and sel&$e&&icacy 6o1 di&&erent are they really? Educational *sychology revie , B?<8=, 8$F0. 7urke, ). P (ass, T. <300:=. Classroom peer e&&ects and student achievement. ,aper presented at the annual meetin" o& the American #conomic Association, 7oston, 4(A. 7utin, *. <300A=. Service learning in higher education. Be1 Mork ,al"rave )acmillan. Cameron, +. P ,ierce, 5. <899F=. -ein&orcement, re1ard, and intrinsic motivation A meta$analysis. Revie of Educational Research, :>, 3:3$F33. classroom" +uilding coo*eration in the classroom, Cnd edition.
83F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Cohen, #. <899F=. !esigning grou* or#" Strategies for the heterogeneous classroom, Cnd edition. Be1 Mork TeachersJ Colle"e ,ress. *arnon, C., 7utera, F., P 6arackie1ic2, +. <300:=. Achievement "oals in social interactions Learnin" 1ith mastery versus per&ormance "oals. @otivation and Emotion, ;B, :8$;0. *eci, #. <89;8=. #&&ects o& externally mediated re1ards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, BA, 80A$88A. *eci, #., 'oestner, -., P -yan, -. <3008=. #xtrinsic re1ards and intrinsic motivation in education -econsidered once a"ain. Revie of Educational Research, =B<8=, 8$3;.
*eci, #. P -yan, -. <3003=. The paradox o& achievement The harder you push, the 1orse it "ets. %n #. Aronson <#d.=, ,m*roving academic achievement" ,m*act of *sychological factors in education <pp. :3$ 90=. 7oston Academic ,ress. *e.ranpre, -. <3000=. A science o& meanin" Can behaviorism brin" meanin" to psycholo"ical science? American Psychologist, ??<;=, ;38$;3:. *o1son, ). P )c%nerney, *. <3003=. 5hat do students say about their motivational "oals? To1ard a more complex and dynamic perspective on student motivation. Contem*orary Educational Psychology, CA, 98$ 883. *1eck, C. <3000=. Self3theories" Their role in motivation, *ersonality, and develo*ment. ,hiladelphia ,sycholo"y ,ress. *1eck, C. <300:=. @indset" The ne *sychology of success. Be1 Mork -andom 6ouse.
#ccles, +., 5i"&ield, A., P (chie&ele, 4. <899D=. )otivation to succeed. %n 5. *amon P B. #isenber" <#ds.=, 9and%oo# of child *sychology, Golume ;" Social, emotional, and *ersonality develo*ment, ?th edition <pp. 808;$809A=. Be1 Mork 5iley. #isenber"er, -. P Cameron, +. <899:=. *etrimental e&&ects o& re1ard -eality or myth? American Psychologist, ?B, 88A3$88::. #lliott, A., )c.re"or, 6., P Thrash, T. <300F=. The need &or competence. %n #. *eci P -. -yan <#ds.=, 9and%oo# of self3determination research <pp. 3:8$3DD=. -ochester, BM 4niversity o& -ochester ,ress. #rikson, #. <89:DU899F=. ,dentity, youth, and crisis. Be1 Mork Borton. Flo1erday, T., (hra1, .., P (tevens, +. <300F=. -ole o& choice and interest in reader en"a"ement. Journal of Educational Research, F=, 93$803. .arner, -., 7ro1n, -., (anders, (. P )enke, *. <8993=. >(eductive details@ and learnin" &rom text. %n A. -ennin"er, (. 6idi, P A. 'rapp <#ds.=, The role of interest in learning and develo*ment, pp. 339$3AF. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. .oddard, -., 6oy, 5., P 6oy, A. <300F=. Collective e&&icacy belie&s Theoretical developments, empirical evidence, and &uture directions. Educational Researcher, ;;<3=, 3$83.
83A
A .lobal Text
6. Student motivation .uthrie, +., 5i"&ield, A., P 6umenick, B. <300:=. %n&luences o& stimulatin" tasks on readin" motivation and comprehension. Journal of Educational Research, FF, 333$3FA. 6arp, (. P )ayer, -. <899D=. 6o1 seductive details do their dama"e. Journal of Educational Psychology, F<, F8F$F3F. 6ar2ckie1ic2, +., 7arron, '., Tauer, +., P #lliot, A. <3003=. (hort$term and lon"$term consequences o& achievement "oals. Journal of Educational Psychology, FC, 38:$330. 6idi, (. P -ennin"er, A. <300:=. A &our$phase model o& interest development. Educational Psychology, >B, 888$83;. +ohnson, *. P +ohnson, -. <8999=. 2earning together and alone" Coo*erative, com*etitive, and individualistic learning, ?th edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. 'ohn, A. <899:=. 0o contest" The case against com*etition. 7oston 6ou"hton )i&&lin. 'oestner, -. P Losier, .. <300F=. *istin"uishin" three 1ays o& bein" hi"hly motivated a closer look at intro/ection, identi&ication, and intrinsic motivation. %n #. *eci P -. -yan <#ds.=, 9and%oo# of self3 determination research <pp. 808$833=. -ochester, BM 4niversity o& -ochester ,ress. Lent, -., 7ro1n, (., Bota, L., P (oresi, (. <3003=. Teachin" social co"nitive interest and choice hypotheses across 6olland types in %talian hi"h school students. Journal of Gocational +ehavior, :C, 808$88D. Lindley, L. <300:=. The paradox o& sel&$e&&icacy -esearch 1ith diverse populations. Journal of Career Assessment, B><8=, 8F3$8:0. )au, 5.$C. <3003=. Factors that in&luence persistence in science and en"ineerin" career aspirations. Career !evelo*ment Uuarterly, ?B, 33F$3F3. )id"ley, C., 'aplan, A., P )iddleton, ). <3008=. ,er&ormance$approach "oals .ood &or 1hat, &or 1hom, and under 1hat conditions, and at 1hat cost? Journal of Educational Psychology, F;, ;;$D:. ,a/ares, F. P (chunk, *. <3008=. (el&$belie&s and school success (el&$e&&icacy, sel&$concept, and school achievement. %n . -idin" P (. -ayner <#ds.=, Perce*tion <pp. 339$3::=. London Ablex ,ublishin". ,a/ares, F. P (chunk, *. <3003=. (el&$belie&s in psycholo"y and education An historical perspective. %n +. Aronson <#d.=, ,m*roving academic achievement <pp. 3$38=. Be1 Mork Academic ,ress. -eynolds, ,. P (ymons, (. <3008=. )otivational variables and childrenJs text search. Journal of Educational Psychology, F;, 8F$33. -yan, -. P Lynch, ). <3003=. ,hilosophies o& motivation and classroom mana"ement. %n -. Curren <#d.=, +lac# ell com*anion to *hiloso*hy" A com*anion to the *hiloso*hy of education <pp. 3:0$3;8=. Be1 Mork, BM 7lack1ell. (anche2, C. P 5iley, +. <300:=. An examination o& the seductive details e&&ect in terms o& 1orkin" memory capacity. @emory and Cognition, ;>, 3FF$3AA.
83:
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (apon$(hevin, ). P Cohen, #. <300F=. Conclusion. %n Cohen, #., 7rody, C., P (apon$(hevin, ). <#ds.=, Teaching coo*erative learning" The challenge for teacher education <pp. 38;$33F=. Albany, BM (tate 4niversity o& Be1 Mork ,ress. (chunk, *. P 0immerman, 7. <899;=. (ocial ori"ins o& sel&$re"ulatory competence. Educational *sychologist, ;><F=, 89A$30D. (ch1art2, 7. <300F=. The *arado4 of choice" Ehy more is less. Be1 Mork #ccoU6arper Collins. (chunk, *., ,intrich, ,., )eese, +. <300D=. @otivation in education" Theory, research and a**lications. Be1 Mork ,earson ,ro&essional. (kinner, 7. F. <893D=. The %ehavior of organisms. Be1 Mork Appleton$Century$Cro&ts. (lavin, -. <899A=. Coo*erative learning, Cnd edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. (kinner, 7. F. <89A;=. Ger%al %ehavior. Be1 Mork Appleton$Century$Cro&ts. 4rdan, T. <300F=. ,redictors o& sel&$handicappin" and achievement #xaminin" achievement "oals, classroom "oal structures, and culture. Journal of Educational Psychology, F:, 3A8$3AF. 5einer, 7. <300A=. )otivation &rom an attribution perspective and the social psycholo"y o& perceived competence. %n A. #lliot P C. *1eck <#ds.=, 9and%oo# of Com*etence and @otivation, pp. ;3$DF. Be1 Mork .uil&ord ,ress. 5i"&ield, A. P #ccles, +. <3003=. The develo*ment of achievement motivation. (an *ie"o, CA Academic ,ress. 5i"&ield, A., Tonk, (., P #ccles, +. <300F=. #xpectancy$value theory in cross$cultural perspective. %n *. )c%nerney P (. van #tten <#ds.=, Research on Sociocultural ,nfluences on @otivation and 2earning. .reen1ich, CT %n&ormation A"e ,ublishers. 5olters, C. <300F=. Advancin" achievement "oal theory 4sin" "oal structures and "oal orientations to predict studentsJ motivation, co"nition, and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, F:, 33:$ 3A0.
83;
A .lobal Text
;. Classroom management and the learning environment

This is an excerpt &rom a pro&essional /ournal kept by one o& us <'elvin (ei&ert= 1hen he 1as teachin" kinder"arten C<443BB3B>" Today my student Carol sat in the circle, atching others hile e all *layed !uc#, ho then chases the as %ored, %ecause ell. 8ne !uc#, Koose 1in this game, one student is outside the circle, tags another student first *erson around the circle). Carol(s turn had already *assed. A**arently she
she flo**ed on her %ac#, smiling %roadly, rolling around lu4uriously on the floor in the *ath of the other runners. Several classmates noticed her, smiled or giggled, %egan flo**ing do n as chaser tri**ed over a 'flo**er). 'Sit u*, Carol), said ,, the ever3vigilant teacher. 'Qou(re in the t ice, firmlyM then moved to *ic# her u*. ,nstantly Carol ran to the far side of the gym, still smiling %roadly. Then her %est friend ran off her. 0o a hole ne game ith ay.) +ut no result. , re*eated this
as launched, or really t o games" 'Run3from3the3teacher) and
'En$oy3%eing3 atched3%y3every%ody). A lot more e4citing, unfortunately, than !uc#, !uc#, Koose6 An excerpt &rom 'elvinJs same /ournal several years later, 1hen he 1as teachin" math in hi"h school C<443;3>" The same four students sat in the %ac# again today, as usual. They seem to loo# in every direction e4ce*t at me, even smile and %e sure ho loves hen ,(m e4*laining material that they need to #no . The ay they his*er to each other, it seems almost li#e they are 'in love) hom the most. ith each other, though , can(t
8thers.students not *art of the foursome.seem to react variously. Some seem annoyed, turn the other ay, avoid tal#ing ith the grou*, and so on. +ut others seem almost envious.as if they ere im*ressed ith the foursome(s a%ility to get a ay ay, , thin# a lot of other students are %eing distracted. ant ith to %e *art of the 'in) grou*, too, and
%eing inattentive and almost rude. Either
T ice during the *eriod today, , ha**ened to notice mem%ers of the grou* *assing a note, and then giggling and loo#ing at me. +y the end, , had had enough of this sort of thing, so , #e*t them in %riefly after class and as#ed one of them to read the note. They loo#ed a %it em%arrassed and hesitant, %ut eventually one of them o*ened the note and read it out loud. 'Choose one), it said. '@r Seifert loo#s 1B) old VVVV, 1C) stu*idVVVV, or 1;) cluelessVVVV.) 'elvinEs experiences in mana"in" these very di&&erent classrooms tau"ht him 1hat every teacher kno1s or else quickly learns mana"ement matters a lot. 7ut his experiences also tau"ht him that mana"ement is about more than correctin" the misbehaviors o& individuals, more than /ust discipline. Classroom management is also Educational Psychology
83D
A .lobal Text
7. lassroom management and the learning environment about orchestratin" or coordinatin" entire sets or sequences o& learnin" activities so that everyone, misbehavin" or not, learns as easily and productively as possible. #ducators sometimes there&ore describe "ood mana"ement as the creation of a positive learning environment, because the term calls attention to the totality o& activities and people in a classroom, as 1ell as to their "oals and expectations about learnin" <+ones P +ones, 300;=. 5hen one o& us <'elvin= 1as teachin", he used both terms almost interchan"eably, thou"h in speakin" o& management he more o&ten 1as re&errin" to individual studentsJ behavior and learnin", and in speakin" o& the learning environment he more o&ten meant the overall >&eel@ o& the class as a 1hole.
(hy classroom management matters

)ana"in" the learnin" environment is both a ma/or responsibility and an on$"oin" concern &or all teachers, even those 1ith years o& experience <.ood P 7rophy, 3003=. There are several reasons. %n the &irst place, a lot "oes on in classrooms simultaneously, even 1hen students seem to be doin" only one task in common. T1enty$&ive students may all seem to be 1orkin" on a sheet o& math problems. 7ut look more closely several may be stuck on a particular problem, each &or di&&erent reasons. A &e1 others have 1orked only the &irst problem or t1o and are no1 chattin" quietly 1ith each other instead o& continuin". (till others have &inished and are 1onderin" 1hat to do next. At any one moment each student needs somethin" di&&erentKdi&&erent in&ormation, di&&erent hints, di&&erent kinds o& encoura"ement. (uch diversity increases even more i& the teacher deliberately assi"ns multiple activities to di&&erent "roups or individuals <&or example, i& some students do a readin" assi"nment 1hile others do the math problems=. Another reason that mana"in" the environment is challen"in" is because a teacher can not predict everythin" that 1ill happen in a class. A 1ell$planned lesson may &all &lat on its &ace, or take less time than expected, and you &ind yoursel& improvisin" to &ill class time. Cn the other hand an unplanned moment may become a 1onder&ul, sustained exchan"e amon" students, and prompt you to drop previous plans and &ollo1 the &lo1 o& discussion. %nterruptions happen continually a &ire drill, a drop$in visit &rom another teacher or the principal, a call on the intercom &rom the o&&ice. An activity may indeed turn out 1ell, but also rather di&&erently than you intendedI you there&ore have to decide ho1, i& at all, to ad/ust the next dayEs lesson to allo1 &or this surprise. A third reason &or the importance o& mana"ement is that students &orm opinions and perceptions about your teachin" that are inconsistent 1ith your o1n. 5hat you intend as encoura"ement &or a shy student may seem to the student hersel& like >&orced participation@. An ea"er, out"oin" classmate 1atchin" your e&&ort to encoura"e the shy student, moreover, may not see you as either encoura"in" or coercin", but as overlookin" or i"norin" other students 1ho already 1ant to participate. The variety o& perceptions can lead to surprises in studentsJ responsesKmost o&ten small ones, but occasionally ma/or. At the broadest, society$1ide level, classroom mana"ement challen"es teachers because public schoolin" is not voluntary, and studentsJ presence in a classroom is there&ore not a si"n, in and o& itsel&, that they 1ish to learn. %nstead, studentsJ presence is /ust a si"n that an o**ortunity exists &or teachers to motivate students to learn. (ome students, o& course, do en/oy learnin" and bein" in school, almost re"ardless o& 1hat teachers doL Cthers do en/oy school, but only because teachers have 1orked hard to make classroom li&e pleasant and interestin". Those students become motivated because you have success&ully created a positive learnin" environment and have sustained it throu"h skill&ul mana"ement.
839
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Fortunately it is possible to earn this sort o& commitment &rom many students, and this chapter describes 1ays o& doin" so. 5e be"in 1ith 1ays o& *reventing mana"ement problems &rom happenin" by increasin" studentsJ &ocus on learnin". The methods include ideas about arran"in" classroom space, about establishin" procedures, routines, and rules, and about communicatin" the importance o& learnin" to students and parents. A&ter these prevention oriented discussions, 1e look at 1ays o& re&ocusin" students 1hen and i& their minds or actions stray &rom the tasks at hand. As you probably kno1 &rom bein" a student, brin"in" students back on task can happen in many 1ays, and the 1ays vary 1idely in the ener"y and persistence required o& the teacher. 5e try to indicate some o& these variations, but because o& space limitations and because o& the richness o& classroom li&e, 1e cannot describe them all.
Preventing management problems by focusing students on learning

The easiest mana"ement problems to solve are ones that do not happen in the &irst placeL #ven be&ore the school year be"ins, you can minimi2e behavior problems by arran"in" classroom &urniture and materials in 1ays that encoura"e a &ocus on learnin" as much as possible. Later, once school be"ins, you can establish procedures and rules that support a &ocus on learnin" even more.
Arran"in" classroom space

Gie1ed broadly, classrooms may seem to be arran"ed in similar 1ays, but there are actually important alternative arran"ements to consider. Gariations exist because o& "rade level, the sub/ects tau"ht, the teacherJs philosophy o& education, and o& course the si2e o& the room and the &urniture available. 5hatever the arran"ement that you choose, it should help students to &ocus on learnin" tasks as much as possible and minimi2e the chances o& distractions. 7eyond these basic principles, ho1ever, the >best@ arran"ement depends on 1hat your students need and on the kind o& teachin" that you pre&er and &eel able to provide <7oyner, 3003I Bations P 7oyett, 3003=. The next sections describe some o& the options. %n considerin" them <and be&ore movin" too much &urniture around your roomL=, you mi"ht 1ant to try experimentin" 1ith spatial arran"ements >virtually@ by usin" one o& the computer pro"rams available on the %nternet <see http UUteacher.scholastic.comUtoolsUclass^setupU=.
!is*lays and
all s*ace
All classrooms have 1alls, o& course, and ho1 you &ill them can a&&ect the mood or &eelin" o& a classroom. Ample displays make a room interestin" and can be used to rein&orce curriculum "oals and display <and hence publicly reco"ni2e= studentsJ 1ork. 7ut too many displays can also make a room seem >busy@ or distractin" as 1ell as physically smaller. They can also be more 1ork to maintain. %& you are startin" a ne1 school year, then, a "ood strate"y is to decorate some o& the 1all or bulletin board space, but not to &ill it all immediately. Leavin" some space open leaves &lexibility to respond to ideas and curriculum needs that emer"e a&ter the year is under1ay. The same advice applies especially &or displays that are hi"h maintenance, such as aquariums, pets, and plants. These can serve 1onder&ully as learnin" aids, but do not have to be in place on the &irst day o& school. Bot only the students, but also you yoursel&, may already have enou"h to cope 1ith at that time.
Com*uters in the classroom

%& you are like the ma/ority o& teachers, you 1ill have only one computer in your room, or at most /ust a &e1, and their placement may be pre$determined by the location o& po1er and cable outlets. %& so, you need to think about computer placement early in the process o& settin" up a room. Cnce the location o& computers is set, locations &or
8F0
A .lobal Text
7. lassroom management and the learning environment desks, hi"h$usa"e shelves, and other moveable items can be chosen more sensiblyKin "eneral, as already mentioned, so as to minimi2e distractions to students and to avoid unnecessary tra&&ic con"estion.
Gisi%ility of and interactions
ith students
Learnin" is &acilitated i& the &urniture and space allo1 you to see all students and to interact 1ith them &rom a com&ortable distance. 4sually this means that the main, central part o& the roomK1here desks and tables are usually locatedKneeds to be as open and as spacious as possible. 5hile this idea may seem obvious, enactin" it can be challen"in" in practice i& the room itsel& is small or shaped unusually. %n classrooms 1ith youn" students <kinder"arten=, &urthermore, open spaces tend to allo1, i& not invite, physical movement o& childrenKa &eature that you may consider either constructive or annoyin", dependin" on your educational "oals and the actual level o& activity that occurs.
S*atial arrangements uni&ue to grade levels or su%$ects

The best room arran"ement sometimes depends on the "rade level or sub/ect area o& the class. %& you teach in elementary school, &or example, you may need to think especially about 1here students can keep their daily belon"in"s, such as coats and lunches. %n some schools, these can be kept outside the classroomKbut not necessarily. (ome sub/ects and "rade levels, &urthermore, lend themselves especially 1ell to small "roup interaction, in 1hich case you mi"ht pre&er not to seat students in ro1s, but instead around small$"roup tables or 1ork areas. The latter arran"ement is sometimes pre&erred by elementary teachers, but is also use&ul in hi"h schools 1herever students need lots o& counter space, as in some shops or art courses, or 1here they need to interact, as in #n"lish as a (econd Lan"ua"e courses <)cCa&&erty, +acobs, P %ddin"s, 300:=. The key issue in decidin" bet1een tables and ro1s, ho1ever, is not "rade level or sub/ect as such, but the amount o& small "roup interaction you 1ant to encoura"e, compared to the amount o& 1hole$"roup instruction. As a rule, tables make 1orkin" 1ith peers easier, and ro1s make listenin" to the teacher more likely and "roup 1ork sli"htly more a1k1ard physically. %ronically, some teachers also experience challen"es about room arran"ement because they do not actually have a classroom o& their o1n, because they must move each day amon" other teachersJ rooms. >Floatin"@ is especially likely &or speciali2ed teachers <e.". music teachers in elementary schools, 1ho move &rom class to class= and in schools have an overall shorta"e o& classrooms. Floatin" can sometimes be annoyin" to the teacher, thou"h it actually also has advanta"es, such as not havin" to take responsibility &or ho1 other teachersJ rooms are arran"ed. %& you &ind yoursel& &loatin", it helps to consider a &e1 key strate"ies, such as
consider usin" a permanent cart to move crucial supplies &rom room to room make sure that every one o& your rooms has an overhead pro/ector <do not count on usin" chalkboards or
computers in other teachersJ rooms=

talk to the other teachers about havin" at least one shel& or corner in each room desi"nated &or your
exclusive use
#stablishin" daily procedures and routines

Procedures or routines are speci&ic 1ays o& doin" common, repeated classroom tasks or activities. #xamples include checkin" daily attendance, dealin" 1ith students 1ho arrive late, or "rantin" permission to leave the
8F8
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License classroom &or an errand. Academically related procedures include 1ays o& turnin" in daily home1ork <e.". puttin" it on a desi"nated shel& at a particular time=, o& "ainin" the teacherJs attention durin" quiet seat 1ork <e.". raisin" your hand and 1aitin"=, and o& startin" a >&ree choice@ activity a&ter completin" a classroom assi"nment. ,rocedures serve the lar"ely practical purpose o& makin" activities and tasks &lo1 smoothlyKa valuable and necessary purpose in classrooms, 1here the actions o& many people have to be coordinated 1ithin limited time and space. As such, procedures are more like social conventions than like moral expectations. They are only indirectly about 1hat is ethically right or ethically desira%le to do <Turiel, 300:=. )ost procedures or routines can be accomplished in more than one 1ay, 1ith only minor di&&erences in outcomes. There is more than one 1ay, &or example, &or the procedure o& takin" attendance the teacher could call the role, dele"ate a student to call the role, or note studentsJ presence on a seatin" chart. #ach variation accomplishes essentially the same task, and the choice may be less important than the &act that the class coordinates its actions someho , by committin" to some sort o& choice. For teachers, o& course, an initial mana"ement task is to establish procedures and routines as promptly as possible. 7ecause o& the conventional quality o& procedures, some teachers &ind that it 1orks 1ell simply to announce and explain key procedures 1ithout invitin" much discussion &rom students <>6ere is ho1 1e 1ill choose partners &or the "roup 1ork@=. Cther teachers pre&er to invite input &rom students 1hen creatin" procedures <askin" the class, >5hat do you &eel is the best 1ay &or students to "et my attention durin" a quiet readin" time?@=. 7oth approaches have advanta"es as 1ell as disadvanta"es. (imply announcin" key procedures saves time and insures consistency in case you teach more than one class <as you 1ould in hi"h school=. 7ut it puts more responsibility on the teacher to choose procedures that are truly reasonable and practical. %nvitin" studentsJ input, on the other hand, can help students to become a1are o& and committed to procedures, but at the cost o& requirin" more time to settle on them. %t also risks creatin" con&usion i& you teach multiple classes, each o& 1hich adopts di&&erent procedures. 5hatever approach you choose, o& course, they have to take into account any procedures or rules imposed by the school or school district as a 1hole. A school may have a uni&orm policy about ho1 to record daily attendance, &or example, and that policy may determine, either partly or completely, ho1 you take attendance 1ith your particular students.
#stablishin" classroom rules

4nlike procedures or routines, rules express standards o& behavior &or 1hich individual students need to take responsibility. Althou"h they are like procedures in that they sometimes help in insurin" the e&&iciency o& classroom tasks, they are really about encoura"in" students to be responsible &or learnin" and sho1in" respect &or each other. #xhibit D lists a typical set o& classroom rules.
8F3
A .lobal Text
7. lassroom management and the learning environment

Treat others 1ith courtesy and politeness. )ake sure to brin" required materials to class and to activities. 7e on time &or class and other activities. Listen to the teacher and to others 1hen they are speakin". Follo1 all school rules.
#xhibit D (ample set o& classroom rules Bote three thin"s about the examples in #xhibit D. Cne is that the rules are not numerousI the table lists only &ive. )ost educational experts recommend keepin" the number o& rules to a minimum in order to make them easier to remember <Thorson, 3003I 7rophy, 300F=. A second &eature is that they are stated in positive terms <>*o S_@= rather than ne"ative terms <>*o not do M_@=, a strate"y that emphasi2es and clari&ies 1hat students should do rather than 1hat they should avoid. A third &eature is that each rule actually covers a collection o& more speci&ic behaviors. The rule >7rin" all materials to class@, &or example, covers brin"in" pencils, paper, textbooks, home1ork papers, and permission slipsKdependin" on the situation. As a result o& their "enerality, rules o&ten have a de"ree o& ambi"uity that sometimes requires interpretation. %n&ractions may occur that are mar"inal or >in a "rey area@, rather than clear cut. A student may brin" a pen, &or example, but the pen may not 1ork properly. Mou may there&ore 1onder 1hether this incident is really a &ailure to &ollo1 the rule, or /ust an un&ortunate <and in this case minor= &ault o& the pen manu&acturer. As 1ith classroom procedures, rules can be planned either by the teacher alone, or by the teacher 1ith advice &rom students. The ar"uments &or each approach are similar to the ar"uments &or procedures rules >laid on@ by the teacher may be more e&&icient and consistent, and in this sense more &air, but rules in&luenced by the students may be supported more &ully by the students. 7ecause rules &ocus stron"ly on personal responsibility, ho1ever, there is a stron"er case &or involvin" students in makin" them than in makin" classroom procedures <7rook&ield, 300:I 'ohn, 300:=. %n any case the question o& 1ho plans classroom rules is not necessarily an eitherUor choice. %t is possible in principle to impose certain rules on students <&or example, >Al1ays be polite to each other@= but let the students determine the consequences &or violations o& certain rules <&or example, >%& a student is discourteous to a classmate, heUshe must apolo"i2e to the student in 1ritin"@=. (ome mixture o& in&luences is probably inevitable, in &act, i& only because the class needs to take into account your o1n moral commitments as the teacher as 1ell as any imposed by the school <like >Bo smokin" in the school@ or >Al1ays 1alk in the hall1ays@=.
,acin" and structurin" lessons and activities

Cne o& the best 1ays to prevent mana"ement problems is by pacin" and structurin" lessons or activities as smoothly and continuously as possible. This "oal depends on three ma/or strate"ies
selectin" tasks or activities at an appropriate level o& di&&iculty &or your students providin" a moderate level o& structure or clarity to students about 1hat they are supposed to do, especially
durin" transitions bet1een activities 8F3


keepin" alert to the &lo1 and interplay o& behaviors &or the class as a 1hole and &or individuals 1ithin it.
#ach strate"y presents special challen"es to teachers, but also opportunities &or helpin" students to learn.
Choosing tas#s at an a**ro*riate level of difficulty

As experienced teachers kno1 and as research has con&irmed, students are most likely to en"a"e 1ith learnin" 1hen tasks are o& moderate di&&iculty, neither too easy nor too hard and there&ore neither borin" nor &rustratin" <7ritt, 300A=. Findin" the ri"ht level o& di&&iculty, ho1ever, can be a challen"e i& you have little experience teachin" a particular "rade level or curriculum, or even i& students are simply ne1 to you and their abilities unkno1n. 5hether &amiliar or not, members o& any class are likely to have diverse skills and readiness\a &act that makes it challen"in" to determine 1hat level o& di&&iculty is appropriate. A common strate"y &or dealin" 1ith these challen"es is to be"in units, lessons, or pro/ects 1ith tasks that are relatively easy and &amiliar. Then, introduce more di&&icult material or tasks "radually until students seem challen"ed, but not over1helmed. Follo1in" this strate"y "ives the teacher a chance to observe and dia"nose studentsJ learnin" needs be&ore ad/ustin" content, and it "ives students a chance to orient themselves to the teacherJs expectations, teachin" style, and topic o& study 1ithout becomin" &rustrated prematurely. Later in a unit, lesson, or pro/ect, students seem better able to deal 1ith more di&&icult tasks or content <Gan )errionboer, 3003=. The principle seems to help as 1ell 1ith >authentic@ learnin" tasksKones that resemble real$1orld activities, such as learnin" to drive an automobile or to cook a meal, and that present a variety o& complex tasks simultaneously. #ven in those cases it helps to isolate and &ocus on the simplest subtasks &irst <such as >put the key in the i"nition@= and move to harder tasks only later <such as parallel parkin"=. (equencin" instruction is only a partial solution to &indin" the best >level@ o& di&&iculty, ho1ever, because it does not deal 1ith endurin" individual di&&erences amon" students. The &undamental challen"e to teachers is to individuali2e or di&&erentiate instruction &ully to tailor it not only to the class as a "roup, but to the lastin" di&&erences amon" members o& the class. Cne 1ay to approach this sort o& diversity, obviously, is to plan di&&erent content or activities &or di&&erent students or "roups o& students. 5hile one "roup 1orks on Task A, another "roup 1orks on Task 7I one "roup 1orks on relatively easy math problems, &or example, 1hile another 1orks on harder ones. *i&&erentiatin" instruction in this 1ay complicates a teacherJs /ob, but it can be done, and has in &act been done by many teachers <it also makes teachin" more interestin"L=. %n the next chapter, 1e describe some classroom mana"ement strate"ies that help 1ith such multi$taskin".
Providing moderate amounts of structure and detail

Chances are that at some point in your educational career you have 1ished that a teacher 1ould clari&y or explain an assi"nment more &ully, and perhaps "ive it a clearer structure or or"ani2ation. (tudentsJ desire &or clarity is especially common 1ith assi"nments that are by nature open$ended, such as lon" essays, lar"e pro/ects, or creative 1orks. (imply bein" told to >1rite an essay critiquin" the novel@, &or example, leaves more room &or uncertainty <and 1orry= than bein" "iven "uidelines about 1hat questions the essay should address, 1hat topics or parts it should have, and 1hat its len"th or style should be <Chesebro, 3003=. As you mi"ht suspect, some students desire clarity more than others, and improve their per&ormance especially much 1hen provided 1ith plenty o& structure and clarity. (tudents 1ith certain kinds o& learnin" di&&iculties, in particular, o&ten learn e&&ectively and stay on task only i& provided 1ith some1hat explicit, detailed instructions about the tasks expected o& them <)arks, et al., 3003=.
8FF
A .lobal Text
7. lassroom management and the learning environment As a teacher, the challen"e is to accommodate studentsJ need &or clarity 1ithout makin" "uidance so speci&ic or detailed that students do little thinkin" &or themselves. As a <ridiculously extreme= example, consider a teacher "ives >clear@ instructions &or an essay by announcin" not only exactly 1hich articles to read and cite in the essay and 1hich topics or issues to cover, but even requires speci&ic 1ordin" o& sentences in their essays. This much speci&icity may reduce studentsJ uncertainties and make the teacherJs task o& evaluatin" the essays relatively strai"ht&or1ard and easy. 7ut it also reduces or even eliminates the educational value o& the assi"nmentKassumin", o& course, that its purpose is to "et students to think &or themselves. %deally, then, structure should be moderate rather than extreme. There should be /ust enou"h to "ive students some sense o& direction and to stimulate more accomplishment than i& they 1orked 1ith less structure or "uidance. This ideal is an application o& Gy"otskyJs idea o& the 2one o& proximal development that 1e discussed in Chapter 3 a place <&i"uratively speakin"= 1here students "et more done 1ith help than 1ithout it. The ideal amount o& "uidance Kthe >location@ o& the 2one o& proximal developmentKvaries 1ith the assi"nment and the student, and it <hope&ully= decreases over time &or all students. Cne student may need more "uidance to do his or her best in math, but less "uidance in order to 1rite her or his best essay. Another student may need the reverse. 7ut i& all "oes 1ell, both students may need less at the end o& the year than at the be"innin".
@anaging transitions
Transitions bet1een activities is o&ten &ull o& distractions and >lost@ time, and is a time 1hen inappropriate behaviors are especially likely to occur. ,art o& the problem is intrinsic to transitions students may have to 1ait be&ore a ne1 activity actually be"ins, and there&ore "et bored at the very moment 1hen the teacher is preoccupied 1ith arran"in" materials &or the ne1 activity. From the point o& vie1 o& the students, transitions may seem essentially like unsupervised "roup time, 1hen seemin"ly any behavior is tolerated. )inimi2in" such problems requires t1o strate"ies, one o& 1hich is easier to implement than the other. The easier strate"y is &or you, as teacher, to or"ani2e materials as 1ell as possible ahead o& time, so that you minimi2e the time needed to be"in a ne1 activity. The advice sounds simple, and mostly is, but it sometimes takes a bit o& practice to implement smoothly. 5hen one o& us <'elvin= &irst be"an teachin" university, &or example, particular papers or overhead transparencies sometimes "ot lost in the 1ron" &older in spite o& 'elvinEs e&&orts to keep them 1here they 1ere easy to &ind. The resultin" delays about &indin" them slo1ed the pace o& class and caused &rustrations. A second, more complex strate"y is to teach students 1ays to mana"e their o1n behavior durin" transitions <)ar2ano P )ar2ano, 300F=. %& students talk too loudly at these times, &or example, then discuss 1ith them 1hat constitutes appropriate levels or amounts o& talk, and discuss the need &or them to monitor their o1n sound level. Cr i& students stop 1ork early in anticipation o& endin" an activity, then talk aboutKor even practiceK1aitin" &or a si"nal &rom yoursel& to indicate the true endin" point &or an activity. %& certain students continue 1orkin" %eyond the end o& an activity. Cn the other hand, try "ivin" them 1arnin" o& the impendin" end in advance, and remind them about to take responsibility &or actually &inishin" 1ork once they hear the advance 1arnin", and so on. The point o& these tactics is to encoura"e responsibility &or behavior durin" transitions, and thereby reduce your o1n need to monitor students at that crucial time.
8FA
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Bone o& these ideas, o& course, mean that you, as teacher, should "ive up monitorin" studentsJ behavior entirely. Chances are that you still 1ill need to notice i& and 1hen someone talks too loudly, &inishes too early, or continues too lon", and you 1ill still need to "ive some students appropriate reminders. 7ut the amount o& remindin" 1ill be less to the extent that students can remind and monitor themselvesKa 1elcome trend at any time, but especially durin" transitions.
@aintaining the flo
of activities
A lot o& classroom mana"ement is really about keepin" activities &lo1in" smoothly, both durin" individual lessons and across the school day. The trouble is that there is never /ust >one@ event happenin" at a time, even i& only one activity has been &ormally planned and is supposed to be occurrin". %ma"ine, &or example, that everyone is supposed to be attendin" a sin"le 1hole$class discussion on a topicI yet individual students 1ill be havin" di&&erent experiences at any one moment. (everal students may be listenin" and contributin" comments, &or example, but a &e1 others may be plannin" 1hat they 1ant to say ne4t and i"norin" the current speakers, still others may be ruminatin" about 1hat a previous speaker said, and still others may be thinkin" about unrelated matters$$the restroom, &ood, or sex. Thin"s "et even more complicated i& the teacher deliberately plans multiple activities in that case some students may interact 1ith the teacher, &or example, 1hile others do 1ork in an unsupervised "roup or 1ork independently in a di&&erent part o& the room. 6o1 is a teacher to keep activities &lo1in" smoothly in the &ace o& such variety? A common mistake o& be"innin" teachers in multi$&aceted settin"s like these is to pay too much attention to any one activity, student, or small "roup, at the expense o& noticin" and respondin" to all the others. %& you are helpin" a student on one side o& the room 1hen someone on the other side disturbs classmates 1ith o&&$task conversation, it can be less e&&ective either to &inish 1ith the student you are helpin" be&ore attendin" to the disruption, or to interrupt yoursel& to solve the disruption on the other side o& the room. Althou"h one o& these responses may be necessary, either one involves disruption some here. There is a risk that either the studentJs chattin" may spread to others, or the interrupted student may become bored 1ith 1aitin" &or the teacherJs attention and 1ander o&&$task hersel&. A better solution, thou"h one that at &irst may seem challen"in", is to attend to %oth events at onceKa strate"y that 1as named (ithitness in a series o& no1$classic research studies several decades a"o <'ounin, 89;0=. 5ithitness does not mean that you &ocus on all simultaneous activities 1ith equal care, but only that you remain a1are o& multiple activities, behaviors, and events to some de"ree. At a particular moment, &or example, you may be &ocusin" on helpin" a student, but in some corner o& your mind you also notice 1hen chattin" be"ins on the other side o& the room. Mou have, as the sayin" "oes, >eyes in the back o& your head@. -esearch has &ound that experienced teachers are much more likely to sho1 1ithitness than inexperienced teachers, and that these qualities are associated 1ith mana"in" classrooms success&ully <#mmer P (tou"h, 3008=. (imultaneous a1arenessK1ithitnessKmakes possible responses to the multiple events that are immediate and nearly simultaneousK1hat educators sometimes called overlapping. The teacherJs responses to each event or behavior need not take equal time, nor even be equally noticeable to all students. %& you are helpin" one student 1ith seat 1ork at the precise moment 1hen another student be"ins chattin" o&&$task, &or example, a quick "lance to the second student may be enou"h to brin" the second one back to the 1ork at hand, and may scarcely interrupt
8F:
A .lobal Text
7. lassroom management and the learning environment your conversation 1ith the &irst student, or be noticed by others 1ho are not even involved. The result is a smoother &lo1 to activities overall. As a ne1 teacher, you may &ind that 1ithitness and overlappin" develop more easily in some situations than in others. %t may be easier to keep an eye <or ear= on multiple activities durin" &amiliar routines, such as takin" attendance, but harder to do the same durin" activities that are un&amiliar or complex, such as introducin" a ne1 topic or unit that you have never tau"ht be&ore. 7ut skill at broadenin" your attention does increase 1ith time and practice. %t helps to keep tryin". )erely demonstratin" to students that you are >1ithit@, in &act, even 1ithout makin" deliberate overlappin" responses, can sometimes deter students &rom o&&$task behavior. (omeone 1ho is tempted to pass notes in class, &or example, mi"ht not do so because she believes that you 1ill probably notice her doin" it any1ay, 1hether or not you are able to notice in &act.
Communicatin" the importance o& learnin" and o& positive behavior

Alto"ether, the &actors 1e have discussedKarran"in" space, procedures, and rules, and developin" ithitness. help communicate an important messa"e that in the classroom learnin" and positive social behavior are priorities. %n addition, teachers can convey this messa"e by o&&erin" timely &eedback to students about per&ormance, by keepin" accurate records o& the per&ormance, and by deliberately communicatin" 1ith parents or care"ivers about their children and about class activities. Communicatin" e&&ectively is so important &or all aspects o& teachin", in &act, that 1e discuss it more &ully later in this book <see Chapter D,>The nature o& classroom communication@=. 6ere 1e &ocus on only one o& its important aspects ho1 communication contributes to a smoothly &unctionin" classroom and in this 1ay helps prevent behavior problems.
.ivin" timely &eedback

The term feed%ac#, 1hen used by educators, re&ers to responses to students about their behavior or per&ormance. Feedback is essential i& students are to learn and i& they are to develop classroom behavior that is socially skilled and >mature@. 7ut &eedback can only be &ully e&&ective i& o&&ered as soon as possible, 1hen it is still relevant to the task or activity at hand <-eynolds, 8993=. A score on a test is more in&ormative immediately a&ter a test than a&ter a six$month delay, 1hen students may have &or"otten much o& the content o& the test. A teacherJs comment to a student about an inappropriate, o&&$task behavior may not be especially 1elcome at the moment the behavior occurs, but it can be more in&luential and in&ormative thenI later, both teacher and student 1ill have trouble rememberin" the details o& the o&&$task behavior, and in this sense may literally >not kno1 1hat they are talkin" about@. The same is true &or comments about a *ositive behavior by a student hearin" a compliment ri"ht a1ay makes it easier to the comment 1ith the behavior, and allo1s the compliment to in&luence the student more stron"ly. There are o& course practical limits to ho1 &ast &eedback can be "iven, but the "eneral principle is clear &eedback tends to 1ork better 1hen it is timely. The principle o& timely &eedback is consistent, incidentally, 1ith a central principle o& operant conditionin" discussed in Chapter 3 rein&orcement 1orks best 1hen it &ollo1s a to$be$learned operant behavior closely <(kinner, 89A;=. %n this case a teacherJs &eedback serves as a &orm o& rein&orcement. The analo"y is easiest to understand 1hen the &eedback takes the &orm o& praiseI in operant conditionin" terms, the rein&orcin" praise then &unctions like a >re1ard@. 5hen &eedback is ne"ative, it &unctions as an >aversive stimulus@ <in operant terms=, shuttin" do1n the 8F;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License behavior critici2ed. At other times, thou"h, criticism can also &unction as an unintended rein&orcement. This happens, &or example, i& a student experiences criticism as a reduction in isolation and there&ore as in increase in his importance in the classKa relatively desirable chan"e. (o the inappropriate behavior continues, or even increases, contrary to the teacherEs intentions. #xhibit 9 dia"rams this sequence o& events.
#xample o& 4nintended Be"ative -ein&orcement in the Classroom Student is isolated socially Student publiclymisbehaves attention -ein&orcement can happen in class i& an undesirable behavior, leads to a less aversive state &or a student. (ocial isolation can be reduced by public misbehavior, 1hich stimulates attention that is rein&orcin". %ronically, the e&&ort to end misbehavior ends up stimulatin" the misbehavior. #xhibit 9 Attractin" attention as ne"ative rein&orcement Student gains othersE
)aintainin" accurate records

Althou"h timeliness in respondin" to students can sometimes happen naturally durin" class, there are also situations 1here promptness depends on havin" or"ani2ed key in&ormation ahead o& time. Cbvious examples are the scores, marks, and "rades returned to students &or their 1ork. A short qui2 <such as a 1eekly spellin" test= may be possible to return quite soon a&ter the qui2Ksometimes you or even the students themselves can mark it durin" class. )ore o&ten, thou"h, assi"nments and tests require lon"er processin" times you have to read, score, or add comments to each paper individually. #xcessive time to evaluate studentsE 1ork can reduce the use&ulness o& a teacherJs evaluations to students 1hen she &inally does return the 1ork <7lack, et al., 300F=. *urin" the days or 1eeks 1aitin" &or a test or assi"nment to be returned, students are le&t 1ithout in&ormation about the quality or nature o& their per&ormanceI at the extreme they may even have to complete another test or do another assi"nment be&ore "ettin" in&ormation about an earlier one. <,erhaps you yoursel& have experienced this particular problemL= *elays in providin" &eedback about academic per&ormance can never be eliminated entirely, but they can be reduced by keepin" accurate, 1ell$or"ani2ed records o& studentsJ 1ork. A number o& computer pro"rams are available to help 1ith this challen"eI i& your school does not already have one in use, then there are several do1nloadable either &ree or at lo1 cost &rom the %nternet <e.". Qhttp UUdmo2.or"UComputersU(o&t1areU#ducationalUTeachers^6elpU.radebooksUR=. *escribin" these is beyond the scope o& this book. For no1 1e simply emphasi2e that "radin" systems bene&it studentsJ learnin" the most 1hen they provide &eedback as quickly and &requently as possible <)c)illan, 3008=, precisely the reason 1hy accurate, 1ell$or"ani2ed record$keepin" is important to keep. Accurate records are help&ul not only &or scores on tests, qui22es, or assi"nments, but also &or developin" descriptive summaries o& the nature o& studentsJ academic skills or pro"ress. A common 1ay to develop a description is the student port&olio, 1hich is a compilation o& the studentJs 1ork and on$"oin" assessments o& it created by the teacher or in some cases by the student <)orit2 P Christie, 300AI 5hite, 300A=. To kno1 ho1 a studentJs science pro/ect evolved &rom its be"innin", &or example, a teacher and student can keep a port&olio o& lab notes, lo"s, preliminary data, and the like. To kno1 ho1 a studentJs 1ritin" skills developed, they could keep a Educational Psychology
8FD
A .lobal Text
7. lassroom management and the learning environment port&olio o& early dra&ts on various 1ritin" assi"nments. As the 1ork accumulates, the student can discuss it 1ith the teacher, and 1rite brie& re&lections on its stren"ths thus &ar or on the steps needed to improve the 1ork &urther. 7y providin" a 1ay to respond to 1ork as it evolves, and by includin" students in makin" the assessments, port&olios provide relatively prompt &eedback, and in any case provide it sooner than by 1aitin" &or the teacher to revie1 1ork that is complete or &inal.
Communicatin" 1ith parents and care"ivers

(ince parents and care"ivers in a sense >donate@ their children to schools <at least &i"uratively speakin"=, teachers are responsible &or keepin" them in&ormed and involved to 1hatever extent is practical. Girtually all parents understand and assume that schools are "enerally intended &or learnin". *etailed communication can enrich parentsE understandin", o& ho1 learnin" is addressed 1ith their particular childJs classroom, and sho1 them more precisely 1hat their particular child is doin". The better such understandin" in turn encoura"es parents and care"ivers to support their childJs learnin" more con&idently and >intelli"ently@. %n this sense it contributes indirectly to a positive learnin" environment in their childJs class. There are various 1ays to communicate 1ith parents, each 1ith advanta"es and limitations. 6ere are three common examples
A regular classroom ne sletter" A ne1sletter establishes a link 1ith parents or care"ivers 1ith
comparatively little e&&ort on the part o& the teacher. At the be"innin" o& the year, &or example, a ne1sletter can tell about special materials that students 1ill need, important dates to remember <like pro&essional development days 1hen there is no school=, or about curriculum plans &or the next &e1 1eeks. 7ut ne1sletters also have limitations. They can seem impersonal, and they may "et lost on the 1ay home and never reach parents or care"ivers. They can also be impractical &or teachers 1ith multiple classes, as in hi"h school or in specialist sub/ects <like music or physical education=, 1here each class &ollo1s a di&&erent pro"ram or curriculum.
Tele*hone calls" The main advanta"e o& phonin" is its immediacy and individuality. Teacher and parent or
care"iver can talk about a particular student, behavior, or concern, and do it no . 7y the same token, ho1ever, phone calls are not an e&&icient 1ay &or in&ormin" parents about events or activities that a&&ect everyone in common. The individuality o& phonin" may explain 1hy teachers o&ten use this method 1hen a student has a problem that is ur"ent or unusualKas 1hen he has &ailed a test, missed classes, or misbehaved seriously. -i"htly or 1ron"ly, a studentJs successes tend not to prompt phone calls to the studentJs home <thou"h in &airness students may be more likely to tell parents about their successes themselves, makin" it less essential &or the teacher to do so=.
Parent3teacher conferences" )ost schools schedule periodic timesKo&ten a day or evenin" per termK1hen
teachers meet brie&ly 1ith parents or care"ivers 1ho 1ish to meet. 4nder "ood conditions, the con&erences have the individuality o& phone calls, but also the richness o& communication possible only in &ace$to$&ace meetin"s. (ince con&erences are available to all parents, they need not &ocus on behavior or academic problems, but o&ten simply help to build rapport and understandin" bet1een parents or care"ivers and the teacher. (ometimes too, particularly at youn"er "rade levels, teachers involve students in leadin" their o1n con&erencesI the students display and explain their o1n 1ork usin" a port&olio or other archive o& 8F9
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License accumulated materials <7enson P 7arnett, 300AI (ti""ins P Chappuis, 300A=. %n spite o& all o& these advanta"es, thou"h, parent$teacher con&erences have limitations. (ome parents cannot "et to con&erences because o& 1ork schedules, child care, or transportation problems. Cthers may &eel intimated by any school$ sponsored event because they speak limited #n"lish or because they remember pain&ul experiences &rom their o1n school days. #ven i& you make several e&&orts to communicate, some parents may remain out o& contact. %n these cases it is important to remember that the parents may not be indi&&erent to their child or to the value o& education. Cther possibilities exist, as some o& our comments above imply parents may have di&&iculties 1ith child care, &or example, have inconvenient 1ork schedules, or &eel sel&$conscious about their o1n communication skills <(tevens P Tolla&ield, 3003=. #ven so, there are 1ays to encoura"e parents 1ho may be shy, hesitant, or busy. Cne is to think about ho1 they can assist the school even &rom homeK&or example, by makin" materials to be used in class or <i& they are com&ortable usin" #n"lish= phonin" other parents about class events. A second 1ay is to have a speci&ic task &or the parents in mindKone 1ith clear structure, such as photocopyin" materials to be used by students later. A third is to remember to encoura"e, support, and respect the parentsJ presence and contributions 1hen they do sho1 up at school &unctions. 'eep in mind that parents are experts about their o1n particular children, and 1ithout them, you 1ould have no students to teachL
Responding to student misbehavior

(o &ar 1e have &ocused on preventin" behaviors that are inappropriate or annoyin". The advice has all been pro$ active or &or1ard$lookin" plan classroom space thou"ht&ully, create reasonable procedures and rules, pace lessons and activities appropriately, and communicate the importance o& learnin" clearly. Althou"h 1e consider these ideas important, it 1ould be na`ve to imply they are enou"h to prevent all behavior problems. For various reasons, students sometimes still do thin"s that disrupt other students or interrupt the &lo1 o& activities. At such moments the challen"e is not about lon"$term plannin" but about makin" appropriate, but prompt responses. )isbehaviors le&t alone can be conta"ious, a process educators sometimes call the ripple effect <'ounin, 89;0=. Chattin" bet1een t1o students, &or example, can "radually spread to six studentsI rudeness by one can eventually become rudeness by severalI and so on. 7ecause o& this tendency, delayin" a response to inappropriate behavior can make the /ob o& "ettin" students back on track harder than respondin" to it as immediately as possible. There are many 1ays to respond to inappropriate behaviors, o& course, and they vary in ho1 much they &ocus on the immediate behavior compared to lon"er$term &eatures or patterns o& a studentJs behavior. There are so many 1ays to respond, in &act, that 1e can describe only a sample o& the possibilities here. Bone are e&&ective all o& the time, thou"h all do 1ork at least some o& the time. 5e start 1ith a response that may not seem on the sur&ace like a remedy at allKsimply i"norin" misbehaviors.
%"norin" misbehaviors
A lot o& misbehaviors are not important or &requent enou"h to deserve any response at all. They are likely to disappear <or e4tinguish, in behaviorist terms= simply i& le&t alone. %& a student 1ho is usually quiet durin" class happens to 1hisper to a nei"hbor once in a1hile, it is probably less disruptive and /ust as e&&ective to i"nore the in&raction than to respond to it. (ome misbehaviors may not be 1orth a response even i& they are &requent, as lon" as they do not seem to bother others. (uppose, &or example, that a certain student has a habit o& choosin" quiet
8A0
A .lobal Text
7. lassroom management and the learning environment seat$1ork times to sharpen her pencil. (he is continually out o& her seat to "o to the sharpener. Met this behavior is not really noticed by others. %s it then really a problem, ho1ever unnecessary or ill$timed it may be? %n both examples i"norin" the behavior may be 1ise because there is little dan"er o& the behavior disruptin" other students or o& becomin" more &requent. %nterruptin" your activitiesKor the studentsJKmi"ht cause more disruption than simply i"norin" the problem. That said, there can still be problems in decidin" 1hether a particular misbehavior is truly minor, in&requent, or unnoticed by others. 4nlike in our example above, students may 1hisper to each other more than >rarely@ but less than >o&ten@ in that case, 1hen do you decide that the 1hisperin" is in &act too &requent and needs a more active response &rom you? Cr the student 1ho sharpens her pencil, mentioned above, may not bother most others, but she may nonetheless bother a &e1. %n that case ho1 many bothered classmates are >too many@? Five, three, /ust one, or_? %n these ambi"uous cases, you may need more active 1ays o& dealin" 1ith an inappropriate behavior, like the ones described in the next sections.
.esturin" nonverbally
(ometimes it 1orks to communicate usin" "estures, eye contact, or >body lan"ua"e@ that involve little or no speakin". Bonverbal cues are o&ten appropriate i& a misbehavior is /ust a bit too serious or &requent to i"nore, but not serious or &requent enou"h to merit takin" the time deliberately to speak to or talk 1ith the student. %& t1o students are chattin" o&&$task &or a relatively extended time, &or example, sometimes a "lance in their direction, a &ro1n, or even /ust movin" closer to the students is enou"h o& a reminder to "et them back on task. #ven i& these responses prove not to be enou"h, they may help to keep the o&&$task behavior &rom spreadin" to other students. A risk o& relyin" on nonverbal cues, ho1ever, is that some students may not understand their meanin", or may even &ail to notice them. %& the t1o chattin" students mentioned above are en"rossed in their talkin", &or example, they may not see you "lance or &ro1n at them. Cr they mi"ht notice but not interpret your cue as a reminder to "et back on task. )isinterpretation o& nonverbal "estures and cues is more likely 1ith youn" children, 1ho are still learnin" the subtleties o& adultsJ nonverbal >lan"ua"e@ <.uerrero P Floyd, 300AI 6eimann, et al., 300:=. %t is also more likely 1ith students 1ho speak limited #n"lish or 1hose cultural back"round di&&ers si"ni&icantly &rom your o1n. These students may have learned di&&erent nonverbal "estures &rom your o1n as part o& their participation in their ori"inal culture <)arsh, #l&enbein, P Ambady, 3003=.
Batural and lo"ical consequences

Consequences are the outcomes or results o& an action. 5hen mana"in" a classroom, t1o kinds o& consequences are especially e&&ective &or in&luencin" studentsE behavior natural consequences and lo"ical consequences. As the term implies, natural conse6uences happen >naturally@, 1ithout deliberate intention by anyone. %& a student is late &or class, &or example, a natural consequence is that he misses in&ormation or material that needed to do an assi"nment. 'ogical conse6uences are ones that happen because o& the responses o& or decisions by others, but that also have an obvious or >lo"ical@ relationship to the ori"inal action. %& one student steals anotherJs lunch, &or example, a lo"ical consequence mi"ht be &or the thie& to reimburse the victim &or the cost o& the lunch. Batural and lo"ical consequences are o&ten 1oven to"ether and thus hard to distin"uish i& one student picks a &i"ht 1ith another student, a natural consequence mi"ht be in/ury not only to the victim, but also to the a""ressor <an
8A8
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License inherent byproduct o& &i"htin"=, but a lo"ical consequence mi"ht be to lose &riends <the response o& others to &i"htin"=. %n practice both may occur. %n "eneral research has &ound that both natural and lo"ical consequences can be e&&ective &or minimi2in" undesirable behaviors, provided they are applied in appropriate situations <5einstein, Tomlinson$Clarke, P Curran, 300F=. Consider a student 1ho runs impulsively do1n school hall1ays. The student is likely to have >tra&&ic accidents@, and thus <hope&ully= to see that runnin" is not sa&e and to reduce the &requency o& runnin". Cr consider a student 1ho chronically talks durin" class instead o& 1orkin" on an assi"ned task. The student may have to make up the assi"nment later, possibly as home1ork. 7ecause the behavior and the consequence are connected lo"ically, the student is relatively likely to see the dra1back o& choosin" to talk, and to reduce ho1 much he or she talks on subsequent occasions. %n either case, 1hether natural or lo"ical, the key &eatures that make consequences 1ork are <a= that they are appropriate to the misbehavior and <b= that the student understands the connection bet1een the consequences and the ori"inal behavior. Botice, thou"h, that natural and lo"ical consequences do not al1ays 1orkI i& they did, there 1ould be no &urther need &or mana"ement strate"iesL Cne limitation is that misbehaviors can sometimes be so serious that no natural or lo"ical consequence seems su&&icient or appropriate. (uppose, &or example, that one student deliberately breaks another studentJs eye"lasses. There may be a natural consequence &or the victim <he or she 1ill not be able to see easily=, but not &or the student 1ho broke the "lasses. There may also be no consequences &or the a""ressor that are both lo"ical and &ully satis&actory the a""ressor student 1ill not be able to repair the broken "lasses himsel&, and may not be able to pay &or ne1 "lasses either. Another limitation o& natural and lo"ical consequences is that their success depends on the motives o& the misbehavin" student. %& the student is seekin" attention or acceptance by others, then consequences o&ten 1ork 1ell. 7ullyin" in order to impress others, &or example, is more likely to lose &riends than to 1in themKso bullyin" motivated in this 1ay is sel&$limitin". %& a student is seekin" po1er over others, on the other hand, then the consequences o& bullyin" may not reduce the behavior. 7ullyin" in order to control othersJ actions by de&inition actually achieves its o1n "oal, and its >natural@ result <losin" &riends= 1ould be irrelevant. C& course, a bully mi"ht also act &rom a combination o& motives, so that natural and lo"ical consequences limit bullyin" behavior, but only partially. A third problem 1ith natural and lo"ical consequences is that they can easily be con&used 1ith deliberate punishment <'ohn, 300:=. The di&&erence is important. Consequences are &ocused on repairin" dama"e and restorin" relationships, and in this sense they &ocus on the &uture. ,unishments hi"hli"ht a mistake or 1ron"doin" and in this sense &ocus on the past. Consequences tend to be more solution &ocused. ,unishments tend to hi"hli"ht the person 1ho committed the action, and they o&ten shame or humiliate the 1ron" doer. <Table 8; summari2es these and other di&&erences.= Table 8; *i&&erences bet1een consequences and punishments Bocused on future solutions Focused on individualJs actions Focused on repairin" mistakes Educational Psychology
Bocused on past mista8es Focused on character o& student or child Focused on establishin" blame 8A3 A .lobal Text
7. lassroom management and the learning environment
Focused on restorin" positive relationships Tend to reduce emotional pain and con&lict
Focused on isolatin" 1ron"$doer Tend to impose emotional pain or con&lict
Classroom examples o& the di&&erences bet1een consequences and punishment are plenti&ul. %& a student &ails to listen to the teacherEs instructions, then a consequence is that he or she misses important in&ormation, but a punishment may be that the teacher critici2es or reprimands the student. %& a student speaks rudely to the teacher, a consequence may be that the teacher does not respond to the comment, or simply reminds the student to speak courteously. A punishment may be that the teacher scolds the student in the presence o& others , or even imposes a detention <>(tay a&ter school &or 8A minutes@=.
Con&lict resolution and problem solvin"

5hen a student misbehaves persistently and disruptively, you 1ill need strate"ies that are more active and assertive than the ones discussed so &ar, and that &ocus on conflict resolutionKthe reduction o& disa"reements that persist over time. Con&lict resolution strate"ies that educators and teachers tend to use usually have t1o parts <+ones, 300F=. First, they involve 1ays o& identi&yin" 1hat >the@ problem is precisely. (econd, they remind the student o& classroom expectations and rules 1ith simple clarity and assertiveness, but ithout apolo"y or harshness. 5hen used to"ether, the t1o strate"ies not only reduce con&licts bet1een a teacher and an individual student, but also provide a model &or other students to &ollo1 1hen they have disa"reements o& their o1n. The next sections discuss the nature o& assertion and clari&ication &or con&lict resolution in more detail.
Ste* B" clarifying and focusing" *ro%lem o nershi*

Classrooms can be emotional places even thou"h their primary purpose is to promote thinkin" rather than expression o& &eelin"s. The emotions can be quite desirable they can "ive teachers and students >passion@ &or learnin" and a sense o& care amon" members o& the class. 7ut &eelin"s can also cause trouble i& students misbehave at those moments ne"ative &eelin"sKannoyance, an"er, discom&ortKcan inter&ere 1ith understandin" exactly 1hat is 1ron" and ho1 to set thin"s ri"ht a"ain. .ainin" a bit o& distance &rom the ne"ative &eelin"s is exactly 1hat those moments need, especially on the part o& the teacher, the person 1ith <presumably= the "reatest maturity. %n a 1idely cited approach to con&lict resolution called Teacher Effectiveness Training, the educator Thomas .ordon describes this challen"e as an issue o& problem o(nership, or decidin" 1hose problem a behavior or con&lict it really is <.ordon, 3003=. The >o1ner@ o& the problem is the primary person 1ho is troubled or bothered by it. The o1ner can be the student committin" the behavior, the teacher, or another student 1ho merely happens to see the behavior. (ince the o1ner o& a problem needs to take primary responsibility &or solvin" it, identi&yin" o1nership makes a di&&erence in ho1 to deal 1ith the behavior or problem e&&ectively. (uppose, &or example, that a student named *avid makes a remark that the teacher &inds o&&ensive <like >(ean is &at@=. %s this remark the studentEs problem or the teacherEs? %& *avid made the comment privately to the teacher and is unlikely to repeat it, then maybe it is only the teacherEs problem. %& he is likely to repeat it to other students or to (ean himsel&, ho1ever, then maybe the problem is really *avidEs. Cn the other hand, suppose that a di&&erent student, (arah, complains repeatedly that classmates re&use to let her into "roup pro/ects. This is less likely to be 8A3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License the teacherJs problem rather than (arahEs her di&&iculty may a&&ect her ability to do her o1n 1ork, but not really a&&ect the teacher or classmates directly. As you mi"ht suspect, too, a problem may sometimes a&&ect several people at once. *avid, 1ho critici2ed (ean, may discover that he o&&ended not only the teacher, but also classmates, 1ho there&ore avoid 1orkin" 1ith him. At that point the 1hole class be"ins to share in some aspect o& >the@ problem not only is *avid prevented &rom 1orkin" 1ith others com&ortably, but also classmates and the teacher be"in dealin" 1ith bad &eelin"s about *avid.
Ste* C" active, em*athetic listening

*ia"nosin" accurately 1ho really has a problem 1ith a behaviorK1ho >o1ns@ itKis helped by a number o& strate"ies. Cne is active listeningKattendin" care&ully to all aspects o& 1hat a student says and attemptin" to understand or empathi2e as &ully as possible, even i& you do not a"ree 1ith 1hat is bein" said <Cooper P (imonds, 3003=. Active listenin" involves askin" questions in order continually to check your understandin". %t also involves encoura"in" the student to elaborate on his or her remarks, and paraphrasin" and summari2in" 1hat the student says in order to check your perceptions o& 1hat is said. %t is important not to move too &ast to1ard solvin" the problem 1ith advice, instructions, or scoldin", even i& these are responses that you mi"ht, as a teacher, &eel responsible &or makin". -espondin" too soon 1ith solutions can shut do1n communication prematurely, and leave you 1ith inaccurate impressions o& the source or nature o& the problem.
Ste* ;" assertive disci*line and ,3messages

Cnce you have listened 1ell to the studentJs point o& vie1, it helps to &rame your responses and comments in terms o& ho1 the studentJs behavior a&&ects you in particular, especially in your role as the teacher. The comments should have several &eatures
They should be assertiveKneither passive and apolo"etic, nor unnecessarily hostile and a""ressive <Cantor,
899:=. (tate the problem as matter$o&$&actly as possible >+oe, you are talkin" 1hile %Jm explainin" somethin"@, instead o& either >+oe, do you think you could be quiet no1?@ or >+oe, be quietL@
The comments should emphasi2e &=messages <.ordon, 89D8=, 1hich are comments that &ocus on ho1 the
problem behavior is a&&ectin" the teacherJs ability to teach, as 1ell as ho1 the behavior makes the teacher &eel. They are distinct &rom you3messages, 1hich &ocus on evaluatin" the mistake or problem 1hich the student has created. An %$messa"e mi"ht be, >Mour talkin" is makin" it hard &or me to remember 1hat %Jm tryin" to say.@ A you$messa"e mi"ht be, >Mour talkin" is rude.@
The comments should encoura"e the student to think about the e&&ects o& his or her actions on othersKa
strate"y that in e&&ect encoura"es the student to consider the ethical implications o& the actions <.ibbs, 3003=. %nstead o& simply sayin" >5hen you cut in line ahead o& the other kids, that 1as not &air to them@, you can try sayin", >6o1 do you think the other kids &eel 1hen you cut in line ahead o& them?@
Ste* >" negotiation

The &irst three steps describe 1ays o& interactin" that are desirable, but also &airly speci&ic in scope and limited in duration. 7ut in themselves, they may not be enou"h 1hen con&lict persists over time and develops a number o& complications or con&usin" &eatures. A student may persist in bein" late &or class, &or example, in spite o& e&&orts by the teacher to modi&y this behavior. Cr t1o students may repeatedly speak rudely to each other, even thou"h the teacher has mediated this con&lict in the past. Cr a student may &ail to complete home1ork, time a&ter time. 7ecause Educational Psychology
8AF
A .lobal Text
7. lassroom management and the learning environment these problems develop over time, and because they may involve repeated disa"reements, they can eventually become stress&ul &or the teacher, the student, and any classmates 1ho may be a&&ected. Their persistence can tempt a teacher simply to dictate a resolutionKa decision that can leave everyone &eelin" de&eated, includin" the teacher. C&ten in these situations it is better to negotiate a solution, 1hich means systematically discussin" options and compromisin" on one i& possible. Althou"h ne"otiation al1ays requires time and e&&ort, it is o&ten less time or e&&ort than continuin" to cope 1ith the ori"inal problem, and the results can be bene&icial to everyone. A number o& experts on con&lict resolution have su""ested strate"ies &or ne"otiatin" 1ith students about persistent problems <*avidson P 5ood, 300F=. The su""estions vary in detail, but usually include some combination o& the steps 1e have already discussed above, alon" 1ith a &e1 others
!ecide as accurately as *ossi%le
hat the *ro%lem is. 4sually this step involves a lot o& the active listenin"
described above.
+rainstorm *ossi%le solutions, and then consider their effectiveness. -emember to include students in
this stepI other1ise you end up simply imposin" a solution on others, 1hich is not 1hat ne"otiation is supposed to achieve.
,f *ossi%le, choose a solution %y consensus. Complete a"reement on the choice may not be possible, but
strive &or it as best you can. -emember that takin" a vote may be a democratic, acceptable 1ay to settle di&&erences in some situations, but i& &eelin"s are runnin" hi"h, votin" does not 1ork as 1ell. %n that case votin" may simply allo1 the ma/ority to impose its 1ill on the minority, leavin" the underlyin" con&lict unresolved.
Pay attention to ho
ell the solution
or#s after it is under ay. For many reasons, thin"s may not 1ork
out the 1ay you or students hope or expect. Mou may need to rene"otiate the solution at a later time.
Keeping management issues in perspective

There are t1o primary messa"es &rom this chapter. Cne is that mana"ement issues are important, complex, and deservin" o& serious attention. The other is that strate"ies exist that can reduce, i& not eliminate, mana"ement problems 1hen and i& they occur. 5e have explained some o& those strate"iesKincludin" some intended to prevent problems and others intended to remedy problems. 7ut there is an underlyin" assumption about mana"ement that this chapter emphasi2ed &ully that "ood classroom mana"ement is not an end in itsel&, but a means &or creatin" a classroom 1here learnin" happens and students are motivated. Amidst the stresses o& handlin" a problem behavior, there is a risk o& losin" si"ht o& this idea. Tellin" a student to be quiet is never a "oal in itsel&, &or exampleI it is desirable only because <or 1hen= it allo1s all students to hear the teacherJs instructions or classmatesJ spoken comments, or because it allo1s students to concentrate on their 1ork. There may actually be moments 1hen studentsE keepin" quiet is not appropriate, such as durin" a >&ree choice@ time in an elementary classroom or durin" a "roup 1ork task in a middle school classroom. As teachers, 1e need to keep this perspective &irmly in mind. Classroom mana"ement should serve studentsJ learnin", and not the other 1ay around. The next chapter is based on this idea, because it discusses 1ays not /ust to set the sta"e &or learnin", as this chapter has done, but 1ays to plan directly &or studentsE learnin".
8AA
Chapter summary
Classroom mana"ement is the coordination o& lessons and activities to make learnin" as productive as possible. %t is important because classrooms are complex and some1hat unpredictable, because students respond to teachersJ actions in diverse 1ays, and because society requires that students attend school. There are t1o ma/or &eatures o& mana"ement preventin" problems be&ore they occur and respondin" to them a&ter they occur. )any mana"ement problems can be prevented by attendin" to ho1 classroom space is used, by establishin" daily procedures, routines, and rules, by pacin" and structurin" activities appropriately, and by communicatin" the importance o& learnin" and o& positive behavior to students and parents. There are several 1ays o& dealin" 1ith a mana"ement problem a&ter it occurs, and the choice depends on the nature o& the problem. A teacher can simply i"nore a misbehavior, "esture or cue students nonverbally, rely on natural and lo"ical consequences, or en"a"e con&lict resolution strate"ies. 5hatever tactics the teacher uses, it is important to keep in mind their ultimate purpose to make learnin" possible and e&&ective.
Cn the %nternet
<(((.theteachersguide.com)Class?anagement.htm> This is part o& a lar"er 1ebsite &or teachers containin" resources o& all kinds. This sectionKabout classroom mana"ementKhas several articles 1ith very >nuts and bolts@ tips about mana"ement. Mou may also &ind their pa"e o& resources &or substitute teachers use&ul. <(((.teachnet.com> Another 1ebsite &or teachers 1ith lots o& resources o& all kinds. A section called >,o1er Tools@ has do2ens o& brie& articles about various aspects o& classroom mana"ement.
'ey terms
Active listenin" Classroom mana"ement Con&lict resolution %$messa"es Learnin" environment Lo"ical consequences Batural consequences Be"otiation Cverlappin" ,ort&olio ,roblem o1nership ,rocedures -ipple e&&ect -ules 5ithitness
-e&erences
7enson, 7. P 7arnett, (. <300A=. Student3led conferencing using sho case *ortfolios. Thousand Caks, CA Cor1in ,ress. 7lack, ,., 6arrison, C., Lee C., )arshall, 7., P 5iliam, *. <300F=. 5orkin" inside the black box Assessment &or learnin" in the classroom. Phi !elta Ka**an, A:<8=, D$38. 7othmer, (. <3003=. Creating the *eacea%le classroom. Tuscon, A0 0ephyr ,ress. 7ritt, T. <300A=. #&&ects o& identity$relevance and task di&&iculty on task motivation, stress, and per&ormance. @otivation and Emotion, CF<3=, 8D9$303. 7rophy, +. <300F=. @otivating students to learn, Cnd edition. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. 7rook&ield, (. <300:=. The s#illful teacher" 8n techni&ue, trust, and res*onsiveness in the classroom, Cnd edition. (an Francisco +ossey$7ass.
8A:
A .lobal Text
7. lassroom management and the learning environment 7ro1n, *. <300F=. 4rban teachersJ pro&essed classroom mana"ement strate"ies -e&lections o& culturally responsive teachin". Ir%an Education, ;F<3=, 3::$3D9. Chesebro, +. <3003=. #&&ects o& teacher clarity and nonverbal immediacy on student learnin", receiver apprehension, and a&&ect. Communication Education, ?C<3=, 83A$8F;. Cooper, ,. P (imonds, C. <3003=. Communication for the classroom teacher, =th edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. *avidson, +. P 5ood, C. <300F=. A con&lict resolution model. Theory into Practice, >;<8=, :$83. #mmer, #. P (tou"h, L. <3008=. Classroom mana"ement A critical part o& educational psycholo"y, 1ith implications &or teacher education. Educational Psychologist, ;:<3=, 803$883. .ibbs, +. <3003=. @oral develo*ment and reality" +eyond the theories of Kohl%erg and 9offman. Thousand Caks, CA (a"e. .ood, T. P 7rophy, +. <3003=. 2oo#ing in classrooms, Fth edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. .ordon, T. <3003=. Teacher effectiveness training. Be1 Mork Three -ivers ,ress. .uerrero, L. P Floyd, '. <300A=. 0onver%al communication in close relationshi*s. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. 6eimann , ). (trid, '., (mith , L., T/us , T., 4lvund , (. P )elt2o&&, A. <300:=. #xplorin" the relation bet1een memory, "estural communication, and the emer"ence o& lan"ua"e in in&ancy a lon"itudinal study. ,nfant and Child !evelo*ment, 8A<3=, 333$3F9. +ones, T. <300F=. Con&lict resolution education The &ield, the &indin"s, and the &uture. Conflict Resolution Uuarterly, CC<8$3=, 333$3:;. +ones, G. P +ones, L. <300:=. Com*rehensive classroom management" Creating communities of su**ort and solving *ro%lems, :th edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. 'ohn, A. <300:=. +eyond disci*line" 7rom com*liance to community. -eston, GA Association &or (upervision and Curriculum *evelopment. 'ounin, +. <89;0=. !isci*line and grou* management in classrooms. Be1 Mork 6olt, -inehart P 5inston. )arks, L. <3003=. %nstructional mana"ement tips &or teachers o& students 1ith autism$spectrum disorder. Teaching E4ce*tional Children, ;?<F=, A0$AF. )arsh, A., #l&enbein, 6. P Ambady, B. <3003=. Bonverbal HaccentsH cultural di&&erences in &acial expressions o& emotion. Psychological Science, B><3=, 3;3$3;:. )ar2ano, -. P )ar2ano, +. <300F=. The key to classroom mana"ement. Educational 2eadershi*, :C, pp. 3$;. )cCa&&erty, (., +acobs, .., P %ddin"s, (. <#ds.=. <300:=. Coo*erative learning and second language teaching. Be1 Mork Cambrid"e 4niversity ,ress. )orit2, +. P Christie, A. <300A=. %tJs elementary 4sin" elementary port&olios 1ith youn" students. %n C. Cra1&ord <#d.=, Proceedings of the Society for ,nformation Technology and Teacher Education
8A;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License ,nternational Conference C<<? <pp. 8FF$8A8=. Chesapeake, GA Association &or the Advancement o& Computin" in #ducation. Bations, (. P 7oyett, (. <3003=. So much stuff, so little s*ace" Creating and managing the learner3centered classroom. .ainesville, FL )aupin 6ouse. -eynolds, A. <8993=. 5hat is competent be"innin" teachin"? Revie of Educational Research, :C<8=, 8$3A.
(tevens, 7. P Tolla&ield, A. <3003=. Creatin" com&ortable and productive parentUteacher con&erences. Phi !elta Ka**an, A><;=, A38$A3A. (ti""ins, -. P Chappuis, +. <300A=. 4sin" student$involved classroom assessment to close achievement "aps. Theory into Practice >><8=, 88$8D. Thorson, (. <3003=. 2istening to students" Reflections on secondary classroom management. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. Turiel, #. <300:=. The development o& morality. %n 5. *amon, -. Lerner, P B. #isenber" <#ds.=, 9and%oo# of child *sychology, vol. ;, **. =AF3A?=. Be1 Mork 5iley. Gan )eerionboer, +., 'irschner, ,., P 'ester, L. <3003=. Takin" the co"nitive load o&& a learnerJs mind %nstructional desi"n &or complex learnin". Educational Psychologist, ;A<8=, A$83. 5hite, C. <300A=. (tudent port&olios An alternative 1ay o& encoura"in" and evaluatin" student learnin". %n ). Achacoso P B. (vinicki <#ds.=, Alternative Strategies for Evaluating Student 2earning <pp. 3;$F3=. (an Francisco +ossey$7ass. 5einstein, C.,Tomlinson$Clarke, (., P Curran, ). <300F=. To1ard a conception o& culturally responsive classroom mana"ement. Journal of Teacher Education, ??<8=, 3A$3D.
8AD
A .lobal Text
<. The nature of classroom communication

'+e sincereM %e %riefM %e seated.) 17ran#lin !elano Roosevelt) Franklin -oosevelt 1as a &ormer president o& the 4nited (tates, and he advised bein" brie& and sincere 1hen communicatin". %n advisin" to be seated, he 1as bein" some1hat more indirectI perhaps he 1as su""estin" that conversation and dialo" 1ould be improved by reducin" the po1er di&&erences bet1een individuals. %& so, he 1as "ivin" "ood advice, thou"h perhaps it 1as also a bit misleadin" in its simplicity. As teachers, 1e &ace almost continual talk at school, supplemented by ample amounts o& nonverbal communicationK"estures, &acial expressions, and other >body lan"ua"e@. C&ten the talk involves many people at once, or even an entire class, and individuals have to take turns speakin" 1hile also listenin" to others havin" their turns, or sometimes i"norin" the others i& a conversation does not concern them. As the teacher, there&ore, you &ind yoursel& playin" an assortment o& roles 1hen communicatin" in classrooms )aster o& Ceremonies, re&ereeKand o& course source o& ne1 kno1led"e. Mour challen"e is to sort the roles out so that you are playin" the ri"ht ones in the ri"ht combinations at the ri"ht times. As you learn to do this, interestin"ly, much o& your communication 1ith students 1ill indeed acquire the qualities recommended by Franklin -oosevelt. C&ten, you 1ill indeed be more sincere and brie&, and you 1ill &ind that minimi2in" po1er di&&erences bet1een you and students is a "ood idea. %n this chapter 1e look at ho1 you mi"ht be"in to move to1ard these "oals. 5e describe brie&ly several ma/or &eatures o& classroom communication that distin"uish it &rom communication in other &amiliar situations. Then 1e explain several techniques, both verbal and nonverbal, that contribute to e&&ective communication, and describe ho1 these mani&est themselves in several common activity settin"s, 1hich 1e call structures of *artici*ation. As you 1ill see, ho1 an activity is or"ani2edKits structure o& participationKhas a ma/or e&&ect on ho1 students communicate 1ith each other and 1ith the teacher.
Communication in classrooms vs communication else#here

Classroom events are o&ten so complex that /ust talkin" 1ith students can become con&usin". %t helps to think o& the challen"e as a problem in communicationCor as one expert put it, o& >1ho says 1hat to 1hom, and 1ith 1hat e&&ect@ <Lass1ell, 89:F=. %n classrooms, thin"s o&ten do not happen at an even pace or in a lo"ical order, or 1ith /ust the teacher and one student interactin" 1hile others listen or 1ait patiently. 5hile such moments do occur, events may sometimes instead be more like a kaleidoscope o& overlappin" interactions, disruptions, and decisionKeven 1hen activities are "enerally "oin" ell. Cne student &inishes a task 1hile another is still only hal&$ 1ay done. A third student looks like she is readin", but she may really be dreamin". Mou be"in to brin" her back on task by speakin" to her, only to be interrupted by a &ourth student 1ith a question about an assi"nment. 5hile you ans1er the &ourth student, a &i&th 1alks in 1ith a messa"e &rom the o&&ice requirin" a responseI so the bored <third= Educational Psychology
8A9
A .lobal Text
!. The nature of classroom communication student is overlooked a1hile lon"er. )ean1hile, the &irst studentKthe one 1ho &inished the current taskKno1 be"ins tellin" a /oke to a sixth student, /ust to pass the time. Mou 1onder, >(hould % speak no1 to the bored, quiet reader or to the /oke$tellin" student? Cr should % move on 1ith the lesson?@ 5hile you are 1onderin" this, a seventh student raises his hand 1ith a question, and so on. Cne 1ay to mana"e situations like these is to understand and become com&ortable 1ith the key &eatures o& communication that are characteristic o& classrooms. Cne set o& &eatures has to do 1ith the &unctions or purposes o& communication, especially the balance amon" talk related to content, to procedures, and to controllin" behavior. Another &eature has to do 1ith the nature o& nonverbal communicationKho1 it supplements and sometimes even contradicts 1hat is said verbally. A third &eature has to do 1ith the un1ritten expectations held by students and teachers about ho participation. to participate in particular kinds o& class activitiesK1hat 1e 1ill later call the structure o&
Functions o& talk content, procedures, and behavior control

Classrooms are di&&erent &rom many other "roup situations in that communication serves a unique combination o& three purposes at once content, procedures, or behavior control <5ells, 300:=. Content tal8 &ocuses on hat is bein" learnedI it happens 1hen a teacher or student states or asks about an idea or concept, &or example, or 1hen someone explains or elaborates on some bit o& ne1 kno1led"e <7urns P )yhill, 300F=. 4sually content talk relates in some obvious 1ay to the curriculum or to current learnin" ob/ectives, as 1hen a teacher tells a hi"h school history class, >As the text explains, there 1ere several ma/or causes o& the American Civil 5ar.@ 7ut content talk can also di"ress &rom the current learnin" ob/ectivesI a &irst$"rade student mi"ht unexpectedly brin" a caterpillar to school and ask about ho1 it trans&orms into a butter&ly. Procedural talk, as its name implies, is about administrative rules or routines needed to accomplish tasks in a classroom. %t happens, &or example, 1hen the teacher says, >5hen you are done 1ith your spellin" books, put them in the bins at the side o& the room@, or 1hen a student asks, >*o you 1ant us to print our names at the top o& pa"e?@ ,rocedural talk provides in&ormation that students need to coordinate their activities in 1hat can be a relatively cro1ded spaceKthe classroomKand under conditions in 1hich time may be relatively short or ti"htly scheduled. %t "enerally keeps activities or"ani2ed and &lo1in" smoothly. ,rocedural talk is not primarily about removin" or correctin" un1anted behavior, althou"h certain administrative procedures mi"ht sometimes annoy a particular student, or students mi"ht sometimes &or"et to &ollo1 a procedure. %nstead it is intended to provide the "uidance that students need to coordinate 1ith each other and 1ith the teacher. Control tal8 is about preventin" or correctin" misbehaviors 1hen they occur, particularly 1hen the misbehaviors are not because o& i"norance o& procedures. %t happens, &or example, 1hen a teacher says, >+ill, you 1ere talkin" 1hen you should have been listenin"@, or >+ason, you need to 1ork on your math instead o& doodlin".@ )ost control talk ori"inates 1ith the teacher, but students sometimes en"a"e in it 1ith each other, i& not 1ith the teacher. Cne student may look at a nearby classmate 1ho is 1hisperin" out o& turn and quietly say, >(hhhL@ in an attempt to silence the behavior. Cr a student may respond to bein" teased by a classmate by sayin" simply, >(top itL@ 5hether ori"inatin" &rom the teacher or a student, control talk may not al1ays be &ully e&&ective. 7ut its purpose is, by de&inition, to in&luence or control inappropriate behavior. (ince control talk is obviously important &or mana"in" class e&&ectively, 1e discussed it at len"th in Chapter ;.
8:0
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 5hat can make classroom discourse con&usin" is that t1o o& its &unctionsKcontent and proceduresKo&ten become combined 1ith the third, control talk, in the same remark or interaction. A teacher may ask a content$ related question, &or example, as a &orm o& control talk. (he may, &or example, ask, >+eremy, 1hat did you think o& the &ilm 1e /ust sa1?@ The question is apparently about content, but the teacher may also be tryin" to end +eremyJs daydreamin" and to "et him back on taskKan example o& control talk. Cr a teacher may state a rule >5hen one person is talkin", others need to be listenin".@ The rule is procedural in that it helps to coordinate classroom dialo"ue, but it may also control inattentive behavior. *ouble &unctions like these can sometimes con&use students because o& their ambi"uity, and lead to misunderstandin"s bet1een certain students and teachers. A student may hear only the content or procedural &unction o& a teacherJs comment, and miss an implied request or command to chan"e inappropriate behavior <Collins P )ichaels, 300:=. 7ut double &unctions can also help lessons to &lo1 smoothly by minimi2in" the disruption o& attendin" to a minor behavior problem and by allo1in" more continuous attention to content or procedures.
Gerbal, nonverbal, and unintended communication

Another 1ay to understand classroom communication is to distin"uish verbal &rom nonverbal communication, and intended both unintended &orms o& communication. As the name su""ests, verbal communication is a messa"e or in&ormation expressed in 1ords, either orally or in 1ritin". Classrooms obviously have lots o& verbal communicationI it happens every time a teacher explains a bit o& content, asks a question, or 1rites in&ormation or instructions on the chalkboard. Fon=verbal communications are "estures or behaviors that convey in&ormation, o&ten simultaneously 1ith spoken 1ords <.uerrero, 300:=. %t happens, &or example, 1hen a teacher looks directly at students to emphasi2e a point or to assert her authority, or 1hen the teacher raises her eyebro1s to convey disapproval or disa"reement. Bonverbal behaviors are /ust as plenti&ul as verbal communications, and 1hile they usually add to a current verbal messa"e, they sometimes can also contradict it. A teacher can state verbally, >This math lesson 1ill be &un@, and a nonverbal t1inkle in the eye can send the con&irm messa"e nonverbally. 7ut a simultaneous nonverbal si"h or slouch may send the opposite messa"eKthat the lesson 1ill not, in &act be &un, in spite o& the teacherJs verbal claim. 5hether verbal or nonverbal, ho1ever, classroom communications o&ten convey more meanin" than is intended. ,nintended communications are the excess meanin"s o& utterancesI they are the messa"es received by students 1ithout the teacherJs a1areness or desire. A teacher may say, >This section o& the text 1onJt be on the test, but read it any1ay &or back"round.@ 7ut a student may instead hear the messa"e, >*o not read this section o& the text.@ 5hat is heard is not 1hat the teacher intended to be heard. Like many public settin"s that involve a diversity o& people, classrooms tend to rely heavily on explicit, verbal communication, 1hile at the same time reco"ni2in" and allo1in" nonverbal communications to occur <Beill, 8998=. This priority accounts &or the characteristically businesslike style o& teacher talkKa style that 1e discuss in detail in the next chapter. A ma/or reason &or relyin" on an explicit, businesslike verbal style is that diversity amon" individuals increases the chances o& their misinterpretin" each other. 7ecause o& di&&erences in back"round, the partners may di&&er in ho1 they expect to structure conversation as 1ell as other kinds o& dialo". )isunderstandin"s may resultKsometimes 1ithout the partners bein" able to pinpoint the cause. Later in this chapter 1e su""est ho1 to minimi2e these problems.
8:8
A .lobal Text
!. The nature of classroom communication
Effective verbal communication

Communicatin" e&&ectively requires usin" all &orms o& classroom talk in combinations appropriate &or particular utterances and interactions. %n various places earlier in this book, 1e have su""ested 1ays o& doin" so, thou"h in those places 1e usually did not &rame the discussion around the term communication as such.
#&&ective content talk

%n Chapter D, &or example, 1e su""ested 1ays o& talkin" about content so that it is most likely to be understood clearly, but in that chapter 1e described these as instructional strate"ies. %n explainin" ideas, &or example, 1hether brie&ly or as a extended lecture, 1e pointed out that it helps to o&&er, in advance, or"ani2in" ideas, to relate ne1 content to prior kno1led"e, and to or"ani2e and elaborate on ne1 in&ormation. %n the same chapter, 1e also su""ested strate"ies about content talk intended &or students, so that students understand their o1n thinkin" as 1ell as possible. 5e especially hi"hli"hted t1o 1ays o& learnin" inquiry learnin" and cooperative learnin". Table 8Dsummari2es instructional strate"ies both &or students and &or teachers, and indicates ho1 they contribute to e&&ective verbal communication about content. Table 8D (trate"ies &or supportin" content talk Content tal8 by teachers Strategy 4sin" advance or"ani2ers Definition (tatements or ideas that "ive a concise overvie1 o& ne1 material ;o( it helps communication Crients studentsJ attention to ne1 ideas about to be learnedI assists in understandin" and rememberin" ne1 material -elatin" ne1 material to prior kno1led"e #xplicit connections o& ne1 ideas to studentsJ existin" kno1led"e Facilitates discussion o& ne1 material by makin" it more meanin"&ul to students #laboratin" and extendin" ne1 in&ormation #xplanations o& ne1 ideas in &ull, complete terms Avoids ambi"uities and misunderstandin"s about ne1 ideas or concepts Cr"ani2in" ne1 in&ormation ,rovidin" and &ollo1in" a clear structure 1hen explainin" ne1 material Content tal8 by students %nquiry learnin" (tudents pursue problems that they help to &ormulate &or themselves Cooperative learnin" (tudents 1ork in small "roups to To &ormulate and and investi"ate a problem, students need to express clearly 1hat they 1ish to &ind out. To 1ork to"ether, students need Assists in understandin" and rememberin" ne1 material
8:3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License solve a common problem or task to explain ideas and questions to &ello1 students clearly.
Table 89 )a/or strate"ies o& e&&ective procedural and control talk These strate"ies are also discussed in Chapter ; as &eatures o& classroom mana"ement, rather than o& communication. Bote, too, that the di&&erence bet1een procedural and content talk is arbitrary to some extentI in many situations one kind o& talk serves the needs o& the other kind. Strategy for procedural tal8 Creatin" and discussin" procedures &or daily routines Strategy for control tal8 Creatin" and discussin" classroom rules o& appropriate behavior Announcin" transitions bet1een activities ,rovidin" clear instructions and "uidance &or activities -emindin" students periodically o& procedures &or completin" a task 4sin" %$messa"es Clari&yin" problem o1nership Listenin" actively and empathetically
#&&ective procedural and control talk

%n addition to communicatin" about content, teachers need to communicate procedures and expectations about appropriate classroom behavior. %n Chapter ; 1e described quite a &e1 1ays to communicate 1ith students about these matters, thou"h, in that chapter 1e did not re&er to them as methods o& communication, but as methods o& classroom mana"ement, o& creatin" a positive learnin" environment, and o& resolvin" con&licts in the class. Table 89 summari2es several o& the ma/or strate"ies described in that chapter.= 7y &ramin" communication in these 1ays, 1e called attention to their importance as &orms o& communication. As 1e pointed out, procedural talk and control talk matter are used in teachin" simply because clear procedures and appropriate classroom behavior are necessary students are to learn.
Effective nonverbal communication

%n spite o& their importance, 1ords are not the only 1ay that teachers and students communicate. .estures and behaviors convey in&ormation as 1ell, o&ten supportin" a teacherJs 1ords, but sometimes also contradictin" them. (tudents and teachers express themselves nonverbally in all conversations, so &reely and automatically in &act that this &orm o& communication can easily be overlooked.
#ye contact
Cne important nonverbal behavior is eye contact/ 1hich is the extent and timin" o& 1hen a speaker looks directly at the eyes o& the listener. %n conversations bet1een &riends o& equal status, &or example, most native speakers o& #n"lish tend to look directly at the speaker 1hen listenin", but to avert their "a2e 1hen speakin" <'leinke, 89D:=. -e$en"a"in" eye contact, in &act, o&ten si"nals that a speaker is about to &inish a turn and is invitin" a response &rom the listener.
8:3
A .lobal Text
!. The nature of classroom communication 7ut conversations &ollo1 di&&erent rules i& they involve someone o& "reater authority talkin" 1ith someone o& lesser authority, such as bet1een a teacher and a student. %n that case, the person in authority si"nals "reater status by "a2in" directly at the listener almost continuously, 1hether listenin" or speakin". This alternate pattern can sometimes prove a1k1ard i& either party is not expectin" it. For students unused to continuous eye contact, it can &eel like the teacher is starin" excessively, intrusively, or inappropriatelyI an ironic e&&ect can be &or the student to &eel more sel&$conscious rather than more en"a"ed, as intended. For similar reasons, inexperienced or &irst$time teachers can also &eel uncom&ortable 1ith "a2in" at students continuously. Bevertheless research about the e&&ects o& eye contact su""ests that it may help anyone, 1hether a student or teacher, to remember 1hat they are seein" and hearin" <)ason, 6ood, P )acrae, 300F=. Communication problems result less &rom eye contact as such than &rom di&&erences in expectations about eye contact. %& studentsJ expectations di&&er very much &rom the teacherJs, one party may misinterpret the other partyJs motivations. Amon" some non$1hite ethnic "roups, &or example, eye contact &ollo1s a pattern that reverses the conventional 1hite, #n"lish$lan"ua"e pattern they tend to look more intently at a partner 1hen tal#ing, and avert "a2e 1hen listening <-a2ack, 899D=. The alternative pattern 1orks per&ectly 1ell as lon" as both parties expect it and use it. As you mi"ht ima"ine, thou"h, there are problems i& the t1o partners use opposite patterns o& eye contact. %n that case one person may interpret a direct "a2e as an invitation to start talkin", 1hen really it is an invitation to stop talkin". #ventually the conversational partner may &ind himsel& interruptin" too much, or simply talkin" too lon" at a turn. The converse can also happen i& the &irst person looks a1ay, the partner may take the "esture as invitin" the partner to keep listenin", 1hen really the &irst person is invitin" the partner to start talkin". A1k1ard "aps bet1een comments may result. %n either case, i& the conversational partners are a teacher and student, rapport may deteriorate "radually. %n the &irst case, the teacher may even conclude, 1ron"ly, that the student is socially inept because the student interrupts so much. %n the second case, the teacher may concludeKalso 1ron"lyKthat the student is very shy or even lackin" in lan"ua"e skill. To avoid such misunderstandin"s, a teacher needs to note and remember studentsJ pre&erred "a2e patterns at times 1hen students are &ree to look 1herever and at 1homever they please. Traditional seats$in$a$ro1 desk arran"ements do not 1ork 1ell &or this purposeI as you mi"ht suppose, and as research con&irms, sittin" in ro1s makes students more likely to look either at the teacher or to look at nothin" in particular <-osen&eld, Lambert, P 7lack, 89DAI -a2ack, 899D=. Almost any other seatin" arran"ement, such as sittin" in clusters or in a circle, encoura"es &reer patterns o& eye contact. )ore com&ortable eye contact, in turn, makes &or verbal communication that is more com&ortable and productive.
5ait time
Another important nonverbal behavior is (ait time/ 1hich is the pause bet1een conversational turns. 5ait time marks 1hen a conversational turn be"ins or ends. %& a teacher asks a question, &or example, the 1ait time both allo1s and prompts students to &ormulate an appropriate response. (tudies on classroom interaction "enerally sho1 that 1ait times in most classes are remarkably shortKless than one second <.ood P 7rophy, 3003=. 4n&ortunately 1ait times this short can actually inter&ere 1ith most studentsJ thinkin"I in one second, most students either cannot decide 1hat to say or can only recall a simple, automatic &act <Tobin, 89D;=. %ncreasin" 1ait times to several seconds has several desirable e&&ects students "ive lon"er, more elaborate responses, they express more complex ideas, and a 1ider ran"e o& students participate in discussion. For many teachers, ho1ever, learnin" 8:F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License to increase 1ait time this much takes conscious e&&ort, and may &eel uncom&ortable at &irst. <A trick, i& you are tryin" to 1ait lon"er, is to count silently to &ive be&ore callin" on anyone.= A&ter a &e1 1eeks o& practice, discom&ort 1ith lon"er 1ait times usually subsides, and the academic bene&its o& 1aitin" become more evident. As 1ith eye contact, pre&erred 1ait times vary both amon" individuals and amon" "roups o& students, and the di&&erences in expected 1ait times can sometimes lead to a1k1ard conversations. Thou"h there are many exceptions, "irls tend to pre&er lon"er 1ait times than boysKperhaps contributin" to an impression that "irls are unnecessarily shy or that boys are sel&$centered or impulsive. (tudents &rom some ethnic and cultural "roups tend to pre&er a much lon"er 1ait time than is typically available in a classroom, especially 1hen #n"lish is the studentJs second lan"ua"e <Toth, 300F=. 5hen a teacher converses 1ith a member o& such a "roup, there&ore, 1hat &eels to the student like a respect&ul pause may seem like hesitation or resistance to the teacher. Met other cultural "roups actually pre&er overlappin" commentsKa sort o& ne"ative 1ait time. %n these situations, one conversational partner 1ill be"in at exactly the same instant as the previous speaker, or even %efore the speaker has &inished <Chami$ (ather P 'retschmer, 300A=. The ne"ative 1ait time is meant to si"nal lively interest in the conversation. A teacher 1ho is used to a one$second "ap bet1een comments, ho1ever, may re"ard overlappin" comments as rude interruptions, and may also have trouble "ettin" chances to speak. #ven thou"h lon"er 1ait times are o&ten pre&erable, they do not al1ays 1ork 1ell 1ith certain individuals or "roups. For teachers, the most 1idely use&ul advice is to match 1ait time to the studentsJ pre&erences as closely as possible, re"ardless o& 1hether these are slo1er or &aster than 1hat the teacher normally pre&ers. To the extent that a teacher and students can match each otherJs pace, they 1ill communicate more com&ortably and &ully, and a lar"er proportion o& students 1ill participate in discussions and activities. As 1ith eye contact, observin" studentsJ pre&erred 1ait times is easier in situations that "ive students some de"ree o& &reedom about 1hen and ho1 to participate, such as open$ended discussions or in&ormal conversations throu"hout the day.
(ocial distance
5hen t1o people interact, the physical space or distance bet1een themKtheir social distanceKo&ten indicates somethin" about ho1 intimate or personal their relationship is <Boller, 300:=. (ocial distance also a&&ects ho1 people describe others and their actionsI someone 1ho habitually is more distant physically is apt to be described in more "eneral, abstract terms than someone 1ho o&ten approaches more closely <Fu/ita, et al., 300:=. %n 1hite American society, a distance o& approximately hal& a meter to a meter is 1hat most people pre&er 1hen talkin" &ace$ to$&ace 1ith a personal &riend. The closer end o& this ran"e is more common i& the individuals turn side1ays to each other, as 1hen ridin" on an elevatorI but usually the closest distances are reserved &or truly intimate &riendships, such as bet1een spouses. %& the relationship is more businesslike, individuals are more likely to situate themselves in the ran"e o& approximately one meter to a three meters. This is a common distance, &or example, &or a teacher talkin" 1ith a student or talkin" 1ith a small "roup o& students. For still more &ormal interactions, individuals tend to allo1 more than three metersI this distance is typical, &or example, 1hen a teacher speaks to an entire class. +ust as 1ith eye contact and 1ait time, ho1ever, individuals di&&er in the distances they pre&er &or these di&&erent levels o& intimacy, and complications happen i& t1o people expect di&&erent distances &or the same kind o& relationship. A student 1ho pre&ers a shorter social distance than her partner can seem pushy or overly &amiliar to the partner. The latter, in turn, can seem aloo& or un&riendlyKliterally >distant@. The sources o& these e&&ects are
8:A
A .lobal Text
!. The nature of classroom communication easy to overlook since by de&inition the partners never discuss social distance verbally, but they are real. The best remedy, a"ain, is &or teachers to observe studentsJ naturally occurrin" pre&erences as closely as possible, and to respect them as much as possible students 1ho need to be closer should be allo1ed to be closer, at least 1ithin reasonable limits, and those 1ho need to be more distant should be allo1ed to be more distant.
Structures of participation) effects on communication

)any class activities take on patterns that "uide communication in 1ays that class members learn to expect, o&ten 1ithout even bein" reminded. #ach pattern is a participation structure/ a set o& ri"hts and responsibilities expected &rom students and teacher durin" an activity. (ometimes the teacher announces or explains the ri"hts and responsibilities explicitly, thou"h o&ten they are /ust implied by the actions o& class members, and individual students learn them simply by 1atchin" others. A lecture, &or example, has a particular participation structure students are responsible &or listenin", &or raisin" a hand to speak, and &or keepin" comments brie& and relevant i& called on. The teacher, on the other hand, has the ri"ht to talk at len"th, but also the responsibility to keep the talk relevant and comprehensible. %n principle, a host o& participation structures are possible, but /ust a hand&ul account &or most class activities <Ca2den, 3008=. 6ere are some o& the most common
Lecturin"Kthe teacher talks and students listen. )aybe students take notes, but maybe not. Tuestions and ans1ersKthe teacher asks a series o& questions, callin" on one student at a time to ans1er
each o& them. (tudents raise their hands to be reco"ni2ed and "ive ans1ers that are brie& and >correct@. %n earlier times this participation structure 1as sometimes called recitation.
*iscussionKthe teacher brie&ly describes a topic or problem and invites students to comment on it.
(tudents say somethin" relevant about the topic, but also are supposed to respond to previous speakers i& possible.
.roup 1orkKthe teacher assi"ns a "eneral task, and a small "roup o& students 1ork out the details o&
implementin" it. The teacher may check on the "roupJs pro"ress be&ore they &inish, but not necessarily. #ach o& these structures in&luences ho1 communication amon" teachers and students tends to occurI in &act each is itsel& sort o& an implied messa"e about ho1, 1hen, and 1ith 1hom to interact. To see ho1 this in&luence 1orks, look in the next sections at ho1 the participation structures a&&ected classroom communication &or one o& us authors <'elvin (ei&ert= as he tau"ht one particular topicKchildrenJs playKover a t1enty$year period. The topic 1as part o& a university$level course &or &uture teachers. *urin" this time, 'elvinJs "oals about the topic remained the same to stimulate studentsJ thinkin" about the nature and purposes o& play. 7ut over time he tried several di&&erent structures o& participation, and studentsJ 1ays o& communicatin" chan"ed as a result.
Lecture
The &irst time 'elvin tau"ht about childrenJs play, he lectured about it. 6e used this structure o& participation not because he believed on principle that it 1as the best, but because it 1as convenient and used 1idely by his &ello1 university teachers. An excerpt &rom 'elvinJs lecture notes is sho1n in Table 30, and "ives a sense o& 1hat he covered at that time.
8::
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License %n some 1ays the lecture proved e&&ective 'elvin covered the material e&&iciently <in about 30 minutes=, related the topic to other ones in the course, de&ined and explained all key terms clearly, and did his best to relate the material to 1hat he thou"ht 1ere studentsJ o1n interests. These 1ere all marks o& "ood lecturin" <Christensen, 300:=. (tudents 1ere mostly quiet durin" the lecture, but since only about one$third o& them took notes, 'elvin had to assume that the rest had committed the material to memory 1hile listenin". The students quietness bothered him a little, but as a ne1comer to university teachin", 'elvin 1as relieved simply to "et throu"h the class 1ithout embarrassment or active resistance &rom the students. 7ut there 1ere also some ne"ative si"ns. %n spite o& their courtesy, &e1 students lin"ered a&ter class to talk about childrenJs play or to ask questions. 5orse yet, &e1 students chose childrenJs play as a term paper topic, even thou"h it mi"ht have made a hi"hly interestin" and en/oyable one. Cn the &inal exam &e1 seemed able to relate concepts about play to their o1n experiences as teachers or leaders o& recreational activities. There 1as an even more subtle problem. The lecture about play &ocused overtly on a topic <play= that praised action, intrinsic motivation, and sel&$choice. 7ut by presentin" these ideas as a lecture, 'elvin also implied an opposite messa"e unintentionally that learnin" is somethin" done passively, and that it &ollo1s an intellectual path set only by the teacher. #ven the physical layout o& the classroom sent this messa"eKdesks &aced &or1ard, as i& to remind students to look only at the person lecturin". These are &eatures o& lecturin", as 'elvin later discovered, that are 1idely critici2ed in educational research <)c'eachie P (vinicki, 300AI 7enedict P 6oa", 300F=. To some students the lecture &ormat mi"ht even have implied that learnin" is equivalent to daydreamin", since both activities require sittin" quietly and sho1in" little expression. An obvious solution mi"ht have been to invite students to comment &rom time to time durin" the lecture, relatin" the topic to experiences and kno1led"e o& their o1n. 7ut durin" 'elvinJs &irst year o& teachin" about play, he did little o& this. The lecture medium, ironically, contradicted the lecture messa"e, or at least it assumed that students 1ould think actively about the material 1ithout ever speakin".
Tuestions and ans1ers

7ecause o& these problems, 'elvin modi&ied his approach a&ter a &e1 years o& teachin" to include more askin" o& questions 1hich students 1ere invited to ans1er. This turned the lecture on childrenJs play into somethin" more like a series o& explanations o& key ideas, interrupted by askin" students to express their belie&s, kno1led"e, or experience about childrenJs play. 'elvinJs preparation notes chan"es in appearance as a result <see Table 38=. Askin" questions and invitin" brie& responses 1as reassurin" because it "ave indications o& 1hether students 1ere listenin" and understandin" the material. Tuestions served both to motivate students to listen and to assess ho1 much and ho1 1ell they kne1 the material. %n this re"ard 'elvin 1as usin" a &orm o& communication that 1as and continues to be very popular 1ith many teachers <Ca2den, 3008=. 7ut there 1ere also ne1 challen"es and problems. For one thin" the topic o& childrenJs play took lon"er to cover than be&ore, since 'elvin no1 had to allo1 time &or students to respond to questions. This &act &orced him to leave out a &e1 points that he used to include. )ore serious, thou"h, 1as his impression that students o&ten did not listen to each otherJs responsesI they only listened care&ully to 'elvin, the teacher. The interactions o&ten become simply t1o$1ay exchan"es bet1een the teacher and one student at a time 'elvin asked, one student responded, 'elvin
8:;
A .lobal Text
!. The nature of classroom communication ackno1led"ed or <sometimes= evaluated. <)ehan, 89;9I -ichards, 300:=. (ome o& the exchan"es could in principle have happened /ust as easily 1ithout any classmates present. %n "eneral students still had little control over the course o& discussion. 'elvin 1ondered i& he 1as controllin" participation too muchKin &act 1hether the question$and$ans1er strate"y attempted the impossible task o& controllin" studentsJ very thou"ht processes. 7y askin" most o& the questions himsel& and allo1in" students only brie& responses, 1as 'elvin tryin" to insure e that students thou"ht about childrenJs play in the >ri"ht@ 1ay, his 1ay? To "ive students more in&luence in discussion, it seemed that 'elvin 1ould have to become less concerned about precisely 1hat ideas about childrenJs play he covered.
Classroom discussion
A&ter several more years o& teachin", 'elvin quit lectures alto"ether, even ones interspersed 1ith questions and ans1ers. 6e be"an simply leadin" "eneral discussions about childrenJs play. The chan"e a"ain a&&ected his plannin" &or this topic. %nstead o& outlinin" detailed content, he no1 /ust made concise notes that listed issues about childrenJs play that students needed to consider <some o& the notes are sho1n in Table 33=. The shi&t in participation structure led to several ma/or chan"es in communication bet1een teacher and students as 1ell as amon" students. (ince students spoke more &reely than be&ore, it became easier to see 1hether they cared about the topic. Bo1, too, more students seemed motivated to think and learn about childrenJs playI quite a &e1 selected this topic, &or example, &or their term pro/ects. Beedless to say, these chan"es 1ere all to the "ood. 7ut there 1ere also chan"es that limited the e&&ectiveness o& classroom communication, even thou"h students 1ere nominally &reer to speak than ever. 'elvin &ound, &or example, that certain students spoke more than their share o& the timeKalmost too &reely, in &act, in e&&ect preventin" more hesitant students &rom speakin". (ometimes, too, it seemed as i& certain students did not listen to othersJ comments, but instead /ust passed the time 1aitin" &or their turn to speak, their hands propped permanently in the air. )ean1hile there 1ere still others 1ho passed the time apparently hopin" not to speakI they 1ere busy doodlin" or starin" out the 1indo1. (ince the precise &ocus o& discussion 1as no lon"er under 'elvinJs control, &urthermore, discussions o&ten did not cover all o& the ideas about childrenJs play that 'elvin considered important. Cn one occasion, &or example, he meant &or students to discuss 1hether play is al1ays motivated intrinsically, but instead they ended up talkin" about 1hether play can really be used to teach every possible sub/ect area. %n itsel& the shi&t in &ocus 1as not bad, but it did make 'elvin 1onder 1hether he 1as coverin" the material adequately. %n havin" these mis"ivin"s, as it happened, he 1as supported by other educators 1ho have studied the e&&ects o& class discussions on learnin" <)c'eatchie P (vinciki, 300A=.
.roup 1ork
7y the time he had tau"ht about childrenJs play &or t1enty years, 'elvin had developed enou"h concerns about discussion as a communication strate"y that he shi&ted approach a"ain. This time he be"an usin" a &orm o& collaborative group (or8 small teams o& students carryin" out pro/ects on aspects o& childrenJs play that interested them, makin" observations o& children at play, reportin" on their results to the class, and 1ritin" a common report about their 1ork. <'elvinJs 1ork "uidelines "iven to the "roups are sho1n in Table 33.= 'elvin hoped that by "ivin" students a common &ocus, communication amon" them 1ould improve. Conversations 1ould deal 1ith the tasks at hand, students 1ould necessarily listen to each other, and no one could a&&ord either to dominate talk excessively or to &all silent.
8:D
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License %n some 1ays these bene&its did take place. 5ith a bit o& encoura"ement &rom 'elvin, students listened to each other more o& the time than be&ore. They also diversi&ied their tasks and responsibilities 1ithin each "roup, and they seemed to learn &rom each other in the course o& preparin" pro/ects. ,articipation in the unit about childrenJs play reached an all$time hi"h in 'elvinJs t1enty years o& teachin" at university. Met even still there 1ere problems. (ome "roups seemed much more productive than others, and observin" them closely su""ested that di&&erences 1ere related to ease o& communication 1ithin "roups. %n some "roups, one or t1o people dominated conversations unduly. %& they listened to others at all, they seemed immediately to &or"et that they had done so and proceeded to implement their o1n ideas. %n other "roups, members all 1orked hard, but they did not o&ten share ideas or ne1s about each otherJs pro"ressI essentially they 1orked independently in spite o& belon"in" to the "roup. 6ere, too, 'elvinJs experience corroborated other, more systematic observations o& communication 1ithin classroom 1ork "roups <(lavin, 899A=. 5hen all "roups 1ere plannin" at the same time, &urthermore, communication broke do1n &or a very practical reason the volume o& sound in the classroom "ot so hi"h that even simple conversation became di&&icult, let alone the expression o& subtle or complex ideas.
Communication styles in the classroom

Teachers and students have identi&iable styles o& talkin" to each other that lin"uists call a register. A register is a pattern o& vocabulary, "rammar, and expressions or comments that people associate 1ith a social role. A &amiliar example is the >baby$talk@ re"ister o&ten used to speak to an in&ant. %ts &eaturesKsimple repeated 1ords and nonsense syllables, and exa""erated chan"es in pitchKmark the speaker as an adult and mark the listener as an in&ant. The classroom lan"ua"e re"ister 1orks the same 1ayI it helps indicate 1ho the teacher is and 1ho the student is. Teachers and students use the re"ister more in some situations than in others, but its use is common enou"h that most people in our society have no trouble reco"ni2in" it 1hen they hear it <Ca2den, 3008=. %n the &ollo1in" scene, &or example, the speakers are labeled only 1ith letters o& the alphabetI yet &i"urin" out 1ho is the teacher and 1ho are the students is not di&&icult A" All right no , , going to try a ne long division is- C, C" !ivision ant your eyes u* here. All eyes on me, *lease. +, are you ready to hat do you thin# it isor#- Ee are hat
#ind of math *ro%lem today. ,t(s called long division. !oes anyone #no
ith %igger num%ers-
A" Any other ideas- !E 1not !)" !ivision %y t o digits. A" D, only call on *eo*le !" !ivision ho raise their hands. !, can you hel* ith the ans er-
ith remainders.
A" Close. Actually you(re %oth *artly right. %n this scene ,erson A must surely be the teacher because he or she uses a lot o& procedural and control talk, and because he or she introduces a ne1 curriculum topic, lon" division. The other ,ersons <7, C, *, and #= must be students because they only respond to questions, and because they individually say relatively little compared to ,erson A.
8:9
A .lobal Text
!. The nature of classroom communication %n "eneral, e&&ective classroom communication depends on understandin" ho1 &eatures o& the classroom talk re"ister like these operate durin" actual class times. %n the &ollo1in" sections there&ore 1e describe details o& classroom talk, and then &ollo1 1ith su""estions about ho1 to use the re"ister as e&&ectively as possible. %n both o& these sections 1e assume that the better the communication, the better the learnin" and thinkin" displayed by students. For convenience 1e divide classroom talk into t1o parts, teacher talk and student talk.
6o1 teachers talk

Althou"h teacher talk varies some1hat 1ith the tasks or purposes at hand, it also has uni&ormities that occur across a ran"e o& situations. 4sin" detailed observations o& discourse in science activities, &or example, +ay Lemke identi&ied all o& the &ollo1in" strate"ies &rom observations o& teachersJ classroom talk <8990=. #ach strate"y simultaneously in&luences the course o& discussion and &ocuses studentsJ attention, and in these 1ays also helps indirectly to insure appropriate classroom behavior
0ominating, terminating, and interru*ting s*ea#ers" Teachers o&ten choose 1ho "ets to speak. <>+ose,
1hat do you think about S?@=. Cn the other hand, they o&ten brin" an end to a studentJs turn at speakin" or even interrupt the student be&ore he or she &inishes. <>ThanksI 1e need to move on no1.@=
@ar#ing im*ortance or irrelevance" Teachers sometimes indicate that an idea is important <>ThatJs a "ood
idea, Lyla.@=. Cn the other hand, they sometimes also indicate that an idea is not crucial or important <>Mour ri"ht, but thatJs not quite the ans1er % 1as lookin" &or.@=, or &ully relevant <>5eJre talkin" about the book Euthering 9eights, not the movie that you may have seen.@=. )arkin" importance and relevance obviously helps a teacher to rein&orce key content. 7ut the strate"y can also serve to improve relationships amon" students i& the teacher deliberately marks or hi"hli"hts an idea o&&ered by a quiet or shy student <CJConnor P )ichaels, 899:I Cohen, et al., 300F=. %n that case markin" importance can build both a studentJs con&idence and the studentJs status in the eyes o& classmates.
Signaling %oundaries %et een activities" Teachers declare 1hen an activity is over and a ne1 one is
startin"Kan example o& the procedural talk that 1e discussed earlier. <>5e need to move on. ,ut a1ay your spellin" and &ind your math books.@= %n addition to clari&yin" procedures, thou"h, si"nalin" boundaries can also insure appropriate classroom behavior. #ndin" an activity can sometimes help restore order amon" students 1ho have become overly ener"etic, and shi&tin" to a ne1 activity can sometimes restore motivation to students 1ho have become bored or tired.
Askin" >test@ questions and evaluatin" studentsJ responses Teachers o&ten ask test questionsKquestions to
1hich they already kno1 the ans1er. Then they evaluate the quality or correctness o& the studentsJ ans1ers <Teacher >6o1 much is : x ; ?@ (tudent >F3.@ Teacher >ThatJs ri"ht.@=. Test questions obviously help teachers to assess studentsJ learnin", but they also mark the teacher as the expert in the classroom, and there&ore as a person entitled to control the &lo1 o& discourse. There are additional &eatures o& teacher$talk that are not unique to teachers. These primarily &unction to make teachersJ comments more comprehensible, especially 1hen spoken to a "roup, but they also help to mark a person 1ho uses them as a teacher <Ca2den, 3008I 7lack, 300F=
8;0

E4aggerated changes in *itch" 5hen busy teachin", teachers tend to exa""erate chan"es in the pitch o&
their voiceKreminiscent o& the >sin"$son"@ style o& adults 1hen directin" speech to in&ants. #xa""erated pitch chan"es are especially characteristic o& teachers o& youn" students, but they happen at all "rade levels.
Careful enunciation" %n class teachers tend to speak more slo1ly, clearly, and care&ully than 1hen
conversin" 1ith a &riend. The style makes a speaker sound some1hat &ormal, especially 1hen combined 1ith &ormal vocabulary and "rammar, mentioned next.
7ormal voca%ulary and grammar" Teachers tend to use vocabulary and "rammar that is more &ormally
polite and correct, and that uses relatively &e1 slan" or casual expressions. <%nstead o& sayin" >.et out your stu&&@, they more likely say, >,lease "et out your materials.@= The &ormality creates a businesslike distance bet1een teachers and studentsKhope&ully one conducive to "ettin" 1ork done, rather than one that seems simply cold or uncarin". The touch o& &ormality also makes teachers sound a bit more intelli"ent or intellectual than in casual conversation, and in this 1ay rein&orces their authority in the classroom.
6o1 students talk

Children and youth also use a characteristic speech re"ister 1hen they are in a classroom and playin" the role o& students in the presence o& a teacher. Their re"isterKstudent talkKdi&&ers some1hat &rom the teacherJs because o& their obvious di&&erences in responsibilities, levels o& kno1led"e, and relationships 1ith each other and 1ith the teacher. (tudent$talk and teacher$talk are similar in that both involve lan"ua"e strate"ies that "uide content and procedures, and that sometimes seek to limit the inappropriate behavior o& others. Compared to teachersJ, thou"h, studentsJ lan"ua"e strate"ies o&ten pursue these "oals a bit more indirectly.
Agenda enforcement" (ometimes students interrupt a discussion to ask about or remind others, and
especially the teacher, o& an a"reed$on a"enda. %& the teacher tells students to open their text to an incorrect pa"e, &or example, a student may raise her hand to correct the teacherKor even do so 1ithout raisin" a hand. This communication strate"y is one o& more public, direct 1ays that students in&luence activities in the classroom, but its po1er is limited, since it does not create ne1 activities, but simply returns the class to activities a"reed on previously.
!igression attem*ts" *urin" a discussion or activity, a student asks a question or makes a statement that is
not relevant to the task at hand. 5hile the teacher is leadin" students in a discussion o& a story that they read, &or example, a student raises his hand and asks, >)r S, 1hen does recess be"in?@
Side tal#" Cne student talks to another student, either to be sociable <>*id you see that movie last 1eek?@=
or to "et in&ormation needed &or the current assi"ned task <>5hat pa"e are 1e on?@=. (ometimes side talk also serves to control or limit &ello1 studentsJ behavior, and in this 1ay &unctions like control$talk by teachers <as 1hen a student 1hispers, >(hhhL %Jm tryin" to listen@ or >.o ahead and ask herL@=. The ability o& such talk to in&luence classmatesJ behavior is real, but limited, since students "enerally do not have as much authority as teachers.
Calling out" A student speaks out o& turn 1ithout bein" reco"ni2ed by the teacher. The studentJs comment
may or may not be relevant to the on"oin" task or topic, and the teacher may or may not ackno1led"e or respond to it. 5hether i"nored or not, ho1ever, callin" out may chan"e the direction o& a discussion by
8;8
A .lobal Text
!. The nature of classroom communication in&luencin" &ello1 studentsJ thinkin" or behavior, or by tri""erin" procedural and control talk by the teacher. <>+ason, itJs not your turnI % only call on students 1ho raise their hands.@=
Ans ering a &uestion
ith a &uestion" %nstead o& ans1erin" a teacherJs >test@ question directly, the
student responds 1ith a question o& her o1n, either &or clari&ication or as a stallin" tactic <>*o you mean S?@=. #ither 1ay, the e&&ect is to shi&t the discussion or questionin" to content or topics that are sa&er and more &amiliar.
Silence" The student says nothin" in response to a speakerJs comments or to an invitation to speak. The
speaker could be either the teacher or a &ello1 student. The silence makes the speaker less likely to continue the current topic, and more likely to seek a ne1 one.
Eye contact, ga/e aversion, and *osture" The student looks directly at the teacher 1hile the teacher is
speakin", or else deliberately averts "a2e. The student may also adopt any variety o& postures 1hile sittin" <sit up strai"ht vs slouchin"=. As 1e discussed earlier in this chapter, the timin" o& eye "a2e depends partly on cultural expectations that the student brin"s to school. 7ut it may also represent a deliberate choice by the studentKa messa"e to the teacher and to classmates. The same can be said about sittin" posture. %n classroom situations, listenin" is conventionally indicated by lookin" directly at the teacher, and either sittin" up strai"ht or leanin" sli"htly &or1ard. Althou"h these behaviors can be &aked, they tend to indicate, and to be taken as, a sho1 o& interest in and acceptance o& 1hat a speaker is sayin". 7y en"a"in" in or avoidin" these behaviors, there&ore, students can sometimes in&luence the len"th and direction o& a discussion or activity.
,sing classroom tal1 to stimulate students% thin1ing

The various &eatures o& classroom talk characteri2e the communication o& most teachers and students, at least 1hen they are in a classroom and >doin" school@. <Communication outside o& school is a di&&erent matter then teachers as 1ell as students may speak, listen, and behave quite di&&erentlyL= As you mi"ht suppose, the extent and balance amon" the &eatures varies dependin" on "rade level, curriculum area, and personalities o& students or teachers. 7ut &ailin" to use a classroom re"ister at all can easily create communication problems. (uppose, &or example, that a teacher never asks in&ormal test questions. %n that case the teacher 1ill learn much less than other1ise about her studentsJ kno1led"e o& the current material. Then also suppose that a student does not understand teachersJ questions as test questions. That student may easily respond in 1ays that seem disrespect&ul <Teacher >6o1 much is 33 x F3?@ (tudent >% donJt kno1I ho1 much do you think it is?@= <7loome, et al., 300A=. The classroom talk re"ister, then, constrains ho1 communication bet1een teachers and students can take place, but it also "ives teachers and students a >lan"ua"e@ &or talkin" about teachin" and learnin". .iven this double$ ed"ed reality, ho1 can teachers use the classroom talk re"ister to "ood advanta"e? 6o1, in particular, can teachers communicate in 1ays that stimulate more and better thinkin" and discussion? %n the next, &inal section o& the chapter, 1e o&&er some su""estions &or ans1erin" these questions. As you 1ill see, the su""estions o&ten rein&orce each other. They are more like a net1ork o& ideas, not a list o& priorities to be considered or &ollo1ed in sequence.
,robin" &or learner understandin"

6o1 do you kno1 1hether a student understands 1hat you are sayin"? Cne clue, o& course, is by 1hether the student is lookin" at and concentratin" on you and your comments. 7ut this clue is not &oolproo&I 1e have all had 8;3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License moments o& starin" at a speaker 1hile daydreamin", only to reali2e later that 1e have not heard anythin" that the speaker said. %t is sometimes important, there&ore, to probe more actively ho1 much students are actually understandin" durin" lessons or other activities. (trate"ies &or probin" understandin" "enerally involve mixin" instruction 1ith conversation <-ensha1, 300F=. %n explainin" a ne1 topic, &or example, you can check &or understandin" by askin" preliminary questions connectin" the topic to studentsJ prior experiences and kno1led"e about the topic. Bote that this strate"y combines qualities o& both instruction and conversation, in the sense that it involves combinin" >test@ questions, to 1hich you already kno1 the ans1er, 1ith real questions, to 1hich you do not. 5hen introducin" a science lesson about density to kinder"arten children, &or example, the teacher mi"ht reasonably ask both o& the &ollo1in" Teacher" Ehich of these o%$ects that , have do you e4*ect &uestion.the teacher already ill #no the ans er.) ill sin# and hich ones ill float- 1A test
Teacher" Ehat other things have you seen that float- 8r that sin#- 1A real &uestion.the teacher is as#ing a%out their e4*erience and does not #no the ans er.)
7y askin" both kinds o& questions, the teacher sca&&olds the childrenJs learnin", or creates a /one of *ro4imal develo*ment, 1hich 1e described in Chapter 3 as part o& Gy"otskyJs theory o& learnin". Bote that this 2one has t1o important &eatures, both o& 1hich contribute to childrenJs thinkin". Cne is that it stimulates studentsJ thinkin" <by askin" them questions=, and the other is that it creates a supportive and carin" atmosphere <by honorin" their personal experiences 1ith real questions=. The resultin" mix o& 1armth and challen"e can be especially motivatin" <.oldstein, 8999=. 5hen 1armth and challen"e are both present in a discussion, it sometimes even becomes possible to do 1hat may at &irst seem risky callin" on individual students randomly 1ithout the studentsJ volunteerin" to speak. %n a study o& >cold callin"@ as a technique in university class discussions, the researchers &ound that students did not &ind the practice especially stress&ul or punitive, as the teachers &eared they mi"ht, and that spontaneous participation in discussion actually improved as a result <*allimore, et al., 300:=. The bene&it 1as most likely to happen, ho1ever, 1hen combined 1ith "estures o& respect &or students, such as 1arnin" individuals ahead o& class that they mi"ht be called on, or allo1in" students to &ormulate ideas in small "roups be&ore be"innin" to call on individuals.
6elpin" students to articulate their ideas and thinkin"

The classroom talk re"ister is 1ell desi"ned to help students articulate ideas and thou"hts, particularly 1hen used in the context o& discussion. %n addition to the conversational probes, like the ones 1e described in the previous section, there are other 1ays to support students in expressin" their ideas &ully and clearly. Cne 1ay is &or the teacher to check repeatedly on her o1n understandin" o& studentsJ contributions as a discussion un&olds. Consider this exchan"e Student 1during a class discussion)" ,t seems to me that e all need to learn more climate change. hat *arts of it are you thin#ing
Teacher" Ehat do you mean %y 'learn more)- ,t(s a %ig to*icM a%out-
8;3
A .lobal Text
!. The nature of classroom communication (till another strate"y &or helpin" students to articulate their ideas is to increase the ait time bet1een 1hen the
teacher asks a question and 1hen the teacher expects a student to ans1er. As 1e pointed out earlier, 1ait times that are lon"er than avera"eKlon"er than one second, that isK"ive students more time to &ormulate ideas and there&ore to express themselves more completely and precisely <.ood P 7rophy, 3003=. %n addition, lon"er 1ait times have the added advanta"e o& indirection instead o& tellin" a student to say more, the teacher needs only to 1ait &or the student to say more. %n "eneral any communication strate"y 1ill help students become more articulate i& it both allo1s and invites &urther comment and elaboration on their ideas. Taken to"ether, the invitations closely resemble a description o& class discussion, thou"h they can actually be used sin"ly at any time durin" teachin". Consider these possible conversational moves
The teacher asks the student to explain his initial idea more completely. The teacher rephrases a comment made by a student. The teacher compares the studentJs idea to another, related idea, and asks the student to comment. The teacher asks &or evidence supportin" the studentJs idea. The teacher asks the student ho1 con&ident he is in his idea. The teacher asks another student to comment on the &irst studentJs idea.
,romotin" academic risk$takin" and problem$solvin"

%n Chapter D 1e described ma/or &eatures o& problem solvin", as 1ell as three techniques that assist in solvin" problemsKproblem analysis, 1orkin" back1ards &rom the be"innin", and analo"ical thinkin". 5hile all o& the techniques are help&ul, they do not 1ork i& a student 1ill not take the risk o& attemptin" a solution to a problem in the &irst place. For various reasons students may sometimes avoid such risks, especially i& he or she has sometimes &ailed at a task in the past, and is there&ore concerned about ne"ative evaluations a"ain <6ope P Cliver, 300A=. 5hat can a teacher say or do to counteract such hesitation? There are several strate"ies, all o& 1hich involve &ocusin" attention on the process o& doin" an activity rather than on its outcome or evaluation.
5here possible, call attention to the intrinsic interest or satisfaction of an activity. Consider, &or example,
an elementary$level activity o& 1ritin" a +apanese hai#u.a poem 1ith exactly seventeen syllables. This activity can be satis&yin" in itsel&, re"ardless o& ho1 it is evaluated. Casually remindin" individuals o& this &act can contribute to studentsJ sense o& ease about 1ritin" the haiku and encoura"e them indirectly to do better 1ork.
@inimi/e the im*ortance of grades 1here possible. This strate"y supports the one aboveI by "ivin"
students less to 1orry about, they become &reer to experience the intrinsic satis&actions o& an activity. %n 1ritin" that haiku mentioned above, &or example, you can try sayin" somethin" like >*onJt 1orry too much about your "radeI /ust do the best you can and you 1ill come out 1ell enou"h in the end.@
@a#e sure students #no
that they have am*le time to com*lete an activity. %& students need to rushKor
merely /ust thinks they doKthen they are more likely to choose the sa&est, most &amiliar responses possible.
8;F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License %n 1ritin" an amusin" story &rom their early childhood, &or example, middle years students may need time to consider and choose amon" story possibilities. Then they may need additional time to experiment 1ith 1ays o& expressin" the story in 1ritin". %n this case, to make sure students kno1 that they have such time, try sayin" somethin" like >5ritin" a "ood story 1ill take time, and you may have to return to it repeatedly. (o 1e 1ill start 1orkin" on it today, but do not expect to &inish today. 5eJll be comin" back to it several times in the next couple o& 1eeks.@
Sho
that you value unusual ideas and elegant solutions to *ro%lems. 5hen a student does somethin" out
o& the ordinary, sho1 your enthusiasm &or it. A visually appealin" dra1in", a 1ell$cra&ted essay, a di&&erent solution to a math problem than the one you expectedKall o& these deserve an explicit compliment. #xpressin" your interest and respect does more than support the speci&ic achievement. %t also expresses a more "eneral, underlyin" messa"e that in your classroom, it is sa&e and re1ardin" to &ind and share the unusual and ele"ant. Bote that these communication strate"ies support problem$solvin" and the related skills o& creativity that 1e discussed in Chapter D. %n describin" creativity in that chapter, in particular, 1e called attention to the di&&erence and importance o& divergent <open$ended= thinkin". As 1ith problem$solvin", thou"h, diver"ent thinkin" may seem risky to some students unless they are encoura"ed to do so explicitly. The strate"ies &or boostin" academic risk$takin" can help to communicate this encoura"ementKthat process matters more than product, that there 1ill be time enou"h to 1ork, and that you, as teacher, indeed value their e&&orts.
,romotin" a carin" community

A caring community is one in 1hich all members have a respected place, in 1hich diversity amon" individuals is expected, and in 1hich individuals assist each other 1ith their 1ork or activities 1herever appropriate. Classrooms and even entire schools can be carin" communities, thou"h movin" them in this direction takes 1ork on the part o& teachers and other school sta&& <Boddin"s, 8993, 300F=. The key 1ork in promotin" a carin" community involves arran"in" &or students to 1ork to"ether on tasks, 1hile at the same time communicatin" the teacherJs commitment to mutual respect amon" students and bet1een students and teachers. )any o& the instructional strate"ies discussed earlier in this book, such as cooperative learnin" and inquiry learnin" <in Chapter D=, there&ore contribute to community in the classroom. )ore speci&ically, you can, as a teacher, encoura"e community by doin" any or all o& the &ollo1in"
Tell students that you value mutual respect, and describe some o& the 1ays that students can sho1 respect
&or each other and &or school sta&&. 7etter yet, invite students themselves to describe ho1 they mi"ht sho1 respect.
Look &or 1ays to sustain relationships amon" students and teachers &or extended times. These 1ays may be
easier to &ind in elementary school, 1here a teacher and class normally remain to"ether &or an entire year, than in middle and secondary school, 1here students learn &rom many teachers and teachers teach many students. 7ut still there are 1ays. ,articipatin" in extra$curricular activities <like sports teams or drama club=, &or example, can sometimes provide settin"s 1here relationships develop &or relatively lon" periods o& timeKeven more than a sin"le school year.
8;A
A .lobal Text

Ask &or input &rom students about 1hat they 1ant to learn, ho1 they 1ant to learn it, and 1hat kind o&
evaluation they consider &air. Althou"h usin" their ideas may &eel at &irst as i& you are "ivin" up your responsibility as the teacher, askin" &or studentsJ input indicates respect &or students. %t is likely that many o& their su""estions need clari&ication or revision to become 1orkable, especially i& the class must also cover a particular curriculum durin" a set time. 7ut even /ust the askin" &or input sho1s respect, and can contribute to community in the classroom.
%& con&licts arise bet1een students or bet1een a student and teacher, encoura"e respect&ul communication
as explicitly as you can. (ome communication strate"ies about con&lict resolution 1ere described in Chapter ; and are help&ul in this re"ard identi&yin" true problem o1nership, listenin" actively, assertive <not a""ressive= %$messa"es, and ne"otiation.
Find times and 1ays &or the class to experience itsel& as a community. This su""estion may look a bit va"ue
at &irst "lance, but in practice it is actually quite concrete. Any action builds community i& it is carried out by the "roup as a 1hole, especially i& it is done re"ularly and repeatedly and i& it truly includes every member o& the class. (uch actions become rituals, not in the ne"ative sense o& empty or mindless repetitions, but in the positive sense o& con&irmations by "roup members o& their commitment to each other <#hrenreich, 300;=. %n the elementary "rades, an obvious example o& a ritual is recitin" the ,led"e o& Alle"iance <or its equivalent in classrooms outside the 4nited (tates=. 7ut there are many other examples o& classroom routines that "radually acquire the <positive= qualities o& ritual or community$a&&irmation, o&ten 1ithout deliberate intention or e&&ort. A daily, re"ular time to 1ork throu"h home1ork problems to"ether in class, &or example, may serve obvious academic purposes. 7ut it may also "radually contribute to a classroomJs identity as a class. 5ith time and &amiliarity the "roup home1ork time may eventually come to represent >1ho 1e are@ and o& >1hat 1e do here@ &or that class.
The bottom line) messages sent+ messages reconstructed

As 1e have explained in this chapter, teachers and students communicate in multiple, overlappin" 1ays. Communications may o&ten be expressed in 1ordsKbut not necessarily and not completely. They may be or"ani2ed into lectures, questions, discussions, or "roup pro/ects. They tend to be expressed in particular lan"ua"e re"isters that 1e have called simply teacher tal# and student tal#. All thin"s considered, communication obviously serves a 1ide ran"e o& teachin" and learnin" tasks and activities, &rom stimulatin" studentsJ thinkin", to orchestratin" classroom routines, to mana"in" inappropriate behaviors. %t is an intrinsic part o& the parts o& teachin" that involve interaction amon" class members. Bote, thou"h, that teachin" consists o& more than interaction amon" class members. There are times 1hen teachers prepare lessons or activities, &or example, 1ithout talkin" to students or anyone else. There are also times 1hen they develop their o1n skills as teachersK&or example, by readin" and re&lectin", or by attendin" pro&essional development seminars or 1orkshopsK1hich may involve communication, but not in the sense discussed in this chapter. %t is to these other parts o& teachin" that 1e turn in the next chapter. Table 30 Mear one 'elvinJs lecture notes Fature and Purposes of Children%s Play
8;:
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 8. %ntroduction to topic 5hat do 1e mean by play?

excess ener"y seekin" stimulationKrelieve boredom escape &rom 1ork
3. (ix qualities de&inin" play

intrinsic motivation attention to the process, not the product non$literal behaviorKmake$believe no external rules sel&$"overned active en"a"ement
3. %mplications &or teachin"

devise activities 1ith play$like qualities learn by 1atchin" children playin"
Table 38 Mear three 'elvinJs question$and$ans1er notes Fature and Purposes of Children%s Play 8. %ntroduction to topic 5hat do 1e mean by play? W7irst as# B3C students for their o n ans ers to &uestion.X

excess ener"y WAs#" Ehat evidence is there for this-X seekin" stimulationKrelieve boredom WDor for this-X escape &rom 1ork
3. (ix qualities o& childrenJs play W,nvite students( definitions, %ut #ee* them %rief.X
intrinsic motivation
attention to the process, not the product
nonliteral behaviorKmake$believe no external rules sel&$"overned
active en"a"ement
8;;
A .lobal Text
!. The nature of classroom communication XCan you think o& examples andUor counterexamples o& each quality?Y 3. %mplications &or teachin"

devise activities 1ith playlike qualities WEhat activities have you already seen as a student teacher-X learn by 1atchin" children playin" W9o could you do this- ,nvite suggested strategies from students.X
Table 33 Mear ei"ht 'elvinJs discussion notes Fature and Purposes of Children%s Play
*iscuss possible explanations &or playK1hat do students think are its true purposes? <80 minutes?= Can 1e de&ine play? 7rainstorm de&inin" qualities, 1ith examples. <30 minutes= %mportant question &or all de&inin" qualities Are there exceptionsKexamples o& play that do not sho1
certain de&inin" qualities, but are still play? <8A minutes=

5hat is important about play &or teachin"? <80 minutes W= _&or the 1el&are o& children? <80 minutes W= #tc. <anythin" else brou"ht up by students=
Table 33 Mear t1enty 'elvinJs "uidelines &or "roup 1ork Fature and Purposes of Children%s Play
)ake sure you listen to everyone, and not /ust to the people you a"ree 1ith the most. ,art o& the
challen"e o& this pro/ect is to include all team members.

Mou do not have to be best &riends 1ith someone in order to be partners. 7ut you do have to "et the 1ork
done.
-emember that it takes many skills and abilities to do this pro/ect 1ell. Amon" other thin"s, you need to
8= &ind and understand research and other publications about childrenJs play, 3= observe children skill&ully 1hen they are playin", 3= have con&idence in describin" 1hat you learn to "roup mates, F= 1rite about 1hat you learn, and A= be tact&ul and respect&ul 1hen listenin" and talkin" 1ith partners.
Chapter summary
7ecause communication in classrooms is more complex and unpredictable than in many other situations, it is important &or teachers to understand its unique &eatures and &unctions. %t is help&ul to think o& classroom communication as servin" a mixture o& three purposes at once content talk, procedural talk, and behavior control
8;D
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License talk. %t is also help&ul to reco"ni2e that classroom communication has elements that are not only verbal, but also nonverbal and unintended. To be e&&ective in usin" verbal communication, teachers need to use appropriate instructional strate"ies related to content, such as usin" advance or"ani2ers, relatin" ne1 in&ormation to prior kno1led"e, and or"ani2in" ne1 in&ormation on behal& o& students. %t includes strate"ies that assist students to communicate, such as inquiry learnin" and cooperative learnin". To communicate 1ell about procedures and about the behaviors expected o& students, teachers need a variety o& mana"ement techniques, such as those discussed in Chapter ; and summari2ed a"ain in Table 89. To be e&&ective in usin" nonverbal communication, teachers need to use appropriate eye contact, allo1 ample 1ait time bet1een speakin" turns, and be a1are o& the e&&ects o& social distance on students. (tructures o& participation in&luence communication by &acilitatin" particular patterns o& speakin" and listenin", 1hile at the same time makin" other patterns less convenient or disapproved. Four common participation structures are lectures, questions$and$ans1ers, classroom discussions, and "roup 1ork.
'ey terms
Carin" community Class discussions Collaborative "roup 1ork Communication Content talk Control talk #ye contact Lecture Bonverbal communication ,articipation structures ,rocedural talk Tuestions$and$ans1er -e"ister (ocial distance (tudent talk re"ister Teacher talk re"ister 4nintended communication Gerbal communication 5ait time
Cn the %nternet
Qhttp$))(((.uu.edu)centers)faculty)resources)inde".cfmGCat&DH#IR This 4-L o&&ers tips &or enhancin" classroom communication. %t is or"ani2ed around ten basic topics <e.". >Cr"ani2in" #&&ective *iscussions@= and &ocuses primarily on verbal communication. %t is part o& the more "eneral 1ebsite &or 4nion 4niversity o& +ackson, Tennessee. Qhttp$))(((.idea.8su.edu)inde".htmlR This 1ebsite contains over F0 short papers <8$F pa"es each= on a variety o& topics, includin" many related to enhancin" communication, but also some related to classroom or"ani2ation and mana"ement in "eneral. (ome o& the papers re&er to colle"e or university teachin", but many are quite relevant to public school teachin". Qhttp$))(((.fhsu.edu)D1hrepic)3eaching)0en!ducation)nonverbcom)nonverbcom.htmR and 1ith photos and dra1in"s to illustrate key points. Qhttp$))(((.responsiveclassroom.org)inde".htmlR This 1ebsite contains many resources, amon" 1hich are articles about classroom mana"ement and communication, includin" nonverbal communication. %t is intended strictly &or public school teachers. Cnce you "et to the homepa"e, click on their >Be1sletter@ &or the articles. This
1ebsite contains a thorou"h discussion o& nonverbal communicationKmore detailed than possible in this chapter,
8;9
A .lobal Text
-e&erences
7enedict, ). P 6oa", +. <300F=. (eatin" location in lar"e lectures %s location related to per&ormance? Journal of Economics Eduction, ;?<3=, 38A$338. 7lack, L. <300F=. Teacher$pupil talk in 1hole$class discussions and processes o& social positionin" in primary classrooms. 2anguage and Education, BA<8=, 3F;$3:0. 7loome, *., Carter, (., Christian, 7., Ctto, (., P (huart$Faris, B. <300A=. !iscourse analysis and the study of classroom language. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. 7urns, C. P )yhill, *. <300F=. %nteractive or inactive? A consideration o& the nature o& interaction in 1hole$ class instruction. Cam%ridge Journal of Education, ;><8=, 3A$F9. Ca2den, C. <3008=. Classroom discourse" The language of teaching and learning, Cnd edition. 5estport, CT 6einemann. Chami$(ather, .. P 'retschmer, -. <300A=. LebaneseUArabic and American childrenJs discourse in "roup$ solvin" situations. 2anguage and Education, BF<8=, 80$33. Christensen, B. <300:=. The nuts and bolts o& runnin" a lecture course. %n A. *eBee& P C. .ood1in <#ds.=, The academic(s hand%oo#, ;rd edition, pp. 8;9$8D:. *urham, BC *uke 4niversity ,ress. Cohen, #., 7rody, C., P (apon$(hevin, ). <300F=. Teaching coo*erative learning. Albany, BM (tate 4niversity o& Be1 Mork ,ress. Collins, +. P )ichaels, (. <300:=. (peakin" and 1ritin" *iscourse strate"ies and the acquisition o& literacy. %n +. Cook$.umper2 <#d.=, The social construction of literacy, Cnd edition,3FA$3:3. Be1 Mork Cambrid"e 4niversity ,ress. *allimore, #., 6ertenstein, +., P ,latt, ). <300:=. Bonvoluntary class participation in "raduate discussion courses #&&ects o& "radin" and cold callin". Journal of @anagement Education, ;<<3=, 3AF$3;;. *e,aulo, 7., Lindsay, +., )alone, 7., )uhlenbruck, L., Charlton, '., P Cooper, 6. <3003=. Cues to deception. Psychological +ulletin, BCF, ;F$88D. #hrenreich, 7. <300;=. !ancing in the streets. Be1 Mork 6enry 6oltU)etropolitan 7ooks. Fu/ita, '., 6enderson, )., #n", +., Trope, M., P Liberman, B. <300:=. (patial distance and mental construal o& events. Psychological Science, B=<F=, 3;D$3D3. .lobal *eception -esearch Team. <300:=. A 1orld o& lies. Journal of Cross3cultural Psychology, ;=<:=, :0$ ;F. .oldstein, L. <8999=. The relational 2one The role o& carin" relationships in the co$construction o& mind. American Educational Research Journal, ;:<3=, :F;$:;3. .ood, T. P 7rophy, +. <3003=. 2oo#ing in Classrooms, Fth edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. .uerrero, L. <300:=. 0onver%al communication in close relationshi*s. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. 6ope, A. P Cliver, ,. <300A=. Ris#, education, and culture. 7urlin"ton, GT Ash"ate ,ublishin" Company. 8D0
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 'leinke, C. <89D:=. .a2e and eye contact A research revie1. Psychological +ulletin, B<<<8=, ;D$800. Lass1ell, 6. <89:F=. The structure and &unction o& communication in society. %n 5. (chramm <#d.=, @ass communications. 4rbana, %L 4niversity o& %llinois ,ress. Lemke, +. <8990=. Tal#ing science" 2anguage, learning, and values. 5estport, CT .reen1ood ,ublishin" .roup. )ason, )., 6ood, 7., P )acrae, C. <300F=. Look into my eyes .a2e direction and person memory. @emory, BC<A=, :3;$:F3. )cCarthy, A., Lee, '., %takura, (., P )uir, *. <300:=. Cultural display rules drive eye "a2e durin" thinkin". Journal of Cross3cultural Psychology, ;=<:=, ;8;$;33. )c'eatchie, 5. P (vinicki, ). <300A=. Teaching ti*s" Strategies, research, and theory for college teachers, BCth edition. 7oston 6ou"hton )i&&lin. )ehan, 6. <89;9=. 2earning lessons" Social organi/ation of the classroom. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. Beill, (. <8998=. Classroom nonver%al communication. Be1 Mork -outled"e. Boddin"s, B. <8993=. The challenge to care in schools" An alternative a**roach to education. Be1 Mork Teachers Colle"e ,ress. Boddin"s, B. <300F=. 9a**iness and education. Be1 Mork Cambrid"e 4niversity ,ress. Boller, ,. <300:=. Bonverbal communication in close relationships. %n G. )ansunov P ). ,atterson <#ds.=, 9and%oo# of nonver%al communication, pp. F03$F30. CJConnor, ). P )ichael, (. <899:=. (hi&tin" participant &rame1orks Crchestratin" thinkin" practices in "roup discussion. %n *. 6icks <#d.=, !iscourse, learning, and schooling <pp. :3$803=. Be1 Mork Cambrid"e 4niversity ,ress. -a2ack, (. <899D=. 2oo#ing Ehite *eo*le in the eye" Kender, race, and culture in courtrooms and classrooms. Toronto, Cntario 4niversity o& Toronto ,ress. -ensha1, ,. <300F=. *ialo"ic teachin", learnin", and instruction Theoretical roots and analytic perspectives. %n +. van der Linden P ,. -ensha1 <#ds.=, !ialogic learning" Shifting *ers*ectives to learning, instruction, and teaching. Bor1ell, )A 'lu1er Academic. -ichards, '. <300:=. [7ein" the teacherJ %dentity and classroom discourse. A**lied 2inguistics, C=<8=, A8$;;. -osen&eld, ,., Lambert, B., P 7lack, A. <89DA=. *esk arran"ement e&&ects on pupil classroom behavior. Journal of Educational Psychology, == <8=, 808$80D. (lavin, -. <899A=. Coo*erative learning" Theory, research, and *ractice, Cnd edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. Tobin, '. <89D;=. The role o& 1ait time in hi"her co"nitive &unctions. Revie :9$9A. of Educational Research, ?=<8=,
8D8
A .lobal Text
!. The nature of classroom communication Toth, ,. <300F=. 5hen "rammar instruction undermines cohesion in L3 (panish classroom discourse. The @odern 2anguage Journal, AA<8=, 8F$30. 5ells, .. <300:=. The lan"ua"e experience o& children at home and at school. %n +. Cook$.umper2 <#d.=, The social construction of literacy, Cnd edition, ;:$809. Be1 Mork Cambrid"e 4niversity ,ress.
8D3
=. >acilitating comple4 thin1ing

A fe years ago one of us 1Kelvin) had the *rivilege of co3teaching hat Kelvin sa hen @s Eaton ith an e4*erienced first grade ith Joey. They teacher, Carolyn Eaton. As *art of a research *ro$ect, @s Eaton allo ed some of her reading lessons to %e o%served. 9ere is as having a conference are reading a %oo# 'together), e4ce*t that @s Eaton ants Joey to do as much reading as *ossi%le himself. Joey(s comments are ca*itali/ed, and @s Eaton(s are in lo ercase. J8EQ" 7,RST Q8I REA!.T9E0 @E. T9,S ,S E9AT Q8I 9AGE T8 !8. , REA! A7TER Q8I, 8K@s Eaton" 8K. W@s Eaton %egins.X ',n the great green room there and a *icture ofD) Are you going to read, or QES. ',n the great green room there asD) Are you ready yet- Ready to readhatas a tele*hone, a red %alloon,
8K. ',0 T9E KREAT KREE0 R88@D) 'Dthere asD) ordsX
'T9ERE EAS AD) W*auses, loo#ing at @s Eaton rather than at the 'Da tele*honeD)
QES, T9AT(S ,T, A TE2EP980E6 ',0 T9E KREAT KREE0 R88@ T9ERE EAS A TE2EP980E, A RE! +A22880D) 'and a *icture ofD) 'A0! A P,CTIRE 87) W*auses, staring at the 'a co $um*ing over the moon). allXDA C8E JI@P,0K-)
'8GER @880) Wsmiles from %oth Joey and @s EatonX. Joey, hat does this say- WShe *oints to the ord tele*hone.X
'T9ERE EAS A TE2EP980E). 9o a%out here- WShe *oints to ne4t *age, hich reads 'And there ere three little %ears, sitting on
chairs).X 'T9ERE EERE +EARS, T9REE +EARS, A0! T9EQ SAT 80 C9A,RS).
8D3
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing Can you read the SIRE6 8K, then you start this time. WJoey loo#s at first *age, alternately at the *icture and at the ords.X hole %oo#-
',0 T9E KREAT KREE0 R88@ T9ERE EAS A TE2EP980E). WActual te4t" ',n the great green room, there 'A0! T9ERE EAS A RE! +A22880), WActual te4t" 'Dand a red %alloon),X 'A0! A P,CTIRE 87 T9E C8E JI@P,0K 8GER T9E @880). WActual te4t" 'Dand a *icture of the co $um*ing over the moon).X as a tele*hone),X
'A0! T9ERE EERED) T9REE +EARS-D '2,TT2E +EARS S,TT,0K 80 C9A,RS). WActual te4t" 'And there Could you read this %oo# ere three little %ears, sitting on chairs,D)X ith you eyes closed-
SIREM EA0T T8 SEE @E !8 ,T-6 Eell, not right no M may%e another time. Could you read it ords- That(s ho , do %est. hen , see the ithout the *ictures, $ust loo#ing at the
ords instead of the *ictures.
WJoey *auses to consider this.X @AQ+E, +IT 08T UI,TE S8 EE22. 2et(s try it. W@s Eaton *roceeds to co*y the ords on a large sheet for Joey to 'read) later.X
As Carolyn #atonJs behavior su""ests, there are decisions to make >on the &ly@, even durin" the very act o& teachin". )s #aton 1onders 1hen to challen"e +oey, and 1hen to support him. (he also 1onders 1hen to pause and ask +oey to take stock o& 1hat he has read, and 1hen to move him on aheadK1hen to consolidate a studentJs learnin", and 1hen to nud"e the student &or1ard. These are questions about instructional strate"ies 1hich facilitate com*le4 learning, either directly or indirectly. %n this chapter 1e revie1 as many strate"ies as space allo1s, in order to "ive a sense o& the ma/or instructional options and o& their e&&ects. 5e concentrate especially on t1o broad cate"ories o& instruction, 1hich 1e call direct instruction and student3centered instruction. As 1e hope that you 1ill see, each approach to teachin" is use&ul &or certain purposes. 5e be"in, thou"h, by lookin" at the 1ays students think, or at least ho1 teachers 1ould like students to think. 5hat does it mean &or students to think critically <astutely or lo"ically=? Cr to think creatively? Cr to be skill&ul problem solvers? Forms o& thinkin" lead to choices amon" instructional strate"ies.
>orms of thin1ing associated #ith classroom learning

Althou"h instructional strate"ies di&&er in their details, they each encoura"e particular &orms o& learnin" and thinkin". The &orms have distinctive educational purposes, even thou"h they sometimes overlap, in the sense that one &orm may contribute to success 1ith another &orm. Consider three some1hat complex &orms o& thinkin" that are commonly pursued in classroom learnin" <8= critical thinkin", <3= creative thinkin", and <3= problem$solvin". 8DF
Critical thin1ing
Critical thin8ing requires skill at analy2in" the reliability and validity o& in&ormation, as 1ell as the attitude or disposition to do so. The skill and attitude may be displayed 1ith re"ard to a particular sub/ect matter or topic, but in principle it can occur in any realm o& kno1led"e <6alpern, 3003I 5illiams, Cliver, P (tockade, 300F=. A critical thinker does not necessarily have a ne"ative attitude in the everyday sense o& constantly critici2in" someone or somethin". %nstead, he or she can be thou"ht o& as astute the critical thinker asks key questions, evaluates the evidence &or ideas, reasons &or problems both lo"ically and ob/ectively, and expresses ideas and conclusions clearly and precisely. Last <but not least=, the critical thinker can apply these habits o& mind in more than one realm o& li&e or kno1led"e. 5ith such a broad de&inition, it is not surprisin" that educators have su""ested a variety o& speci&ic co"nitive skills as contributin" to critical thinkin". %n one study, &or example, the researcher &ound ho1 critical thinkin" can be re&lected in re"ard to a published article 1as stimulated by annotationK1ritin" questions and comments in the mar"ins o& the article <Liu, 300:=. %n this study, students 1ere initially instructed in 1ays o& annotatin" readin" materials. Later, 1hen the students completed additional readin"s &or assi"nments, it 1as &ound that some students in &act used their annotation skills much more than othersKsome simply underlined passa"es, &or example, 1ith a hi"hli"htin" pen. 5hen essays 1ritten about the readin"s 1ere later analy2ed, the ones 1ritten by the annotators 1ere &ound to be more 1ell reasonedKmore critically astuteKthan the essays 1ritten by the other students. %n another study, on the other hand, a researcher &ound that critical thinkin" can also involve oral discussion o& personal issues or dilemmas <6a1kins, 300:=. %n this study, students 1ere asked to verbally describe a recent, personal incident that disturbed them. Classmates then discussed the incident to"ether in order to identi&y the precise reasons 1hy the incident 1as disturbin", as 1ell as the assumptions that the student made in describin" the incident. The ori"inal studentKthe one 1ho had &irst told the storyKthen used the results o& the "roup discussion to &rame a topic &or a research essay. %n one story o& a troublin" incident, a student told o& a time 1hen a store clerk has snubbed or re/ected the student durin" a recent shoppin" errand. Throu"h discussion, classmates decided that an assumption underlyin" the studentJs disturbance 1as her suspicion that she had been a victim o& racial pro&ilin" based on her skin color. The student then used this idea as the basis &or a research essay on the topic o& >racial pro&ilin" in retail stores@. The oral discussion thus stimulated critical thinkin" in the student and the classmates, but it also relied on their prior critical thinkin" skills at the same time. Botice that in both o& these research studies, as in others like them, 1hat made the thinkin" >critical@ 1as studentsJ use o& metacognitionKstrate"ies &or thinkin" a%out thinkin" and &or monitorin" the success and quality o& oneJs o1n thinkin". This concept 1as discussed in Chapter 3 as a &eature o& constructivist vie1s about learnin". There 1e pointed out that 1hen students acquire experience in buildin" their o1n kno1led"e, they also become skilled both at kno1in" ho they learn, and at kno1in" hether they have learned somethin" 1ell. These are t1o de&inin" qualities o& metaco"nition, but they are part o& critical thinkin" as 1ell. %n &osterin" critical thinkin", a teacher is really &osterin" a studentJs ability to construct or control his or her o1n thinkin" and to avoid bein" controlled by ideas unre&lectively. 6o1 best to teach critical thinkin" remains a matter o& debate. Cne issue is 1hether to in&use critical skills into existin" courses or to teach them throu"h separate, &ree$standin" units or courses. The &irst approach has the
8DA
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing potential advanta"e o& inte"ratin" critical thinkin" into studentsJ entire educations. 7ut it risks dilutin" studentsJ understandin" and use o& critical thinkin" simply because critical thinkin" takes on a di&&erent &orm in each learnin" context. %ts details and appearance vary amon" courses and teachers. The &ree$standin" approach has the opposite qualities it stands a better chance o& bein" understood clearly and coherently, but at the cost o& obscurin" ho1 it is related to other courses, tasks, and activities. This dilemma is the issueKa"ainKo& transfer/ discussed in Chapter 3. 4n&ortunately, research to compare the di&&erent strate"ies &or teachin" critical thinkin" does not settle the matter. The research su""ests simply that either in&usion or &ree$standin" approaches can 1ork as lon" as it is implemented thorou"hly and teachers are committed to the value o& critical thinkin" <6alpern, 3003=. A related issue about teachin" critical thinkin" is about decidin" 1ho needs to learn critical thinkin" skills the most. (hould it be all students, or only some o& them? Teachin" all students seems the more democratic alternative and thus appropriate &or educators. (urveys have &ound, ho1ever, that teachers sometimes &avor teachin" o& critical thinkin" only to hi"h$advanta"e studentsKthe ones 1ho already achieve 1ell, 1ho come &rom relatively hi"h$ income &amilies, or <&or hi"h school students= 1ho take courses intended &or university entrance <5arburton P Tor&&, 300A=. ,resumably the rationale &or this bias is that hi"h$advanta"e students can bene&it andUor understand and use critical thinkin" better than other students. Met, there is little research evidence to support this idea, even i& it 1ere not ethically questionable. The study by 6a1kins <300:= described above, &or example, is that critical thinkin" 1as &ostered even 1ith students considered lo1$advanta"e.
Creative thin1ing
Creativity is the ability to make or do somethin" ne1 that is also use&ul or valued by others <.ardner, 8993=. The >somethin"@ can be an ob/ect <like an essay or paintin"=, a skill <like playin" an instrument=, or an action <like usin" a &amiliar tool in a ne1 1ay=. To be creative, the ob/ect, skill, or action cannot simply be bi2arre or stran"eI it cannot be ne1 1ithout also bein" use&ul or valued, and not simply be the result o& accident. %& a person types letters at random that &orm a poem by chance, the result may be beauti&ul, but it 1ould not be creative by the de&inition above. Gie1ed this 1ay, creativity includes a 1ide ran"e o& human experience that many people, i& not everyone, have had at some time or other <'au&man P 7aer, 300:=. The experience is not restricted to a &e1 "eniuses, nor exclusive to speci&ic &ields or activities like art or the composin" o& music. #specially important &or teachers are t1o &acts. The &irst is that an important &orm o& creativity is creative thin8ing/ the "eneration o& ideas that are ne1 as 1ell as use&ul, productive, and appropriate. The second is that creative thinkin" can be stimulated by teachersJ e&&orts. Teachers can, &or example, encoura"e studentsJ divergent thin8ingKideas that are open$ended and that lead in many directions <Torrance, 8993I 'im, 300:=. *iver"ent thinkin" is stimulated by open$ended questionsKquestions 1ith many possible ans1ers, such as the &ollo1in"
6o1 many uses can you think o& &or a cup? *ra1 a picture that someho1 incorporates all o& these 1ords cat, &ire en"ine, and banana. 5hat is the most unusual use you can think o& &or a shoe?
Bote that ans1erin" these questions creatively depends partly on havin" already acquired kno1led"e about the ob/ects to 1hich the questions re&er. %n this sense diver"ent thinkin" depends partly on its converse, convergent thin8ing/ 1hich is &ocused, lo"ical reasonin" about ideas and experiences that lead to speci&ic ans1ers. 4p to a
8D:
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License point, then, developin" studentsJ conver"ent thinkin"Kas school1ork o&ten does by emphasi2in" mastery o& contentK&acilitates studentsJ diver"ent thinkin" indirectly, and hence also their creativity <(ternber", 3003I -unco, 300FI Cropley, 300:=. 7ut carried to extremes, excessive emphasis on conver"ent thinkin" may discoura"e creativity. 5hether in school or out, creativity seems to &lourish best 1hen the creative activity is its o1n intrinsic re1ard, and a person is relatively unconcerned 1ith 1hat others think o& the results. 5hatever the activityKcomposin" a son", 1ritin" an essay, or"ani2in" a party, or 1hateverKit is more likely to be creative i& the creator &ocuses on and en/oys the activity in itsel&, and thinks relatively little about ho1 others may evaluate the activity <7rophy, 300F=. 4n&ortunately, encoura"in" students to i"nore othersE responses can sometimes pose a challen"e &or teachers. Bot only is it the teachersE /ob to evaluate studentsJ learnin" o& particular ideas or skills, but also they have to do so 1ithin restricted time limits o& a course or a school year. %n spite o& these constraints, thou"h, creativity still can be encoura"ed in classrooms at least some o& the time <Claxton, #d1ards, P (cale$Constantinou, 300:=. (uppose, &or example, that students have to be assessed on their understandin" and use o& particular vocabulary. Testin" their understandin" may limit creative thinkin"I students 1ill understandably &ocus their ener"ies on learnin" >ri"ht@ ans1ers &or the tests. 7ut assessment does not have to happen constantly. There can also be times to encoura"e experimentation 1ith vocabulary throu"h 1ritin" poems, makin" 1ord "ames, or in other thou"ht$provokin" 1ays. These activities are all potentially creative. To some extent, there&ore, learnin" content and experimentin" or playin" 1ith content can both &ind a placeKin &act one o& these activities can o&ten support the other. 5e return to this point later in this chapter, 1hen 1e discuss student$centered strate"ies o& instruction, such as cooperative learnin" and play as a learnin" medium.
Problem:solving
(ome1hat less open$ended than creative thinkin" is problem solving/ the analysis and solution o& tasks or situations that are complex or ambi"uous and that pose di&&iculties or obstacles o& some kind <)ayer P 5ittrock, 300:=. ,roblem solvin" is needed, &or example, 1hen a physician analy2es a chest S$ray a photo"raph o& the chest is &ar &rom clear and requires skill, experience, and resource&ulness to decide 1hich &o""y$lookin" blobs to i"nore, and 1hich to interpret as real physical structures <and there&ore real medical concerns=. ,roblem solvin" is also needed 1hen a "rocery store mana"er has to decide ho1 to improve the sales o& a product should she put it on sale at a lo1er price, or increase publicity &or it, or both? 5ill these actions actually increase sales enou"h to pay &or their costs?
,roblem solvin" in the classroom

,roblem solvin" happens in classrooms 1hen teachers present tasks or challen"es that are deliberately complex and &or 1hich &indin" a solution is not strai"ht&or1ard or obvious. The responses o& students to such problems, as 1ell as the strate"ies &or assistin" them, sho1 the key &eatures o& problem solvin". Consider this example, and studentsJ responses to it. 5e have numbered and named the para"raphs to make it easier to comment about them individually
Scene HB" a *ro%lem to %e solved

A teacher gave these instructions" 'Can you connect all of the dots %elo lines-) She dre the follo ing dis*lay on the chal#%oard" using only four straight
8D;
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing
#xhibit 80 The teacher "ave these instructions HCan you connect these dots 1ith only &our lines The *ro%lem itself and the *rocedure for solving it seemed very clear" sim*ly e4*eriment different arrangements of four lines. +ut t o volunteers tried doing it at the %oard, %ut unsuccessful. Several others or#ed at it at their seats, %ut also ithout success. ith ere
Scene HC" coa4ing students to re3frame the *ro%lem

Ehen no one seemed to %e getting it, the teacher as#ed, 'Thin# a%out ho in your mind.a%out assum*tions a%out ho or#ing6) you(ve set u* the *ro%lem hat you %elieve the *ro%lem is a%out. 7or instance, have you made any long the lines ought to %e- !on(t stay stuc# on one a**roach if it(s not
Scene H;" Alicia a%andons a fi4ed res*onse

After the teacher said this, Alicia indeed continued to thin# a%out ho several more solutions, %ut none of them The teacher or#ed either. hat Alicia as doing. She re*eated her earlier she sa the *ro%lem. 'The lines need to %e no longer than the distance across the s&uare,) she said to herself. So she tried
al#ed %y Alicia(s des# and sa
comment" '9ave you assumed anything a%out ho
long the lines ought to %e-)
Alicia stared at the teacher %lan#ly, %ut then smiled and said, '9mm6 Qou didn(t actually say that the lines could %e no longer than the matri46 Ehy not ma#e them longer-) So she e4*erimented again using oversi/ed lines and soon discovered a solution"
#xhibit 88 AliciaEs solution
8DD
(cene OF 5illemJs and -achelEs alternative strate"ies

@ean hile, Eillem had am*le e4*erience ere not or#ed on the *ro%lem. As it ha**ened, Eillem loved *u//les of all #inds, and ith them. 9e had not, ho ever, seen this *articular *ro%lem. ',t must %e a from e4*erience that *ro%lems *osed in this ay often
tric#,) he said to himself, %ecause he #ne tell youD) And that
hat they first a**eared to %e. 9e mused to himself" 'Thin# outside the %o4, they al ays as $ust the hint he needed" he dre ith this solution" lines outside the %o4 %y ma#ing them
longer than the matri4 and soon came u*
#xhibit 83 5illemEs and -achelEs solution Ehen Rachel ent to or#, she too# one loo# at the *ro%lem and #ne the ans er immediately" she
had seen this *ro%lem %efore, though she could not remem%er dra ing3related *u//les, and #ne
here. She had also seen other a solution
that their solution al ays de*ended on ma#ing the lines longer,
shorter, or differently angled than first e4*ected. After staring at the dots %riefly, she dre faster than Alicia or even Eillem. 9er solution loo#ed e4actly li#e EillemLs.
This story illustrates t1o common &eatures o& problem solvin" the e&&ect o& de"ree o& structure or constraint on problem solvin", and the e&&ect o& mental obstacles to solvin" problems. The next sections discuss each o& these &eatures, and then looks at common techniques &or solvin" problems.
The e&&ect o& constraints 1ell$structured versus ill$structured problems

,roblems vary in ho1 much in&ormation they provide &or solvin" a problem, as 1ell as in ho1 many rules or procedures are needed &or a solution. A (ell=structured problem provides much o& the in&ormation needed and can in principle be solved usin" relatively &e1 clearly understood rules. Classic examples are the 1ord problems o&ten tau"ht in math lessons or classes everythin" you need to kno1 is contained 1ithin the stated problem and the solution procedures are relatively clear and precise. An ill=structured problem has the converse qualities the in&ormation is not necessarily 1ithin the problem, solution procedures are potentially quite numerous, and a multiple solutions are likely <Goss, 300:=. #xtreme examples are problems like >6o1 can the 1orld achieve lastin" peace?@ or >6o1 can teachers insure that students learn?@ 7y these de&initions, the nine$dot problem is relatively 1ell$structuredKthou"h not completely. )ost o& the in&ormation needed &or a solution is provided in Scene HB" there are nine dots sho1n and instructions "iven to dra1 &our lines. 7ut not all necessary in&ormation 1as "iven students needed to consider lines that 1ere lon"er than
8D9
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing implied in the ori"inal statement o& the problem. (tudents had to >think outside the box@, as 5illem saidKin this case, literally. 5hen a problem is 1ell$structured, so are its solution procedures likely to be as 1ell. A 1ell$de&ined procedure &or solvin" a particular kind o& problem is o&ten called an algorithm> examples are the procedures &or multiplyin" or dividin" t1o numbers or the instructions &or usin" a computer <Leiserson, et al., 3008=. Al"orithms are only e&&ective 1hen a problem is very 1ell$structured and there is no question about 1hether the al"orithm is an appropriate choice &or the problem. %n that situation it pretty much "uarantees a correct solution. They do not 1ork 1ell, ho1ever, 1ith ill$structured problems, 1here they are ambi"uities and questions about ho1 to proceed or even about precisely hat the problem is about. %n those cases it is more e&&ective to use heuristics/ 1hich are "eneral strate"iesK>rules o& thumb@, so to speakKthat do not al1ays 1ork, but o&ten do, or that provide at least partial solutions. 5hen be"innin" research &or a term paper, &or example, a use&ul heuristic is to scan the library catalo"ue &or titles that look relevant. There is no "uarantee that this strate"y 1ill yield the books most needed &or the paper, but the strate"y 1orks enou"h o& the time to make it 1orth tryin". %n the nine$dot problem, most students be"an in (cene O8 1ith a simple al"orithm that can be stated like this >*ra1 one line, then dra1 another, and another, and another@. 4n&ortunately this simple procedure did not produce a solution, so they had to &ind other strate"ies &or a solution. Three alternatives are described in (cenes O3 <&or Alicia= and F <&or 5illem and -achel=. C& these, 5illemJs response resembled a heuristic the most he kne1 &rom experience that a "ood general strate"y that often 1orked &or such problems 1as to suspect a deception or trick in ho1 the problem 1as ori"inally stated. (o he set out to question 1hat the teacher had meant by the 1ord line, and came up 1ith an acceptable solution as a result.
Common obstacles to solvin" problems

The example also illustrates t1o common problems that sometimes happen durin" problem solvin". Cne o& these is functional fi"edness$ a tendency to re"ard the functions o& ob/ects and ideas as fi4ed <.erman P 7arrett, 300A=. Cver time, 1e "et so used to one particular purpose &or an ob/ect that 1e overlook other uses. 5e may think o& a dictionary, &or example, as necessarily somethin" to veri&y spellin"s and de&initions, but it also can &unction as a "i&t, a doorstop, or a &ootstool. For students 1orkin" on the nine$dot matrix described in the last section, the notion o& >dra1in"@ a line 1as also initially &ixedI they assumed it to be connectin" dots but not extendin" lines beyond the dots. Functional &ixedness sometimes is also called response set/ the tendency &or a person to &rame or think about each problem in a series in the same 1ay as the previous problem, even 1hen doin" so is not appropriate to later problems. %n the example o& the nine$dot matrix described above, students o&ten tried one solution a&ter another, but each solution 1as constrained by a set response not to extend any line beyond the matrix. Functional &ixedness and the response set are obstacles in problem representation/ the 1ay that a person understands and or"ani2es in&ormation provided in a problem. %& in&ormation is misunderstood or used inappropriately, then mistakes are likelyKi& indeed the problem can be solved at all. 5ith the nine$dot matrix problem, &or example, construin" the instruction to dra1 &our lines as meanin" >dra1 &our lines entirely 1ithin the matrix@ means that the problem simply could not be solved. For another, consider this problem >The number o& 1ater lilies on a lake doubles each day. #ach 1ater lily covers exactly one square &oot. %& it takes 800 days &or the lilies to cover the lake exactly, ho1 many days does it take &or the lilies to cover exactly half o& the lake?@ %& you
890
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License think that the si2e o& the lilies a&&ects the solution to this problem, you have not represented the problem correctly. %n&ormation about lily si2e is not relevant to the solution, and only serves to distract &rom the truly crucial in&ormation, the &act that the lilies dou%le their covera"e each day. <The ans1er, incidentally, is that the lake is hal& covered in 99 daysI can you think 1hy?=
(trate"ies to assist problem solvin"

+ust as there are co"nitive obstacles to problem solvin", there are also "eneral strate"ies that help the process be success&ul, re"ardless o& the speci&ic content o& a problem <Tha"ard, 300A=. Cne help&ul strate"y is problem analysisCidenti&yin" the parts o& the problem and 1orkin" on each part separately. Analysis is especially use&ul 1hen a problem is ill$structured. Consider this problem, &or example >*evise a plan to improve bicycle transportation in the city.@ (olvin" this problem is easier i& you identi&y its parts or component subproblems, such as <8= installin" bicycle lanes on busy streets, <3= educatin" cyclists and motorists to ride sa&ely, <3= &ixin" potholes on streets used by cyclists, and <F= revisin" tra&&ic la1s that inter&ere 1ith cyclin". #ach separate subproblem is more mana"eable than the ori"inal, "eneral problem. The solution o& each subproblem contributes the solution o& the 1hole, thou"h o& course is not equivalent to a 1hole solution. Another help&ul strate"y is (or8ing bac8(ard from a &inal solution to the ori"inally stated problem. This approach is especially help&ul 1hen a problem is 1ell$structured but also has elements that are distractin" or misleadin" 1hen approached in a &or1ard, normal direction. The 1ater lily problem described above is a "ood example startin" 1ith the day 1hen all the lake is covered <*ay 800=, ask 1hat day 1ould it there&ore be half covered <by the terms o& the problem, it 1ould have to be the day be&ore, or *ay 99=. 5orkin" back1ard in this case encoura"es re&ramin" the extra in&ormation in the problem <i. e. the si2e o& each 1ater lily= as merely distractin", not as crucial to a solution. A third help&ul strate"y is analogical thin8ingCusin" kno1led"e or experiences 1ith similar &eatures or structures to help solve the problem at hand <7assok, 3003=. %n devisin" a plan to improve bicyclin" in the city, &or example, an analo"y o& cars 1ith bicycles is help&ul in thinkin" o& solutions improvin" conditions &or both vehicles requires many o& the same measures <improvin" the road1ays, educatin" drivers=. #ven solvin" simpler, more basic problems is helped by considerin" analo"ies. A &irst "rade student can partially decode un&amiliar printed 1ords by analo"y to 1ords he or she has learned already. %& the child cannot yet read the 1ord screen, &or example, he can note that part o& this 1ord looks similar to 1ords he may already kno1, such as seen or green, and &rom this observation derive a clue about ho1 to read the 1ord screen. Teachers can assist this process, as you mi"ht expect, by su""estin" reasonable, help&ul analo"ies &or students to consider.
8road instructional strategies that stimulate comple4 thin1ing

7ecause the &orms o& thinkin" /ust describedKcritical thinkin", creativity and problem solvin"Kare broad and important educationally, it is not surprisin" that educators have identi&ied strate"ies to encoura"e their development. (ome o& the possibilities are sho1n in Table 3F and "roup several instructional strate"ies alon" t1o dimensions ho1 much the strate"y is student$centered and ho1 much a strate"y depends on "roup interaction. %t should be emphasi2ed that the t1o$1ay classi&ication in Table 3F is not very precise, but it "ives a use&ul &rame1ork &or understandin" the options available &or plannin" and implementin" instruction. The more important o& the t1o dimensions in the table is the &irst oneKthe extent to 1hich an instructional strate"y is either directed by the
898
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing teacher or initiated by students. 5e take a closer look at this dimension in the next part o& this chapter, &ollo1ed by discussion o& "roup$oriented teachin" strate"ies. Table 3F )a/or instructional strate"ies "rouped by level o& teacher direction and student &ocus Directed by student+s. more Cooperative learnin" %nquiry *iscovery learnin" Lectures !mphasi1es groups some(hat more *irect instruction )adeline 6unterEs >#&&ective Teachin"@ Textbook readin"s Advance or"ani2ers Cutlinin" -ecallin", relatin", and elaboratin" Directed by teacher more (el&$re&lection %ndependent study Concept maps )astery learnin" !mphasi1es individuals some(hat more
Definitions of 3erms in 3able J.# 2ecture Assigned reading Advance organi/ers Tellin" or explainin" previously or"ani2ed in&ormationKusually to a "roup -eadin", usually individually, o& previously or"ani2ed in&ormation 7rie& overvie1, either verbally or "raphically, o& material about to be covered in a lecture or text 8utlining Ta#ing notes 5ritin" important points o& a lecture or readin", usually in a hierarchical &ormat 5ritin" important points o& a lecture or readin", o&ten or"ani2ed accordin" to the learnin" needs o& an individual student Conce*t ma*s .raphic depiction o& relationships amon" a set o& concepts, terms, or ideasI usually or"ani2ed by the student, but not al1ays @adeline 9unter(s 'Effective Teaching) A set o& strate"ies that emphasi2es clear presentation o& "oals, the explanation and modelin" o& tasks to students and care&ul monitorin" o& studentsJ pro"ress to1ard the "oals
893
Teacher:directed instruction
As the name implies, teacher$directed instruction includes any strate"ies initiated and "uided primarily by the teacher. A classic example is exposition or lecturin" <simply tellin" or explainin" important in&ormation to students= combined 1ith assi"nin" readin" &rom texts. 7ut teacher$directed instruction also includes strate"ies that involve more active response &rom students, such as encoura"in" students to elaborate on ne1 kno1led"e or to explain ho1 ne1 in&ormation relates to prior kno1led"e. 5hatever their &orm, teacher$directed instructional methods normally include the or"ani2in" o& in&ormation on behal& o& students, even i& teachers also expect students to or"ani2e it &urther on their o1n. (ometimes, there&ore, teacher$directed methods are thou"ht o& as transmittin" kno1led"e &rom teacher to student as clearly and e&&iciently as possible, even i& they also require mental 1ork on the part o& the student.
Lectures and readin"s

Lectures and readin"s are traditional staples o& educators, particularly 1ith older students <includin" university students=. At their best, they pre$or"ani2e in&ormation so that <at least in theory= the student only has to remember 1hat 1as said in the lecture or 1ritten in the text in order to be"in understandin" it <#xley P *ennick, 300F=. Their limitation is the ambi"uity o& the responses they require listenin" and readin" are by nature quiet and stationary, and do not in themselves indicate 1hether a student is comprehendin" or even attendin" to the material. #ducators sometimes complain that >students are too passive@ durin" lectures or 1hen readin". 7ut physical quietness is intrinsic to these activities, not to the students 1ho do them. A book /ust sits still, a&ter all, unless a student makes an e&&ort to read it, and a lecture may not be heard unless a student makes the e&&ort to listen to it.
Advance or"ani2ers
%n spite o& these problems, there are strate"ies &or makin" lectures and readin"s e&&ective. A teacher can be especially care&ul about or"ani2in" in&ormation for students, and she can turn part o& the mental 1ork over to students themselves. An example o& the &irst approach is the use o& advance organi1ersKbrie& overvie1s or introductions to ne1 material be&ore the material itsel& is presented <Ausubel, 89;D=. Textbook authors <includin" ourselves= o&ten try deliberately to insert periodic advance or"ani2ers to introduce ne1 sections or chapters in the text. 5hen used in a lecture, advance or"ani2ers are usually statements in the &orm o& brie& introductory remarks, thou"h sometimes dia"rams sho1in" relationships amon" key ideas can also serve the same purpose <-obinson, et al., 3003=. 5hatever their &orm, advance or"ani2ers partially or"ani2e the material on behal& o& the students, so that they kno1 1here to put it all, so to speak, as they learn them in more detail.
-ecallin" and relatin" prior kno1led"e

Another strate"y &or improvin" teacher$directed instruction is to encoura"e students to relate the ne1 material to prior &amiliar kno1led"e. 5hen one o& us <'elvin= &irst learned a &orei"n lan"ua"e <in his case French=, &or example, he o&ten noticed similarities bet1een French and #n"lish vocabulary. A French 1ord &or picture, &or example, 1as image, spelled exactly as it is in #n"lish. The French 1ord &or s*lendid 1as s*lendide, spelled almost the same as in #n"lish, thou"h not quite. -elatin" the French vocabulary to #n"lish vocabulary helped in learnin" and rememberin" the French. As children and youth become more experienced in their academics, they tend to relate ne1 in&ormation to previously learned in&ormation more &requently and automatically <.ood1in, 8999I Cakhill, 6artt, P (amols,
893
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing 300A=. 7ut teachers can also &acilitate studentsJ use o& this strate"y. 5hen presentin" ne1 concepts or ideas, the teacher can relate them to previously learned ideas deliberatelyKessentially modelin" a memory strate"y that students learn to use &or themselves. %n a science class, &or example, she can say, >This is another example o&_, 1hich 1e studied be&ore@I in social studies she can say, >-emember 1hat 1e &ound out last time about the "ro1th o& the railroads? 5e sa1 that_@ %& students are relatively youn" or are stru""lin" academically, it is especially important to remind them o& their prior kno1led"e. Teachers can periodically ask questions like >5hat do you already kno1 about this topic?@ or >6o1 1ill your ne1 kno1led"e about this topic chan"e 1hat you kno1 already?@ 5hatever the a"e o& students, connectin" ne1 1ith prior kno1led"e is easier 1ith help &rom someone more kno1led"eable, such as the teacher. 5hen learnin" al"orithms &or multiplication, &or example, students may not at &irst see ho1 multiplication is related to addition processes 1hich they probably learned previously <7urns, 3008=. 7ut i& a teacher takes time to explain the relationship and to "ive students time to explore it, then the ne1 skill o& multiplication may be learned more easily.
#laboratin" in&ormation
#laboratin" ne1 in&ormation means askin" questions about the ne1 material, in&errin" ideas and relationships amon" the ne1 concepts. (uch strate"ies are closely related to the strate"y o& recallin" prior kno1led"e as discussed above elaboration enriches the ne1 in&ormation and connects it to other kno1led"e. %n this sense elaboration makes the ne1 learnin" more meanin"&ul and less arbitrary. A teacher can help students use elaboration by modelin" this behavior. The teacher can interrupt his or her explanation o& an idea, &or example, by askin" ho1 it relates to other ideas, or by speculatin" about 1here the ne1 concept or idea may lead. 6e or she can also encoura"e students to do the same, and even "ive students questions to "uide their thinkin". 5hen "ivin" examples o& a concept, &or example, a teacher can hold back &rom o&&erin" all o& the examples, and instead ask students to think o& additional examples themselves. The same tactic can 1ork 1ith assi"ned readin"sI i& the readin" includes examples, the teacher can instruct students to &ind or make up additional examples o& their o1n.
Cr"ani2in" ne1 in&ormation

There are many 1ays to or"ani2e ne1 in&ormation that are especially 1ell$suited to teacher$directed instruction. A common 1ay is simply to ask students to outline information read in a text or heard in a lecture. Cutlinin" 1orks especially 1ell 1hen the in&ormation is already or"ani2ed some1hat hierarchically into a series o& main topics, each 1ith supportin" subtopics or subpoints. Cutlinin" is basically a &orm o& the more "eneral strate"y o& ta8ing notes, or 1ritin" do1n key ideas and terms &rom a readin" or lecture. -esearch studies &ind that that the precise style or content o& notes is less important that the quantity o& notes taken more detail is usually better than less <5ard P Tatsuka1a, 3003=. 5ritten notes insure that a student thinks about the material not only 1hile 1ritin" it do1n, but also 1hen readin" the notes later. These bene&its are especially help&ul 1hen students are relatively inexperienced at school learnin" in "eneral <as in the earlier "rade levels=, or relatively inexperienced about a speci&ic topic or content in particular. Bot surprisin"ly, such students may also need more "uidance than usual about hat and ho to 1rite notes. %t can be help&ul &or the teacher to provide a note$takin" "uide, like the ones sho1n in #xhibit 88.
89F
Botes on (cience #xperiment 8. ,urpose o& the experiment <in one sentence=
.uide to Botes About Tale of T o Cities" 8. )ain characters <list and describe in /ust a &e1 1ords= a= b= c= d= 3. (ettin" o& the story <time and place=
3. #quipment needed <list each item and de&ine any special terms= 8= 3= 3= F= 3. ,rocedure used <be speci&icL= F. F. -esults <include each measurement, rounded to the nearest inte"er=
3. 4n&amiliar vocabulary in the story <list and de&ine= a= b= c= d=
Cbservation O8 Cbservation O3 Cbservation O3 Cbservation OF Avera"e measurement, O8$F
F. ,lot <1rite do1n only the main events= a= b= c= d= A. Theme <or underlyin" >messa"e@= o& the story
#xhibit 83 T1o note takin" "uides %n learnin" expository material, another help&ul strate"yKone that is more visually orientedKis to make concept maps, or dia"rams o& the connections amon" concepts or ideas. #xhibit 80 sho1s concept maps made by t1o individuals that "raphically depict ho1 a key idea, child develo*ment, relates to learnin" and education. Cne o& Educational Psychology
89A
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing the maps 1as dra1n by a classroom teacher and the other by a university pro&essor o& psycholo"y <(ei&ert, 8998=. They su""est possible di&&erences in ho1 the t1o individuals think about children and their development. Bot surprisin"ly, the teacher "ave more prominence to practical concerns <&or example, classroom learnin" and child abuse=, and the pro&essor "ave more prominence to theoretical ones <&or example, #rik #rikson and ,ia"et=. The di&&erences su""est that these t1o people may have somethin" di&&erent in mind 1hen they use the same term, child develo*ment. The di&&erences have the potential to create misunderstandin"s bet1een them <(ei&ert, 8999I (uper P 6arkness, 3003=. 7y the same token, the t1o maps also su""est 1hat each person mi"ht need to learn in order to achieve better understandin" o& the other personJs thinkin" and ideas.
#xhibit 8F )aps o& personal de&initions o& >child development@
89:
)astery learnin"
This term re&ers to an instructional approach in 1hich all students learn material to an identically hi"h level, even i& some students require more time than others to do so <.entile, 300F=. %n mastery learnin", the teacher directs learnin", thou"h sometimes only in the sense o& &indin", 1ritin", and orchestratin" speci&ic modules or units &or students to learn. %n one typical mastery learnin" pro"ram, the teacher introduces a &e1 ne1 concepts or topics throu"h a brie& lecture or teacher$led demonstration. Then she "ives an un"raded assi"nment or test immediately in order to assess ho1 1ell students have learned the material, and 1hich ones still need help. The students 1ho have already learned the unit are "iven enrichment activities. Those needin" more help are provided individual tutorin" or additional sel&$"uidin" materials that clari&y the initial contentI they 1ork until they have in &act mastered the content <hence the name mastery learning=. At that point students take another test or do another assi"nment to sho1 that they have in &act learned the material to the expected hi"h standard. 5hen the system is 1orkin" 1ell, all students end up 1ith hi"h scores or "rades, althou"h usually some take lon"er to do so than others. As you mi"ht suspect, mastery learnin" poses t1o challen"es. The &irst is ethical is it really &air to "ive enrichment only to &aster students and remediation only to slo1er students? This practice could deteriorate into continually providin" the &ast 1ith an interestin" education, 1hile continually providin" the slo1 only 1ith borin", repetitious material. %n usin" the approach, there&ore, it is important to make all materials interestin", 1hether enrichment or remedial. %t is also important to make sure that the basic learnin" "oals o& each unit are truly importantKeven crucialK&or everyone to learn, so that even slo1er individuals spend their time 1ell. The other challen"e o& mastery learnin" is more practical the approach makes stron" demands &or detailed, hi"hly or"ani2ed curriculum. %& the approach is to 1ork, the teacher must either locate such a curriculum, 1rite one hersel&, or assemble a suitable mixture o& published and sel&$authored materials. 6o1ever the curriculum is created, the end result has to be a pro"ram &illed 1ith small units o& study as 1ell as ample enrichment and remedial materials. (ometimes providin" these practical requirements can be challen"in". 7ut not al1ays some sub/ects <like mathematics= lend themselves to detailed, sequential or"ani2ation especially 1ell. %n many cases, too, commercial publishers have produced curricula already or"ani2ed &or use in mastery learnin" pro"rams <Fox, 300F=.
*irect instruction
Althou"h the term direct instruction is sometimes a synonym &or teacher3directed instruction, more o&ten it re&ers to a version o& mastery learnin" that is hi"hly scripted, meanin" that it not only or"ani2es the curriculum into small modules or units as described above, but also dictates ho teachers should teach and sometimes even the 1ords they should speak <Adams P #n"elmann, 899:I )a"liaro, Lockee, P 7urton, 300A=. *irect instruction pro"rams are usually based on a mix o& ideas &rom behaviorism and co"nitive theories o& learnin". %n keepin" 1ith behaviorism, the teacher is supposed to praise students immediately and explicitly 1hen they "ive a correct ans1er. %n keepin" 1ith co"nitive theory, she is supposed to state learnin" ob/ectives in advance o& teachin" them <providin" a sort o& mini$advance or"ani2er=, provide &requent revie1s o& materials, and check deliberately on ho1 1ell students are learnin". *irect instruction usually also introduces material in small, lo"ical steps, and calls &or plenty o& time &or students to practice.
89;
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing *irect instruction pro"rams share one o& the challen"es o& other mastery learnin" approaches because they hold all students to the same hi"h standard o& achievement, they must deal 1ith di&&erences in ho1 lon" students require to reach the standard. 7ut direct instruction has an additional challen"e, in that they o&ten rely on small$"roup interaction more heavily than other mastery learnin" pro"rams, and use sel&$"uidin" materials less. This di&&erence has the bene&it that direct instruction 1orks especially 1ell 1ith youn"er students <especially kinder"arten throu"h third "rade=, 1ho may have limited skills at 1orkin" alone &or extended periods. The challen"e is that reliance on small$"roup interaction can make it impractical to use direct instruction 1ith an entire class or &or an entire school day. %n spite o& these limits, ho1ever, research has &ound direct instruction to be very e&&ective in teachin" basic skills such as early readin" and arithmetic <Adams P #n"elmann, 899:=.
)adeline 6unterJs e&&ective teachin" model

A number o& direct instruction strate"ies have been combined by )adeline 6unter into a sin"le, relatively comprehensive approach that she calls mastery teaching <not to be con&used 1ith the related term mastery learning) or the effective teaching model <). 6unter, 89D3I -. 6unter, 300F=. %mportant &eatures o& the model are summari2ed in Table 3A. As you can see, the &eatures span all phases o& contact 1ith studentsKbe&ore, durin", and a&ter lessons. Table 3A )adeline 6unterEs >#&&ective Teachin" )odel@ ,repare students to learn.
)ake "ood use o& time at the be"innin" o& a lesson or activity, 1hen attention is best *irect studentsE attention to 1hat lies ahead in a lessonK&or example, by o&&erin" >advance or"ani2ers@ #xplain lesson ob/ectives explicitly
,resent in&ormation clearly and explicitly.

(et a basic structure to the lesson and stay 1ith it throu"hout 4se &amiliar terms and examples 7e concise
Check &or understandin" and "ive "uided practice.

Ask questions that everyone responds toK&or example, >-aise your hand i& you think the ans1er is S@ %nvite choral responsesK&or example, >%s this a correct ans1er or not?@ (ample individualsE understandin"K&or example, >7arry, 1hatEs your example o& S?@
,rovide &or independent practice.

5ork throu"h the &irst &e1 exercises or problems to"ether 'eep independent practice periods brie& and intersperse 1ith discussions that o&&er &eedback
Source -. 6unter, 300F
89D
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 5hat happens even be&ore a lesson be"ins? Like many &orms o& teacher$directed instruction, the e&&ective teachin" model requires curricula and learnin" "oals that are ti"htly or"ani2ed and divisible into small parts, ideas, or skills. %n teachin" about photosynthesis, &or example, the teacher <or at least her curriculum= needs to identi&y the basic elements that contribute to this process, and ho1 they relate to each other. 5ith photosynthesis, the elements include the sun, plants, animals, chlorophyll, oxy"en produced by plants and consumed by animals, and carbon dioxide that produced by animals and consumed by plants. The roles o& these elements need to be identi&ied and expressed at a level appropriate &or the students. 5ith advanced science students, oxy"en, chlorophyll, and carbon dioxide may be expressed as part o& complex chemical reactionsI 1ith &irst$"rade students, thou"h, they may be expressed simply as parts o& a process akin to breathin" or respiration. Cnce this analysis o& the curriculum has been done, the 6unterEs e&&ective teachin" model requires makin" the most o& the lesson time by creatin" an anticipatory set/ 1hich is an activity that &ocuses or orients the attention o& students to the upcomin" content. Creatin" an anticipatory set may consist, &or example, o& posin" one or more questions about studentsJ everyday kno1led"e or kno1led"e o& prior lessons. %n teachin" about di&&erences bet1een &ruits and ve"etables, the teacher could start by askin" >%& you are makin" a salad strictly o& &ruit, 1hich o& these 1ould be C' to use apple, tomato, cucumber, or oran"e?@ As the lesson proceeds, in&ormation needs to be o&&ered in short, lo"ical pieces, usin" lan"ua"e as &amiliar as possible to the students. #xamples should be plenti&ul and varied i& the purpose is to de&ine and distin"uish &ruits and ve"etables, &or example, then &eatures de&inin" each "roup should be presented sin"ularly or at most /ust a &e1 at a time, 1ith clear$cut examples presented o& each &eature. (ometimes models or analo"ies also help to explain examples. A teacher can say >Think o& a &ruit as a sort o& [decorationJ on the plant, because i& you pick it, the plant 1ill "o on livin".@ 7ut models can also mislead students i& they are not used thou"ht&ully, since they may contain &eatures that di&&er &rom the ori"inal concepts. %n likenin" a &ruit to a decoration, &or example, students may overlook the essential role o& &ruit in plant reproduction, or think that lettuce quali&ies as a &ruit, since pickin" a &e1 lettuce leaves does not usually kill a lettuce plant. Throu"hout a lesson, the teacher repeatedly chec8s for understanding by askin" questions that call &or active thinkin" on the part o& students. Cne 1ay is to require all students to respond someho1, either 1ith an actual choral response <speakin" in unison to"ether=, another 1ay 1ith a non$verbal si"nal like raisin" hands to indicate ans1ers to questions. %n teachin" about &ruits and ve"etables, &or example, a teacher can ask, >6ereJs a list o& &ruits and ve"etables. As % point to each one, raise your hand i& itJs a &ruit, but not i& itJs a ve"etable.@ Cr she can ask >6ereJs a list o& &ruits and ve"etables. (ay to"ether 1hat each on is as % point to itI you say [&ruitJ or [ve"etableJ, 1hichever applies.@ #ven thou"h some students may hide their i"norance by lettin" more kno1led"eable classmates do the respondin", the "eneral level or quality o& response can still "ive a rou"h idea o& ho1 1ell students are understandin". These checks can be supplemented, o& course, 1ith questions addressed to individuals, or 1ith questions to 1hich individuals must respond brie&ly in 1ritin". A teacher can ask everyone, >.ive me an example o& one &ruit and one ve"etable@, and then call on individuals to ans1er. (he can also say >% 1ant everyone to make a list 1ith t1o columns, one listin" all the &ruits you can think o& and the other listin" all the ve"etables you can think o&.@ As a lesson dra1s to a close, the teacher arran"es &or students to have &urther independent practice. The point o& the practice is not to explore ne1 material or ideas, but to consolidate or stren"then the recent learnin". At the end o& a lesson about lon" division, &or example, the teacher can make a transition to independent practice by Educational Psychology
899
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing providin" a set o& additional problems similar to the ones she explained durin" the lesson. A&ter 1orkin" one or t1o 1ith students, she can turn the rest o& the task over to the students to practice on their o1n. 7ut note that even thou"h the practice is supposedly >independent@, studentsJ understandin" still has be checked &requently. A lon" set o& practice problems there&ore needs to be broken up into small subsets o& problems, and 1ritten or oral &eedback o&&ered periodically.
5hat are the limits o& teacher$directed instruction?

5hatever the "rade level, most sub/ects tau"ht in schools have at least some &eatures, skills, or topics that bene&it &rom direct instruction. #ven sub/ects usually considered >creative@ can bene&it &rom a direct approach at times to dra1, sin", or 1rite a poem, &or example, requires skills that may be easier to learn i& presented sequentially in small units 1ith &requent &eedback &rom a teacher. -esearch supports the use&ulness o& teacher$ directed instruction &or a variety o& educational contexts 1hen it is desi"ned 1ell and implemented as intended <-osenshine P )esister,899AI .ood P 7rophy, 300F=. Teachers themselves also tend to support the approach in principle <*emant P Mates, 3003=. 7ut there are limits to its use&ulness. (ome are the practical ones are pointed out above. Teacher$directed instruction, 1hatever the &orm, requires 1ell$or"ani2ed units o& instruction in advance o& 1hen students are to learn. (uch units may not al1ays be available, and it may not be realistic to expect busy teachers to devise their o1n. Cther limits o& direct instruction have more to do 1ith the very nature o& learnin". (ome critics ar"ue that or"ani2in" material on behal& o& the students encoura"es students to be passiveKan ironic and undesirable result i& true <'ohn, 3000, 300:=. Accordin" to this criticism, the mere &act that a curriculum or unit o& study is constructed by a teacher <or other authority= makes some students think that they should not bother seekin" in&ormation actively on their o1n, but 1ait &or it to arrive o& its o1n accord. %n support o& this ar"ument, critics point to the &act that direct instruction approaches sometimes contradict their o1n premises by requirin" students to do a bit o& co"nitive or"ani2ational 1ork o& their o1n. This happens, &or example, 1hen a mastery learnin" pro"ram provides enrichment material to &aster students to 1ork on independentlyI in that case the teacher may be involved in the enrichment activities only minimally. Criticisms like these have led to additional instructional approaches that rely more &ully on students to seek and or"ani2e their o1n learnin". %n the next section 1e discuss some o& these options. As you 1ill see, student$centered models o& learnin" do solve certain problems o& teacher$directed instruction, but they also have problems o& their o1n.
Student:centered models of learning

(tudent$centered models o& learnin" shi&t some o& the responsibility &or directin" and or"ani2in" learnin" &rom the teacher to the student. 7ein" student$centered does not mean, ho1ever, that a teacher "ives up or"ani2ational and leadership responsibilities completely. %t only means a relative shi&t in the teacherJs role, to1ard one 1ith more emphasis on "uidin" studentsJ sel&$chosen directions. As 1e explained earlier in this chapter, teacher$directed strate"ies do not take over responsibility &or studentsJ learnin" completelyI no matter ho1 much a teacher structures or directs learnin", the students still have responsibility &or 1orkin" and expendin" e&&ort to comprehend ne1 material. 7y the same token, student$centered models o& learnin" do not mean handin" over all or"ani2ational
300
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 1ork o& instruction to students. The teacher is still the most kno1led"eable member o& the class, and still has both the opportunity and the responsibility to "uide learnin" in directions that are productive. As you mi"ht suspect, there&ore, teacher$directed and student$centered approaches to instruction may overlap in practice. Mou can see the overlap clearly, &or example, in t1o instructional strate"ies commonly thou"ht o& as student$centered, inde*endent study and self3reflection. %n independent study/ as the name implies, a student 1orks alone a "ood deal o& the time, consultin" 1ith a teacher only occasionally. %ndependent study may be student$centered in the sense that the student may be learnin" a topic or skillKan exotic &orei"n lan"ua"e, &or exampleKthat is personally interestin". 7ut the opposite may also be true the student may be learnin" a topic or skill that a teacher or an o&&icial school curriculum has directed the student to learnKa basic sub/ect &or 1hich the student is missin" a credit, &or example. #ither 1ay, thou"h, the student 1ill probably need "uidance, support, and help &rom a teacher. %n this sense even independent study al1ays contain elements o& teacher$direction. (imilarly, self=reflection re&ers to thinkin" about belie&s and experiences in order to clari&y their personal meanin" and importance. %n school it can be practiced in a number o& 1ays &or example by keepin" diaries or lo"s o& learnin" or readin", or by retellin" stories o& important experiences or incidents in a studentJs li&e, or by creatin" concept maps like the ones described earlier in this chapter. 5hatever &orm it takes, sel&$re&lection by de&inition happens inside a sin"le studentJs mind, and in this sense is al1ays directed by the student. Met most research on sel&$re&lection &inds that sel&$re&lection only 1orks 1ell 1hen it involves and "enerates responses and interaction 1ith other students or 1ith a teacher <(ei&ert, 8999I 'uit, -eay, P Freeman, 3008=. To be &ully sel&$re&lective, students need to have access to more than their existin" base o& kno1led"e and ideasKmore than 1hat they kno1 already. %n one study about studentsJ sel&$re&lections o& cultural and racial pre/udices <.ay P 'irkland, 3003=, &or example, the researchers &ound that students tended to re&lect on these problems in relatively shallo1 1ays i& they 1orked on their o1n. %t 1as not particularly e&&ective to 1rite about pre/udice in a /ournal that no one read except themselves, or to describe belie&s in a class discussion in 1hich neither the teacher nor classmates commented or challen"ed the belie&s. )uch more e&&ective in both cases 1as &or the teacher to respond thou"ht&ully to studentsJ re&lective comments. %n this sense the use o& sel&$re&lection, like independent study, required elements o& teacher$ direction to be success&ul. 6o1 mi"ht a teacher emphasi2e studentsJ responsibility &or directin" and or"ani2in" their o1n learnin"? The alternatives are numerous, as they are &or teacher$directed strate"ies, so 1e can only sample some o& them here. 5e concentrate on ones that are relatively 1ell kno1n and used most 1idely, and especially on t1o inquiry learnin" and cooperative learnin".
0n?uiry learning
&n6uiry learning stands the usual advice about expository <lecture$style= teachin" on its head instead o& presentin" 1ell$or"ani2ed kno1led"e to students, the teacher <or sometimes &ello1 students= pose thou"ht&ul questions intended to stimulate discussion and investi"ation by students. The approach has been described, used, and discussed by educators literally &or decades, thou"h sometimes under other names, includin" in&uiry method <,ostman P 5ein"artner, 89:9=, discovery learning <7runer, 89:0U300:=, or *rogressive education <*e1ey, 8933I )artin, 3003=. For convenience, 1e 1ill stay 1ith the term in&uiry learning.
308
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing The questions that be"in a cycle o& inquiry learnin" may be posed either by the teacher or by students themselves. Their content depends not only on the "eneral sub/ect area bein" studied, but also on the interests 1hich students themselves have expressed. %n elementary$level science, &or example, a question mi"ht be >5hy do leaves &all o&& trees 1hen 1inter comes?@ %n hi"h school social studies classes, it mi"ht be >5hy do nations "et into con&lict?@ The teacher avoids ans1erin" such questions directly, even i& asked to do so. %nstead she encoura"es students to investi"ate the questions themselves, &or example by elaboratin" on studentsJ ideas and by askin" &urther questions based on studentsJ initial comments. (ince studentsJ comments can not be predicted precisely, the approach is by nature &lexible. The initial questionin" helps students to create and clari&y questions 1hich they consider 1orthy o& &urther investi"ation. *iscussin" questions about leaves &allin" o&& trees, &or example, can prompt students to observe trees in the autumn or to locate books and re&erences that discuss or explain the biolo"y o& tress and leaves. 7ut inquiry is not limited to particular "rade levels or topics. %& initial questions in a hi"h school social studies class have been about 1hy nations "et into con&lict, &or example, the resultin" discussions can lead to investi"atin" the history o& past 1ars and the history o& peace$keepin" e&&orts around the 1orld. 5hether the topic is hi"h school social studies or elementary school biolo"y, the speci&ic direction o& investi"ations is in&luenced heavily by students, but 1ith assistance &rom the teacher to insure that the studentsJ initiatives are productive. 5hen all "oes 1ell, the inquiry and resultin" investi"ations bene&it students in t1o 1ays. The &irst is that students <perhaps obviously= learn ne1 kno1led"e &rom their investi"ations. The second is that students practice a constructive, motivatin" 1ay o& learnin", one applicable to a variety o& problems and tasks, both in school and out.
Cooperative learning
#ven thou"h inquiry$oriented discussion and investi"ation bene&its 1hen it involves the teacher, it can also be use&ul &or students to 1ork to"ether some1hat independently, relyin" on a teacherJs "uidance only indirectly. 5orkin" 1ith peers is a ma/or &eature o& cooperative learning <sometimes also called colla%orative learning). %n this approach, students 1ork on a task in "roups and o&ten are re1arded either partially or completely &or the success o& the "roup as a 1hole. Aspects o& cooperative learnin" have been part o& education &or a lon" timeI some &orm o& cooperation has al1ays been necessary to participate on school sports teams, &or example, or to produce a student$run school ne1spaper. 5hat is a bit ne1er is usin" cooperative or collaborative activities systematically to &acilitate the learnin" o& a ran"e o& educational "oals central to the academic curriculum <,rince, 300F=. #ven thou"h teachers usually value cooperation in students, circumstances at school can sometimes reduce studentsJ incentives to sho1 it. The traditional practice o& assessin" students individually, &or example, can set the sta"e &or competition over "rades, and cultural and other &orms o& diversity can sometimes inhibit individuals &rom helpin" each other spontaneously. (trate"ies exist, ho1ever, &or reducin" such barriers so that students truly bene&it &rom each otherJs presence, and are more likely to &eel like sharin" their skills and kno1led"e. 6ere, &or example, are several key &eatures that make cooperative learnin" 1ork 1ell <+ohnson P +ohnson, 899DI (mith, et al., 300A=
Students need time and a *lace to tal# and
or# together. This may sound obvious, but it can be
overlooked i& time in class becomes cro1ded 1ith other tasks and activities, or 1ith interruptions related to
303
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License school <like assemblies= but not to the classroom. %t is never enou"h simply to tell students to 1ork to"ether, only to leave them 1onderin" ho1 or 1hen they are to do so.
Students need s#ills at
or#ing together. As an adult, you may &eel relatively able to 1ork 1ith a variety o&
partners on a "roup task. The same assumption cannot be made, ho1ever, about youn"er individuals, 1hether teena"ers or children. (ome students may "et alon" 1ith a variety o& partners, but others may not. )any 1ill bene&it &rom advice and coachin" about ho1 to &ocus on the tasks at hand, rather than on the personalities o& their partners.
Assessment of activities should hold %oth the grou* and the individuals accounta%le for success. %& a &inal
mark &or a pro/ect "oes only to the "roup as a 1hole, then freeloading is possible some members may not do their share o& the 1ork and may be re1arded more than they deserve. Cthers may be re1arded less than they deserve. %&, on the other hand, a &inal "rade &or a "roup pro/ect "oes only to each memberJs individual contribution to a "roup pro/ect, then overspeciali1ation can occur individuals have no real incentive to 1ork to"ether, and cooperative may deteriorate into a set o& smaller individual pro/ects <(lavin, 899F=.
Students need to %elieve in the value and necessity of coo*eration. Collaboration 1ill not occur i& students
privately assume that their partners have little to contribute to their personal success. (ocial pre/udices &rom the 1ider societyKlike racial bias or "ender sexism, &or exampleKcan creep into the operations o& cooperative "roups, causin" some members to be i"nored un&airly 1hile others are overvalued. Teachers can help reduce these problems in t1o 1ays &irst by pointin" out and explainin" that a diversity o& talents is necessary &or success on a "roup pro/ect, and second by pointin" out to the "roup ho1 undervalued individuals are contributin" to the overall pro/ect <Cohen, 7rody, P (apon$(hevin, 300F=. As these comments imply, cooperative learnin" does not happen automatically, and requires monitorin" and support by the teacher. (ome activities may not lend themselves to cooperative 1ork, particularly i& every member o& the "roup is doin" essentially the same task. .ivin" everyone in a "roup the same set o& arithmetic problems to 1ork on collaboratively, &or example, is a &ormula &or cooperative &ailure either the most skilled students do the 1ork &or others <&reeloadin"= or else members simply divide up the problems amon" themselves in order to reduce their overall 1ork <overspeciali2ation=. A better choice &or a cooperative task is one that clearly requires a diversity o& skills, 1hat some educators call a rich grou* or# tas# <Cohen, 7rody, P (apon$(hevin, 300F=. ,reparin" a presentation about medieval castles, &or example, mi"ht require <a= 1ritin" skill to create a report, <b= dramatic skill to put on a skit and <c= artistic talent to create a poster. Althou"h a &e1 students may have all o& these skills, more are likely to have only one, and they are there&ore likely to need and 1ant their &ello1 "roup membersJ participation.
E4amples of cooperative and collaborative learning

Althou"h this description may make the requirements &or cooperative learnin" sound some1hat precise, there are actually a variety o& 1ays to implement it in practice. #rror -e&erence source not &ound summari2es several o& them. As you can see, the strate"ies vary in the number o& ho1 many students they involve, the prior or"ani2ation or plannin" provided by the teacher, and the amount o& class time they normally require. Table 3: (trate"ies &or encoura"in" cooperative learnin"
303
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing Strategy 3ype of groups involved$ Think$pair$share <Lyman, 89D8= ,airs o& students, sometimes linked to one other pair <hat the teacher does$ Teacher poses initial problem or question. <hat the students do$ First, students think individually o& the ans1erI second, they share their thinkin" 1ith partnerI third, the partnership shares their thinkin" 1ith another partnership. +i"sa1 classroom, version O8 <Aronson, et al., 3008= A$: students per "roup, and A$: "roups overall Teacher assi"ns students to "roups and assi"ns one aspect o& a complex problem to each "roup. (tudents in each "roup 1ork to"ether to become experts in their particular aspect o& the problemI later the expert "roups disband, and &orm ne1 "roups containin" one student &rom each o& the &ormer expert "roups. +i"sa1 classroom, version O3 <(lavin, 899F= F$A students per "roup, and F$A "roups overall Teacher assi"ns students to "roups and assi"ns each "roup to study or learn about the same entire complex problem. (tudents initially 1ork in "roups to learn about the entire problemI later the "roups disband and re&orm as expert "roups, 1ith each "roup &ocusin" on a selected aspect o& the "eneral problemI still later the expert "roups disband and the ori"inal "eneral "roups re&orm to learn 1hat the expert students can no1 add to their "eneral understandin". (TA* <(tudent$Teams$ Achievement *ivisions= <(lavin, 899F= F$A students per team <or "roup= Teacher presents a lesson or unit to the entire class, and later tests them on itI "rades individuals based partly on (tudents 1ork to"ether to insure that team mates improve their per&ormance as much as possible. (tudents take tests as
30F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License individualsJ and the teamJs individuals. improvement, not /ust on absolute level o& per&ormance. ,ro/ect$7ased Learnin" <'at2, 3000= Garious numbers o& complexity o& the pro/ect, up to and includin" the entire class Teacher or students o& interest to other studentsI teacher assists students to clari&y their interests and to make plans to investi"ate the question &urther. (tudents 1ork to"ether investi"ate the ori"inal question or problemI pro/ect leads eventually to a presentation, 1ritten report, or other product.
students, dependin" on the pose a question or problem &or extended periods to
0nstructional strategies) an abundance of choices

Lookin" broadly at this chapter, you can see that choices amon" instructional strate"ies are numerous indeed, and that decidin" amon" them depends on the &orms o& thinkin" that you 1ant to encoura"e, the extent to 1hich ideas or skills need to be or"ani2ed by you to be understood by students, and the extent to 1hich students need to take responsibility &or directin" their o1n learnin". Althou"h you may have personal pre&erences amon" possible instructional strate"ies, the choice 1ill also be "uided by the uniqueness o& each situation o& teachin"K1ith its particular students, "rade$level, content, and purposes. %& you need to develop studentsJ problem solvin" skills, &or example, there are strate"ies that are especially 1ell suited &or this purposeI 1e described some <see, >,roblem solvin" strate"ies@ in this chapter=. %& you need to or"ani2e complex in&ormation so that students do not become con&used by it, there are e&&ective 1ays o& doin" so. %& you 1ant the students to take as much initiative as possible in or"ani2in" their o1n learnin", this too can be done. Met havin" this kno1led"e is still not enou"h to teach 1ell. 5hat is still needed are ideas or principles &or decidin" hat to teach. %n this chapter 1e have still not addressed an obvious question 6o1 do % &ind or devise "oals &or my teachin" and &or my studentsJ learnin"? And assumin" that % can determine the "oals, 1here can % &ind resources that help students to meet them?
Chapter summary
Teachin" involves numerous instructional strate"ies, 1hich are decisions and actions desi"ned to &acilitate learnin". The choice o& strate"ies depends partly on the &orms o& thinkin" intended &or studentsK1hether the "oal is &or students to think critically, &or example, or to think creatively, or to solve problems. A &undamental decision in choosin" instructional strate"ies is ho1 much to emphasi2e teacher$directed instruction, as compared to student$ centered models o& learnin". Teacher$directed strate"ies o& instruction include lectures and readin"s <expository teachin"=, mastery learnin", scripted or direct instruction, and complex teacher$directed approaches such as )adeline 6unterJs e&&ective teachin" model. (tudent$centered models o& learnin" include independent study, student sel&$re&lection, inquiry learnin", and various &orms o& cooperative or collaborative learnin". Althou"h &or
30A
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing some students, curriculum content and learnin" "oals may lend themselves to1ard one particular type o& instruction, teachin" is o&ten a matter o& combinin" di&&erent strate"ies appropriately and creatively.
Cn the %nternet
N(((.glossary.plasmalin8.com)glossary.htmlO This 1eb pa"e lists over 900 instructional strate"iesK about ten times as many as in this chapterL The strate"ies are arran"ed alphabetically and ran"e &rom simple to complex. For many strate"ies there are links to other 1eb pa"es 1ith more complete explanations and advice &or use. This is a "ood pa"e i& you have heard o& a strate"y but 1ant to &ind out its de&inition quickly. N(((.olc.spsd.s8.ca)D!)PD)instr)alpha.htmlO Like the 1eb pa"e above, this one also describes instructional strate"ies. %t includes &e1er <about 300=, but they are discussed in more detail and or"ani2ed accordin" to ma/or cate"ories or types o& strate"iesKa "ood &eature i& you have a "eneral idea o& 1hat sort o& strate"y you are lookin" &or, but are not sure o& precisely 1hich one.
'ey terms
Advance or"ani2ers Al"orithms Analo"ical thinkin" Collaborative learnin" Concept map Conver"ent thinkin" Cooperative learnin" Creative thinkin" Critical thinkin" *iver"ent thinkin" #&&ective teachin" model Freeloadin" Functional &ixedness 6euristics %ll$structured problem %ndependent study %nstructional strate"ies Lectures )astery learnin" Cverspeciali2ation ,roblem analysis ,roblem representation ,roblem$solvin" -esponse set (el&$re&lection (tudent$centered models o& learnin" Teacher$directed instruction Trans&er 5ell$structured problem 5orkin" back1ard classroom. 7everly 6ills, CA (a"e.
-e&erences
Aronson, #. <3008=. ,n the $igsa 7enson, 7. P 7arnett, (. <300A=. Student3led conferencing using sho case *ortfolios. Thousand Caks, CA Cor1in ,ress. 7lack, ,., 6arrison, C., Lee C., )arshall, 7., P 5illiam, *. <300F=. 5orkin" inside the black box Assessment &or learnin" in the classroom. Phi !elta Ka**an, A:<8=, D$38. 7othmer, (. <3003=. Creating the *eacea%le classroom. Tuscon, A0 0ephyr ,ress. 7ritt, T. <300A=. #&&ects o& identity$relevance and task di&&iculty on task motivation, stress, and per&ormance. @otivation and Emotion, CF<3=, 8D9$303. 7rophy, +. <300F=. @otivating students to learn, Cnd edition. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. 7ro1n, *. <300F=. 4rban teachersJ pro&essed classroom mana"ement strate"ies -e&lections o& culturally responsive teachin". Ir%an Education, ;F<3=, 3::$3D9.
30:
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 7rook&ield, (. <300:=. The s#illful teacher" 8n techni&ue, trust, and res*onsiveness in the classroom, Cnd edition. (an Francisco +ossey$7ass. Chesebro, +. <3003=. #&&ects o& teacher clarity and nonverbal immediacy on student learnin", receiver apprehension, and a&&ect. Communication Education, ?C<3=, 83A$8F;. Cooper, ,. P (imonds, C. <3003=. Communication for the classroom teacher, =th edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. Cronbach, L. P (no1, -. <89;;=. A*titudes and instructional methods" A hand%oo# for research on interaction. Be1 Mork %rvin"ton. Crutsin"er, C., 'ni"ht, *., P 'inley. <300A=. Learnin" style pre&erences %mplications &or 5eb$based instruction. Clothing and Te4tiles Research Journal, C;<F=, 3::$3;:. *avidson, +. P 5ood, C. <300F=. A con&lict resolution model. Theory into Practice, >;<8=, :$83. #mmer, #. P (tou"h, L. <3008=. Classroom mana"ement A critical part o& educational psycholo"y, 1ith implications &or teacher education. Educational Psychologist, ;:<3=, 803$883. .ibbs, +. <3003=. @oral develo*ment and reality" +eyond the theories of Kohl%erg and 9offman. Thousand Caks, CA (a"e. .ood, T. P 7rophy, +. <3003=. 2oo#ing in classrooms, Fth edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. .ordon, T. <3003=. Teacher effectiveness training. Be1 Mork Three -ivers ,ress. .uerrero, L. P Floyd, '. <300A=. 0onver%al communication in close relationshi*s. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. 6a1kins, +. <300:=. Accessin" multicultural issues throu"h critical thinkin", critical inquiry, and the student research process. Ir%an Education, >B<3=, 8:9$8F8. 6eimann , ). (trid, '., (mith , L., T/us , T., 4lvund , (. P )elt2o&&, A. <300:=. #xplorin" the relation bet1een memory, "estural communication, and the emer"ence o& lan"ua"e in in&ancy a lon"itudinal study. ,nfant and Child !evelo*ment, 8A<3=, 333$3F9. 6unter, -. <300F=. @adeline 9unterLs @astery Teaching, Revised Edition. Thousand Caks, CA Cor1in ,ress. +ones, T. <300F=. Con&lict resolution education The &ield, the &indin"s, and the &uture. Conflict Resolution Uuarterly, CC<8$3=, 333$3:;. +ones, G. P +ones, L. <300:=. Com*rehensive classroom management" Creating communities of su**ort and solving *ro%lems, :th edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. 'at2, L. <3000=. Engaging childrenLs minds" The *ro$ect a**roach. Bor1ood, B+ Ablex ,ublishers. 'ohn, A. <300:=. +eyond disci*line" 7rom com*liance to community. -eston, GA Association &or (upervision and Curriculum *evelopment. 'ounin, +. <89;0=. !isci*line and grou* management in classrooms. Be1 Mork 6olt, -inehart P 5inston.
30;
A .lobal Text
". #acilitating comple$ thin%ing Lyman, F. T. <89D8=. The responsive classroom discussion The inclusion o& all students. %n A. Anderson <#d.=, @ainstreaming !igest <pp. 809$883=. Colle"e ,ark 4niversity o& )aryland ,ress. )arks, L. <3003=. %nstructional mana"ement tips &or teachers o& students 1ith autism$spectrum disorder. Teaching E4ce*tional Children, ;?<F=, A0$AF. )arsh, A., #l&enbein, 6. P Ambady, B. <3003=. Bonverbal HaccentsH cultural di&&erences in &acial expressions o& emotion. Psychological Science, B><3=, 3;3$3;:. )ar2ano, -. P )ar2ano, +. <300F=. The key to classroom mana"ement. Educational 2eadershi*, :C, pp. 3$;. )cCa&&erty, (., +acobs, .., P %ddin"s, (. <#ds.=. <300:=. Coo*erative learning and second language teaching. Be1 Mork Cambrid"e 4niversity ,ress. )orit2, +. P Christie, A. <300A=. %tJs elementary 4sin" elementary port&olios 1ith youn" students. %n C. Cra1&ord <#d.=, Proceedings of the Society for ,nformation Technology and Teacher Education ,nternational Conference C<<? <pp. 8FF$8A8=. Chesapeake, GA Association &or the Advancement o& Computin" in #ducation. Bations, (. P 7oyett, (. <3003=. So much stuff, so little s*ace" Creating and managing the learner3centered classroom. .ainesville, FL )aupin 6ouse. ,eterson, T. <300F=. (o youJre thinkin" o& tryin" problem$based learnin"? Three critical success &actors &or implementation. Journal of @anagement Education, CA<A=, :30$:F;. -eynolds, A. <8993=. 5hat is competent be"innin" teachin"? Revie of Educational Research, :C<8=, 8$3A.
(lavin. -. <899F=. Coo*erative learning, Cnd edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. (no1, -. <89D9=. Aptitude$treatment interaction as a &rame1ork &or research on individual di&&erences in learnin". %n ,. Ackerman, -. (ternber", P -. .laser <#ds.=, 2earning and individual differences, pp. 83$ :0. Be1 Mork 5. 6. Freeman. (ternber", -. P .ri"orenko, #. <300F=. (uccess&ul intelli"ence in the classroom. Theory into Practice, >;<F=, 3;F$3D0. (tevens, 7. P Tolla&ield, A. <3003=. Creatin" com&ortable and productive parentUteacher con&erences. Phi !elta Ka**an, A><;=, A38$A3A. (ti""ins, -. P Chappuis, +. <300A=. 4sin" student$involved classroom assessment to close achievement "aps. Theory into Practice >><8=, 88$8D. Thorson, (. <3003=. 2istening to students" Reflections on secondary classroom management. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. Turiel, #. <300:=. The development o& morality. %n 5. *amon, -. Lerner, P B. #isenber" <#ds.=, 9and%oo# of child *sychology, vol. ;, **. =AF3A?=. Be1 Mork 5iley. Gan )eerionboer, +., 'irschner, ,., P 'ester, L. <3003=. Takin" the co"nitive load o&& a learnerJs mind %nstructional desi"n &or complex learnin". Educational Psychologist, ;A<8=, A$83.
30D
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 5hite, C. <300A=. (tudent port&olios An alternative 1ay o& encoura"in" and evaluatin" student learnin". %n ). Achacoso P B. (vinicki <#ds.=, Alternative Strategies for Evaluating Student 2earning <pp. 3;$F3=. (an Francisco +ossey$7ass. 5einstein, C.,Tomlinson$Clarke, (., P Curran, ). <300F=. To1ard a conception o& culturally responsive classroom mana"ement. Journal of Teacher Education, ??<8=, 3A$3D.
309
A .lobal Text
1@. Planning instruction

',f you don(t #no here you(re going, you could end u* some*lace else.) 1Casey Stengel) Casey Stengel, a much3admired %ase%all coach, as tal#ing a%out %ase%all hen he made this hat these are and to remar#. +ut he could easily have %een s*ea#ing of teaching as ell. Almost %y definition, education
has *ur*oses, goals, and o%$ectives, and a central tas# of teaching is to #no
transform the most general goals into s*ecific o%$ectives and tas#s for students. 8ther ise, as Casey Stengel said, students may end u* 'some*lace else) that neither they, nor the teacher, nor anyone else intends. A lot of the clarification and s*ecification of goals needs to ha**en %efore a cycle of instruction actually %egins, %ut the %enefits of *lanning ha**en throughout all *hases of teaching. ,f students #no *recisely hat they are su**osed to learn, they can focus their attention and effort hat students are su**osed to learn, then the teacher more effectively. ,f the teacher #no s *recisely fair and valid. ,n the long run everyone %enefits. This chapter is there&ore about instructional planning/ the systematic selection o& educational "oals and ob/ectives and their desi"n &or use in the classroom. 5e 1ill divide this idea into &our parts, and discuss them one at a time. First is the problem o& selectin" "eneral "oals to teachI 1here can a teacher &ind these, and 1hat do they look like? (econd is the problem o& trans&ormin" "oals into speci&ic ob/ectives, or statements concrete enou"h to "uide daily activity in classI 1hat 1ill students actually do or say into order to learn 1hat a teacher 1ants them to learn? Third is the problem o& balancin" and relatin" "oals and ob/ectives to each otherI since 1e may 1ant students to learn numerous "oals, ho1 can 1e combine or inte"rate them so that the overall classroom pro"ram does not become &ra"mented or biased? Fourth is the challen"e o& relatin" instructional "oals to studentsJ prior experiences and kno1led"e. 5e have discussed this challen"e be&ore &rom the perspective o& learnin" theory <in Chapter 3=, but in this chapter 1e look at it &rom the more practical perspective o& curriculum plannin".
can ma#e %etter use of class time and choose and design assessments of their learning that are more
Selecting general learning goals

At the most "eneral or abstract level, the "oals o& education include important philosophical ideas like >developin" individuals to their &ullest potential@ and >preparin" students to be productive members o& society@. Fe1 teachers 1ould disa"ree 1ith these ideas in principle, thou"h they mi"ht disa"ree about their 1ordin" or about their relative importance. As a practical matter, ho1ever, teachers mi"ht have trouble translatin" such "eneralities into speci&ic lesson plans or activities &or the next dayJs class. 5hat does it mean, concretely, to >develop an individual to his or her &ullest potential@? *oes it mean, &or example, that a lan"ua"e arts teacher should ask students to 1rite an essay about their personal interests, or does it mean that the teacher should help students learn to 1rite as 1ell as possible on any topic, even ones that are not o& immediate interest? 5hat exactly should a teacher do, &rom day to day, to >prepare students to be productive members o& society@ as 1ell? Ans1ers to
380
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction questions like these are needed to plan instruction e&&ectively. 7ut the ans1ers are not obvious simply by examinin" statements o& "eneral educational "oals.
Bational and state learnin" standards

(ome <but not all= o& the 1ork o& trans&ormin" such "eneral purposes into more precise teachin" "oals and even more precise ob/ectives has been per&ormed by broad 4( or"ani2ations that represent educators and other experts about particular sub/ects or types o& teachin" <-iley, 3003=. The "roups have proposed national standards, 1hich are summaries o& 1hat students can reasonably be expected to learn at particular "rade levels and in particular sub/ects areas. %n the 4nited (tates, in addition, all state "overnments create state standards that serve much the same purpose they express 1hat students in the state should <and hope&ully can= learn at all "rade levels and in all sub/ects. #xamples o& or"ani2ations that provide national standards are listed in Table 3;, and examples o& state standards are listed in Table 3D &or one particular state, Chio, in the area o& lan"ua"e arts. Table 3; Cr"ani2ations 1ith statements o& 4( educational standards Sub ect #n"lish and Lan"ua"e Arts 2rgani1ation Council o& Teachers o& #n"lish American Council on the Teachin" o& Forei"n Lan"ua"es )athematics ,hysical #ducation and 6ealth Bational Council o& Teachers o& )athematics Bational Association &or (port and ,hysical #ducation American Cancer (ociety (cience Bational Academies o& (cience American Association &or the Advancement o& (cience (ocial (tudies Bational Council &or the (ocial (tudies Center &or Civic #ducation Bational Council on #conomic #ducation Bational .eo"raphic (ociety Bational Center &or 6istory in the (chools Technolo"y 2ther Speciali1ed Standards Statements$ %nternational (ociety &or Technolo"y in #ducation
388
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License American %ndian Content (tandards Center &or #ducational Technolo"y in %ndian America #thical (tandards &or (chool Counselors %n&ormation Literacy (tandards 7usiness #ducation ,arent #ducation and %nvolvement American (chool Counselors Association American Association o& (chool Librarians Bational 7usiness #ducation Association ,arent$Teacher Association <,TA=
Source" Qhttp UU111.education$1orld.comUstandardsR, accessed *ecember A, 300:. (ummaries o& all o& these standards, as 1ell as access to the relevant 1eb pa"es o& the correspondin" or"ani2ations, can be &ound at this 1ebsite. 7ecause standards are revised continually, and because o& the dynamic nature o& 1ebsites, the in&ormation may di&&er sli"htly &rom the above 1hen you actually access it.
Table 3D #xamples o& state curriculum standards about lan"ua"e arts 0rade=level$ 'inder"arten$.rade 3 -ead accurately hi"h$ &requency si"ht 1ords. .rade F$; %n&er 1ord meanin" throu"h identi&ication and analysis o& analo"ies and other 1ord relationships. .rade D$80 -eco"ni2e the importance and &unction o& &i"urative lan"ua"e. Classroom e"ample$ ,lay a "ame >6o1 many 1ords can you see around the classroom that you can read already?@ 6ave students keep a /ournal o& un&amiliar 1ords 1hich they encounter and o& 1hat they think the 1ords mean. 6ave students 1rite a brie& essay explainin" the meanin" o& a common &i"ure o& speech, and speculatin" on 1hy it became common usa"e. .rade 88$83 Geri&y meanin"s o& 1ords by the authorJs use o& de&inition, restatement, example, comparison, contrast and cause and e&&ect. 6ave students analy2e an essay that includes un&amiliar terms usin" clues in the essay to determine their meanin".
Source for standards" Chio *epartment o& #ducation, 3003, p. 30$38
7ecause they &ocus on "rade levels and sub/ect areas, "eneral statements o& educational standards tend to be a bit more speci&ic than the broader philosophical "oals 1e discussed above. As a rule o& thumb, too, state standards tend to be more comprehensive than national standards, both in covera"e o& "rade levels and o& sub/ects. The di&&erence re&lects the broad responsibility o& states in the 4nited (tates &or all aspects o& public educationI national or"ani2ations, in contrast, usually assume responsibility only &or a particular sub/ect area or particular "roup o& students. #ither type o& standards provides a &irst step, ho1ever, to1ard trans&ormin" the "randest purposes o& schoolin" <like developin" the individual or preparin" &or society= into practical classroom activities. 7ut they provide a &irst step only. )ost statements o& standards do not make numerous or detailed su""estions o& actual
383
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction activities or tasks &or students, thou"h some mi"ht include brie& classroom examplesKenou"h to clari&y the meanin" o& a standard, but not enou"h to plan an actual classroom pro"ram &or extended periods o& time. For these latter purposes, teachers rely on more the detailed documents, the ones o&ten called curriculum frame or#s and curriculum guides.
Curriculum &rame1orks and curriculum "uides

The terms curriculum frame or# and curriculum guide sometimes are used almost interchan"eably, but &or convenience 1e 1ill use them to re&er to t1o distinct kinds o& documents. The more "eneral o& the t1o is curriculum frame(or8, 1hich is a document that explains ho1 content standards can or should be or"ani2ed &or a particular sub/ect and at various "rade levels. (ometimes this in&ormation is re&erred to as the scope and se6uence &or a curriculum. A curriculum &rame1ork document is like a standards statement in that it does not usually provide a lot o& detailed su""estions &or daily teachin". %t di&&ers &rom a standards statement, thou"h, in that it analy2es each "eneral standard in a curriculum into more speci&ic skills that students need to learn, o&ten a do2en or more per standard. The lan"ua"e or terminolo"y o& a &rame1ork statement also tends to be some1hat more concrete than a standards statement, in the sense that it is more likely to name behaviors o& studentsKthin"s that a teacher mi"ht see them do or hear them say. (ometimes, but not al1ays, it may su""est 1ays &or assessin" 1hether students have in &act acquired each skill listed in the document. Table 39 sho1s a pa"e &rom a curriculum &rame1ork published by the Cali&ornia (tate 7oard o& #ducation <Curriculum *evelopment and (upplemental )aterials Committee, 8999=. %n this case the &rame1ork explains the state standards &or learnin" to read, and the excerpt in Table 39 illustrates ho1 one particular standard, that >students speak and 1rite 1ith command o& #n"lish conventions appropriate to this "rade level@, is broken into nine more speci&ic skills. Bote that the excerpt names observable behaviors o& students <1hat they do or say=I 1e 1ill discuss this &eature a"ain, more &ully, in the next part o& this chapter, because it is help&ul in classroom plannin". %n spite o& this &eature, thou"h, the &rame1ork document does not lay out detailed activity plans that a teacher could use on a daily basis. <Thou"h even so, it is over 300 pa"es lon"L= Table 39 An excerpt &rom readin"Ulan"ua"e arts &rame1ork &or Cali&ornia public schools Comments$ <ritten and oral !nglish language conventions/ third grade )ore "eneral standards statement (tudents 1rite and speak 1ith a command o& standard #n"lish conventions appropriate to this "rade level. )ore speci&ic or concrete &rame1ork statements <stated as relatively speci&ic skills or behaviors= (entence (tructure 8.8 4nderstand and be able to use complete and correct declarative, interro"ative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences in 1ritin" and speakin". .rammar
383
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 8.3 %denti&y sub/ects and verbs that are in a"reement and identi&y and use pronouns, ad/ectives, compound 1ords, and articles correctly in 1ritin" and speakin". 8.3 %denti&y and use past, present, and &uture verb tenses properly in 1ritin" and speakin". 8.F %denti&y and use sub/ects and verbs correctly in speakin" and 1ritin" simple sentences. ,unctuation 8.A ,unctuate dates, city and state, and titles o& books correctly. 8.: 4se commas in dates, locations, and addresses and &or items in a series. Capitali2ation 8.; Capitali2e "eo"raphical names, holidays, historical periods, and special events correctly. (pellin" 8.D (pell correctly one$syllable 1ords that have blends, contractions, compounds, ortho"raphic patters, and common homophones. 8.9 Arran"e 1ords in alphabetical order.
TeachersJ need &or detailed activity su""estions is more likely to be met by a curriculum guide/ a document devoted to "raphic descriptions o& activities that &oster or encoura"e the speci&ic skills explained in a curriculum &rame1ork document. The descriptions may mention or list curriculum "oals served by an activity, but they are also likely to speci&y materials that a teacher needs, time requirements, requirements &or "roupin" students, dra1in"s or dia"rams o& key equipment or materials, and sometimes even su""estions &or 1hat to say to students at di&&erent points durin" the activity. %n these 1ays the descriptions may resemble lesson plans. (ince classroom activities o&ten support more than one speci&ic skill, activities in a curriculum "uide may be or"ani2ed di&&erently than they mi"ht be in a &rame1ork document. %nstead o& hi"hli"htin" only one standard at a time, as the &rame1ork document mi"ht, activities may be "rouped more looselyK&or example, accordin" to the dominant purpose or "oal o& an activity <>Activities that encoura"e the practice o& math &acts@= or accordin" to a dominant piece o& equipment or material <>Ten activities 1ith tin cans@=. Table 30 sho1s a description o& a Educational Psychology
38F
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction kinder"arten$level activity about >autumn leaves@ that mi"ht appear in a curriculum "uide. Bote that the activity meets several educational ob/ectives at onceKtracin" shapes, kno1led"e o& leaves and o& colors, descriptive lan"ua"e skill. #ach o& these skills may re&lect a di&&erent curriculum standard. Table 30 (ample curriculum "uide activity Curriculum "uides provide "raphic descriptions o& activities that can be used &airly directly in the classroom. Althou"h they are relevant to standards and &rame1ork statements, they o&ten are not or"ani2ed around standards and ob/ectives as such. Activity Autumn Leaves Level 'inder"arten Themes and Curriculum Connections trees, autumn, color namin", color comparisons, si2e comparisons, &unctions o& leaves, "ro1th, the li&e cycle. (ee also (tandards Oxx$yy. 7est time to do it Fall <Cctober=, or 1henever leaves are available )aterials needed <8= small paper <: x : inches=I <3= access to leavesI <3= 1hite "lueI <F= &elt pens or colored pencils 5hat to do .ive one piece o& the small paper to each child. %nvite children to color the sheet so that the entire sheet is decorated. %nvite children to choose one lea&. ,lace lea& under the colored <decorated= paper and trace the shape o& the lea& li"htly in pencil. Then invite children to cut out the colored paper in the shape that has been traced o& the lea&. Cautions <8= (ome children may need individual help 1ith tracin" or cuttin". <3= Try to use leaves that are still some1hat pliable, because some very old leaves <dried out= may crumble 1hen traced. Thin"s to talk about Are some leaves bi""er than others? *o they chan"e shape as they "ro1, or only their si2e? 6o1 do leaves bene&it trees? 6o1 many di&&erent colors can real leaves be?
>ormulating learning objectives

.iven curriculum &rame1orks and "uides like the ones /ust described, ho1 do you choose and &ormulate actual learnin" ob/ectives? 7asically there are t1o approaches either start by selectin" content or topics that 1hat you 1ant students to kno1 <the co"nitive approach= or start 1ith 1hat you 1ant students to do <the behavioral approach=. %n e&&ect the co"nitive approach moves &rom the "eneral to the speci&ic, and the behavioral approach does the opposite. #ach approach has advocates, as 1ell as inherent stren"ths and problems. %n practice, teachers o&ten combine or alternate bet1een them in order to "ive students some o& the advanta"es o& each.
From "eneral to speci&ic selectin" content topics

The co"nitive approach assumes that teachers normally have a number o& lon"$term, "eneral "oals &or students, and it be"ins 1ith those "oals. %t also assumes that each student 1ork to1ard lon"$term, "eneral "oals alon" 38A
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License di&&erent path1ays and usin" di&&erent styles o& learnin". 7ecause o& these assumptions, it is necessary to name indicators/ 1hich are examples o& speci&ic behaviors by 1hich students mi"ht sho1 success at reachin" a "eneral learnin" "oal. 7ut it is neither desirable nor possible &or a list o& indicators to be completeKonly &or it to be representative <.ronlund, 300F=. Consider this example &rom teachin" middle$school biolo"y. For this sub/ect you mi"ht have a "eneral "oal like the &ollo1in", 1ith accompanyin" indicators Koal" The student ,ndicators" 8. explains the purpose o& photosynthesis and steps in the process ill understand the nature and *ur*ose of *hotosynthesis.
3. dia"rams steps in the chemical process 3. describes ho1 plant photosynthesis a&&ects the animal 1orld F. 1rites a plan &or ho1 to test leaves &or presence o& photosynthesis A. makes an oral presentation and explains ho1 the experiment 1as conducted
4sin" a strictly co"nitive approach to plannin", there&ore, a teacherJs /ob has t1o parts. First she must identi&y, &ind, or choose a mana"eable number o& "eneral "oalsKperhaps /ust a hal& do2en or so. <(ometimes these can be taken or adapted &rom a curriculum &rame1ork document such as discussed earlier.= Then the teacher must think o& a hand&ul o& speci&ic examples or behavioral indicators &or each "oalK/ust a hal& do2en or so o& these as 1ell. The behavioral indicators clari&y the meanin" o& the "eneral "oal, but are not meant to be the only 1ay that students mi"ht sho1 success at learnin". Then, at last, thou"ht&ul plannin" &or individual lessons or activities can be"in. This approach 1orks especially 1ell &or learnin" "oals that are relatively lon"$termK"oals that take many lessons, days, or 1eeks to reach. *urin" such lon" periods o& teachin", it is impossible to speci&y the exact, detailed behaviors that every student can or should display to prove that he or she has reached a "eneral "oal. %t is possible, ho1ever, to speci&y "eneral directions to1ard 1hich all students should &ocus their learnin" and to explain the nature o& the "oals 1ith a sample o& 1ell$chosen indicators or examples <,opham, 3003=. The co"nitive, "eneral$to$speci&ic approach is reasonable on the &ace o& it, and in &act probably describes ho1 many teachers think about their instructional plannin". 7ut critics have ar"ued that indicators used as examples may not in &act clari&y the "eneral "oal enou"hI students there&ore end up unexpectedlyKas Casey (ten"el said at the start o& this chapterK>someplace else@. .iven the "eneral "oal o& understandin" photosynthesis described above, &or example, ho1 are 1e to kno1 1hether the &ive indicators that are listed really allo1 a teacher to "rasp the &ull meanin" o& the "oal? ,ut di&&erently, ho1 else mi"ht a student sho1 understandin" o& photosynthesis, and ho1 is a teacher to kno1 that a studentJs achievement is s a le"itimate display o& understandin"? To some educators, "raspin" the meanin" o& "oals &rom indicators is not as obvious as it should be, and in any case is prone to misunderstandin". The solution, they say, is not to start plannin" 1ith "eneral "oals, but 1ith speci&ic behaviors that identi&y studentsJ success.
38:
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction
From speci&ic to "eneral behavioral ob/ectives

Compared to the co"nitive approach, the behavioral approach to instructional plannin" reverses the steps in plannin". %nstead o& startin" 1ith "eneral "oal statements accompanied by indicator examples, it starts 1ith the identi&ication o& speci&ic behaviorsKconcrete actions or 1ordsKthat students should per&orm or display as a result o& instruction <)a"er, 300A=. Collectively, the speci&ic behaviors may describe a more "eneral educational "oal, but unlike the indicators used in the co"nitive approach, they are not a mere samplin" o& the possible speci&ic outcomes. %nstead they represent all the intended speci&ic outcomes. Consider this samplin" o& behavioral ob/ectives 8%$ectives" 2earning to use in3line roller %lade s#ates 1%eginning level) 8. (tudent ties boots on correctly.
3. (tudent puts on sa&ety "ear correctly, includin" helmet, knee and elbo1 pads. 3. (tudent skates 8A meters on level "round 1ithout &allin". F. (tudent stops on demand 1ithin a three meter distance, 1ithout &allin". The ob/ectives listed are not merely a representative sample o& ho1 students can demonstrate success 1ith roller$bladin". %nstead they are behaviors that every student should acquire in order to meet the "oal o& usin" roller blades as a be"inner. There simply are no other 1ays to display learnin" o& this "oalI "ettin" 800 per cent on a 1ritten test about roller bladin", &or example, 1ould not quali&y as success 1ith this "oal, thou"h it mi"ht sho1 success at some other "oal, such as verbal kno1led"e about roller bladin". #ven addin" other skatin" behaviors <like >(tudent skates back1ards@ or >(tudent skates in circles@= mi"ht not quali&y as success 1ith this particular "oal, because it could reasonably be ar"ued that the additional skatin" behaviors are about skatin" at an advanced level, not a be"innin" level. %n the most commonly used version o& this approach, ori"inated by -obert )a"er <89:3, 300A=, a "ood behavioral ob/ective should have three &eatures. First, it should speci&y a behavior that can in &act be observed. %n practice this usually means identi&yin" somethin" that a student does or says, not somethin" a student thinks or &eels. Compare the &ollo1in" examplesI the one on the le&t names a behavior to be per&ormed, but the one on the ri"ht names a thinkin" process that cannot, in principle, be seen *ehavioral ob ective The student 1ill make a list o& animal species that species that live in the 1ater but do not require air to breathe. The second &eature o& a "ood behavioral ob/ective is that it describes conditions o& per&ormance o& the behavior. 5hat are the special circumstances to be provided 1hen the student per&orms the ob/ective? Consider these t1o examples Special condition of performance is specified .iven a list o& A0 species, the student 1ill circle those that live in 1ater but breathe air and underline those 4 special condition of performance is not specified A&ter three days o& instruction, the student 1ill Not behavioral ob ect The student 1ill understand the di&&erence bet1een
live in the 1ater but breathe air and a separate list o& &ish and mammals that live in the 1ater.
38;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License that live in 1ater but do not breathe air. identi&y species that live in 1ater but breathe air, as 1ell as species that live in 1ater but do not breathe air. The ob/ective on the le&t names a special condition o& per&ormanceKthat the student 1ill be "iven a particular kind o& list to 1ork &romK1hich is not part o& the instruction itsel&. The ob/ective on the ri"ht appears to name a conditionK>three days o& instruction@. 7ut the condition really describes 1hat the teacher 1ill do <she 1ill instruct=, not somethin" speci&ic to studentsJ per&ormance. The third &eature o& a "ood behavioral ob/ective is that it speci&ies a minimum level or de"ree o& acceptable per&ormance. Consider these t1o examples Specifies minimum level .iven a list o& A0 species, the student 1ill circle all o& Does not specify minimum level The student 1ill circle names o& species that live in
those that live in 1ater but breathe air and underline all 1ater but breathe air and underline those that live in o& those that live in 1ater but do not breathe air. The 1ater but do not breathe air. student 1ill do so 1ithin &i&teen minutes. The ob/ective on the le&t speci&ies a level o& per&ormanceK800 per cent accuracy 1ithin 8A minutes. The ob/ective on the ri"ht leaves this in&ormation out <and incidentally it also omits the condition o& per&ormance mentioned on the le&t=. 7ehavioral ob/ectives have obvious advanta"es because o& their clarity and precision. They seem especially 1ell suited &or learnin" that by their nature they can be spelled out explicitly and &ully, such as 1hen a student is learnin" to drive a car, to use sa&ety equipment in a science laboratory, or install and run a particular computer pro"ram. )ost o& these "oals, as it happens, also tend to have relatively short learnin" cycles, meanin" that they can be learned as a result o& /ust one lesson or activity, or o& /ust a short series o& them at most. (uch "oals tend not to include the lar"er, more abstract "oals o& education. %n practice, both kinds o& "oalsK the "eneral and the speci&icK &orm a lar"e part o& education at all "rade levels.
Findin" the best in both approaches

5hen it comes to teachin" and learnin" the lar"e or ma/or "oals, then, behavioral ob/ectives can seem un1ieldy. 6o1, a teacher mi"ht ask, can you spell out all o& the behaviors involved in a "eneral "oal like %ecoming a good citi/en- 6o1 could you name in advance the numerous conditions under 1hich "ood citi2enship mi"ht be displayed, or the minimum acceptable level o& "ood citi2enship expected in each condition? (peci&yin" these &eatures seems impractical at best, and at times even undesirable ethically or philosophically. <5ould 1e really 1ant any students to become >minimum citi2ens@?= 7ecause o& these considerations, many teachers &ind it sensible to compromise bet1een the co"nitive and behavioral approaches. 6ere are some &eatures that are o&ten part o& a compromise
5hen plannin", think about 7CT6 lon"$term, "eneral "oals AB* short$term, immediate ob/ectives. A
thorou"h, balanced look at most school curricula sho1s that they are concerned 1ith the "eneral as 1ell as the speci&ic. %n teachin" elementary math, &or example, you may 1ant students to learn "eneral problem solvin" strate"ies <a "eneral "oal=, but you may also 1ant them to learn speci&ic math &acts <a speci&ic ob/ective=. %n teachin" (hakespeareJs plays in hi"h school, you may 1ant students to be able to compare the Educational Psychology
38D
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction plays critically <a "eneral "oal=, but doin" so may require that they learn details about the characters and plots o& the ma/or plays <a speci&ic ob/ective=. (ince "eneral "oals usually take lon"er to reach than speci&ic ob/ectives, instructional plannin" has to include both time &rames.
,lan &or 1hat students do, not 1hat the teacher does. This idea may seem obvious, but it is easy to overlook
it 1hen devisin" lesson plans. Consider that example a"ain about teachin" (hakespeare. %& you 1ant students to learn the details about (hakespeareJs plays, it is temptin" to plan ob/ectives like >(ummari2e the plot o& each play to students@, or >5rite and hand out to students an outline o& the plays@. 4n&ortunately these ob/ectives describe only 1hat the teacher does, and makes the assumption <o&ten un1arranted= that students 1ill remember 1hat the teacher says or puts in 1ritin" &or them. A better version o& the same ob/ective should &ocus on the actions o& students, not o& teachersK&or example, >(tudents 1ill 1rite a summary, &rom memory, o& each o& the ma/or plays o& (hakespeare@. This version &ocuses on 1hat students do instead o& 1hat the teacher does. <C& course you may still have to devise activities that help students to reach the ob/ective, such as providin" "uided practice in 1ritin" summaries o& plays.=
To insure diversity o& "oals and ob/ectives 1hen plannin", consider or"ani2in" "oals and ob/ectives by usin"
a systematic classi&ication scheme o& educational ob/ectives. At the be"innin" o& this section 1e stated that there is a need, 1hen devisin" "oals and ob/ectives, &or both the speci&ic and the "eneral. Actually a more accurate statement is that there is a need &or "oals and ob/ectives that re&er to a variety o& co"nitive processes and that have varyin" de"rees o& speci&icity or "enerality. Cne 1idely used classi&ication scheme that does so, &or example, is one proposed A0 years a"o by 7en/amin 7loom <89A:= and revised recently by his associates <Anderson P 'rath1ohl, 3008=. 5e describe this system, called a taxonomy o& ob/ectives, in the next section.
Taxonomies o& educational ob/ectives

5hen educators have proposed taxonomies o& educational ob/ectives, they have tended to &ocus on one o& three areas or domains o& psycholo"ical &unctionin" either studentsJ co"nition <thou"ht=, studentsJ &eelin"s and emotions <a&&ect=, or studentsJ physical skills <psychomotor abilities=. C& these three areas, they have tended to &ocus the most attention on co"nition. The taxonomy ori"inated by 7en/amin 7loom, &or example, deals entirely 1ith co"nitive outcomes o& instruction.
+loom(s Ta4onomy"
%n its ori"inal &orm, *loom%s 3a"onomy o& educational ob/ectives re&erred to &orms o& co"nition or thinkin", 1hich 1ere divided into the six levels <7loom, et al., 89A:=. Table 38 summari2es the levels, and o&&ers t1o kinds o& examplesKsimple ones based on the childrenJs story, Koldiloc#s and the Three +ears, and complex ones more typical o& "oals and ob/ectives used in classrooms. The levels &orm a loose hierarchy &rom simple to complex thinkin", at least 1hen applied to some sub/ects and topics. 5hen plannin" &or these sub/ects it can there&ore be help&ul not only &or insurin" diversity amon" learnin" ob/ectives, but also &or sequencin" materials. %n learnin" about "eo"raphy, &or example, it may sometimes make sense to be"in 1ith in&ormation about speci&ic places or societies <kno1led"e and comprehension=, and 1ork "radually to1ard comparisons and assessments amon" the places or societies <analysis and synthesis=. Table 38 7loomJs Taxonomy o& ob/ectives co"nitive domain 389
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 3ype or level of learning Kno(ledge$ recall o& in&ormation, 1hether it is simple or complex in nature Simple e"ample >Bame three thin"s that .oldilocks did in the house o& the three bears.@ Classroom e"ample >List all o& the planets o& the solar system.@ >(tate &ive key &eatures o& li&e in the middle a"es.@ Comprehension$ "raspin" the meanin" o& in&ormation, by interpretin" it or translatin" it &rom one &orm to another >#xplain 1hy .oldilocks pre&erred the little bearJs chair.@ >Convert the &ollo1in" arithmetic 1ord problem to a mathematical equation.@ >*escribe ho1 plants contribute to the 1el&are o& animal li&e.@ 4pplication$ usin" in&ormation in ne1, concrete situations >,redict some o& the thin"s .oldilocks mi"ht have used i& she had entered your house.@ >%llustrate ho1 positive rein&orcement mi"ht a&&ect the behavior o& a pet do".@ >4se examples &rom the plot to illustrate the theme o& novel.@ 4nalysis$ breakin" in&ormation into its components to understand its structure >(elect the part o& Koldiloc#s and the Three +ears 1here you think .oldilocks &elt most com&ortable.@ >Compare the behavior o& domestic do"s 1ith the behavior o& 1olves.@ >*ia"ram the e&&ects o& 1eather patterns on plant metabolism.@ Synthesis$ puttin" parts o& 1hole >Tell ho1 the story 1ould have &ishes.@ >*esi"n an experiment to test the e&&ects o& "ravity on root "ro1th.@ >5rite an account o& ho1 humans 1ould be di&&erent i& li&e had ori"inated on )ars instead o& #arth.@ !valuation$ /ud"in" the value o& in&ormation &or a particular purpose >+usti&y this statement Koldiloc#s as a %ad girl.) >Appraise the relevance o& the novel &or modern li&e.@ >Assess the value o& in&ormation processin" theory &or plannin" instruction.@
in&ormation to"ether into a coherent been di&&erent i& it had been three
330
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction (uch a sequence does not 1ork 1ell, ho1ever, &or all possible topics or sub/ects. To learn certain topics in mathematics, &or example, students may sometimes need to start 1ith "eneral ideas <like >5hat does it mean to multiply?@= than 1ith speci&ic &acts <like >6o1 much is F x :?@= <#"an, 300A=. At other times, thou"h, the reverse sequence may be pre&erable. 5hatever the case, a taxonomy o& co"nitive ob/ectives, like 7loomJs, can help to remind teachers to set a variety o& ob/ectives and to avoid relyin" excessively on /ust one level, such as simple recall o& &actual kno1led"e <Botar, et al., 300F=.
+loom(s Ta4onomy revised

A &e1 years a"o t1o o& 7en/amin 7loomJs ori"inal collea"ues, Linda Anderson and *avid 'rath1ohl, revised his taxonomy so as to clari&y its terms and to make it more complete <Anderson P 'rath1ohl, 3008I )ar2ano, 300:=. The resultin" cate"ories are summari2ed and compared to the ori"inal cate"ories in Table 33. As the chart sho1s, several cate"ories o& ob/ectives have been renamed and a second dimension added that describes the kind o& thinkin" or co"nitive processin" that may occur. The result is a much richer taxonomy than be&ore, since every level o& the ob/ectives can no1 take &our di&&erent &orms. Remem%ering, &or example, can re&er to &our di&&erent kinds o& memory memory &or &acts, &or concepts, &or procedures, or &or metaco"nitive kno1led"e. Table 33 "ives examples o& each o& these kinds o& memory. Table 33 7loomJs Taxonomy o& co"nitive ob/ectivesKrevised 2riginal term from *loom%s 3a"onomy +#9KL. -evised term emphasi1ing cognitive processing +200#. 4 ne( dimension added$ types of 8no(ledge learned +200#. !"ample of cognitive process remembering combined (ith possible types of 8no(ledge 'no1led"e Comprehension Application Analysis #valuation (ynthesis -ememberin" 4nderstandin" Applyin" Analy2in" #valuatin" Creatin"
&actual kno1led"e conceptual
?emory for facts$ recalling the names of each *art of a living cell ?emory for concepts$
kno1led"e
procedural
recalling the functions of each *art of a living cell ?emory for procedures$ recalling ho to vie a cell under a microsco*e ?emory for metacognition$ recallin" not the names o& the parts, but a techni&ue &or rememberin" the names o&
kno1led"e
metaco"nitive
kno1led"e
338
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License the parts o& a livin" cell Ca*tion" The revision to 7loomJs Taxonomy distin"uishes bet1een co"nitive processes <le&t$hand column in the table= and types o& kno1led"e learned <ri"ht$hand column=. The ori"inal version has terms similar to the co"nitive processin" terms in the revised version. Accordin" to the revised version, any type o& kno1led"e <&rom the ri"ht$hand column= can, in principle, occur 1ith any type o& co"nitive processin" <le&t$hand column=.
Ta4onomies of affective o%$ectives and *sychomotor o%$ectives

Althou"h taxonomies related to affect, or the &eelin"s and emotions o& students, are used less commonly than co"nitive taxonomies &or plannin" instruction, various educators have constructed them. Cne o& the most 1idely kno1n 1as also published by collea"ues o& 7en/amin 7loom and classi&ies a&&ect accordin" to ho1 committed a student &eels to1ard 1hat he is learnin" <'rath1ohl, 7loom, P )asia, 89:FU8999=. Table 33 summari2es the cate"ories and "ives brie& examples. The lo1est level, called receiving, simply involves 1illin"ness to experience ne1 kno1led"e or activities. 6i"her levels involve embracin" or adoptin" experiences in 1ays that are increasin"ly or"ani2ed and that represent increasin"ly stable &orms o& commitment. Table 33 Taxonomies o& ob/ectives a&&ective domain and psychomotor domain 4ffective domain -eceivin" 5illin"ness to attend to particular experience Psychomotor domain %mitation -epeatin" a simple action that has been demonstrated -espondin" 5illin"ness to participate actively in an experience )anipulation ,ractice o& an action that has been imitated but only learned partially
Galuin"
,erception o& experience as 1orth1hile
,recision
Tuick, smooth execution o& an action that has been practiced
Cr"ani2ation
Coordination o& valued experiences into partially coherent 1holes
Articulation
#xecution o& an action not only 1ith precision, but also 1ith modi&ications appropriate to ne1 circumstances
Characteri2ation by a
Coordination o& valued
Baturali2ation
%ncorporation o& an
333
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction value complex experiences and o& or"ani2ed sets o& experiences into a sin"le comprehensive value hierarchy action into the motor repertoire, alon" 1ith experimentation 1ith ne1 motor actions
Taxonomies related to abilities and skills that are physical, or psychomotor, have also been used less 1idely than a&&ective taxonomies, 1ith the notable exception o& one area o& teachin" 1here they are obviously relevant physical education. As you mi"ht expect, taxonomic cate"ories o& motor skills extend &rom simple, brie& actions to complex, extended action sequences that combine simpler, previously learned skills smoothly and automatically <6arro1, 89;3I (impson, 89;3=. Cne such classi&ication scheme is sho1n in Table 33. An example o& a very basic psychomotor skill mi"ht be imitatin" the action o& thro1in" a ball 1hen modeled by someone elseI an example o& the latter mi"ht be per&ormin" a 80 minute "ymnastics routine 1hich the student has devised &or himsel& or hersel&. Bote, thou"h, that many examples o& psychomotor skills also exist outside the realm o& physical education. %n a science course, &or example, a student mi"ht need to learn to operate laboratory equipment that requires usin" delicate, &ine movements. %n art classes, students mi"ht learn to dra1, and in music they mi"ht learn to play an instrument <both are partly motor skills=. )ost &irst "raders are challen"ed by the motor skills o& learnin" to 1rite. For students 1ith certain physical disabilities, &urthermore, motor skill development is an important priority &or the studentJs entire education.
Students as a source of instructional goals

(o &ar our discussion o& instructional plannin" has described "oals and ob/ectives as i& they are selected primarily by educators and teachers, and not by students themselves. The assumption may be correct in many cases, but there are problems 1ith it. Cne problem is that choosin" "oals and ob/ectives for students, rather than %y students, places a ma/or burden on everyone involved in educationKcurriculum 1riters, teachers, and students. The curriculum 1riters have to make sure that they speci&y standards, "oals, and ob/ectives that are truly important &or students to learn <1hat i& it really does not matter, &or example, 1hether a science student learns about the periodic table o& the elements?=. Teachers have to make sure that students actually become motivated to learn the speci&ied "oals and ob/ectives, even i& the students are not motivated initially. (tudents have to master pre$set "oals and ob/ectives even i& they mi"ht not have chosen them personally. (ome critics o& education have ar"ued that these requirements can be serious impediments to learnin" <'ohn, 300F=. The problems are 1idespread and especially noticeable in t1o &orms o& teachin". Cne is 1ith the youn"est students, 1ho may especially lack patience 1ith an educational a"enda set by others <'ohn, 8999I (eit2, 300:=. The other is 1ith culturally diverse classrooms, 1here students and their &amilies may hold a variety o& le"itimate, but unconventional expectations about 1hat they should learn <+. 7anks P C. 7anks, 300A=. %n response to concerns like these, some educators advocate plannin" instruction around "oals set or expressed either by students themselves or by the cultures or communities 1ith 1hich students identi&y. Their su""estions
333
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License vary in detail, but can be or"ani2ed into t1o broad cate"ories <8= emer"ent curriculum and <3= multicultural and anti$bias curriculum.
#mer"ent curriculum
An emergent curriculum is one that explicitly builds on interests expressed by students, rather than "oals set by curriculum 1riters, curriculum documents, or teachers. As you mi"ht suspect, there&ore, instructional plannin" &or an emer"ent curriculum does not have the same meanin" that the term has had in the chapter up to no1. %nstead, since an emer"ent curriculum by de&inition un&olds spontaneously and &lexibly, studentsJ interests may be predictable, but usually not very &ar in advance <,eterson, 3003=. (uppose, &or example, that a &irst$"rade teacher plans a unit around 6allo1een, and that as one o& the activities &or this unit she reads a book about 6allo1een. %n listenin" to the book, ho1ever, the students turn out to be less interested in its 6allo1een content than in the &act that one o& the illustrations in the book sho1s a picture o& a &ull moon partially hidden by clouds. They be"in askin" about the moon 1hy it is &ull sometimes but not other times, 1hy it rises in di&&erent places each month, and 1hether the moon really moves behind clouds or 1hether the clouds actually do the movin". The teacher encoura"es their questions and their interest in moon astronomy. Cver the next days or 1eeks, she arran"es &urther activities and experiences to encoura"e studentsJ interest she sets aside her ori"inal plans about 6allo1een and &inds books about the moon and about ho1 the solar system 1orks. (he invites a local amateur astronomer to visit the "roup and talk about his observations o& the moon. (everal children build models o& the moon out o& paper machV. (ome &ind books describin" trips o& the space shuttles to the moon. Cthers make a lar"e mural depictin" a moonscape. And so onI the ori"inal "oals about 6allo1een are not so much re/ected, as set aside or &or"otten in &avor o& somethin" more immediately interestin" and motivatin". 5hile these activities could in principle happen because o& recommendations &rom a curriculum document, the key point about emer"ent curriculum is that they happen &or a very di&&erent reason these activities happen and the "oals emer"e because the children ant them. A teacherJs challen"e is there&ore not plannin" activities that match predetermined curriculum "oals or ob/ectives, but to respond &lexibly and sensitively as studentsJ interests become kno1n and explicit. TeachersJ responsiveness is &acilitated by t1o practices that are especially prominent 1hen a teacher adopts an emer"ent approach to curriculum. The &irst is care&ul, continuous o%servation of students. The teacher 1atches and listens, and may keep in&ormal 1ritten records o& studentsJ comments and activities. The in&ormation allo1s her to respond more e&&ectively to the interests they express, and at the same time it provides a type o& assessment o& studentsJ pro"ressKin&ormation about 1hat the students are actually learnin". A second strate"y that &acilitates teachersJ success is curriculum e%%ing, a process o& brainstormin"
connections amon" initiatives su""ested by students and ideas su""ested by the teacher. %n some cases 1ebs can be created /ointly 1ith students by brainstormin" 1ith them about 1here their current interests may lead. %n other cases they can be created independently by the teacherJs o1n re&lections. %n still others, 1hen a classroom has more than one adult responsible &or it, they can be created /ointly 1ith &ello1 teachers or teacher assistants. The latter approach 1orks especially 1ell in preschool, kinder"artens, or special education classrooms, 1hich o&ten have more than one adult responsible &or the class <Gartuli P -ohs, 300:=. To some, emer"ent curriculum may seem like a &ormula &or curriculum and mana"ement disasters. 7ut the approach has o&ten proved quite success&ul, particularly in early childhood education and the earliest "rade levels o&
33F
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction elementary school <(eit2, 300:I 5urm, 300A=. (omethin" akin to emer"ent curriculum is quite possible, in principle, even 1ith older students. %n Chapter D, &or example, 1e described a hi"h school pro"ram in 1hich students be"an 1ith problems and experiences that 1ere personally relevant, and discussed the problems 1ith classmates to &ormulate research problems 1hich they then studied more &ormally and systematically <6a1kins, 300:=. %n essence this strate"y created an emer"ent curriculum analo"ous to the ones described above &or youn" children. 5hat the hi"h school students studied 1as not predetermined, but emer"ed &rom their o1n expressed interests.
)ulticultural and anti$bias education

A culture is an all$encompassin" set o& values, belie&s, practices and customs o& a "roup or communityKits total 1ay o& li&e. Cultures may be shared 1idely, even by much i& not all o& an entire nation, or they may be shared by relatively &e1, such as a small community 1ithin a lar"e city. (ometimes the term culture is even applied to the 1ay o& li&e o& an individual &amily or o& a speciali2ed "roup in societyI some mi"ht ar"ue, &or example, that there is a culture o& schoolin" shared by teachers, thou"h not necessarily by all students. 7ecause culture by de&inition touches on all aspects o& livin", it is likely to a&&ect studentsJ perspectives about school, their 1ays o& learnin" and their motivations to learn. The di&&erences "o beyond obvious di&&erences in holidays, lan"ua"e, or &ood pre&erences. %n some cultures, &or example, individuals keep "ood eye contact 1ith someone to 1hom they are speakin", and expect the same &rom others. %n other cultures, such behavior is considered intrusive or overly a""ressive, and avoidin" eye contact 1hile speakin" is considered more respect&ul. Cr another example in some cultures it is expected that individuals 1ill be punctual <or on time=, 1hereas in others punctuality is considered overly compulsive, and a more casual approach to time is the norm. (tudents re"ularly brin" di&&erences like these to school, 1here they combine 1ith expectations &rom teachers and other school sta&&, and contribute indirectly to di&&erences in achievement and satis&action amon" students. To be &ully e&&ective, there&ore, instructional plannin" has to take into account the diversity in studentsJ cultural back"rounds, 1hether the di&&erences are observable or subtle. ,lannin" also has to 1ork deliberately to reduce the social biases and pre/udices that sometimes develop about cultural di&&erences. ?ulticultural education and anti=bias education are t1o terms re&errin" to these purposes. Their meanin"s o&ten overlap si"ni&icantly, dependin" on the context or on 1ho is usin" the terms. .enerally, thou"h, the &irst termKmulticultural educationK has some1hat more to do 1ith understandin" the di&&erences amon" cultures. The latter termKanti$bias education Khas more to do 1ith overcomin" social pre/udices and biases resultin" &rom cultural di&&erences. For convenience in this chapter, 1e 1ill use the sin"le term multicultural education to re&er to both understandin" di&&erences and overcomin" pre/udices. Fully e&&ective multicultural education has several &eatures. The most obvious and &amiliar one is content integration$ the curriculum uses examples and in&ormation &rom di&&erent cultures to illustrate various concepts or ideas already contained in the curriculum <Gavrus, 3003=. %n studyin" holidays, &or example, an elementary$ school teacher includes activities and in&ormation about '1an2aa as 1ell as Christmas, 6anukkah, or other holidays happenin" at about the same time. %n studyin" the 4( Civil 5ar, another example, a middle$years teacher includes material 1ritten &rom the perspective o& A&rican$American slaves and (outhern lando1ners. %n teachin" lan"ua"e arts, students learn basic vocabulary o& any non$#n"lish lan"ua"es spoken by some members o& the class.
33A
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 7ut there is more to multicultural education than inte"ratin" content &rom diverse cultures. Amon" other &eatures, it also requires an e6uity pedagogy/ 1hich is an e&&ort to allo1 or even encoura"e, a variety o& learnin" stylesKstyles at 1hich students may have become skill&ul because o& their cultural back"rounds <Cro1, 300AI C. 7anks P +. 7anks, 899A=. %n elementary lan"ua"e arts, &or example, there may be more than one >best@ 1ay to tell a story. (hould a student necessarily have to tell it alone and standin" in &ront o& the 1hole class, or mi"ht the student tell it /ointly 1ith a &riend or in a smaller "roup? %n learnin" to 1rite a story, is le"itimate variety also possible there? (hould a 1ritten story necessarily be"in 1ith a topic sentence that announces 1hat the story is about, or can it save a statement o& topic &or the endin" or even it leave it out alto"ether in order to stimulate readers to think? The best choice is related in part to the nature and purpose o& the story, o& course, but partly also to di&&erences in cultural expectations about story tellin". Choosin" a story &orm also points to1ard another &eature o& multicultural education, the 8no(ledge construction process/ 1hich is the unstated, unconscious process by 1hich a cultural "roup creates kno1led"e or in&ormation. The popular media, &or example, o&ten portray 6ispanic$ Americans in 1ays that are stereotypical, either subtly or blatantly <Lester P -oss, 3003=. A &ully multicultural curriculum &inds 1ay to call these ima"es to the attention o& students and to en"a"e them in thinkin" about ho1 and 1hy the ima"es oversimpli&y reality. Met there is even more to a &ully multicultural education. %n addition to content inte"ration, equity peda"o"y, and kno1led"e construction, it &osters pre udice reduction, or activities, discussions and readin"s that identi&y studentsJ ne"ative evaluations o& cultural "roups <+acobson, 3003I +. 7anks P C. 7anks, 300F=. The activities and discussions can o& course take a some1hat philosophical approachKexaminin" ho1 students &eel in "eneral, 1hat experiences they remember havin" involvin" pre/udice, and the like. 7ut the activities and discussions can also take a more indirect and subtle &orm, as 1hen a teacher periodically speaks in a studentJs native lan"ua"e as a public si"n o& respect &or the student. .estures and discussions like these are especially e&&ective i& they contribute to the &i&th element o& multicultural education, empo(ering the school and social structure/ in 1hich all teachers and sta&& members &ind 1ays to convey respect &or cultural di&&erences, includin" even durin" extra$curricular and sports activities. A sports team or a debate club should not be limited to students &rom one cultural back"round and exclude those &rom anotherKor more subtly, accept everyone but "ive the more desirable roles only to individuals 1ith particular social back"rounds. To the extent that cultural respect and inclusion are school$1ide, teachin" and learnin" both become easier and more success&ul, and instructional plannin" in particular becomes more relevant to studentsJ needs.
Enhancing student learning through a variety of resources

5hether instructional "oals ori"inate &rom curriculum documents, studentsJ expressed interests, or a mixture o& both, students are more likely to achieve the "oals i& teachers dra1 on a 1ide variety o& resources. As a practical matter, this means lookin" &or materials and experiences that supplementKor occasionally even replaceKthe most traditional &orms o& in&ormation, such as textbooks. ,recisely 1hat resources to use depend on &actors unique to each class, school, or community, but they mi"ht include one or more o& the &ollo1in".
The %nternet as a learnin" tool

The %nternet has become a &ixture o& modern society, and it o&&ers a hu"e variety o& in&ormation on virtually any topic, includin" any school sub/ect and any possible "rade level &rom kinder"arten throu"h university. At the time o& 1ritin" this book <300;=, about t1o$thirds o& all households in the 4nited (tates and Canada have at least some Educational Psychology
33:
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction sort o& %nternet access, and virtually 800 per cent o& public and private schools have some access <,arsad P +ones, 300:=. These circumstances make the %nternet a potential ma/or resource &or teachers and studentsKa virtual library many times lar"er than even the lar"est physical <or >bricks and mortar@= libraries in the 1orld. 7ut the vastness o& the %nternet is not entirely a blessin". A ma/or problem is that the sheer volume o& in&ormation available, 1hich can sometimes make searchin" &or a speci&ic topic, article, or document over1helmin" and ine&&icient. The ne1er search en"ines <such as .oo"le at Qhttp UU111."oo"le.comR= can help 1ith this problem, thou"h they do not solve it completely. 5hen searchin" the term *hotosynthesis, &or example, .oo"le and other similar search en"ines return over six million 1eb pa"es that discuss or re&er this topic in some 1ayL %& a teacher is plannin" a unit about photosynthesis, or i& a student is 1ritin" an essay about it, 1hich o& these 1eb pa"es 1ill prove most help&ul? Choosin" amon" 1eb pa"es is a ne1, some1hat speciali2ed &orm o& com*uter literacy, one that can be learned partially by trial$and$error online, but that also bene&its &rom assistance by a teacher or by more experienced peers <-a"ains, 300:=. Another problem 1ith the %nternet is inequity o& access. #ven thou"h, as 1e mentioned above, virtually all schools no1 have access o& some sort, the access is distributed quite unevenly across communities and income "roups <(kinner, 7iscope, P ,oland, 3003I ,arsad P +ones, 300A=. For one thin", the lar"e ma/ority o& 5eb pa"es are posted in #n"lish, and this &act naturally poses a challen"e &or any students 1ho still learnin" to read or 1rite #n"lish. For another, schools vary 1idely in ho1 much %nternet service they can provide. %n "eneral, 1ell$to$do schools and those in cities provide more access than those located in less 1ell$o&& areas or in rural areasKthou"h there are many exceptions. A richly endo1ed school mi"ht have an %nternet connection in every classroom as 1ell as multiple connections in a school library or in speciali2ed computer rooms. (tudents as 1ell as &aculty 1ould be able to use these &acilities, and one or more teachers mi"ht have special trainin" in %nternet research to help 1hen problems arise. At the other extreme, a school mi"ht have only a &e1 %nternet connections &or the entire school, or even /ust one, located in a central place like the library or the school o&&ice. 4sa"e by students 1ould consequently be limited, and teachers 1ould essentially teach themselves ho1 to search the %nternet and ho1 to troubleshoot technical problems 1hen they occur. %n spite o& these problems, the %nternet has considerable potential &or enhancin" studentsJ learnin", precisely %ecause o& its &lexibility and near universality. (ome o& the best recent successes involve the creation o& a learning commons <sometimes also called an information commons or teaching commons), a combination o& a 1ebsite and an actual, physical place in a school or library that brin"s to"ether in&ormation, students and teachers so that both <thou"h perhaps especially students= can learn <6aas P -obertson, 300FI 7ea"le, 300:=. A learnin" commons includes an online library catalo"ue and online %nternet service, but it also o&&ers other services online in&ormation and advice about study skills, &or example, as 1ell as access to peer tutors and support "roups, either online or in person, that can help 1ith di&&iculties about 1ritin" or doin" assi"nments. As you mi"ht suspect, usin" a learnin" commons e&&ectively sometimes requires reor"ani2in" certain &eatures o& teachin" and learnin", chie&ly to1ard "reater explicit collaboration amon" students and teachers.
33;
4sin" local experts and &ield trips

T1o other 1ays o& enhancin" learnin" include brin"in" local experts to the classroom and takin" the class on &ield trips outside the classroom. 7oth o& these strate"ies help to make learnin" more vivid, as 1ell as more relevant to the particular community and lives that students lead.
2ocal e4*erts
Classroom visits by persons 1ith key experience can o&ten add a lot to many curriculum sub/ects and topics. %n one tenth "rade science class studyin" environmental issues, &or example, the teacher invited the city &orester, the person responsible &or the health o& trees planted in city parks and alon" city boulevards. The &orester had special kno1led"e o& the stresses on trees in urban environments, and he 1as able to explain and "ive examples o& particular problems that had occurred and their solutions. %n a second "rade class 1ith many 6ispanic students, on the other hand, a teacher aide 1as able to serve as an expert visitor by describin" her memories o& childhood in a (panish$speakin" community in Be1 )exico. Later she also recruited an older 6ispanic &riend and relative to the class to describe their experiences "ro1in" up in Central America. (he also acted as their #n"lish$(panish interpreter. %n all o& these examples, the experts made the learnin" more real and immediate. Their presence counteracted the tendency to equate school learnin" 1ith book$based kno1led"eKa common ha2ard 1hen basin" instructional plannin" primarily on curriculum documents.
7ield tri*s
%n addition to brin"in" the 1orld to the classroom by invitin" visitors, teachers can do the converse, they can take the classroom to the 1orld by leadin" students on &ield trips. (uch trips are not con&ined to any particular "rade level. %n the early "rades o& elementary school, &or example, one common "oal o& the curriculum is to learn about community helpersKthe police, &ire&i"hters, store o1ners, and others 1ho make a community sa&e and livable. As indicated already, representatives o& these "roups can visit the class and tell about their 1ork. 7ut the class can also visit the places 1hich these people tell about a police station, a &ire hall, a local retail store, and the like. (uch trips o&&er a more complete picture o& the context in 1hich community pro&essionals 1ork than is possible simply &rom hearin" and readin" about it. The bene&its are possible &or older students as 1ell. %n learnin" about 1ater$borne diseases as part o& a biolo"y class, &or example, one middle$school class took a &ield trip to the local 1ater$treatment &acility, 1here sta&& members explained 1here the to1nJs 1ater came &rom and ho1 the 1ater 1as cleaned to become drinkable at any tap. From a teacherJs point o& vie1, o& course, there are certain risks about arran"in" classroom visitors or &ield trips. Cne is that a visitor may turn out not to communicate 1ell 1ith children or youn" peopleKhe or she may assume too much prior kno1led"e, &or example, or veer o&& the chosen topic. Another problem is that &ield trips o&ten require additional &unds <&or admission &ees or to pay &or a bus=, and require support &rom additional adultsKo&ten parentsKto supervise students outside o& school. (ome o& these problems are by$passed by arran"in" >virtual@ &ield trips and hearin" &rom >virtual@ visitors usin" computer so&t1are or media to sho1 students places and activities 1hich they cannot visit in person <Clark, 300:=. .enerally, thou"h, a computer$based experience cannot compare 1ith a real trip or visitor in vividness, and the bene&its o& actual, in$person &ield trips or visitors o&ten there&ore out1ei"h the challen"es o& arran"in" them.
33D
A .lobal Text
(ervice learnin"
(till another 1ay to enhance learnin" is to incorporate service learning/ 1hich is activity that combines real community service 1ith analysis and re&lection on the si"ni&icance o& the service <+ohnson P CJ.rady, 300:I Thomsen, 300:=. ,ickin" up trash in an urban stream bed, &or example, is a community service 1hich students can per&orm. To trans&orm this service into service learning, students also need to note and re&lect on the trash that they &indI talk and 1rite about the ecolo"ical environment o& the stream and o& the communityI and even make recommendations &or improvin" the local environment. To accomplish these ob/ectives, service learnin" activities should not be sporadic, nor used as a punishmentKas 1hen a teacher or principal assi"ns trash pick$up as an a&ter$ school detention activity. 4nder "ood conditions, service learnin" enhances instructional plans both morally and intellectually. )orally, it places students in the role o& creating "ood &or the community, and counteracts studentsJ perception that bein" >"ood@ simply means complyin" 1ith teachersJ or parentsJ rules passively. %ntellectually, service learnin" places social and community issues in a vivid, lived context. The environment, economic inequality, or race relations, &or example, are no lon"er /ust ideas that people merely talk about, but problems that people actually act upon <*icklitch, 300A=. As you mi"ht suspect, thou"h, makin" service learnin" success&ul is not automatic. For one thin", service learnin" lends itsel& 1ell only to certain curriculum areas <&or example, community studies or social studies=. For another, some students may initially resist service learnin", 1onderin" 1hether it bene&its them personally as students <+ones, .ilbride$7ro1n, P .asiorski, 300A=. Also, some service pro/ects may inadvertently be invented only to bene&it students, 1ithout adequate consultation or advice &rom community members. 7rin"in" &ood hampers to lo1$income &amilies may seem like a "ood idea to middle$class students or instructors, but some &amilies may perceive this action less as a bene&it than as an act o& charity 1hich they there&ore resent. 7ut none o& these problems are insurmountable. #valuations "enerally &ind that service learnin", 1hen done 1ell, increases studentsJ sense o& moral empo1erment as 1ell as their kno1led"e o& social issues <7uchanan, 7ald1in, P -udisill, 3003=. Like many other educational practices, insurin" success 1ith service learnin" requires doin" it 1ell.
Creating bridges among curriculum goals and students% prior e4periences

To succeed, then, instructional plans do require a variety o& resources, like the ones discussed in the previous section. 7ut they also require more they need to connect 1ith studentsJ prior experiences and kno1led"e. (ometimes the connections can develop as a result o& usin" the %nternet, takin" &ield trips, or en"a"in" in service learnin", particularly i& students are already &amiliar 1ith these activities and places. )ore o&ten than not, thou"h, teachers need to &ind additional 1ays to connect curriculum 1ith studentsJ experiencesK1ays that &it more thorou"hly and continuously into the daily 1ork o& a class. Fortunately, such techniques are readily at handI they simply require the teacher to develop a habit o& lookin" &or opportunities to use them. Amon" the possibilities are &our that deserve special mention <8= modeling behavior and modeling re*resentations o& ideas, <3= activating *rior #no ledge already &amiliar to students, <3= antici*ating *reconce*tions held by students, and <F= providin" guided and inde*endent *ractice, includin" its most traditional &orm, home or#.
339
)odelin"
The term modeling can mean either a demonstration o& a desired behavior or a representation o& an important theory, idea, or ob/ect. #ach o& these meanin"s can link curriculum "oals 1ith studentsJ prior kno1led"e and experience.
@odeling as a demonstration
%n the &irst meanin", modeling re&ers to per&ormin" or demonstratin" a desired ne1 behavior or skill, as 1hen a teacher or classmate demonstrates polite behaviors or the correct solution to a math problem. %n this case 1e say that the teacher or classmate models the desired behavior, either deliberately or in the course o& other on"oin" activity. (tudents observe the modeled behavior and <hope&ully= imitate it themselves. -esearch repeatedly sho1s that modelin" desired behaviors is an e&&ective 1ay to learn ne1 behaviors, especially 1hen the model is perceived as important <like the teacher=, similar to the learner <like a studentJs best &riend=, or has a 1arm, positive relationship 1ith the learner <like the teacher or the studentJs &riend= <7andura, 3003I .ibson, 300F=. )odelin" in this sense is sometimes also called o%servational learning. %t has many o& the same properties as the classic operant conditionin" discussed in Chapter 3, except that rein&orcement durin" observational learnin" is 1itnessed in others rather than experienced by the learner directly. 5atchin" others bein" rein&orced is sometimes called vicarious reinforcement. The idea is that i&, &or example, a student observes a classmate 1ho behaves politely 1ith the teacher and then sees that classmate receive praise &or the behavior <vicarious rein&orcement=, the student is more likely to imitate the polite behavior that he sa1. As in classic operant conditionin", &urthermore, i& the student observes that politeness by classmates is i"nored <extinction or no rein&orcement=, then the student is much less likely to imitate the politeness. 5orse yet, i& the student observes that ne"ative behaviors in others lead to positive consequences <like attention &rom peers=, then the student may imitate the ne"ative behaviors <-ebellon, 300:=. Cursin" and s1earin", and even bullyin" or vandalism, can be rein&orced vicariously, /ust as can more desired behaviors. )odelin"Kin this &irst sense o& a demonstrationKconnects instructional "oals to studentsJ experiences by presentin" real, vivid examples o& behaviors or skills in a 1ay that a student can practice directly, rather than merely talk about. There is o&ten little need, 1hen imitatin" a model, to translate ideas or instructions &rom verbal &orm into action. For students stru""lin" 1ith lan"ua"e and literacy, in particular, this &eature can be a real advanta"e.
@odeling.as sim*lified re*resentation

%n a second meanin" o& modelin", a model is a simpli&ied representation o& a phenomenon that incorporates the important properties o& the phenomenon. )odels in this sense may sometimes be quite tan"ible, direct copies o& realityI 1hen % 1as in &ourth "rade "ro1in" up in Cali&ornia, &or example, 1e made scale models o& the (panish missions as part o& our social studies lessons about Cali&ornia history. 7ut models can also be ima"inary, thou"h still based on &amiliar elements. %n a science curriculum, &or example, the behavior o& "as molecules under pressure can be modeled by ima"inin" the molecules as pin" pon" balls &lyin" about and collidin" in an empty room. -educin" the space available to the "as by makin" the room smaller, causes the pin" pon" balls to collide more &requently and vi"orously, and thereby increases the pressure on the 1alls o& the room. %ncreasin" the space has the opposite e&&ect. Creatin" an actual room &ull o& pin" pon" balls may be impractical, o& course, but the model can still be ima"ined. Educational Psychology
330
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction )odelin" in this second sense is not about alterin" studentsJ behavior, but about increasin" their understandin" o& a ne1ly learned idea, theory, or phenomenon. The model itsel& uses ob/ects or events that are already &amiliar to studentsKsimple balls and their behavior 1hen collidin"Kand in this 1ay supports studentsJ learnin" o& ne1, un&amiliar material. Bot every ne1 concept or idea lends itsel& to such modelin", but many do students can create models o& un&amiliar animals, &or example, or o& medieval castles, or o& ecolo"ical systems. T1o$dimensional modelsKessentially dra1in"sKcan also be help&ul students can illustrate literature or historical events, or make maps o& their o1n nei"hborhoods. The choice o& model depends lar"ely on the speci&ic curriculum "oals 1hich the teacher needs to accomplish at a particular time.
Activatin" prior kno1led"e

Another 1ay to connect curriculum "oals to studentsJ experience is by activating prior 8no(ledge, a term that re&ers to encoura"in" students to recall 1hat they kno1 already about ne1 material bein" learned. Garious &ormats &or activatin" prior kno1led"e are possible. 5hen introducin" a unit about ho1 biolo"ists classi&y animal and plant species, &or example, a teacher can invite students to discuss ho1 they already classi&y di&&erent kinds o& plants and animals. 6avin" hi"hli"hted this in&ormal kno1led"e, the teacher can then explore ho1 the same species are classi&ied by biolo"ical scientists, and compare the scientistsJ classi&ication schemes to the studentsJ o1n schemes. The activation does not have to happen orally, as in this exampleI a teacher can also ask students to 1rite do1n as many distinct types o& animals and plants that they can think o&, and then ask students to dia"ram or map their relationshipsKessentially creatin" a conce*t ma* like the ones 1e described in Chapter D <.urlitt, et al., 300:=. 5hatever the strate"y used, activation helps by makin" studentsJ prior kno1led"e or experience conscious and there&ore easier to link to ne1 concepts or in&ormation.
Anticipatin" preconceptions o& students

%ronically, activatin" studentsJ prior kno1led"e can be a mixed blessin" i& some o& the prior kno1led"e is misleadin" or do1nri"ht 1ron". )isleadin" or erroneous kno1led"e is especially common amon" youn" students, but it can happen at any "rade level. A kinder"arten child may think that the sun literally >rises@ in the mornin", since she o&ten hears adults use this expression, or that the earth is &lat because it obviously loo#s &lat. 7ut a hi"h school student may mistakenly believe that lar"e ob/ects <a boulder= &all &aster than small ones <a pebble=, or that a heavy ob/ect dropped <not thro1n= &rom a movin" car 1indo1 1ill &all strai"ht do1n instead o& travelin" laterally alon"side the car 1hile it &alls. 7ecause misconceptions are quite common amon" students and even amon" adults, teachers are more e&&ective i& they can anticipate preconceptions of students 1herever possible. The task is t1o&old. First the teacher must kno1 or at least "uess studentsJ preconceptions as much as possible in advance, so that she can desi"n learnin" activities to counteract and revise their thinkin". (ome preconceptions have been 1ell$documented by educational research and there&ore can in principle be anticipated easilyKthou"h they may still sometimes take a teacher by surprise durin" a busy activity or lesson <Tanner P Allen, 300AI Chiu P Lin, 300A=. #xhibit 9.D lists a &e1 o& these common preconceptions. Cthers may be unique to particular students, ho1ever, and a teacher may only by able to learn o& them throu"h experienceKby listenin" care&ully to 1hat students say and 1rite and by 1atchin" 1hat they do. A &e1 preconceptions may be so in"rained or tied to other, more deeply held belie&s that students may resist "ivin" them up, either consciously or unconsciously. %t may be hard, &or example, &or some students to "ive up
338
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License the idea that "irls are less talented at math or science than are boys, even thou"h research "enerally &inds this is not the case <6yde P Linn, 300:=. Table 3F (everal misconceptions about science ?isconception (tars and constellations appear in the same place in the sky every ni"ht. The 1orld is &lat, circular like a pancake. <hat to do Ask students to observe care&ully the locations o& a bri"ht star once a 1eek &or several 1eeks. 4se a "lobe or ball to &ind countries located over the hori2onI use computer so&t1are <e.". .lobal #arth= to illustrate ho1 a round #arth can look &lat up close. *inosaurs disappeared at the same time that human bein"s appeared and because o& human activity. -ivers al1ays &lo1 &rom Borth to (outh. Construct a timeline o& ma/or periods o& *ar1inian evolution. %denti&y rivers that &lo1 (outh to Borth <e.". the -ed -iver in Borth *akota and Canada=I talk about ho1 (outhern locations are not necessarily >lo1er@. Force is needed not only to start an ob/ect movin", but to keep it movin". #xplain the concept o& inertiaM demonstrate inertia usin" lo1$&riction motion <e.". 1ith a hovercra&t or dry$ ice puck=. Golume, 1ei"ht, and si2e are identical concepts. 6ave students 1ei"h ob/ects o& di&&erent si2es or volumes, and compare the results. (easons happen because the #arth chan"es distance &rom the sun. #xplain the tilt o& #arthJs axis usin" a "lobe and li"ht as a modelI demonstrate reduced heatin" o& sur&aces by placin" similar sur&aces outdoors at di&&erent an"les to the sunJs rays. Sources Chi, 300AI *. Clark, 300:I (lotta P Chi, 300:I C1ens, 3003. The second task 1hen anticipatin" preconceptions is to treat studentsJ existin" kno1led"e and belie&s 1ith respect even 1hen they do include misconceptions or errors. This may seem obvious in principle, but it needs rememberin" 1hen students persist 1ith misconceptions in spite o& a teacherJs e&&orts to teach alternative ideas or concepts. )ost o& usKincludin" most studentsKhave reasons &or holdin" our belie&s, even 1hen the belie&s do not a"ree 1ith teachers, textbooks, or other authorities, and 1e appreciate havin" our belie&s treated 1ith respect. (tudents are no di&&erent &rom other people in this re"ard. %n a hi"h school biolo"y class, &or example, some students may have personal reasons &or not a"reein" 1ith the theory o& evolution associated 1ith Charles *ar1in. For reli"ious reasons they may support explanations o& the ori"ins o& li&e that "ive a more active, interventionist role to .od <7rum&iel, 300A=. %& their belie&s disa"ree 1ith the teacherJs or the textbook, then the disa"reement needs to be ackno1led"ed, but ackno1led"ed respect&ully. For some students <and perhaps some teachers=, expressin" &undamental disa"reement respect&ully may &eel a1k1ard, but it needs to be done nonetheless. Educational Psychology
333
A .lobal Text
.uided practice, independent practice, and home1ork

(o &ar, 1e have &ocused on brid"in" the "oals or content o& a curriculum to events, belie&s, and ideas &rom studentsJ lives. %n studyin" human "ro1th in a health class, &or example, a teacher mi"ht ask students to brin" photos o& themselves as a much youn"er child. %n this case a concept &rom the curriculumKhuman "ro1thKthen is related to a personal event, bein" photo"raphed as a youn"ster, that the student &inds meanin"&ul. 7ut teachers can also create brid"es bet1een curriculum and studentsJ experiences in another 1ay, by relatin" the *rocess o& learnin" in school 1ith the *rocess o& learnin" outside o& school. )uch o& this task involves helpin" students to make the transition &rom supervised learnin" to sel&$re"ulated learnin"Kor put di&&erently, &rom practice that is relatively "uided to practice that is relatively independent.
Kuided *ractice
5hen students &irst learn a ne1 skill or a ne1 set o& ideas, they are especially likely to encounter problems and make mistakes that inter&ere 1ith the very process o& learnin". %n &i"urin" out ho1 to use a ne1 so&t1are pro"ram, &or example, a student may unkno1in"ly press a 1ron" button that prevents &urther &unctionin" o& the pro"ram. %n translatin" sentences &rom (panish into #n"lish in lan"ua"e class, &or another example, a student mi"ht misinterpret one particular 1ord or "rammatical &eature. This one mistake may cause many sentences to be translated incorrectly, and so on. (o students initially need guided practiceCopportunities to 1ork some1hat independently, but 1ith a teacher or other expert close at hand prevent or &ix di&&iculties 1hen they occur. %n "eneral, educational research has &ound that "uided practice helps all learners, but especially those 1ho are stru""lin" <7ryan P 7urstein, 300F 5ood1ard, 300F=. A &irst$"rade child has di&&iculty in decodin" printed 1ords, &or example, bene&its &rom "uidance more than one 1ho can decode easily. 7ut both students bene&it in the initial sta"es o& learnin", since both may make more mistakes then. .uided practice, by its nature, sends a dual messa"e to students it is important to learn ne1 material 1ell, but it is also important to become able to use learnin" assistance, beyond the lesson 1here it is learned and even beyond the classroom. .uided practice is much like the concepts o& the /one of *ro4imal develo*ment <or TP!) and instructional scaffolding that 1e discussed in Chapter 3 in connection 1ith Gy"otskyJs theory o& learnin". %n essence, durin" "uided practice the teacher creates a 0,* or sca&&old <or &rame1ork= in 1hich the student can accomplish more 1ith partial kno1led"e or skill than the student could accomplish alone. 7ut 1hatever its nameK"uided practice, a 0,*, or a sca&&oldKinsurin" success o& "uidance depends on several key elements &ocusin" on the task at hand, askin" questions that break the task into mana"eable parts, re&ramin" or restatin" the task so that it becomes more understandable, and "ivin" &requent &eedback about the studentJs pro"ress <-o"o&&, 3003=. Combinin" the elements appropriately takes sensitivity and improvisational skillKeven art&ulnessKbut these very challen"es are amon" the true /oys o& teachin". ithout
,nde*endent *ractice
As students "ain &acility 1ith a ne1 skill or ne1 kno1led"e, they tend to need less "uidance and more time to consolidate <or stren"then= their ne1 kno1led"e 1ith additional practice. (ince they are less likely to encounter mistakes or problems at this point, they be"in to bene&it &rom independent practiceKopportunities to revie1 and repeat their kno1led"e at their o1n pace and 1ith &e1er interruptions. At this point, there&ore, "uided practice may &eel less like help than like an interruption, even i& it is 1ell$intentioned. A student 1ho already kno1s ho1 to
333
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License use a ne1 computer pro"ram, &or example, may be &rustrated by 1aitin" &or the teacher to explain each step o& the pro"ram individually. %& a student is already skill&ul at translatin" (panish sentences into #n"lish in a lan"ua"e class, it can be annoyin" &or the teacher to >help@ by pointin" out minor errors that the student is likely to catch &or hersel&. 7y de&inition, the purpose o& independent practice is to provide more sel&$re"ulation o& learnin" than 1hat comes &rom "uided practice. %t implies a di&&erent messa"e &or students than 1hat is conveyed by "uided practice, a messa"e that "oes beyond the earlier one that it is no1 time to take more complete responsibility &or o1n learnin". 5hen all "oes 1ell, independent practice is the eventual outcome o& the 2one o& proximal development created durin" the earlier phase o& "uided practice described above the student can no1 do on his or her o1n, 1hat ori"inally required assistance &rom someone else. Cr stated di&&erently, independent practice is a 1ay o& encoura"in" self3determination about learnin", in the sense that 1e discussed this idea in Chapter :. %n order to 1ork independently, a student must set his or her o1n direction and monitor his or her o1n successI by de&inition, no one can do this &or the student.
9ome or#
The chances are that you already have experienced many &orms o& home1ork in your o1n educational career. The 1idespread practice o& assi"nin" revie1 1ork to do outside o& school is a 1ay o& supplementin" scarce time in class and o& providin" independent practice &or students. 6ome1ork has "enerated controversy throu"hout most o& its history in public education, partly because it encroaches on studentsJ personal and &amily$oriented time, and partly because research &inds no consistent bene&its o& doin" home1ork <.ill P (chlossman, 300FI 'ohn, 300F=. %n spite o& these criticisms, thou"h, parents and teachers tend to &avor home1ork 1hen it is used &or t1o main purposes. Cne purpose is to revie1 and practice material that has already been introduced and practiced at schoolI a sheet o& arithmetic problems mi"ht be a classic example. 5hen used &or this purpose, the amount o& home1ork is usually minimal in the earliest "rades, i& any is assi"ned at all. Cne educational expert recommends only ten minutes per day in &irst "rade at most, and only "radual increases in amount as students "et older <Cooper P Galentine, 3008=. The second purpose &or supportin" home1ork is to convey the idea o& school1ork bein" the >/ob@ o& childhood and youth. +ust as on an adult /ob, students must complete home1ork tasks 1ith minimal supervision and sometimes even minimal trainin". *oin" the tasks, &urthermore, is a 1ay to "et ahead or &urther alon" in the 1ork place <&or an adult= or at school <&or a child=. Cne study in 1hich researchers intervie1ed children about these ideas, in &act, &ound that children do indeed re"ard home1ork as 1ork in the same 1ay that adults think o& a /ob <Cornu P Su, 300F=. %n the childrenJs minds, home1ork tasks 1ere not >&un@, in spite o& teachersJ &requent e&&orts to make them &un. %nstead they 1ere /obs that needed doin", much like household chores. 5hen it came to home1ork, children re"arded parents as the teachersJ assistantsKpeople merely carryin" out the 1ishes o& the teacher. Like any /ob, the /ob o& doin" home1ork varied in stress&ulnessI 1hen required at an appropriate amount and level o& di&&iculty, and 1hen children reported havin" "ood >bosses@ <parents and teachers=, the /ob o& home1ork could actually be satis&yin" in the 1ay that many adultsJ /obs can be satis&yin" 1hen 1ell$done.
33F
A .lobal Text
Planning for instruction as well as for learning

This chapter started 1ith one premise but ended 1ith another. %t started 1ith the idea that teachers need to locate curriculum "oals, usually &rom a state department o& education or a publisher o& a curriculum document. %n much o& the chapter 1e described 1hat these authorities provide &or individual classroom teachers, and ho1 their documents can be clari&ied and rendered speci&ic enou"h &or classroom use. %n the middle o& the chapter, ho1ever, the premise shi&ted. 5e be"an notin" that instruction cannot be planned simply &or studentsI teachers also need to consider involvin" students themselves in in&luencin" or even choosin" their o1n "oals and 1ays o& reachin" the "oals. %nstructional plannin", in other 1ords, should not be /ust for students, but also %y students, at least to some extent. %n the &inal parts o& the chapter 1e described a number o& 1ays o& achievin" a reasonable balance bet1een teachersJ and studentsJ in&luence on their learnin". 5e su""ested considerin" relatively stron" measures, such as an emer"ent or an anti$bias curriculum, but 1e also considered more moderate ones, like the use o& the %nternet, o& local experts and &ield trips, o& service learnin", and o& "uided and independent practice. All thin"s considered, then, teachersJ plannin" is not /ust about or"ani2in" teachin"I it is also about &acilitatin" learnin". %ts dual purpose is evident in many &eatures o& public education, includin" the one 1e discuss in the next t1o chapters, the assessment o& learnin".
Chapter summary
%n the 4nited (tates, broad educational "oals &or most sub/ect areas are published by many national pro&essional associations and by all state departments o& education. 4sually the state departments o& education also publish curriculum &rame1ork or curriculum "uides that o&&er some1hat more speci&ic explanations o& educational "oals, and ho1 they mi"ht be tau"ht. Trans&ormin" the "oals into speci&ic learnin" ob/ectives, ho1ever, remains a responsibility o& the teacher. The &ormulation can &ocus on curriculum topics that can analy2ed into speci&ic activities, or it can &ocus on speci&ic behaviors expected o& students and assembled into "eneral types o& outcomes. Taxonomies o& educational ob/ectives, such as the ones ori"inated by 7en/amin 7loom, are a use&ul tool 1ith either approach to instructional plannin". %n addition to plannin" instruction on studentsJ behal&, many teachers or"ani2e instruction so that students themselves can in&luence the choice o& "oals. Cne 1ay to do so is throu"h emer"ent curriculumI another 1ay is throu"h multicultural and anti$bias curriculum. 5hatever plannin" strate"ies are used, learnin" is enhanced by usin" a 1ide variety o& resources, includin" the %nternet, local experts, &ield trips, and service learnin", amon" others. %t is also enhanced i& the teacher can build brid"es bet1een curriculum "oals and studentsJ experiences throu"h /udicious use o& modelin", activation o& prior kno1led"e, anticipation o& studentsJ preconceptions, and an appropriate blend o& "uided and independent practice.
'ey terms
A&&ective ob/ectives Anti$bias education 7loomJs taxonomy Content inte"ration Curriculum &rame1ork Curriculum "uide 33A
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License #ducational "oals #mer"ent curriculum #quity peda"o"y .uided practice %ndependent practice %ndicators %nstructional plannin" Learnin" commons Learnin" ob/ectives )odelin" as demonstration )odelin" as simpli&ied representation )ulticultural education Bational standards ,sychomotor ob/ectives (cope and sequence (ervice learnin" (tate standards Taxonomy o& educational ob/ectives
Cn the %nternet
<http$))med.fsu.edu)education)BacultyDevelopment)ob ectives.asp> Qhttp$))(((.adprima.com)ob ectives.htmR These are t1o o& many 1ebsites that explains 1hat behavioral ob/ectives are, and ho1 to 1rite them. They "ive more detail than is possible in this chapter. <http$))(((.adl.org)toolsMteachers)tipsMantibiasMed.asp> This pa"e is part o& the 1ebsite &or the Anti$*e&amation Lea"ue o& America, an or"ani2ation dedicated to eliminatin" racial and ethnic bias throu"hout society. This particular pa"e explains the concept o& anti$bias education, but it also has links to pa"es that contain tips &or teachers dealin" 1ith racial and ethnic bias. <http$))education=(orld.com)standards> This 1ebsite contains links to educational standards documents 1ritten by every ma/or state department o& education and a number o& national and pro&essional associations. %t covers all o& the ma/or sub/ects commonly tau"ht in public schools.
-e&erences
Anderson, L. P 'rath1ohl, *. <3008=. A ta4onomy for learning, teaching, and assessing. Be1 Mork Lon"man. 7andura, A. <3003=. (ocial co"nitive theory in cultural context. Journal of A**lied Psychology" An ,nternational Revie , ?B, 3:9$390. 7anks, C. P 7anks, +. <899A=. #quity peda"o"y An essential component o& multicultural education. Theory into Practice, ;><3=, 8A3$8AD. 7anks, +. P 7anks, C. <300A=. @ulticultural education" ,ssues and *ers*ectives, ?th edition. Be1 Mork 5iley. 7ea"le, *. 7ailey, -., P Tierney, 7. <300F=. The information commons hand%oo#. Be1 Mork Beal$(human ,ublishers. Educational Psychology
33:
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction 7loom, 7. <89A:=. Ta4onomy of educational o%$ectives. Be1 Mork *avid )c'ay ,ublishers. 7rum&iel, .. <300A=. %ntelli"ent desi"n 5ho has desi"ns on your studentsJ minds? 0ature, >;>, 80:3$80:A. 7ryan, T. P 7urstein, '. <300F=. %mprovin" home1ork completion and academic per&ormance Lessons &rom special education. Theory into Practice, >;<3=, 383$389. 7uchanan, A., 7ald1in, (., P -udisill, ). <3003=. (ervice learnin" as scholarship in teacher education. Educational Researcher ;C<D=, 3D$3F. Chi, ). <300A=. Commonsense conceptions o& emer"ent processes 5hy some misconceptions are robust. Journal of the 2earning Sciences, B><3=, 8:8$899. Chiu, ). P Lin, +. <300A=. ,romotin" Fth$"radersJ conceptual chan"e o& their understandin" o& electrical current via multiple analo"ies. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, >C<F=, F39$F:F. Clark, *. <300:=. Lon"itudinal conceptual chan"e in studentsJ understandin" o& thermal equilibrium An examination o& the process o& conceptual restructurin". Cognition and ,nstruction, C><F=, F:;$A:3. Clark, '. <300:=. Computer 7ased Girtual Field Trips in the '$83 Classroom. %n C. Cra1&ord et al. <#ds.=, Proceedings of Society for ,nformation Technology and Teacher Education ,nternational Conference C<<:, pp. 39;F$39D0. Chesapeake, GA AAC#. Cooper, 6. P Galentine, +. <3008=. 4sin" research to ans1er practical questions about home1ork. Educational Psychology, ;:<3=, 8F3$8A3. Corno, L. P Su, +. <300F=. 6ome1ork as the /ob o& childhood. Theory into Practice, >;<3=, 33;$333. Cro1, C. <300A=. @ulticultural education" E&uity *edagogy on *ers*ectives and *ractices of secondary teachers. 4npublished doctoral dissertation. 5aco, TS 7aylor 4niversity. Curriculum *evelopment and (upplemental materials Commission. <8999=. ReadingY2anguage Arts 7rame or# for California Pu%lic Schools. (acramento, CA Cali&ornia *epartment o& #ducation. *erman$(parks, L. <899F=. #mpo1erin" children to create a carin" culture in a 1orld o& di&&erences. Childhood Education, =<, ::$;8. *icklitch, (. <300A=. 6uman ri"htsKhuman 1ron"s )akin" political science real throu"h service$learnin". %n *. 7utin <#d.=, Service3learning in higher education" Critical issues and directions, **. 4443yyy. Be1 Mork ,al"rave )acmillan. #"an, '. <300A=. An imaginative a**roach to teaching. (an Francisco +ossey$7ass. .ibson, (. <300F=. (ocial learnin" <co"nitive= theory and implications &or human resources development. Advances in !evelo*ing 9uman Resources, :<3=, 893$380. .ill, 7. P (chlossman, (. <300F=. Gillain or savior? The American discourse on home1ork, 8DA0$3003. Theory into *ractice, >;<3=, 8;F$8D8.
33;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License .ronlund, B. <300F=. Eriting instructional o%$ectives for teaching and assessment, :th edition. 4pper (addle -iver, B+ ,earson. .ulitt, +., -enkl, A., )otes, )., P 6auser, (. <300:=. 6o1 can 1e use concept maps &or prior kno1led"e activation? Proceedings of the =th ,nternational Conference on 2earning Sciences, 38;$330. 6aas, L. P -obertson, +. <#ds=. <300F=. The information commons. 5ashin"ton, *.C. Association o& -esearch Libraries. 6arro1, A. <89;3=. A ta4onomy of the *sychomotor domain. Be1 Mork *avid )c'ay. 6a1kins, +. <300:=. Accessin" multicultural issues throu"h critical thinkin", critical inquiry, and the student research process. Ir%an Education, >B<3=, 8:9$8F8. 6ay1ood, '. P .etchell, B. <300A=. 2ife s*an motor develo*ment, >th edition. Champai"n, %L 6uman 'inetics ,ress. 6yde, +. P Lynn, ). <300:=. .ender similarities in mathematics and science. Science, ;B><A;99=, A99$:00. +acobson, T. <3003=. Confronting out discomfort" Clearing the ,ortsmouth, B6 6einemann. +ohnson, 7. P CJ.rady, C. <#ds.=. <300:=. The s*irit of service" E4*loring faith, service, and social $ustice in higher education. 7olton, )A Anker ,ublishers. +ones, (., .ilbride$7ro1n, +., P .asiorski, A. <300A=. .ettin" inside the >underside@ o& service$learnin" (tudent resistance and possibilities. %n *. 7utin <#d.=, Service3learning in higher education" Critical issues and directions, **. 4443yyy. Be1 Mork ,al"rave )acmillan. 'ohn, A. <8999=. The schools our children deserve. 7oston 6ou"hton )i&&lin. 'ohn, A. <300F=. Challen"in" students, and ho1 to have more o& them. Phi !elta Ka**an,A:<3=, 8DF$89F. Lester, ,. P -oss, (. <3003=. ,mages that in$ure" Pictorial stereoty*es in the media. 5estport, CT ,rae"er. )a"er, -. <300A=. Pre*aring instructional o%$ectives, ;rd edition. Atlanta, .A Center &or #&&ective ,er&ormance. )ar2ano, -. <300:=. !esigning a ne 7ooks. Botar, C., 5ilson, +., Munker, 7., P 0uelke, *. <300F=. The table o& speci&ications %nsurin" accountability in teacher$made tests. Journal of ,nstructional Psychology, ;B<3=. Chio *epartment o& #ducation. <3003=. Academic Content Standards. Columbus, Chio Author. C1ens, C. <3003=. Bonsense, sense and science )isconceptions and illustrated trade books. Journal of children(s literature, CF<8=, AA$:3. ,arsad, 7. P +ones, +. <300A=. ,nternet access in I.S. *u%lic schools and classrooms" BFF>3C<<;. 5ashin"ton, *.C. 4nited (tates *epartment o& #ducation, Bational Center &or #ducation (tatistics. ta4onomy of educational o%$ectives. Thousand Caks, CA Cor1in ay for anti3%ias in early childhood.
33D
A .lobal Text
1&. 'lanning instruction ,erkins, *. P )ebert, C. <300A=. #&&icacy o& multicultural education &or preschool children. Journal of Cross3 Cultural Psychology, ;:<F=, F9;$A83. ,eterson, #. <3003=. A *ractical guide to early childhood curriculum" 2in#ing thematic, emergent, and s#ill3%ased *lanning to children(s outcomes, Cnd edition. 7oston Allyn P 7acon. ,opham, +. <3003=. Ehat every teacher should #no B+ ,earson. -a"ains, ,. <300:=. ,nformation literacy instruction that or#s. Be1 Mork Beal$(chuman ,ublishers. a%out educational assessment. 4pper (addle -iver,
-ebellon, C. <300:=. *o adolescents en"a"e in delinquency to attract the social attention o& peers? An extension and lon"itudinal test o& the social rein&orcement hypothesis. Journal of Research in Crime and !elin&uency, >;<F=, 3D;$F88. -iley, -. <3003=. #ducation re&orm throu"h standards and partnerships, 8993$3000. Phi !elta Ka**an, A;<9=, ;00$;0;. -o"o&&, 7. <3003=. Cultural nature of human develo*ment, Chapter ;, >Thinkin" 1ith the tools and institutions o& culture,@ pp. 33:$3D8. (eit2, 6. <300:=. The plan buildin" on childrenJs interests. Qoung Children, :B<3=, 3:$F8. (kinner, 6., 7iscope, (., P ,oland, 7. <3003=. Uuality of ,nternet access" +arriers %ehind ,nternet use statistics, ?=<A=, D;A$DD0. (lotta, +. P Chi, ). <300:=. 6elpin" students understand challen"in" topics in science throu"h ontolo"y trainin". Cognition and ,nstruction, C><3=, 3:8$3D9. Tanner, '. P Allen, *. <300A=. Approaches to biolo"y teachin" and learnin"Kunderstandin" the 1ron" ans1ers Teachin" to1ard conceptual chan"e. Cell +iology Education, >, 883$88;. Thomsen, '. <300:=. Service3learning in grades K3A" E4*eriential learning that %uilds character and motivation. Thousand Caks, CA Cor1in. Gartuli, (. P -ohs, +. <300:=. Conceptual or"ani2ers o& early childhood curriculum content. Early Childhood Education Journal, ;;<F=, 338$33;. Gavrus, ). <3003=. Transforming the multicultural education of teachers. Be1 Mork TeachersJ Colle"e ,ress. 5ood1ard, +. <300F=. )athematics education in the 4nited (tates ,ast to present Journal of 2earning !isa%ilities, 3;, pp. 8:$38. 5urm, +. <300A=. Eor#ing in the Reggio ay. (t. ,aul, )B -edlea& ,ress.
339
11. Teacher:made assessment strategies

Kym teaches si4th grade students in an ur%an school live %elo here most of the families in the community the *overty line. Each year the ma$ority of the students in her school fail the state3 ide tests. Kym follo s school district teaching guides and ty*ically uses direct instruction in her 2anguage Arts and Social Studies classes. The classroom assessments are designed to mirror those on the state3 ide tests so the students %ecome familiar ith the assessment format. Ehen Kym is in a graduate summer course on motivation she reads an article called, 'Teaching strategies that honor and motivate inner3city African American students) 1Teel, !e%rin3Parec#i, S Covington, BFFA) and she decides to change her instruction and assessment in fall in four ays. 7irst, she stresses an or# several incremental a**roach to a%ility focusing on effort and allo s students to revise their oral *resentation, art *ro$ect, creative
times until the criteria are met. Second, she gives students choices in *erformance assessments 1e.g. riting). Third, she encourages res*onsi%ility %y as#ing students to assist in classroom tas#s such as setting u* video e&ui*ment, handing out *a*ers etc. 7ourth, she validates student( cultural heritage %y encouraging them to read %iogra*hies and historical fiction from their o n cultural %ac#grounds. Kym re*orts that the changes in her students( effort and demeanor in class are dramatic" students are more enthusiastic, than the *revious year. After ard. Kym still teaches si4th grade in the same school district and continues to modify the strategies descri%ed a%ove. Even though the *erformance of the students she taught im*roved the school as closed %ecause, on average, the students( *erformance as *oor. Kym gained a Ph.! and teaches Educational Psychology to *reservice and inservice teachers in evening classes. 'ymJs story illustrates several themes related to assessment that 1e explore in this chapter on teacher$made assessment strate"ies and in the Chapter 83 on standardi2ed testin". First, choosin" e&&ective classroom assessments is related to instructional practices, belie&s about motivation, and the presence o& state$1ide standardi2ed testin". (econd, some teacher$made classroom assessments enhance student learnin" and motivation Ksome do not. Third, teachers can improve their teachin" throu"h action research. This involves identi&yin" a problem <e.". lo1 motivation and achievement=, learnin" about alternative approaches <e.". readin" the literature=, implementin" the ne1 approaches, observin" the results <e.". studentsJ e&&ort and test results=, and continuin" to modi&y the strate"ies based on their observations. 7est practices in assessin" student learnin" have under"one dramatic chan"es in the last 30 years. 5hen -osemary 1as a mathematics teacher in the 89;0s, she did not assess studentsJ learnin" she tested them on the or# harder, and *roduce %etter *roducts. At the end of the year t ice as many of her students *ass the State3 ide test
3F0
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies mathematics kno1led"e and skills she tau"ht durin" the previous 1eeks. The tests varied little &ormat and students al1ays did them individually 1ith pencil and paper. )any teachers, includin" mathematics teachers, no1 use a 1ide variety o& methods to determine 1hat their students have learned and also use this assessment in&ormation to modi&y their instruction. %n this chapter the &ocus is on usin" classroom assessments to improve student learnin" and 1e be"in 1ith some basic concepts.
8asic concepts
Assessment is an inte"rated process o& gaining information about studentsJ learnin" and ma#ing value $udgments about their pro"ress <Linn P )iller, 300A=. %n&ormation about studentsJ pro"ress can be obtained &rom a variety o& sources includin" pro/ects, port&olios, per&ormances, observations, and tests. The in&ormation about studentsJ learnin" is o&ten assi"ned speci&ic numbers or "rades and this involves measurement. )easurement ans1ers the question, >6o1 much?@ and is used most commonly 1hen the teacher scores a test or product and assi"ns numbers <e.". 3D U30 on the biolo"y testI 90U800 on the science pro/ect=. Evaluation is the process o& makin" /ud"ments about the assessment in&ormation <Airasian, 300A=. These /ud"ments may be about individual students <e.". should +acobJs course "rade take into account his si"ni&icant improvement over the "radin" period?=, the assessment method used <e.". is the multiple choice test a use&ul 1ay to obtain in&ormation about problem solvin"=, or oneJs o1n teachin" <e.". most o& the students this year did much better on the essay assi"nment than last year so my ne1 teachin" methods seem e&&ective=. The primary &ocus in this chapter is on assessment for learning/ 1here the priority is desi"nin" and usin" assessment strate"ies to enhance student learnin" and development. Assessment &or learnin" is o&ten formative assessment/ i.e. it takes place durin" the course o& instruction by providin" in&ormation that teachers can use to revise their teachin" and students can use to improve their learnin" <7lack, 6arrison, Lee, )arshall P 5iliam, 300F=. Formative assessment includes both informal assessment involvin" spontaneous unsystematic observations o& studentsJ behaviors <e.". durin" a question and ans1er session or 1hile the students are 1orkin" on an assi"nment= and formal assessment involvin" pre$planned, systematic "atherin" o& data. 4ssessment of learning is &ormal assessment that involves assessin" students in order to certi&y their competence and &ul&ill accountability mandates and is the primary &ocus o& the next chapter on standardi2ed tests but is also considered in this chapter. Assessment o& learnin" is typically summative/ that is, administered a&ter the instruction is completed <e.". a &inal examination in an educational psycholo"y course=. (ummative assessments provide in&ormation about ho1 1ell students mastered the material, 1hether students are ready &or the next unit, and 1hat "rades should be "iven <Airasian, 300A=.
ssessment for learning) an overvie# of the process

4sin" assessment to advance studentsJ learnin" not /ust check on learnin" requires vie1in" assessment as a process that is inte"ral to the all phases o& teachin" includin" plannin", classroom interactions and instruction, communication 1ith parents, and sel&$re&lection <(ti""ins, 3003=. #ssential steps in assessment &or learnin" include Ste* B" 9aving clear instructional goals and communicating them to students %n the previous chapter 1e documented the importance o& teachers thinkin" care&ully about the purposes o& each lesson and unit. This may be hard &or be"innin" teachers. For example, Ganessa, a middle school social studies 3F8
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License teacher, mi"ht say that the "oal o& her next unit is >(tudents 1ill learn about the Cvil 5ar.@ Clearer "oals require that Ganessa decides 1hat it is about the 4( Civil 5ar she 1ants her students to learn, e.". the dates and names o& battles, the causes o& the 4( Civil 5ar, the di&&erin" perspectives o& those livin" in the Borth and the (outh, or the day$to$day experiences o& soldiers &i"htin" in the 1ar. Ganessa cannot devise appropriate assessments o& her studentsJ learnin" about the 4( Civil 5ar until she is clear about her o1n purposes. For e&&ective teachin" Ganessa also needs to communicate clearly the "oals and ob/ectives to her students so they kno1 1hat is important &or them to learn. Bo matter ho1 thorou"h a teacherJs plannin" has been, i& students do not kno1 1hat they are supposed to learn they 1ill not learn as much. 7ecause communication is so important to teachers a speci&ic chapter is devoted to this topic <Chapter D=, and so communication is not considered in any detail in this chapter. Ste* C" Selecting a**ro*riate assessment techni&ues (electin" and administratin" assessment techniques that are appropriate &or the "oals o& instruction as 1ell as the developmental level o& the students are crucial components o& e&&ective assessment &or learnin". Teachers need to kno1 the characteristics o& a 1ide variety o& classroom assessment techniques and ho1 these techniques can be adapted &or various content, skills, and student characteristics. They also should understand the role reliability, validity, and the absence o& bias should play is choosin" and usin" assessment techniques. )uch o& this chapter &ocuses on this in&ormation. Ste* ;" Ising assessment to enhance motivation and confidence (tudentsJ motivation and con&idence is in&luenced by the type o& assessment used as 1ell as the &eedback "iven about the assessment results. Consider, (amantha a colle"e student 1ho takes a history class in 1hich the pro&essorJs lectures and text book &ocus on really interestin" ma/or themes. 6o1ever, the assessments are all multiple choice tests that ask about &acts and (amantha, 1ho initially en/oys the classes and readin"s, becomes an"ry, loses con&idence she can do 1ell, and be"ins to spend less time on the class material. %n contrast, some instructors have observed that that many students in educational psycholo"y classes like the one you are no1 takin" 1ill 1ork harder on assessments that are case studies rather than more traditional exams or essays. The type o& &eedback provided to students is also important and 1e elaborate on these ideas later in this chapter. Ste* F Ad$usting instruction %ased on information An essential component o& assessment for learnin" is that the teacher uses the in&ormation "ained &rom assessment to ad/ust instruction. These ad/ustments occur in the middle o& a lesson 1hen a teacher may decide that studentsJ responses to questions indicate su&&icient understandin" to introduce a ne1 topic, or that her observations o& studentsJ behavior indicates that they do not understand the assi"nment and so need &urther explanation. Ad/ustments also occur 1hen the teacher re&lects on the instruction a&ter the lesson is over and is plannin" &or the next day. 5e provide examples o& ad/ustin" instruction in this chapter and consider teacher re&lection in more detail in Appendix C.. Ste* ?" Communicating ith *arents and guardians
(tudentsJ learnin" and development is enhanced 1hen teachers communicate 1ith parents re"ularly about their childrenJs per&ormance. Teachers communicate 1ith parents in a variety o& 1ays includin" ne1sletters, telephone Educational Psychology
3F3
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies conversations, email, school district 1ebsites and parent$teachers con&erences. #&&ective communication requires that teachers can clearly explain the purpose and characteristics o& the assessment as 1ell as the meanin" o& studentsJ per&ormance. This requires a thorou"h kno1led"e o& the types and purposes o& teacher made and standardi2ed assessments <this chapter and Chapter 83= and 1ell as clear communication skills <Chapter D=. 5e no1 consider each step in the process o& assessment &or learnin" in more detail. %n order to be able to select and administer appropriate assessment techniques teachers need to kno1 about the variety o& techniques that can be used as 1ell as 1hat &actors ensure that the assessment techniques are hi"h quality. 5e be"in by considerin" hi"h quality assessments.
Selecting appropriate assessment techni?ues 0) high ?uality assessments

For an assessment to be hi"h quality it needs to have "ood validity and reliability as 1ell as absence &rom bias.
Galidity
Galidity is the evaluation o& the >adequacy and appropriateness o& the interpretations and uses o& assessment results@ &or a "iven "roup o& individuals <Linn P )iller, 300A, p. :D=. For example, is it appropriate to conclude that the results o& a mathematics test on &ractions "iven to recent immi"rants accurately represents their understandin" o& &ractions? %s it appropriate &or the teacher to conclude, based on her observations, that a kinder"arten student, +asmine, has Attention *e&icit *isorder because she does not &ollo1 the teachers oral instructions? Cbviously in each situation other interpretations are possible that the immi"rant students have poor #n"lish skills rather than mathematics skills, or that +asmine may be hearin" impaired. %t is important to understand that validity re&ers to the inter*retation and uses made of the results o& an assessment procedure not o& the assessment procedure itsel&. For example, makin" /ud"ments about the results o& the same test on &ractions may be valid i& the students all understand #n"lish 1ell. A teacher concludin" &rom her observations that the kinder"arten student has Attention *e&icit *isorder <A**= may be appropriate i& the student has been screened &or hearin" and other disorders <althou"h the classi&ication o& a disorder like A** cannot be made by one teacher=. Galidity involves makin" an overall /ud"ment o& the de"ree to 1hich the interpretations and uses o& the assessment results are /usti&ied. Galidity is a matter o& de"ree <e.". hi"h, moderate, or lo1 validity= rather than all$or none <e.". totally valid vs invalid= <Linn P )iller, 300A=. Three sources o& evidence are considered 1hen assessin" validityKcontent, construct and predictive. Content validity evidence is associated 1ith the question 6o1 1ell does the assessment include the content or tasks it is supposed to? For example, suppose your educational psycholo"y instructor devises a mid$term test and tells you this includes chapters one to seven in the text book. Cbviously, all the items in test should be based on the content &rom educational psycholo"y, not your methods or cultural &oundations classes. Also, the items in the test should cover content &rom all seven chapters and not /ust chapters three to sevenKunless the instructor tells you that these chapters have priority. TeachersJ have to be clear about their purposes and priorities &or instruction %efore they can be"in to "ather evidence related content validity. Content validation determines the de"ree that assessment tasks are relevant and representative o& the tasks /ud"ed by the teacher <or test developer= to represent their "oals and ob/ectives <Linn P )iller, 300A=. %t is important &or teachers to think about content validation 1hen devisin" assessment tasks and one 1ay to help do this is to devise a Table o& (peci&ications. An example, based on ,ennsylvaniaJs (tate standards 3F3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License &or "rade 3 "eo"raphy, is in . %n the le&t hand column is the instructional content &or a 30$item test the teacher has decided to construct 1ith t1o kinds o& instructional ob/ectives identi&ication and uses or locates. The second and third columns identi&y the number o& items &or each content area and each instructional ob/ective. Botice that the teacher has decided that six items should be devoted to the sub area o& "eo"raphic representations$ more than any other sub area. *evisin" a table o& speci&ications helps teachers determine i& some content areas or concepts are over$sampled <i.e. there are too many items= and some concepts are under$sampled <i.e. there are too &e1 items=. Table 3A #xample o& Table o& (peci&ications "rade 3 basic "eo"raphy literacy Content &nstructional ob ective &dentifies ,ses or locates %denti&y "eo"raphy tools and their uses .eo"raphic representations e.". maps, "lobe, dia"rams and photo"raphs (patial in&ormation sketch P thematic maps )ental maps %denti&y and locate places and re"ions ,hysical &eatures <e.". lakes, continents= 6uman &eatures <countries, states, cities= -e"ions 1ith uni&yin" "eo"raphic characteristics e.". river basins Bumber o& items ,ercenta"e o& items 8 3 8 80 A0Z 3 3 8 80 A0Z 3 A 3 30 800Z 8AZ 3AZ 80Z 3 3 : 30Z 3otal number of items Per cent of items
8 8
8 8
3 3
80Z 80Z
Construct validity evidence is more complex than content validity evidence. C&ten 1e are interested in makin" broader /ud"ments about studentJs per&ormances than speci&ic skills such as doin" &ractions. The &ocus may be on constructs such as mathematical reasonin" or readin" comprehension. A construct is a characteristic o& a person 1e assume exists to help explain behavior. For example, 1e use the concept o& test anxiety to explain 1hy some individuals 1hen takin" a test have di&&iculty concentratin", have physiolo"ical reactions such as s1eatin", and per&orm poorly on tests but not in class assi"nments. (imilarly mathematics reasonin" and readin" comprehension are constructs as 1e use them to help explain per&ormance on an assessment. Construct validation is the process o& determinin" the extent to 1hich per&ormance on an assessment can be interpreted in terms o& the intended constructs and is not in&luenced by &actors irrelevant to the construct. For example, /ud"ments about recent Educational Psychology
3FF
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies immi"rantsJ per&ormance on a mathematical reasonin" test administered in #n"lish 1ill have lo1 construct validity i& the results are in&luenced by #n"lish lan"ua"e skills that are irrelevant to mathematical problem solvin". (imilarly, construct validity o& end$o&$semester examinations is likely to be poor &or those students 1ho are hi"hly anxious 1hen takin" ma/or tests but not durin" re"ular class periods or 1hen doin" assi"nments. Teachers can help increase construct validity by tryin" to reduce &actors that in&luence per&ormance but are irrelevant to the construct bein" assessed. These &actors include anxiety, #n"lish lan"ua"e skills, and readin" speed <Linn P )iller 300A=. A third &orm o& validity evidence is called criterion=related validity. (elective colle"es in the 4(A use the ACT or (AT amon" other criteria to choose 1ho 1ill be admitted because these standardi2ed tests help predict &reshman "rades, i.e. have hi"h criterion$related validity. (ome '$83 schools "ive students math or readin" tests in the &all semester in order to predict 1hich are likely to do 1ell on the annual state tests administered in the sprin" semester and 1hich students are unlikely to pass the tests and 1ill need additional assistance. %& the tests administered in &all do not predict studentsJ per&ormances accurately then the additional assistance may be "iven to the 1ron" students illustratin" the importance o& criterion$related validity.
Reliability
-eliability re&ers to the consistency o& the measurement <Linn P )iller 300A=. (uppose )r .arcia is teachin" a unit on &ood chemistry in his tenth "rade class and "ives an assessment at the end o& the unit usin" test items &rom the teachersJ "uide. -eliability is related to questions such as 6o1 similar 1ould the scores o& the students be i& they had taken the assessment on a Friday or )onday? 5ould the scores have varied i& )r .arcia had selected di&&erent test items, or i& a di&&erent teacher had "raded the test? An assessment provides in&ormation about students by usin" a speci&ic measure o& per&ormance at one particular time. 4nless the results &rom the assessment are reasonably consistent over di&&erent occasions, di&&erent raters, or di&&erent tasks <in the same content domain= con&idence in the results 1ill be lo1 and so cannot be use&ul in improvin" student learnin". Cbviously 1e cannot expect per&ect consistency. (tudentsJ memory, attention, &ati"ue, e&&ort, and anxiety &luctuate and so in&luence per&ormance. #ven trained raters vary some1hat 1hen "radin" assessment such as essays, a science pro/ect, or an oral presentation. Also, the 1ordin" and desi"n o& speci&ic items in&luence studentsJ per&ormances. 6o1ever, some assessments are more reliable than others and there are several strate"ies teachers can use to increase reliability First, assessments 1ith more tasks or items typically have hi"her reliability. To understand this, consider t1o tests one 1ith &ive items and one 1ith A0 items. Chance &actors in&luence the shorter test more then the lon"er test. %& a student does not understand one o& the items in the &irst test the total score is very hi"hly in&luenced <it 1ould be reduced by 30 per cent=. %n contrast, i& there 1as one item in the test 1ith A0 items that 1ere con&usin", the total score 1ould be in&luenced much less <by only 3 percent=. Cbviously this does not mean that assessments should be inordinately lon", but, on avera"e, enou"h tasks should be included to reduce the in&luence o& chance variations. (econd, clear directions and tasks help increase reliability. %& the directions or 1ordin" o& speci&ic tasks or items are unclear, then students have to "uess 1hat they mean underminin" the accuracy o& their results. Third, clear scorin" criteria are crucial in ensurin" hi"h reliability <Linn P )iller, 300A=. Later in this chapter 1e describe strate"ies &or developin" scorin" criteria &or a variety o& types o& assessment.
3FA
bsence of bias
7ias occurs in assessment 1hen there are components in the assessment method or administration o& the assessment that distort the per&ormance o& the student because o& their personal characteristics such as "ender, ethnicity, or social class <,opham, 300A=. T1o types o& assessment bias are important offensiveness and unfair *enali/ation. An assessment is most likely to be o&&ensive to a sub"roup o& students 1hen ne"ative stereotypes are included in the test. For example, the assessment in a health class could include items in 1hich all the doctors 1ere men and all the nurses 1ere 1omen. Cr, a series o& questions in a social studies class could portray Latinos and Asians as immi"rants rather than native born Americans. %n these examples, some &emale, Latino or Asian students are likely to be o&&ended by the stereotypes and this can distract them &rom per&ormin" 1ell on the assessment. 4n&air penali2ation occurs 1hen items disadvanta"e one "roup not because they may be o&&ensive but because o& di&&erential back"round experiences. For example, an item &or math assessment that assumes kno1led"e o& a particular sport may disadvanta"e "roups not as &amiliar 1ith that sport <e.". American &ootball &or recent immi"rants=. Cr an assessment on team 1ork that asks students to model their concept o& a team on a symphony orchestra is likely to be easier &or those students 1ho have attended orchestra per&ormancesKprobably students &rom a&&luent &amilies. 4n&air penali2ation does not occur /ust because some students do poorly in class. For example, askin" questions about a speci&ic sport in a physical education class 1hen in&ormation on that sport had been discussed in class is not un&air penali2ation as lon" as the questions do not require kno1led"e beyond that tau"ht in class that some "roups are less likely to have. %t can be di&&icult &or ne1 teachers teachin" in multi$ethnic classrooms to devise interestin" assessments that do not penali2e any "roups o& students. Teachers need to think seriously about the impact o& studentsJ di&&erin" back"rounds on the assessment they use in class. Listenin" care&ully to 1hat students say is important as is learnin" about the back"rounds o& the students.
Selecting appropriate assessment techni?ues 00) types of teacher:made assessments

Cne o& the challen"es &or be"innin" teachers is to select and use appropriate assessment techniques. %n this section 1e summari2e the 1ide variety o& types o& assessments that classroom teachers use. First 1e discuss the in&ormal techniques teachers use durin" instruction that typically require instantaneous decisions. Then 1e consider &ormal assessment techniques that teachers plan be&ore instruction and allo1 &or re&lective decisions.
TeachersJ observation, questionin", and record keepin"

*urin" teachin", teachers not only have to communicate the in&ormation they planned but also continuously monitor studentsJ learnin" and motivation in order to determine 1hether modi&ications have to be made <Airasian, 300A=. 7e"innin" teachers &ind this more di&&icult than experienced teachers because o& the complex co"nitive skills required to improvise and be responsive to students needs 1hile simultaneously keepin" in mind the "oals and plans o& the lesson <7orko P Livin"ston, 89D9=. The in&ormal assessment strate"ies teachers most o&ten use durin" instruction are o%servation and &uestioning.
8%servation
#&&ective teachers observe their students &rom the time they enter the classroom. (ome teachers "reet their students at the door not only to 1elcome them but also to observe their mood and motivation. Are 6annah and Baomi still not talkin" to each other? *oes #than have his materials 1ith him? .ainin" in&ormation on such Educational Psychology
3F:
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies questions can help the teacher &oster student learnin" more e&&ectively <e.". su""estin" #than "oes back to his locker to "et his materials be&ore the bell rin"s or avoidin" assi"nin" 6annah and Baomi to the same "roup=. *urin" instruction, teachers observe studentsJ behavior to "ain in&ormation about studentsJ level o& interest and understandin" o& the material or activity. Cbservation includes lookin" at non$verbal behaviors as 1ell as listenin" to 1hat the students are sayin". For example, a teacher may observe that a number o& students are lookin" out o& the 1indo1 rather than 1atchin" the science demonstration, or a teacher may hear students makin" comments in their "roup indicatin" they do not understand 1hat they are supposed to be doin". Cbservations also help teachers decide 1hich student to call on next, 1hether to speed up or slo1 do1n the pace o& the lesson, 1hen more examples are needed, 1hether to be"in or end an activity, ho1 1ell students are per&ormin" a physical activity, and i& there are potential behavior problems <Airasian, 300A=. )any teachers &ind that movin" around the classroom helps them observe more e&&ectively because they can see more students &rom a variety o& perspectives. 6o1ever, the &ast pace and complexity o& most classrooms makes it di&&icult &or teachers to "ain as much in&ormation as they 1ant.
Uuestioning
Teachers ask questions &or many instructional reasons includin" keepin" studentsJ attention on the lesson, hi"hli"htin" important points and ideas, promotin" critical thinkin", allo1in" studentsJ to learn &rom each others ans1ers, and providin" in&ormation about studentsJ learnin". *evisin" "ood appropriate questions and usin" studentsJ responses to make e&&ective instantaneous instructional decisions is very di&&icult. (ome strate"ies to improve questionin" include plannin" and 1ritin" do1n the instructional questions that 1ill be asked, allo1in" su&&icient 1ait time &or students to respond, listenin" care&ully to 1hat students say rather than listenin" &or 1hat is expected, varyin" the types o& questions asked, makin" sure some o& the questions are hi"her level, and askin" &ollo1$up questions. 5hile the in&ormal assessment based on spontaneous observation and questionin" is essential &or teachin" there are inherent problems 1ith the validity, reliability and bias in this in&ormation <Airasian, 300AI (ti""ins 300A=. 5e summari2e these issues and some 1ays to reduce the problems in Table 3A. Table 3: Galidity and reliability o& observation and questionin" Problem Teachers lack o& ob/ectivity about overall class involvement and understandin" Tendency to &ocus on process rather than learnin" Strategies to alleviate problem Try to make sure you are not only seein" 1hat you 1ant to see. Teachers typically 1ant to &eel "ood about their instruction so it is easy to look &or positive student interactions. Cccasionally, teachers 1ant to see ne"ative student reactions to con&irm their belie&s about an individual student or class. -emember to concentrate on student learnin" not /ust involvement. )ost o& teachersJ observations &ocus on processKstudent attention, &acial expressions postureKrather than pupil learnin". (tudents can be active and en"a"ed but not developin" ne1 skills. Limited in&ormation and selective samplin" )ake sure you observe a variety o& studentsKnot /ust those 1ho are typically very "ood or very bad.
3F;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 5alk around the room to observe more students >up close@ and vie1 the room &rom multiple perspectives. Call on a 1ide variety o& studentsKnot /ust those 1ith their hands up, or those 1ho are skilled as the sub/ect, or those 1ho sit in a particular place in the room. 'eep records Fast pace o& classrooms inhibits corroborative evidence %& you 1ant to kno1 i& you are missin" important in&ormation ask a peer to visit your classroom and observe the studentsJ behaviors. Classrooms are complex and &ast paced and one teacher cannot see much o& 1hat is "oin" on 1hile tryin" to also teach. Cultural and individual di&&erences in the meanin" o& verbal and non verbal behaviors 7e cautious in the conclusions that you dra1 &rom your observations and questions. -emember that the meanin" and expectations o& certain types o& questions, 1ait time, social distance, and role o& >small talk@ varies across cultures <Chapter F=. (ome students are quiet because o& their personalities not because they are uninvolved, nor keepin" up 1ith the lesson, nor depressed or tired.
Record #ee*ing
'eepin" records o& observations improves reliability and can be used to enhance understandin" o& one student, a "roup, or the 1hole classE interactions. (ometimes this requires help &rom other teachers. For example, Alexis, a be"innin" science teacher is a1are o& the research documentin" that lon"er 1ait time enhances studentsJ learnin" <e.". -o1e, 3003= but is unsure o& her behaviors so she asks a collea"ue to observe and record her 1ait times durin" one class period. Alexis learns her 1ait times are very short &or all students so she starts practicin" silently countin" to &ive 1henever she asks students a question. Teachers can keep anecdotal records about students 1ithout help &rom peers. These records contain descriptions o& incidents o& a studentJs behavior, the time and place the incident takes place, and a tentative interpretation o& the incident. For example, the description o& the incident mi"ht involve +oseph, a second "rade student, 1ho &ell asleep durin" the mathematics class on a )onday mornin". A tentative interpretation could be the student did not "et enou"h sleep over the 1eekend, but alternative explanations could be the student is sick or is on medications that make him dro1sy. Cbviously additional in&ormation is needed and the teacher could ask +oseph 1hy he is so sleepy and also observe him to see i& he looks tired and sleepy over the next couple o& 1eeks. Anecdotal records o&ten provide important in&ormation and are better than relyin" on oneJs memory but they take time to maintain and it is di&&icult &or teachers to be ob/ective. For example, a&ter seein" +oseph &all asleep the teacher may no1 look &or any si"ns o& +osephJs sleepinessKi"norin" the days he is not sleepy. Also, it is hard &or teachers to sample a 1ide enou"h ran"e o& data &or their observations to be hi"hly reliable. Teachers also conduct more formal o%servations especially &or students 1ith special needs 1ho have %#,Js. An example o& the importance o& in&ormal and &ormal observations in a preschool &ollo1s Educational Psychology
3FD
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies The class of *reschoolers in a su%ur%an neigh%orhood of a large city has eight s*ecial needs students and four students.the *eer models. ho have %een selected %ecause of their language and social s#ills. Some of the s*ecial needs students have %een diagnosed language, some mat ith %ehavior disorders, and several ho has a %o4 ith the teacher ell develo*ed ith delayed
ith autism. The students are sitting on the ho
ith sets of three 'cool) things of varying si/e 1e.g. toy *andas)
and the students are as#ed to *ut the things in order %y si/e, %ig, medium and small. Students
are a%le are also re&uested to *oint to each item in turn and say 'This is the %ig one), 'This is the medium one) and 'This is the little one). 7or some students, only t o choices 1%ig and little) are offered %ecause that is a**ro*riate for their develo*mental level. The teacher informally o%serves that one of the %oys is having trou%le #ee*ing his legs still so she &uietly as#s the aid for a carefully o%serves students %ehaviors and records on ,EP *rogress cards eighted *ad that she *laces on the %oy(s legs to hel* him #ee* them still. The activity continues and the aide hether a child meets ill *oint to the s*ecific o%$ectives such as" 'Ehen given t o *icture or o%$ect choices, @ar#
a**ro*riate o%$ect in A< *er cent of the o**ortunities.) The teacher and aides #ee* records of the relevant %ehavior of the s*ecial needs students during the half day they are in *reschool. The daily records are summari/ed ee#ly. ,f there are not enough o%servations that have %een recorded for a s*ecific o%$ective, the teacher and aide focus their o%servations more on that child, and if necessary, try to create s*ecific situations that relate to that o%$ective. At end of each month the teacher calculates hether the s*ecial needs children are meeting their ,EP o%$ectives.
Selected response items

Common &ormal assessment &ormats used by teachers are multi*le choice, matching, and trueYfalse items. %n selected response items students have to select a response provided by the teacher or test developer rather than constructin" a response in their o1n 1ords or actions. (elected response items do not require that students recall the in&ormation but rather recogni/e the correct ans1er. Tests 1ith these items are called o%$ective because the results are not in&luenced by scorersJ /ud"ments or interpretations and so are o&ten machine scored. #liminatin" potential errors in scorin" increases the reliability o& tests but teachers 1ho only use ob/ective tests are liable to reduce the validity o& their assessment because ob/ective tests are not appropriate &or all learnin" "oals <Linn P )iller, 300A=. #&&ective assessment for learnin" as 1ell as assessment of learnin" must be based on ali"nin" the assessment technique to the learnin" "oals and outcomes. For example, i& the "oal is &or students to conduct an experiment then they should be asked to do that rather that than bein" asked a%out conductin" an experiment.
Common problems
(elected response items are easy to score but are hard to devise. Teachers o&ten do not spend enou"h time constructin" items and common problems include 8. 4nclear 1ordin" in the items
True or 7alse" Althou"h .eor"e 5ashin"ton 1as born into a 1ealthy &amily, his &ather died 1hen he
1as only 88, he 1orked as a youth as a surveyor o& rural lands, and later stood on the balcony o& Federal 6all in Be1 Mork 1hen he took his oath o& o&&ice in 8;D9. 3F9
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 3. Cues that are not related the content bein" examined.
A common clue is that all the true statements on a trueU&alse test or the corrective alternatives on a
multiple choice test are lon"er than the untrue statements or the incorrect alternatives. 3. 4sin" ne"atives <or double ne"atives= the items.
A poor item. >True or False Bone o& the steps made by the student 1as unnecessary.@ A better item. True or False >All o& the steps 1ere necessary.@
(tudents o&ten do not notice the ne"ative terms or &ind them con&usin" so avoidin" them is "enerally recommended <Linn P )iller 300A). 6o1ever, since standardi2ed tests o&ten use ne"ative items, teachers sometimes deliberately include some ne"ative items to "ive students practice in respondin" to that &ormat. F. Takin" sentences directly &rom textbook or lecture notes. -emovin" the 1ords &rom their context o&ten makes them ambi"uous or can chan"e the meanin". For example, a statement &rom Chapter 3 taken out o& context su""ests all children are clumsy. >(imilarly 1ith /umpin", thro1in" and catchin" the lar"e ma/ority o& children can do these thin"s, thou"h o&ten a bit clumsily.@ A &uller quotation makes it clearer that this sentence re&ers to A$year$olds For some &ives, runnin" still looks a bit like a hurried 1alk, but usually it becomes more coordinated 1ithin a year or t1o. (imilarly 1ith /umpin", thro1in" and catchin" the lar"e ma/ority o& children can do these thin"s, thou"h o&ten a bit clumsily, by the time they start school, and most improve their skills noticeably durin" the early elementary years.) %& the abbreviated &orm 1as used as the stem in a trueU&alse item it 1ould obviously be misleadin". A. Avoid trivial questions e.g. Jean Piaget a= 8D9: b= 8900 c= 8DD0 d= 8903 5hile it important to kno1 approximately 1hen ,ia"et made his seminal contributions to the understandin" o& child development, the exact year o& his birth <8DD0= is not important. as %orn in hat year-
(tren"ths and 1eaknesses

All types o& selected response items have a number o& stren"ths and 1eaknesses. TrueY7alse items are appropriate &or measurin" &actual kno1led"e such as vocabulary, &ormulae, dates, proper names, and technical terms. They are very e&&icient as they use a simple structure that students can easily understand, and take little time to complete. They are also easier to construct than multiple choice and matchin" items. 6o1ever, students have a A0 per cent probability o& "ettin" the ans1er correct throu"h "uessin" so it can be di&&icult to interpret ho1 much students kno1 &rom their test scores. #xamples o& common problems that arise 1hen devisin" trueU&alse items are in Table 3;.
3A0
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies Table 3; Common errors in selected response items 3ype of item True False Common errors The statement is not absolutely trueKtypically because it contains a broad "enerali2ation. The item is opinion not &act . !"ample T F The ,resident o& the 4nited (tates is elected to that o&&ice. This is usually true but the 4( Gice ,resident can succeed the ,resident. T F #ducation &or '$83 students is improved thou"h policies that support charter schools. (ome people believe this, some do not.
T1o ideas are included in item
T F .eor"e 6 7ush the F0th president o& the 4( 1as de&eated by 5illiam +e&&erson Clinton in 8993. The Bst idea is falseM the Cnd is true ma#ing it difficult for students to decide hether to circle T or 7.
%rrelevant cues
T F
The ,resident o& the 4nited (tates is usually elected to
that o&&ice. True items contain the 1ords such as usually "enerallyI 1hereas &alse items contain the terms such as al1ays, all, never. )atchin" Columns do not contain homo"eneous in&ormation *irections Cn the line to the 4( Civil 5ar 7attle 1rite the year or con&ederate "eneral in Column 7. Column A Ft (umter 3nd 7attle o& 7ull -un Ft 6enry Column 7 .eneral (tone1all +ackson .eneral +ohnson 8D:8 8D:3 Column 7 is a mixture o& "enerals and dates. Too many items in each list -esponses are not in lo"ical order Lists should be relatively short <F \ ;= in each column. )ore than 80 are too con&usin". %n the example 1ith (panish and #n"lish 1ords should be in a lo"ical order <they are alphabetical=. %& the order is not lo"ical, student spend too much time searchin" &or the correct ans1er.
3A8
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License )ultiple Choice ,roblem <i.e. the stem= is not clearly stated problem Be1 0ealand a= %s the 1orldsJ smallest continent b= %s home to the kan"aroo c= 5as settled mainly by colonists &rom .reat 7ritain d= %s a dictatorship This is really a series o& true$&alse items. 7ecause the correct ans1er is c= a better version 1ith the problem in the stem is )uch o& Be1 0ealand 1as settled by colonists &rom a= .reat 7ritain b= (pain c= France d= 6olland (ome o& the alternatives are not plausible 5ho is best kno1n &or their 1ork on the development o& the morality o& /ustice. 8. .erald Ford
3. Gy"otsky 3. )aslo1 F. 'ohlber" Cbviously .erald Ford is not a plausible alternative. %rrelevant cues 8. Correct alternative is lon"er
3. %ncorrect alternatives are not "rammatically correct 1ith the stem 3. Too many correct alternatives are in position >b@ or >c@ makin" it easier &or students to "uess. All the options <e.". a, b, c, d= should be used in approximately equal &requently <not exact as that also provides clues=.
3A3
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies 4se o& >All o& above@ 8. %& all o& the >above is used@ then the other items must
be correct. This means that a student may read the 8 st response, mark it correct and move on. Alternatively, a student may read the 8st t1o items and seein" they are true does nor need to read the other alternatives to kno1 to circle >all o& the above@. The teacher probably does not 1ant either o& these options.
%n matching items, t1o parallel columns containin" terms, phrases, symbols, or numbers are presented and the student is asked to match the items in the &irst column 1ith those in the second column. Typically there are more items in the second column to make the task more di&&icult and to ensure that i& a student makes one error they do not have to make another. )atchin" items most o&ten are used to measure lo1er level kno1led"e such as persons and their achievements, dates and historical events, terms and de&initions, symbols and concepts, plants or animals and classi&ications <Linn P )iller, 300A=. An example 1ith (panish lan"ua"e 1ords and their #n"lish equivalents is belo1 *irections Cn the line to the le&t o& the (panish 1ord in Column A, 1rite the letter o& the #n"lish 1ord in Column 7 that has the same meanin". Column A ^^^ 8. Casa ^^^ 3. 7ebV VVV ;. .ata VVV >. ,erro VVV ?. 6ermano Column + A. Aunt 7. 7aby C. 7rother *. Cat #. *o" F. Father .. 6ouse 5hile matchin" items may seem easy to devise it is hard to create homo"enous lists. Cther problems 1ith matchin" items and su""ested remedies are in Table 3;. @ulti*le Choice items are the most commonly used type o& ob/ective test items because they have a number o& advanta"es over other ob/ective test items. )ost importantly they can be adapted to assess hi"her levels thinkin" such as application as 1ell as lo1er level &actual kno1led"e. The &irst example belo1 assesses kno1led"e o& a speci&ic &act 1hereas the second example assesses application o& kno1led"e. 5ho is best kno1n &or their 1ork on the development o& the morality o& /ustice? a= #rikson b= Gy"otsky
3A3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License c= )aslo1 d= 'ohlber" 5hich one o& the &ollo1in" best illustrates the la1 o& diminishin" returns a= A &actory doubled its labor &orce and increased production by A0 per cent b= The demand &or an electronic product increased &aster than the supply o& the product c= The population o& a country increased &aster than a"ricultural sel& su&&iciency d= A machine decreased in e&&icacy as its parts became 1orn out <Adapted &rom Linn and )iller 300A, p, 893=. There are several other advanta"es o& multiple choice items. (tudents have to reco"ni2e the correct ans1er not /ust kno1 the incorrect ans1er as they do in trueU&alse items. Also, the opportunity &or "uessin" is reduced because &our or &ive alternatives are usually provided 1hereas in trueU&alse items students only have to choose bet1een t1o choices. Also, multiple choice items do not need homo"eneous material as matchin" items do. 6o1ever, creatin" "ood multiple choice test items is di&&icult and students <maybe includin" you= o&ten become &rustrated 1hen takin" a test 1ith poor multiple choice items. Three steps have to be considered 1hen constructin" a multiple choice item &ormulatin" a clearly stated problem, identi&yin" plausible alternatives, and removin" irrelevant clues to the ans1er. Common problems in each o& these steps are summari2ed in Table 3D
Constructed response items

Formal assessment also includes constructed response items in 1hich students are asked to recall in&ormation and create an ans1erKnot /ust reco"ni2e i& the ans1er is correctKso "uessin" is reduced. Constructed response items can be used to assess a 1ide variety o& kinds o& kno1led"e and t1o ma/or kinds are discussed com*letion or short ans er <also called short response= and e4tended res*onse.
Completion and short ans1er

Completion and short ans1er items can be ans1ered in a 1ord, phrase, number, or symbol. These types o& items are essentially the same only varyin" in 1hether the problem is presented as a statement or a question <Linn P )iller 300A=. For example Completion The &irst tra&&ic li"ht in the 4( 1as invented by_____. (hort Ans1er 5ho invented the &irst tra&&ic li"ht in the 4(? These items are o&ten used in mathematics tests, e.". 3 W 80 ] ____..? %& x ] :, 1hat does x<x$8= ]___. *ra1 the line o& symmetry on the &ollo1in" shape A ma/or advanta"e o& these items is they that they are easy to construct. 6o1ever, apart &rom their use in mathematics they are unsuitable &or measurin" complex learnin" outcomes and are o&ten di&&icult to score. Completion and short ans1er tests are sometimes called ob/ective tests as the intent is that there is only one correct Educational Psychology
3AF
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies ans1er and so there is no variability in scorin" but unless the question is phrased very care&ully, there are &requently a variety o& correct ans1ers. For example, consider the item 5here 1as ,resident Lincoln born?.................... The teacher may expect the ans1er >in a lo" cabin@ but other correct ans1ers are also >on (inkin" (prin" Farm@, >in 6ardin County@ or >in 'entucky@. Common errors in these items are summari2ed in Table 3D. Table 3D Common errors in constructed response items 3ype of item Completion and short ans1er Common errors There is more than one possible ans1er. Too many blanks are in too di&&icult or doesnJt make sense. Clues are "iven by len"th o& blanks in completion items. #xtended -esponse Ambi"uous questions e.". 5as the 4( Civil 5ar avoidable? Students could inter*ret this &uestion in a ide variety of e.". Three states are conti"uous to Be1 6ampshire . _.is to the 5est, __is to the #ast and ___.._. is to the (outh. !"ample e.". 5here 1as 4( ,resident Lincoln born? The ans er could %e in a log ca%in, in Kentuc#y etc. e.". %n _.. theory, the &irst sta"e, _.. . is 1hen in&ants process
the completion item so it is throu"h their __. and _.. ___
ays, *erha*s even stating 'yes) or 'no). 8ne student may discuss only *olitical causes another moral, *olitical and economic causes. There is no guidance in the &uestion for students. ,oor reliability in "radin" The teacher does not use a scorin" rubric and so is inconsistent in ho1 he scores ans1ers especially unexpected responses, irrelevant in&ormation, and "rammatical errors. ,erception o& student in&luences "radin" 7y sprin" semester the teacher has developed expectations o& each studentJs per&ormance and this in&luences the "radin" <numbers can be used instead o& names=. The test consists o& three constructed responses and the teacher "rades the three ans1ers on each studentsJ paper be&ore movin" to the next paper. This means that the "radin" o& questions 3 and 3 are in&luenced by the ans1ers to question 8 <teachers should "rade all the 8st question then the 3nd etc=. Choices are "iven on Testin" experts recommend not "ivin" choices in tests 3AA
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License the test and some ans1ers are easier than others. because then students are not really takin" the same test creatin" equity problems.
#xtended response
#xtended response items are used in many content areas and ans1ers may vary in len"th &rom a para"raph to several pa"es. Tuestions that require lon"er responses are o&ten called essay questions. #xtended response items have several advanta"es and the most important is their adaptability &or measurin" complex learnin" outcomesK particularly inte"ration and application. These items also require that students 1rite and there&ore provide teachers a 1ay to assess 1ritin" skills. A commonly cited advanta"e to these items is their ease in constructionI ho1ever, care&ully 1orded items that are related to learnin" outcomes and assess complex learnin" are hard to devise <Linn P )iller, 300A=. 5ell$constructed items phrase the question so the task o& the student is clear. C&ten this involves providin" hints or plannin" notes. %n the &irst example belo1 the actual question is clear not only because o& the 1ordin" but because o& the &ormat <i.e. it is placed in a box=. %n the second and third examples plannin" notes are provided E4am*le B" Third "rade mathematics The o1ner o& a bookstore "ave 8F books to the school. The principal 1ill "ive an equal number o& books to each o& three classrooms and the remainin" books to the school library. 6o1 many books could the principal "ive to each student and the school? (ho1 all your 1ork on the space belo1 and on the next pa"e. #xplain in 1ords ho1 you &ound the ans1er. Tell 1hy you took the steps you did to solve the problem. From %llinois (tandards Achievement Test, 300:I <http UU111.isbe.state.il.usUassessmentUisat.htm= E4am*le C Fi&th "rade science The "rass is al1ays "reener +ose and )aria noticed three di&&erent types o& soil, black soil, sand, and clay, 1ere &ound in their nei"hborhood. They decided to investi"ate the question, >6o1 does the type o& soil <black soil, sand, and clay= under "rass sod a&&ect the hei"ht o& "rass?@ ,lan an investi"ation that could ans1er their ne1 question. %n your plan, be sure to include
,rediction o& the outcome o& the investi"ation )aterials needed to do the investi"ation ,rocedure that includes lo"ical steps to do the investi"ation one variable kept the same <controlled= one variable chan"ed <manipulated= any variables bein" measure and recorded
3A:
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies

ho1 o&ten measurements are taken and recorded
<From 5ashin"ton (tate 300F assessment o& student learnin" = http UU111.k83.1a.usUassessmentU5A(LUde&ault.aspx= E4am*le ;" .rades 9$88 #n"lish 5ritin" prompt (ome people think that schools should teach students ho1 to cook. Cther people think that cookin" is somethin" that ou"ht to be tau"ht in the home. 5hat do you think? #xplain 1hy you think as you do. ,lannin" notes Choose Cne
a a
% think schools should teach students ho1 to cook % think cookin" should l be tau"ht in the home
% think cookin" should be tau"ht in ___________..because___ <school= or <the home= <From %llinois )easure o& Annual .ro1th in #n"lish http UU111.isbe.state.il.usUassessmentUima"e.htm= A ma/or disadvanta"e o& extended response items is the di&&iculty in reliable scorin". Bot only do various teachers score the same response di&&erently but also the same teacher may score the identical response di&&erently on various occasions <Linn P )iller 300A=. A variety o& steps can be taken to improve the reliability and validity o& scorin". First, teachers should be"in by 1ritin" an outline o& a model ans1er. This helps make it clear 1hat students are expected to include. (econd, a sample o& the ans1ers should be read. This assists in determinin" 1hat the students can do and i& there are any common misconceptions arisin" &rom the question. Third, teachers have to decide 1hat to do about irrelevant in&ormation that is included <e.". is it i"nored or are students penali2ed= and ho1 to evaluate mechanical errors such as "rammar and spellin". Then, a *oint scoring or a scoring ru%ric should be used. %n point scorin" components o& the ans1er are assi"ned points. For example, i& students 1ere asked 5hat are the nature, symptoms, and risk &actors o& hyperthermia? ,oint (corin" .uide *e&inition <natures= (ymptoms <8 pt &or each= 3 pts A pts
-isk Factors <8 point &or each= A pts 5ritin" 3 pts
This provides some "uidance &or evaluation and helps consistency but point scorin" systems o&ten lead the teacher to &ocus on &acts <e.". namin" risk &actors= rather than hi"her level thinkin" that may undermine the validity 3A;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License o& the assessment i& the teachersJ purposes include hi"her level thinkin". A better approach is to use a scorin" rubric that descri%es the quality o& the ans1er or per&ormance at each level.
(corin" rubrics
(corin" rubrics can be holistic or analytical. %n holistic scorin" rubrics, "eneral descriptions o& per&ormance are made and a sin"le overall score is obtained. An example &rom "rade 3 lan"ua"e arts in Los An"eles 4ni&ied (chool *istrict classi&ies responses into &our levels not pro&icient, partially pro&icient, pro&icient and advanced is on Table 39. Table 39 #xample o& holistic scorin" rubric #n"lish lan"ua"e arts "rade 3 Assi"nment. 5rite about an interestin", &un, or excitin" story you have read in class this year. (ome o& the thin"s you could 1rite about are 5hat happened in the story <the plot or events= 5here the events took place <the settin"= ,eople, animals, or thin"s in the story < the characters=
%n your 1ritin" make sure you use &acts and details &rom the story to describe everythin" clearly. A&ter you 1rite about the story, explain 1hat makes the story interestin", &un or excitin". Scoring rubric Advanced The response demonstrates 1ell$developed readin" comprehension skills. )a/or story elements <plot, settin", or characters= are clearly and accurately described. (core F (tatements about the plot, settin", or characters are arran"ed in a manner that makes sense. %deas or /ud"ments <1hy the story is interestin", &un, or excitin"= are clearly supported or explained 1ith &acts and details &rom the story. ,ro&icient The response demonstrates solid readin" comprehension skills. )ost statements about the plot, settin", or characters are clearly described. (core 3 )ost statements about the plot, settin", or characters are arran"ed in a manner that makes sense. %deas or /ud"ments are supported 1ith &acts and details &rom the story. ,artially ,ro&icient The response demonstrates some readin" comprehension skills
3AD
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies There is an attempt to describe the plot, settin", or characters (core 8 (ome statements about the plot, settin", or characters are arran"ed in a manner that makes sense. %deas or /ud"ments may be supported 1ith some &acts and details &rom the story. Bot ,ro&icient The response demonstrates little or no skill in readin" comprehension. The plot, settin", or characters are not described, or the description is unclear. (core 8 (tatements about the plot, settin", or characters are not arran"ed in a manner that makes sense. %deas or /ud"ments are not stated, and &acts and details &rom the text are not used. Source Adapted &rom #n"lish Lan"ua"e Arts .rade 3 Los An"eles 4ni&ied (chool *istrict, 3008 <http UU111.cse.ucla.eduUresourcesU/ust&orteachers^set.htm=
Analytical rubrics provide descriptions o& levels o& student per&ormance on a variety o& characteristics. For example, six characteristics used &or assessin" 1ritin" developed by the Borth1est -e"ional #ducation Laboratory <B5-#L= are
ideas and content or"ani2ation voice 1ord choice sentence &luency conventions
*escriptions o& hi"h, medium, and lo1 responses &or each characteristic are available &rom http UU111.n1rel.or"UassessmentUtoolkit9DUtraitsUindex.html=. 6olistic rubrics have the advanta"es that they can be developed more quickly than analytical rubrics. They are also &aster to use as there is only one dimension to examine. 6o1ever, they do not provide students &eedback about 1hich aspects o& the response are stron" and 1hich aspects need improvement <Linn P )iller, 300A=. This means they are less use&ul &or assessment for learnin". An important use o& rubrics is to use them as teachin" tools and provide them to students %efore the assessment so they kno1 1hat kno1led"e and skills are expected. Teachers can use scorin" rubrics as part o& instruction by "ivin" students the rubric durin" instruction, providin" several responses, and analy2in" these responses in terms o& the rubric. For example, use o& accurate terminolo"y is one dimension o& the science rubric in Table F0. An elementary science teacher could discuss 1hy it
3A9
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License is important &or scientists to use accurate terminolo"y, "ive examples o& inaccurate and accurate terminolo"y, provide that component o& the scorin" rubric to students, distribute some examples o& student responses <maybe &rom &ormer students=, and then discuss ho1 these responses 1ould be classi&ied accordin" to the rubric. This strate"y o& assessment &or learnin" should be more e&&ective i& the teacher <a= emphasi2es to students 1hy usin" accurate terminolo"y is important 1hen learnin" science rather than ho1 to "et a "ood "rade on the test <1e provide more details about this in the section on motivation later in this chapter=I <b= provides an exemplary response so students can see a modelI and <c= emphasi2es that the "oal is student improvement on this skill not rankin" students. Table F0 #xample o& a scorin" rubric, (cience NCn the 6i"h (chool Assessment, the application o& a concept to a practical problem or real$1orld situation 1ill be scored 1hen it is required in the response and requested in the item stem. 'evel of understanding ,se of accurate scientific terminology F There is evidence in the response that the student has a &ull and complete understandin". The use o& accurate scienti&ic terminolo"y enhances the response. ,se of supporting details ,ertinent and complete supportin" details demonstrate an inte"ration o& ideas. The response re&lects a complete synthesis o& in&ormation. An e&&ective application o& the concept to a practical problem or real$1orld situation reveals an insi"ht into scienti&ic principles. 3 There is evidence in the response that the student has a "ood understandin". The use o& accurate scienti&ic terminolo"y stren"thens the response. The supportin" details are "enerally complete. 3 There is evidence in the response that the student has a basic understandin". The use o& accurate scienti&ic terminolo"y may be present in the response. The supportin" details are adequate. The response provides little or no synthesis o& in&ormation. The response re&lects some synthesis o& in&ormation. The concept has been applied to a practical problem or real$ 1orld situation. The application o& the concept to a practical problem or real$1orld situation is inadequate. 8 There is evidence in the response that the student has some Educational Psychology
Synthesis of information
4pplication of informationN
The use o& accurate not present in the
The
The response addresses the
The application, i& attempted, is A .lobal Text
scienti&ic terminolo"y is supportin"
details are only question. 3:0
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies understandin". response. minimally e&&ective. 0 The student has F2 ,FD!-S34FD&F0 o& the question or problem. The response is completely incorrect or irrelevant. irrelevant.
,er&ormance assessments
Typically in per&ormance assessments students complete a speci&ic task 1hile teachers observe the process or procedure <e.". data collection in an experiment= as 1ell as the product <e.". completed report= <,opham, 300AI (ti""ens, 300A=. The tasks that students complete in per&ormance assessments are not simpleKin contrast to selected response itemsKand include the &ollo1in"
playin" a musical instrument athletic skills artistic creation conversin" in a &orei"n lan"ua"e en"a"in" in a debate about political issues conductin" an experiment in science repairin" a machine 1ritin" a term paper usin" interaction skills to play to"ether
These examples all involve complex skills but illustrate that the term per&ormance assessment is used in a variety o& 1ays. For example, the teacher may not observe all o& the process <e.". she sees a dra&t paper but the &inal product is 1ritten durin" out$o&$school hours= and essay tests are typically classi&ied as per&ormance assessments <Airasian, 3000=. %n addition, in some per&ormance assessments there may be no clear product <e.". the per&ormance may be "roup interaction skills=. T1o related terms, alternative assessment and authentic assessment are sometimes used instead o& per&ormance assessment but they have di&&erent meanin"s <Linn P )iller, 300A=. Alternative assessment re&ers to tasks that are not pencil$and$paper and 1hile many per&ormance assessments are not pencil$and paper tasks some are <e.". 1ritin" a term paper, essay tests=. Authentic assessment is used to describe tasks that students do that are similar to those in the >real 1orld@. Classroom tasks vary in level o& authenticity <,opham, 300A=. For example, a +apanese lan"ua"e class tau"ht in a hi"h school in Chica"o conversin" in +apanese in Tokyo is hi"hly authenticK but only possible in a study abroad pro"ram or trip to +apan. Conversin" in +apanese 1ith native +apanese speakers in Chica"o is also hi"hly authentic, and conversin" 1ith the teacher in +apanese durin" class is moderately authentic. )uch less authentic is a matchin" test on #n"lish and +apanese 1ords. %n a lan"ua"e arts class, 1ritin" a letter <to an editor= or a memo to the principal is hi"hly authentic as letters and memos are common 1ork products.
3:8
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 6o1ever, 1ritin" a &ive$para"raph paper is not as authentic as such papers are not used in the 1orld o& 1ork. 6o1ever, a &ive para"raph paper is a complex task and 1ould typically be classi&ied as a per&ormance assessment.
Advanta"es and disadvanta"es

There are several advanta"es o& per&ormance assessments <Linn P )iller 300A=. First, the &ocus is on complex learnin" outcomes that o&ten cannot be measured by other methods. (econd, per&ormance assessments typically assess process or procedure as 1ell as the product. For example, the teacher can observe i& the students are repairin" the machine usin" the appropriate tools and procedures as 1ell as 1hether the machine &unctions properly a&ter the repairs. Third, 1ell desi"ned per&ormance assessments communicate the instructional "oals and meanin"&ul learnin" clearly to students. For example, i& the topic in a &i&th "rade art class is one$point perspective the per&ormance assessment could be dra1in" a city scene that illustrates one point perspective. <http UU111.san&ord$artedventures.com=. This assessment is meanin"&ul and clearly communicates the learnin" "oal. This per&ormance assessment is a "ood instructional activity and has "ood content validityKcommon 1ith 1ell desi"ned per&ormance assessments <Linn P )iller 300A=. Cne ma/or disadvanta"e 1ith per&ormance assessments is that they are typically very time consumin" &or students and teachers. This means that &e1er assessments can be "athered so i& they are not care&ully devised &e1er learnin" "oals 1ill be assessedK1hich can reduce content validity. (tate curriculum "uidelines can be help&ul in determinin" 1hat should be included in a per&ormance assessment. For example, #ric, a dance teacher in a hi"h school in Tennessee learns that the state standards indicate that dance students at the hi"hest level should be able to do demonstrate consistency and clarity in per&ormin" technical skills by
per&ormin" complex movement combinations to music in a variety o& meters and styles per&ormin" combinations and variations in a broad dynamic ran"e demonstratin" improvement in per&ormin" movement combinations throu"h sel&$evaluation critiquin" a live or taped dance production based on "iven criteria
<http UU111.tennessee."ovUeducationUciUstandardsUmusicUdance983.shtml= #ric devises the &ollo1in" per&ormance task &or his eleventh "rade modern dance class . ,n grou*s of >3: students ill *erform a dance at least ? minutes in length. The dance selected should ill videota*e their rehearsals and document ho ill vie they
%e multifaceted so that all the dancers can demonstrate technical s#ills, com*le4 movements, and a dynamic range 1,tems B3C). Students im*roved through self evaluation 1,tem ;). Each grou* of one other grou* in class 1,tem >). Eric assessment. The grou*s *ro%a%ly and criti&ue the final *erformance
ould need to scaffold most ste*s in this *erformance
ould need guidance in selecting a dance that allo ed all the
dancers to demonstrate the a**ro*riate s#illsM criti&uing their o n *erformances constructivelyM or#ing effectively as a team, and a**lying criteria to evaluate a dance. Another disadvanta"e o& per&ormance assessments is they are hard to assess reliably 1hich can lead to inaccuracy and un&air evaluation. As 1ith any constructed response assessment, scorin" rubrics are very important.
3:3
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies An example o& holistic and analytic scorin" rubrics desi"ned to assess a completed *roduct are in Table 39 and Table F0. A rubric desi"ned to assess the *rocess o& "roup interactions is in Table F8. Table F8 #xample o& "roup interaction rubric Score 3ime management 0 .roup did not stay on task and so task 1as not completed. 8 .roup 1as o&&$task the ma/ority o& the time .roups assi"ned roles but members did not use .roup totally disre"arded comments and ideas &rom some members. Participation and performance in roles .roup did not assi"n or share roles. (in"le individual did the task. Shared involvement
but task 1as completed. these roles. 3 .roup stayed on task most o& the time. .roups accepted and used some but not all roles. .roup accepted some ideas but did not "ive others adequate consideration.
.roup stayed on task throu"hout the activity and mana"ed time 1ell.
.roup accepted and used roles and actively participated. .roup de&ined and used roles not mentioned to them. -ole chan"es took place that maximi2ed individualsJ expertise.
.roups "ave equal consideration to all ideas.
.roup de&ined their o1n approach in a 1ay that more e&&ectively mana"ed the activity.
.roups made speci&ic e&&orts to involve all "roup members includin" the reticent members.
Source Adapted &rom .roup %nteraction < .%= (#T4, < 3003=. %ssues, #vidence and Mou. -onkonkomo, BM Lab$Aids. <http UUcse.edc.or"UproductsUassessmentUmiddleschoolUscorerub.asp==
This rubric 1as devised &or middle "rade science but could be used in other sub/ect areas 1hen assessin" "roup process. %n some per&ormance assessments several scorin" rubrics should be used. %n the dance per&ormance example above #ric should have scorin" rubrics &or the per&ormance skills, the improvement based on sel& evaluation, the team 1ork, and the critique o& the other "roup. Cbviously, devisin" a "ood per&ormance assessment is complex and Linn and )iller <300A= recommend that teachers should
Create per&ormance assessments that require students to use complex co"nitive skills. (ometimes teachers
devise assessments that are interestin" and that the students en/oy but do not require students to use hi"her level co"nitive skills that lead to si"ni&icant learnin". Focusin" on hi"h level skills and learnin" outcomes is particularly important because per&ormance assessments are typically so time consumin".
3:3

#nsure that the task is clear to the students. ,er&ormance assessments typically require multiple steps so
students need to have the necessary prerequisite skills and kno1led"e as 1ell as clear directions. Care&ul sca&&oldin" is important &or success&ul per&ormance assessments.
(peci&y expectations o& the per&ormance clearly by providin" students scorin" rubrics durin" the
instruction. This not only helps students understand 1hat it expected but it also "uarantees that teachers are clear about 1hat they expect. Thinkin" this throu"h 1hile plannin" the per&ormance assessment can be di&&icult &or teachers but is crucial as it typically leads to revisions o& the actual assessment and directions provided to students.
-educe the importance o& unessential skills in completin" the task. 5hat skills are essential depends on the
purpose o& the task. For example, &or a science report, is the use o& publishin" so&t1are essential? %& the purpose o& the assessment is &or students to demonstrate the process o& the scienti&ic method includin" 1ritin" a report, then the &ormat o& the report may not be si"ni&icant. 6o1ever, i& the purpose includes inte"ratin" t1o sub/ect areas, science and technolo"y, then the use o& publishin" so&t1are is important. 7ecause per&ormance assessments take time it is temptin" to include multiple skills 1ithout care&ully considerin" i& all the skills are essential to the learnin" "oals.
Portfolios
>A port&olio is a meanin"&ul collection o& student 1ork that tells the story o& student achievement or "ro1th@ <Arter, (pandel, P Culham, 899A, p. 3=. ,ort&olios are a *ur*oseful collection o& student 1ork not /ust &olders o& all the 1ork a student does. ,ort&olios are used &or a variety o& purposes and developin" a port&olio system can be con&usin" and stress&ul unless the teachers are clear on their purpose. The varied purposes can be illustrated as &our dimensions <Linn P )iller 300A=
Assessment &or Learnin" Current Accomplishments 7est 5ork (ho1case Finished
Assessment o& learnin" ,ro"ress *ocumentation 5orkin"
5hen the primary purpose is assessment for learnin", the emphasis is on student sel&$re&lection and responsibility &or learnin". (tudents not only select samples o& their 1ork they 1ish to include, but also re&lect and interpret their o1n 1ork. ,ort&olios containin" this in&ormation can be used to aid communication as students can present and explain their 1ork to their teachers and parents <(ti""ins, 300A=. ,ort&olios &ocusin" on assessment of learnin" contain studentsJ 1ork samples that certi&y accomplishments &or a classroom "rade, "raduation, state requirements etc. Typically, students have less choice in the 1ork contained in such port&olios as some consistency Educational Psychology
3:F
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies is needed &or this type o& assessment. For example, the 1ritin" port&olios that &ourth and seventh "raders are required to submit in 'entucky must contain a sel&$re&lective statement and an example o& three pieces o& 1ritin" <re&lective, personal experience or literary, and transactive=. (tudents do choose 1hich o& their pieces o& 1ritin" in each type to include in the port&olio. <http UU111.kde.state.ky.usU'*#U%nstructionalW-esourcesUCurriculumW*ocumentsWandW-esourcesU(tudent W,er&ormanceW(tandardsU=. ,ort&olios can be desi"ned to &ocus on student pro"ress or current accomplishments. For example, audio tapes o& #n"lish lan"ua"e learners speakin" could be collected over one year to demonstrate "ro1th in learnin". (tudent pro"ress port&olios may also contain multiple versions o& a sin"le piece o& 1ork. For example, a 1ritin" pro/ect may contain notes on the ori"inal idea, outline, &irst dra&t, comments on the &irst dra&t by peers or teacher, second dra&t, and the &inal &inished product <Linn P )iller 300A=. %& the &ocus is on current accomplishments, only recent completed 1ork samples are included. ,ort&olios can &ocus on documentin" student activities or hi"hli"htin" important accomplishments. *ocumentation port&olios are inclusive containin" all the 1ork samples rather than &ocusin" on one special stren"th, best 1ork, or pro"ress. %n contrast, sho1case port&olios &ocus on best 1ork. The best 1ork is typically identi&ied by students. Cne aim o& such port&olios is that students learn ho1 to identi&y products that demonstrate 1hat they kno1 and can do. (tudents are not expected to identi&y their best 1ork in isolation but also use the &eedback &rom their teachers and peers. A &inal distinction can be made bet1een a &inished port&olioKmaybe used to &or a /ob applicationKversus a 1orkin" port&olio that typically includes day$to$day 1ork samples. 5orkin" port&olios evolve over time and are not intended to be used &or assessment of learnin". The &ocus in a 1orkin" port&olio is on developin" ideas and skills so students should be allo1ed to make mistakes, &reely comment on their o1n 1ork, and respond to teacher &eedback <Linn P )iller, 300A=. Finished port&olios are desi"ned &or use 1ith a particular audience and the products selected may be dra1n &rom a 1orkin" port&olio. For example, in a teacher education pro"ram, the 1orkin" port&olio may contain 1ork samples &rom all the courses taken. A student may develop one &inished port&olio to demonstrate she has mastered the required competencies in the teacher education pro"ram and a second &inished port&olio &or her /ob application.
Advanta"es and disadvanta"es

,ort&olios used 1ell in classrooms have several advanta"es. They provide a 1ay o& documentin" and evaluatin" "ro1th in a much more nuanced 1ay than selected response tests can. Also, port&olios can be inte"rated easily into instruction, i.e. used &or assessment for learnin". ,ort&olios also encoura"e student sel&$evaluation and re&lection, as 1ell as o1nership &or learnin" <,opham, 300A=. 4sin" classroom assessment to promote student motivation is an important component o& assessment &or learnin" 1hich is considered in the next section. 6o1ever, there are some ma/or disadvanta"es o& port&olio use. First, "ood port&olio assessment takes an enormous amount o& teacher time and or"ani2ation. The time is needed to help students understand the purpose and structure o& the port&olio, decide 1hich 1ork samples to collect, and to sel& re&lect. (ome o& this time needs to be conducted in one$to$one con&erences. -evie1in" and evaluatin" the port&olios out o& class time is also enormously time consumin". Teachers have to 1ei"h i& the time spent is 1orth the bene&its o& the port&olio use. 3:A
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (econd, evaluatin" port&olios reliability and eliminatin" bias can be even more di&&icult than in a constructed response assessment because the products are more varied. The experience o& the state$1ide use o& port&olios &or assessment in 1ritin" and mathematics &or &ourth and ei"hth "raders in Germont is soberin". Teachers used the same analytic scorin" rubric 1hen evaluatin" the port&olio. %n the &irst t1o years o& implementation samples &rom schools 1ere collected and scored by an external panel o& teachers. %n the &irst year the a"reement amon" raters <i.e. inter$rater reliability= 1as poor &or mathematics and readin"I in the second year the a"reement amon" raters improved &or mathematics but not &or readin". 6o1ever, even 1ith the improvement in mathematics the reliability 1as too lo1 to use the port&olios &or individual student accountability <'oret2, (techer, 'lein P )cCa&&rey, 899F=. 5hen reliability is lo1, validity is also compromised because unstable results cannot be interpreted meanin"&ully. %& teachers do use port&olios in their classroom, the series o& steps needed &or implementation are outlined in Table 3:. %& the school or district has an existin" port&olio system these steps may have to be modi&ied. Table F3 (teps in implementin" a classroom port&olio pro"ram 8. )ake sure students o1n their port&olios. Talk to your students about your ideas o& the port&olio, the di&&erent purposes, and the variety o& 1ork samples. %& possible, have them help make decisions about the kind o& port&olio you implement. 3. *ecide on the purpose. 5ill the &ocus be on "ro1th or current accomplishments? 7est 1ork sho1case or documentation? .ood port&olios can have multiple purposes but the teacher and students need to be clear about the purpose. 3. *ecide 1hat 1ork samples to collect, F. Collect and store 1ork samples, For example, in 1ritin", is every 1ritin" assi"nment included? Are early dra&ts as 1ell as &inal products included? *ecide 1here the 1ork sample 1ill be stored. For example, 1ill each student have a &ile &older in a &ile cabinet, or a small plastic tub on a shel& in the classroom? A. (elect criteria to evaluate samples, %& possible, 1ork 1ith students to develop scorin" rubrics. This may take considerable time as di&&erent rubrics may be needed &or the variety o& 1ork samples. %& you are usin" existin" scorin" rubrics, discuss 1ith students possible modi&ications a&ter the rubrics have been used at least once. :. Teach and require students conduct sel& evaluations o& their o1n 1ork, 6elp students learn to evaluate their o1n 1ork usin" a"reed upon criteria. For youn"er students, the sel& evaluations may be simple <stren"ths, 1eaknesses, and 1ays to improve=I &or older students a more analytic approach is desirable includin" usin" the same scorin" rubrics that the teachers 1ill use. ;. (chedule and conduct port&olio con&erences , Teacher$student con&erences are time consumin" but con&erences are essential &or the port&olio process to si"ni&icantly enhance learnin". These con&erences should aid studentsJ sel& evaluation and should take place &requently.
3::
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies D. %nvolve parents. ,arents need to understand the port&olio process. #ncoura"e parents to revie1 the 1ork samples. Mou may 1ish to schedule parent, teacher$students con&erences in 1hich students talk about their 1ork samples. Source Adapted &rom ,opham <300A=
ssessment that enhances motivation and student confidence

(tudies on testing and learnin" conducted more than 30 years a"o demonstrated that tests promote learnin" and that more &requent tests are more e&&ective than less &requent tests <*empster P ,erkins, 8993=. Frequent smaller tests encoura"e continuous e&&ort rather than last minute crammin" and may also reduce test anxiety because the consequences o& errors are reduced. Colle"e students report pre&errin" more &requent testin" than in&requent testin" <7an"ert$*o1ns, 'ulik, 'ulik, 8998=. )ore recent research indicates that teachersJ assessment *ur*ose and %eliefs, the ty*e o& assessment selected, and the feed%ac# "iven contributes to the assessment climate in the classroom 1hich in&luences studentsJ con&idence and motivation. The use o& sel&$assessment is also important in establishin" a positive assessment climate.
Teachers% purposes and beliefs

(tudent motivation can be enhanced 1hen the purpose o& assessment is promotin" student learnin" and this is clearly communicated to students by 1hat teachers say and do <6arlen, 300:=. This approach to assessment is associated 1ith 1hat the psycholo"ist, Carol *1eck, <3000= calls an incremental vie1 o& ability or intelli"ence. An incremental vie1 assumes that ability increases 1henever an individual learns more. This means that e&&ort is valued because e&&ort leads to kno1in" more and there&ore havin" more ability. %ndividuals 1ith an incremental vie1 also ask &or help 1hen needed and respond 1ell to constructive &eedback as the primary "oal is increased learnin" and mastery. %n contrast, a &ixed vie1 o& ability assumes that some people have more ability than others and nothin" much can be done to chan"e that. %ndividuals 1ith a &ixed vie1 o& ability o&ten vie1 e&&ort in opposition to ability <>(mart people donJt have to study@= and so do not try as hard, and are less likely to ask &or help as that indicates that they are not smart. 5hile there are individual di&&erences in studentsJ belie&s about their vie1s o& intelli"ence, teachersJ belie&s and classroom practices in&luence studentsJ perceptions and behaviors. Teachers 1ith an incremental vie1 o& intelli"ence communicate to students that the "oal o& learnin" is masterin" the material and &i"urin" thin"s out. Assessment is used by these teachers to understand 1hat students kno1 so they can decide 1hether to move to the next topic, re$teach the entire class, or provide remediation &or a &e1 students. Assessment also helps studentsJ understand their o1n learnin" and demonstrate their competence. Teachers 1ith these vie1s say thin"s like, >5e are "oin" to practice over and over a"ain. ThatJs ho1 you "et "ood. And youJre "oin" to make mistakes. ThatJs ho1 you learn.@ <,atrick, Anderman, -yan, #delin, )id"ley, 3008, p. FA=. %n contrast, teachers 1ith a &ixed vie1 o& ability are more likely to believe that the "oal o& learnin" is doin" 1ell on tests especially outper&ormin" others. These teachers are more likely to say thin"s that imply &ixed abilities e.". >This test 1ill determine 1hat your math abilities are@, or stress the importance o& interpersonal competition, >5e 1ill have speech competition and the top person 1ill compete a"ainst all the other district schools and last year the 1inner "ot a bi" a1ard and their photo in the paper.@ 5hen teachers stress interpersonal competition some 3:;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License students may be motivated but there can only a &e1 1inners so there are many more students 1ho kno1 they have no chance o& 1innin". Another problem 1ith interpersonal competition in assessment is that the &ocus can become 1innin" rather than understandin" the material. Teachers 1ho communicate to their students that ability is incremental and that the "oal o& assessment is promotin" learnin" rather that rankin" students, or a1ardin" pri2es to those 1ho did very 1ell, or catchin" those 1ho did not pay attention, are likely to enhance studentsJ motivation.
Choosing assessments
The choice o& assessment task also in&luences studentsJ motivation and con&idence. First, assessments that have clear criteria that students understand and can meet rather than assessments that pit students a"ainst each other in interpersonal competition enhances motivation <7lack, 6arrison, Lee, )arshall, 5iliam, 300F=. This is consistent 1ith the point 1e made in the previous section about the importance o& &ocusin" on enhancin" learnin" &or all students rather than rankin" students. (econd, meanin"&ul assessment tasks enhance student motivation. (tudents o&ten 1ant to kno1 1hy they have to do somethin" and teachers need to provide meanin"&ul ans1ers. For example, a teacher mi"ht say, >Mou need to be able to calculate the area o& a rectan"le because i& you 1ant ne1 carpet you need to kno1 ho1 much carpet is needed and ho1 much it 1ould cost.@ 5ell desi"ned per&ormance tasks are o&ten more meanin"&ul to students than selected response tests so students 1ill 1ork harder to prepare &or them. Third, providin" choices o& assessment tasks can enhance student sense o& autonomy and motivation accordin" to sel& determination theory <see Chapter :=. 'ym, the sixth "rade teacher 1hose story be"an this chapter, reports that "ivin" students choices 1as very help&ul. Another middle school social studies teacher Aaron, "ives his students a choice o& per&ormance tasks at the end o& the unit on the 4( 7ill o& -i"hts. (tudents have to demonstrate speci&ied key ideas but can do that by makin" up a board "ame, presentin" a brie& play, composin" a rap son" etc. Aaron reports that students 1ork much harder on this per&ormance assessment 1hich allo1s them to use their stren"ths than previously 1hen he did not provide any choices and "ave a more traditional assi"nment. )easurement experts caution that a dan"er o& "ivin" choices is that the assessment tasks are no lon"er equivalent and so the reliability o& scorin" is reduced so it is particularly important to use 1ell desi"ned scorin" rubrics. Fourth, assessment tasks should be challen"in" but achievable 1ith reasonable e&&ort <#lliott, )c.re"or P Thrash, 300F=. This is o&ten hard &or be"innin" teachers to do, 1ho may "ive assessment tasks that are too easy or too hard, because they have to learn to match their assessment to the skills o& their students.
Providing feedbac1
5hen the "oal is assessment for learnin", providin" constructive &eedback that helps students kno1 1hat they do and do not understand as 1ell as encoura"in" them to learn &rom their errors is &undamental. #&&ective &eedback should be "iven as soon as possible as the lon"er the delay bet1een studentsJ 1ork and &eedback the lon"er students 1ill continue to have some misconceptions. Also, delays reduce the relationship bet1een studentsJ per&ormance and the &eedback as students can &or"et 1hat they 1ere thinkin" durin" the assessment. #&&ective &eedback should also in&orm students clearly 1hat they did 1ell and 1hat needs modi&ication. .eneral comments /ust as >"ood 1ork, A@, or >needs improvement@ do not help students understand ho1 to improve their learnin". .ivin" &eedback to students usin" 1ell desi"ned scorin" rubrics helps clearly communicate stren"ths and 1eaknesses. Cbviously "rades are o&ten needed but teachers can minimi2e the &ocus by placin" the "rade a&ter the comments or on the last
3:D
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies pa"e o& a paper. %t can also be help&ul to allo1 students to keep their "rades private makin" sure 1hen returnin" assi"nments that the "rade is not prominent <e.". not usin" red ink on the top pa"e= and never askin" students to read their scores aloud in class. (ome students choose to share their "radesKbut that should be their decision not their teachers. 5hen "radin", teachers o&ten become an"ry at the mistakes that student make. %t is easy &or teachers to think somethin" like >5ith all the e&&ort % put into teachin", this student could not even be bothered to &ollo1 the directions or spell checkL@ )any experienced teachers believe that communicatin" their anger is not help&ul, so rather than sayin" >6o1 dare you turn in such shoddy 1ork@, they rephrase it as, >% am disappointed that your 1ork on this assi"nment does not meet the standards set@ <(utton, 3003=. -esearch evidence also su""ests that comments such as >Mou are so smart@ &or a hi"h quality per&ormance can be counterproductive. This is surprisin" to many teachers but i& students are told they are smart 1hen they produce a "ood product, then i& they do poorly on the next assi"nment the conclusion must be they are >not smart@ <*1eck, 3000=. )ore e&&ective &eedback &ocuses on positive aspects o& the task <not the person=, as 1ell as strate"ies, and e&&ort. The &ocus o& the &eedback should relate to the criteria set by the teacher and ho1 improvements can be made. 5hen the teacher and student are &rom di&&erent racialUethnic back"rounds providin" &eedback that enhances motivation and con&idence but also includes criticism can be particularly challen"in" because the students o& color have historical reasons to distrust ne"ative comments &rom a 1hite teacher. -esearch by Cohen (teele, -oss <8999= indicates that >1ise@ &eedback &rom teachers needs three components positive comments, criticisms, and an assurance that the teacher believes the student can reach hi"her standards. 5e describe this research is more detail in >*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research@ &ound in Appendix O3.
Self and peer assessment

%n order to reach a learnin" "oal, students need to understand the meanin" o& the "oal, the steps necessary to achieve a "oal, and i& they are makin" satis&actory pro"ress to1ards that "oal <(adler, 89D9=. This involves sel& assessment and recent research has demonstrated that 1ell desi"ned sel& assessment can enhance student learnin" and motivation <7lack P 5iliam, 300:=. For sel& assessment to be e&&ective, students need explicit criteria such as those in an analytical scorin" rubric. These criteria are either provided by the teacher or developed by the teacher in collaboration 1ith students. 7ecause students seem to &ind it easier to understand criteria &or assessment tasks i& they can examine other studentsJ 1ork alon" side their o1n, sel& assessment o&ten involves peer assessment. An example o& a strate"y used by teachers involves askin" students to use >tra&&ic li"hts@ to indicate o& their con&idence in their assi"nment or home1ork. -ed indicates that they 1ere unsure o& their success, oran"e that they 1ere partially unsure, and "reen that they 1ere con&ident o& their success. The students 1ho labeled their o1n 1ork as oran"e and "reen 1orked in mixed "roups to evaluate their o1n 1ork 1hile the teacher 1orked 1ith the students 1ho had chosen red <7lack P 5iliam, 300:=. %& sel& and peer assessment is used, it is particularly important that the teachers establish a classroom culture &or assessment that is based on incremental vie1s o& ability and learnin" "oals. %& the classroom atmosphere &ocuses on interpersonal competition, students have incentives in sel& and peer assessment to in&late their o1n evaluations <and perhaps those o& their &riends= because there are limited re1ards &or "ood 1ork.
3:9
djusting instruction based on assessment

4sin" assessment in&ormation to ad/ust instruction is &undamental to the concept o& assessment for learnin". Teachers make these ad/ustments >in the moment@ durin" classroom instruction as 1ell as durin" re&lection and plannin" periods. Teachers use the in&ormation they "ain &rom questionin" and observation to ad/ust their teachin" durin" classroom instruction. %& students cannot ans1er a question, the teacher may need to rephrase the question, probe understandin" o& prior kno1led"e, or chan"e the 1ay the current idea is bein" considered. %t is important &or teachers to learn to identi&y 1hen only one or t1o students need individual help because they are stru""lin" 1ith the concept, and 1hen a lar"e proportion o& the class is stru""lin" so 1hole "roup intervention is needed. A&ter the class is over, e&&ective teachers spend time analy2in" ho1 1ell the lessons 1ent, 1hat students did and did not seem to understand, and 1hat needs to be done the next day. #valuation o& student 1ork also provides important in&ormation &or teachers. %& many students are con&used about a similar concept the teacher needs to re$ teach it and consider ne1 1ays o& helpin" students understand the topic. %& the ma/ority o& students complete the tasks very quickly and 1ell, the teacher mi"ht decide that the assessment 1as not challen"in" enou"h. (ometimes teachers become dissatis&ied 1ith the kinds o& assessments they have assi"ned 1hen they are "radin"Kperhaps because they reali2e there 1as too much emphasis on lo1er level learnin", that the directions 1ere not clear enou"h, or the scorin" rubric needed modi&ication. Teachers 1ho believe that assessment data provides in&ormation about their o1n teachin" and that they can &ind 1ays to in&luence student learnin" have hi"h teacher e&&icacy or belie&s that they can make a di&&erence in studentsJ lives. %n contrast, teachers 1ho think that student per&ormance is mostly due to &ixed student characteristics or the homes they come &rom <e.". >no 1onder she did so poorly considerin" 1hat her home li&e is like@= have lo1 teacher e&&icacy <Tschannen$)oran, 5ool&olk 6oy, P 6oy, 899D=.
Communication #ith parents and guardians

Clear communication 1ith parents about classroom assessment is importantKbut o&ten di&&icult &or be"innin" teachers. The same skills that are needed to communicate e&&ectively 1ith students are also needed 1hen communicatin" 1ith parents and "uardians. Teachers need to be able to explain to parents the purpose o& the assessment, 1hy they selected this assessment technique, and 1hat the criteria &or success are. (ome teachers send home ne1sletters monthly or at the be"innin" o& a ma/or assessment task explainin" the purpose and nature o& the task, any additional support that is needed <e.". materials, library visits=, and due dates. (ome parents 1ill not be &amiliar 1ith per&ormance assessments or the use o& sel& and peer assessment so teachers need to take time to explain these approaches care&ully. )any school districts no1 communicate thou"h 1ebsites that have mixtures o& public in&ormation available to all parents in the class <e.". curriculum and assessment details= as 1ell in&ormation restricted to the parents or "uardians o& speci&ic students <e.". the attendance and "rades=. Teachers report this is help&ul as parents have access to their childJs per&ormance immediately and 1hen necessary, can talk to their child and teacher quickly. The recommendations 1e provided above on the type o& &eedback that should be "iven to students also apply 1hen talkin" to parents. That is, the &ocus should be on studentsJ per&ormance on the task, 1hat 1as done 1ell and 1hat needs 1ork, rather than "eneral comments about ho1 >smart@ or >1eak@ the child is. %& possible, comments should &ocus on strate"ies that the child uses 1ell or needs to improve <e.". readin" test questions care&ully,
3;0
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies or"ani2ation in a lar"e pro/ect=. 5hen the teacher is 1hite and the student or parents are minority, trust can be an issue so usin" >1ise@ &eedback 1hen talkin" to parents may help.
ction research) studying yourself and your students

Assessment for learnin" emphasi2es devisin" and conductin" assessment data in order to improve teachin" and learnin" and so is related to action research <also called teacher research=. %n Chapter 8, 1e described action research as studies conducted by teachers o& their o1n students or their o1n 1ork. Action research can lead to decisions that improve a teacherJs o1n teachin" or the teachin" o& collea"ues. 'ym, the teacher 1e described at the be"innin" o& this chapter, conducted action research in her o1n classroom as she identi&ied a problem o& poor student motivation and achievement, investi"ated solutions durin" the course on motivation, tried ne1 approaches, and observed the resultin" actions.
Cycles o& plannin", actin" and re&lectin"

Action research is usually described as a cyclical process 1ith the &ollo1in" sta"es <)ertler, 300:=.
Planning Stage. ,lannin" has three components. First, plannin" involves identi&yin" and de&inin" a
problem. ,roblems sometimes start 1ith some ill de&ined unease or &eelin" that somethin" is 1ron" and it can take time to identi&y the problem clearly so that it becomes a researchable question. The next step, is revie1in" the related literature and this may occur 1ithin a class or 1orkshop that the teachers are attendin". Teachers may also explore the literature on their o1n or in teacher study "roups. The third step is developin" a research plan. The research plan includes 1hat kind o& data 1ill be collected <e.". student test scores, observation o& one or more students, as 1ell as ho1 and 1hen it 1ill be collected <e.". &rom &iles, in collaboration 1ith collea"ues, in sprin" or &all semester=.
Acting sage. *urin" this sta"e the teacher is collectin" and analy2in" data. The data collected and the
analyses do not need to be complex because action research, to be e&&ective, has to be mana"eable.
!evelo*ing an action *lan. %n this sta"e the teacher develops a plan to make chan"es and implements these
chan"es. This is the action component o& action research and it is important that teachers document their actions care&ully so that they can communicate them to others.
Communicating and reflection. An important component o& all research is communicatin" in&ormation.
-esults can be shared 1ith collea"ues in the school or district, in an action research class at the local colle"e, at con&erences, or in /ournals &or teachers. Action research can also involve students as active participants and i& this is the case, communication may include students and parents. Communicatin" 1ith others helps re&ine ideas and so typically aids in re&lection. *urin" re&lection teachersUresearchers ask such questions as >5hat did % learn?@ >5hat should % have done di&&erently?@ >5hat should % do next?@ Tuestions such as these o&ten lead to a ne1 cycle o& action research be"innin" 1ith plannin" and then movin" to the other steps.
#thical issuesKprivacy, voluntary consent

Teachers are accustomed to collectin" studentsJ test scores, data about per&ormances, and descriptions o& behaviors as an essential component o& teachin". 6o1ever, i& teachers are conductin" action research and they plan to collect data that 1ill be shared outside the school community then permission &rom parents <or "uardians= and
3;8
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License students must be obtained in order to protect the privacy o& students and their &amilies. Typically permission is obtained by an in&ormed consent &orm that summari2es the research, describes the data that 1ill be collected, indicates that participation is voluntary, and provides a "uarantee o& con&identiality or anonymity <6ubbard P ,o1er, 300A=. )any lar"e school districts have procedures &or establishin" in&ormed consent as 1ell as person in the central o&&ice 1ho is responsible &or the district "uidelines and speci&ic application process. %& the action research is supported in some 1ay by a colle"e o& university <e.". throu"h a class= then in&ormed consent procedures o& that institution must be &ollo1ed. Cne common area o& con&usion &or teachers is the voluntary nature o& student participation in research. %& the data bein" collected are &or a research study, students can choose not to participate. This is contrary to much re"ular classroom instruction 1here teachers tell students they have to do the 1ork or complete the tasks.
2rading and reporting

Assi"nin" students "rades is an important component o& teachin" and many school districts issue pro"ress reports, interim reports, or mid term "rades as 1ell as &inal semester "rades. Traditionally these reports 1ere printed on paper and sent home 1ith students or mailed to studentsJ homes. %ncreasin"ly, school districts are usin" 1eb$based "rade mana"ement systems that allo1 parents to access their childJs "rades on each individual assessment as 1ell as the pro"ress reports and &inal "rades. .radin" can be &rustratin" &or teachers as there are many &actors to consider. %n addition, report cards typically summari2e in brie& &ormat a variety o& assessments and so cannot provide much in&ormation about studentsJ stren"ths and 1eaknesses. This means that report cards &ocus more on assessment of learnin" than assessment for learnin". There are a number o& decisions that have to be made 1hen assi"nin" studentsJ "rades and schools o&ten have detailed policies that teachers have to &ollo1. %n the next section, 1e consider the ma/or questions associated 1ith "radin".
6o1 are various assi"nments and assessments 1ei"hted?

(tudents typically complete a variety o& assi"nments durin" a "radin" period such as home1ork, qui22es, per&ormance assessments, etc. Teachers have to decideKpre&erably be&ore the "radin" period be"insKho1 each assi"nment 1ill be 1ei"hted. For example, a sixth "rade math teacher may decide to 1ei"ht the "rades in the &ollo1in" manner 5eekly qui22es 6ome1ork ,er&ormance Assessment Class participation 3A per cent 8A per cent 30 per cent 30 per cent
*ecidin" ho1 to 1ei"ht assi"nments should be done care&ully as it communicates to students and parents 1hat teachers believe is important, and also may be used to decide ho1 much e&&ort students 1ill exert <e.". >%& home1ork is only 1orth A per cent, it is not 1orth completin" t1ice a 1eek@=. Should social s#ills or effort %e included- #lementary school teachers are more likely than middle or hi"h school teachers to include some social skills into report cards <,opham, 300A=. These may be included as separate criteria
3;3
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies in the report card or 1ei"hted into the "rade &or that sub/ect. For example, the "rade &or mathematics may include an assessment o& "roup cooperation or sel& re"ulation durin" mathematics lessons. (ome schools and teachers endorse includin" social skills ar"uin" that developin" such skills is important &or youn" students and that students need to learn to 1ork 1ith others and mana"e their o1n behaviors in order to be success&ul. Cthers believe that "rades in sub/ect areas should be based on the co"nitive per&ormancesKand that i& assessments o& social skills are made they should be clearly separated &rom the sub/ect "rade on the report card. Cbviously, clear criteria such as those contained in analytical scorin" rubrics should be used i& social skills are "raded. Teachers o&ten &ind it di&&icult to decide 1hether e&&ort and improvement should be included as a component o& "rades. Cne approach is &or teachers to ask students to submit dra&ts o& an assi"nment and make improvements based on the &eedback they received. The "rade &or the assi"nment may include some combination o& the score &or the dra&ts, the &inal version, and the amount o& improvement the students made based on the &eedback provided. A more controversial approach is basin" "rades on e&&ort 1hen students try really hard day a&ter day but still cannot complete their assi"nments 1ell. These students could have identi&ied special needs or be recent immi"rants that have limited #n"lish skills. (ome school districts have "uidelines &or handlin" such cases. Cne disadvanta"e o& usin" improvement as a component o& "rades is that the most competent students in class may do very 1ell initially and have little room &or improvementKunless teachers are skilled at providin" additional assi"nments that 1ill help challen"e these students. Teachers o&ten use >hod"epod"e "radin"@, i.e. a combination o& achievement, e&&ort, "ro1th, attitude or class conduct, home1ork, and class participation. A survey o& over D,A00 middle and hi"h school students in the 4( state o& Gir"inia supported the hod"epod"e practices commonly used by their teachers <Cross P Frary, 8999=.
6o1 should "rades be calculated?

T1o options are commonly used absolute "radin" and relative "radin". %n a%solute grading "rades are assi"ned based on criteria the teacher has devised. %& an #n"lish teacher has established a level o& pro&iciency needed to obtain an A and no student meets that level then no AEs 1ill be "iven. Alternatively i& every student meets the established level then all the students 1ill "et AEs <,opham, 300A=. Absolute "radin" systems may use letter "rades or passU&ail. %n relative grading the teacher ranks the per&ormances o& students &rom 1orst to best <or best to 1orst= and those at the top "et hi"h "rades, those in the middle moderate "rades, and those at the bottom lo1 "rades. This is o&ten described as >"radin" on the curve@ and can be use&ul to compensate &or an examination or assi"nment that students &ind much easier or harder than the teacher expected. 6o1ever, relative "radin" can be un&air to students because the comparisons are typically 1ithin one class, so an A in one class may not represent the level o& per&ormance o& an A in another class. -elative "radin" systems may discoura"e students &rom helpin" each other improve as students are in competition &or limited re1ards. %n &act, 7ishop <8999= ar"ues that "radin" on the curve "ives students a personal interest in persuadin" each other not to study as a serious student makes it more di&&icult &or others to "et "ood "rades.
5hat kinds o& "rade descriptions should be used?

Traditionally a letter grade system is used <e.". A, 7, C, *, F = &or each sub/ect. The advanta"es o& these "rade descriptions are they are convenient, simple, and can be avera"ed easily. 6o1ever, they do not indicate 1hat 3;3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License ob/ectives the student has or has not met nor studentsJ speci&ic stren"ths and 1eaknesses <Linn P )iller 300A=. #lementary schools o&ten use a *ass3fail <or satis&actory$unsatis&actory= system and some hi"h schools and colle"es do as 1ell. ,ass$&ail systems in hi"h school and colle"e allo1 students to explore ne1 areas and take risks on sub/ects that they may have limited preparation &or, or is not part o& their ma/or <Linn P )iller 300A=. 5hile a pass$ &ail system is easy to use, it o&&ers even less in&ormation about studentsJ level o& learnin". A pass$&ail system is also used in classes that are tau"ht under a mastery$learnin" approach in 1hich students are expected to demonstrate mastery on all the ob/ectives in order to receive course credit. 4nder these conditions, it is clear that a pass means that the student has demonstrated mastery o& all the ob/ectives. (ome schools have implemented a chec#list of the o%$ectives in sub/ect areas to replace the traditional letter "rade system, and students are rated on each ob/ective usin" descriptors such as ,ro&icient, ,artially ,ro&icient, and Beeds %mprovement. For example, the checklist &or students in a &ourth "rade class in Cali&ornia may include the &our types o& 1ritin" that are required by the #n"lish lan"ua"e state content standards <http UU111.cde.ca."ovUbeUstUssUen""radeF.asp=
1ritin" narratives 1ritin" responses to literature 1ritin" in&ormation reports 1ritin" summaries
The advanta"es o& this approach are that it communicates studentsJ stren"ths and 1eaknesses clearly, and it reminds the students and parents the ob/ectives o& the school. 6o1ever, i& too many ob/ectives are included then the lists can become so lon" that they are di&&icult to understand.
Chapter summary
The purpose o& classroom assessment can be assessment &or learnin" or assessment o& learnin". #ssential steps o& assessment &or learnin" include communicatin" instructional "oals clearly to studentsI selectin" appropriate hi"h quality assessments that match the instructional "oals and studentsJ back"roundsI usin" assessments that enhance student motivation and con&idence, ad/ustin" instruction based on assessment, and communicatin" assessment results 1ith parents and "uardians. Action research can help teachers understand and improve their teachin". A number o& questions are important to consider 1hen devisin" "radin" systems.
'ey terms
Absence o& bias Action research Alternative assessment Assessment Assessment &or learnin" Assessment o& learnin" Authentic assessment Constructed response items #valuation Formative assessment Formal assessment measurement %n&ormal assessment
3;F
A .lobal Text
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies ,er&ormance assessment ,ort&olios -eliability (elected response items (ummative assessment Galidity
-e&erences
Airasian, ,. 5. <3000=. Classroom Assessment" A concise a**roach Cnd ed. 7oston )c.ra1 6ill. Airasian, ,. 5. <300F=. Classroom Assessment" Conce*ts and A**lications ;rd ed. 7oston )c.ra1 6ill. 7an"ert$*o1ns, -. L.,'ulik, +. A., P 'ulik, C$L, C. <8998=. #&&ects o& &requent classroom testin". Journal of Educational Research, A? <3=, D9$99. 7lack, ,., 6arrison, C., Lee, C., )arshall, 7. P 5iliam, *. <300F=. 5orkin" inside the black box. Assessment &or learnin" in the classroom. Phi !elta Ka**an, A: <8= 9$38. 7lack, ,., P 5iliam,*. <300:=. Assessment &or learnin" in the classroom. %n +. .ardner <#d.=. Assessment and learning <pp. 9$3A=. Thousand Caks, CA (a"e. 7ishop, +. 6. <8999=. Berd harassment, incentives, school priorities, and learnin".%n (. #. )ayer P ,. #. ,eterson <#ds.= Earning and learning" 9o %nstitution ,ress. 7orko, 6. P Livin"ston, C. <89D9= Co"nition and %mprovisation *i&&erences in )athematics %nstruction by #xpert and Bovice Teachers. American Educational Research Journal, C:, F;3$9D. Cross, L. 6., P Frary, -. 7. <8999=. 6od"epod"e "radin" #ndorsed by students and teachers alike. A**lied @easurement in Education, CB<8= A3$;3. *empster, F. B. P ,erkins, ,. .. <8993=. -evitali2atin" classroom assessment 4sin" tests to promote learnin". Journal of ,nstructional Psychology, C< <3= 89;$303. *1eck, C. (. <3000= (el&$theories Their role in motivation, *ersonality, and develo*ment. ,hiladelphia, ,A ,sycholo"y ,ress. #lliott, A., )c.re"or, 6., P Thrash, T. <300F=. The need &or competence. %n #. *eci P -. -yan <#ds.=, 9and%oo# of self3determination research <pp. 3:8$3DD=. -ochester, BM 4niversity o& -ochester ,ress. 6arlen, 5. The role o& assessment in developin" motivation &or learnin". %n +. .ardner <#d.=. Assessment and learning <pp. :8$D0=. Thousand Caks, CA (a"e. 6ubbard, -. (., P ,o1er, 7. ). <3003=. The art o& classroom inquiry, A hand%oo# for teachers3researchers <3nd ed.=. ,ortsmith, B6 6einemann. 'oret2, *. (techer, 7. 'lein, (. P )cCa&&rey, *. <899F=. The evolution of a *ortfolio *rogram" The im*act and &uality of the Germont *rogram in its second year 1BFFC3;). <C(# Technical report 3DA= Los An"eles 4niversity o& Cali&ornia, Center &or -esearch on #valuation (tandards and student Testin". Accessed +anuary 3A, 300: &rom http UU111.csr.ucla.edu. school matters 1pp. 338$3D0=. 5ashin"ton, *C 7rookin"s
3;A
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Linn, -. L., P )iller, ). *. <300A=. @easurement and Assessment in Teaching 9th ed. 4pper (addle -iver, B+ ,earson . )ertler, C. A. <300:=. Action research" Teachers as researchers in the classroom . Thousand Caks, CA (a"e. ,opham, 5. +. <300A=. Classroom Assessment" Ehat teachers need to #no . 7oston, )A ,earson. -o1e, ). 7. <3003=. 5ait$time and re1ards as instructional variables, their in&luence on lan"ua"e, lo"ic and &ate control ,art one$1ait time. Journal of Research in science Teaching, >< (upplement, (89$33. (ti""ins, -. +. <3003=. Assessment crisis" The a%sence of assessment 78R learning . ,hi *elta 'appan, D3 <80=, ;AD$;:A. (utton, -. #. <300F=. #motional re"ulation "oals and strate"ies o& teachers. Social Psychology of Education, =<F=, 3;9$39D.Teel, '. )., *ebrin$,arecki, A., P Covin"ton, ). G. <899D=. Teachin" strate"ies that honor and motivate inner$city A&rican American students A schoolUuniversity collaboration. Teaching and Teacher Education, B><A=, F;9$F9A. Tschannen$)oran, )., 5ool&olk$6oy, A., P 6oy, 5. '. <899D=. Teacher e&&icacy %ts meanin" and measure. Revie of Educational Research, :A, 303$3FD.
3;:
A .lobal Text
1$. StandardiAed and other formal assessments

4nderstandin" standardi2ed testin" is very important &or be"innin" teachers as '$83 teachin" is increasin"ly in&luenced by the administration and results o& standardi2ed tests. Teachers also need to be able to help parents and students understand test results. Consider the &ollo1in" scenarios.
Ganessa, a ne ly licensed *hysical education teacher, is a**lying for a $o% at a middle school.
!uring the $o% intervie
the *rinci*al as#s ho
she
ould incor*orate #ey si4th grade math
s#ills into her PE and health classes as the si4th grade students in the *revious year did not attain Ade&uate Qearly Progress in mathematics.
!anielle, a first year science teacher in 8hio, is as#ed %y @r Golder ell, a recent immigrant
from Tur#ey and the *arent of a tenth grade son @arius, to hel* him understand test results. Ehen @arius first arrived at school he too# the Test of Cognitive S#ills and scored on the eighty3 fifth *ercentile hereas on the state Science Kraduation test he too# later in the school year he as classified as '*roficient) .
James, a third year elementary school teacher, attends a class in gifted education over summer
as standardi/ed tests from the *revious year indicated that
hile overall his class did
ell in
reading the to* C< *er cent of his students did not learn as much as e4*ected.
@iguel, a Bst grade student, ta#es t o tests in fall and the results indicate that his grade
e&uivalent scores are ;.; for reading and ;.< for math. Eilliam(s *arents
ant him immediately
*romoted into the second grade arguing that the test results indicate that he already can read and do math at the ;rd grade level. Kreg, a first grade teacher e4*lains to Eilliam(s *arents that a grade e&uivalent score of ;.; does not mean Eilliam can do third grade or#.
4nderstandin" standardi2ed testin" is di&&icult as there are numerous terms and concepts to master and recent chan"es in accountability under the 0o Child 2eft +ehind Act of C<<B <BCL7= have increased the complexity o& the concepts and issues. %n this chapter 1e &ocus on the in&ormation that be"innin" teachers need to kno1 and start 1ith some basic concepts.
8asic concepts
(tandardi2ed tests are created by a teamKusually test experts &rom a commercial testin" company 1ho consult classroom teachers and university &acultyKand are administered in standardi2ed 1ays. (tudents not only respond to the same questions they also receive the same directions and have the same time limits. #xplicit scorin" criteria are used. (tandardi2ed tests are desi"ned to be taken by many students 1ithin a state, province, or nation, and sometimes across nations. Teachers help administer some standardi2ed tests and test manuals are provided that
3;;
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments contain explicit details about the administration and scorin". For example, teachers may have to remove all the posters and charts &rom the classroom 1alls, read directions out loud to students usin" a script, and respond to student questions in a speci&ic manner. Criterion re&erenced standardi2ed tests measure student per&ormance a"ainst a speci&ic standard or criterion. For example, ne1ly hired &ire&i"hters in the Common1ealth o& )assachusetts in the 4nited (tates have to meet physical &itness standards by success&ully completin" a standardi2ed physical &itness test that includes stair climbin", usin" a ladder, advancin" a hose, and simulatin" a rescue throu"h a door1ay <6uman -esources *ivision, nod.=. Criterion re&erenced tests currently used in 4( schools are o&ten tied to state content standards and provide in&ormation about 1hat students can and cannot do. For example, one o& the content standards &or &ourth "rade readin" in 'entucky is >(tudents 1ill identi&y and describe the characteristics o& &iction, non&iction, poetry or plays@ <Combined Curriculum *ocument -eadin" F.8, 300:= and so a report on an individual student 1ould indicate i& the child can accomplish this skill. The report may state that number or percenta"e o& items that 1ere success&ully completed <e.". 8A out o& 30, i.e. ;A per cent= or include descriptions such as basic, pro&icient, or advanced 1hich are based on decisions made about the percent o& mastery necessary to be classi&ied into these cate"ories. Borm re&erenced standardi2ed tests report studentsJ per&ormance relative to others. For example, i& a student scores on the seventy$second percentile in readin" it means she outper&orms ;3 percent o& the students 1ho 1ere included in the testJs norm "roup. A norm "roup is a representative sample o& students 1ho completed the standardi2ed test 1hile it 1as bein" developed. For state tests the norm "roup is dra1n &rom the state 1hereas &or national tests the sample is dra1n &rom the nation. %n&ormation about the norm "roups is provided in a technical test manual that is not typically supplied to teachers but should be available &rom the person in char"e o& testin" in the school district. -eports &rom criterion and norm re&erenced tests provide di&&erent in&ormation. %ma"ine a nationali2ed mathematics test desi"ned to basic test skills in second "rade. %& this test is norm re&erenced, and Alisha receives a report indicatin" that she scored in the ei"hty$&i&th percentile this indicates that she scored better than DA per cent o& the students in the norm "roup 1ho took the test previously. %& this test is criterion$re&erenced AlishaJs report may state that she mastered :A per cent o& the problems desi"ned &or her "rade level. The relative percenta"e reported &rom the norm$re&erenced test provides in&ormation about AlishaJs per&ormance compared to other students 1hereas the criterion re&erenced test attempts to describe 1hat Alisha or any student can or cannot do 1ith respect to 1hatever the test is desi"ned to measure. 5hen plannin" instruction classroom teachers need to kno1 1hat students can and cannot do so criterion re&erenced tests are typically more use&ul <,opham, 300F=. The current standard$based accountability and BCL7 rely predominantly on criterion based tests to assess attainment o& content$based standards. Consequently the use o& standardi2ed norm re&erenced tests in schools has diminished and is lar"ely limited to dia"nosis and placement o& children 1ith speci&ic co"nitive disabilities or exceptional abilities <6aertel P 6erman, 300A=. (ome recent standardi2ed tests can incorporate both criterion$re&erenced and norm re&erenced elements in to the same test <Linn P )iller, 300A=. That is, the test results not only provide in&ormation on mastery o& a content standard but also the percenta"e o& students 1ho attained that level o& mastery.
3;D
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (tandardi2ed tests can be hi"h stakes i.e. per&ormance on the test has important consequences. These consequences can be &or students, e.". passin" a hi"h school "raduation test is required in order to obtain a diploma or passin" ,-AS%( %% is a prerequisite to "ain a teacher license. These consequences can be &or schools, e.". under BCL7 an increasin" percenta"e o& students in every school must reach pro&iciency in math and readin" each year. Consequences &or schools 1ho &ail to achieve these "ains include reduced &undin" and restructurin" o& the school buildin". 4nder BCL7, the consequences are desi"ned to be &or the schools not individual students <,opham, 300A= and their test results may not accurately re&lect 1hat they kno1 because students may not try hard 1hen the tests have lo1 stakes &or them <5ise P *e)ars, 300A=.
4ses o& standardi2ed tests

(tandardi2ed tests are used &or a variety o& reasons and the same test is sometimes used &or multiple purposes.
Assessing students( *rogress in a
ider conte4t
5ell$desi"ned teacher assessments provide crucial in&ormation about each studentJs achievement in the classroom. 6o1ever, teachers vary in the types o& assessment they use so teacher assessments do not usually provide in&ormation on ho1 studentsJ achievement compares to externally established criteria. Consider t1o ei"hth "rade students, 7rian and +oshua, 1ho received As in their middle school math classes. 6o1ever, on the standardi2ed norm re&erenced math test 7rian scored in the &i&tieth percentile 1hereas +oshua scored in the ninetieth percentile. This in&ormation is important to 7rian and +oshua, their parents, and the school personnel. Like1ise, t1o third "rade students could both receive Cs on their report card in readin" but one may pass 3A per cent and the other :A per cent o& the items on the Criterion -e&erenced (tate Test. There are many reasons that studentsJ per&ormance on teacher assessments and standardi2ed assessments may di&&er. (tudents may per&orm lo1er on the standardi2ed assessment because their teachers have easy "radin" criteria, or there is poor ali"nment bet1een the content they 1ere tau"ht and that on the standardi2ed test, or they are un&amiliar 1ith the type o& items on the standardi2ed tests, or they have test anxiety, or they 1ere sick on the day o& the test. (tudents may per&orm hi"her on the standardi2ed test than on classroom assessments because their teachers have hard "radin" criteria, or the student does not 1ork consistently in class <e.". does not turn in home1ork= but 1ill &ocus on a standardi2ed test, or the student is adept at the multiple choice items on the standardi2ed tests but not at the variety o& constructed response and per&ormance items the teacher uses. 5e should al1ays be very cautious about dra1in" in&erences &rom one kind o& assessment. %n some states, standardi2ed achievement tests are required &or home$schooled students in order to provide parents and state o&&icials in&ormation about the studentsJ achievement in a 1ider context. For example, in Be1 Mork home$schooled students must take an approved standardi2ed test every other year in "rades &our throu"h ei"ht and every year in "rades nine throu"h t1elve. These tests must be administered in a standardi2ed manner and the results &iled 1ith the (uperintendent o& the local school district. %& a student does not take the tests or scores belo1 the thirty$third percentile the home schoolin" pro"ram may be placed on probation <Be1 Mork (tate #ducation *epartment, 300A=.
!iagnosing student(s strengths and
ea#nesses
(tandardi2ed tests, alon" 1ith intervie1s, classroom observations, medical examinations, and school records are used to help dia"nose studentsJ stren"ths and 1eaknesses. C&ten the standardi2ed tests used &or this purpose are Educational Psychology
3;9
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments administered individually to determine i& the child has a disability. For example, i& a kinder"arten child is havin" trouble 1ith oral communication, a standardi2ed lan"ua"e development test could be administered to determine i& there are di&&iculties 1ith understandin" the meanin" o& 1ords or sentence structures, noticin" sound di&&erences in similar 1ords, or articulatin" 1ords correctly <,eiran"elo P .uiliani, 3003=. %t 1ould also be important to determine i& the child 1as a recent immi"rant, had a hearin" impairment or mental retardation. The dia"nosis o& learnin" disabilities typically involves the administration o& at least t1o types o& standardi2ed testsKan aptitude test to assess "eneral co"nitive &unctionin" and an achievement test to assess kno1led"e o& speci&ic content areas <,eiran"elo P .uiliani, 300:=. 5e discuss the di&&erence bet1een aptitude and achievement tests later in this chapter.
Selecting students for s*ecific *rograms

(tandardi2ed tests are o&ten used to select students &or speci&ic pro"rams. For example, the (AT <(cholastic Assessment Test= and ACT <American Colle"e Test= are norm re&erenced tests used to help determine i& hi"h school students are admitted to selective colle"es. Borm re&erenced standardi2ed tests are also used, amon" other criteria, to determine i& students are eli"ible &or special education or "i&ted and talented pro"rams. Criterion re&erenced tests are used to determine 1hich students are eli"ible &or promotion to the next "rade or "raduation &rom hi"h school. (chools that place students in ability "roups includin" hi"h school colle"e preparation, academic, or vocational pro"rams may also use norm re&erenced or criterion re&erenced standardi2ed tests. 5hen standardi2ed tests are used as an essential criteria &or placement they are obviously hi"h stakes &or students.
Assisting teachers( *lanning

Borm re&erenced and criterion re&erenced standardi2ed tests, amon" other sources o& in&ormation about students, can help teachers make decisions about their instruction. For example, i& a social studies teacher learns that most o& the students did very 1ell on a norm re&erenced readin" test administered early in the school year he may adapt his instruction and use additional primary sources. A readin" teacher a&ter revie1in" the poor end$o&$ the$year criterion re&erenced standardi2ed readin" test results may decide that next year she 1ill modi&y the techniques she uses. A biolo"y teacher may decide that she needs to spend more time on "enetics as her students scored poorly on that section o& the standardi2ed criterion re&erenced science test. These are examples o& assessment &or learnin" 1hich involves data$based decision makin". %t can be di&&icult &or be"innin" teachers to learn to use standardi2ed test in&ormation appropriately, understandin" that test scores are important in&ormation but also rememberin" that there are multiple reasons &or studentsJ per&ormance on a test.
Accounta%ility
(tandardi2ed tests results are increasin"ly used to hold teachers and administrators accountable &or studentsJ learnin". ,rior to 3003, many (tates required public dissemination o& studentsJ pro"ress but under BCL7 school districts in all states are required to send report cards to parents and the public that include results o& standardi2ed tests &or each school. ,rovidin" in&ormation about studentsJ standardi2ed tests is not ne1 as ne1spapers be"an printin" summaries o& studentsJ test results 1ithin school districts in the 89;0s and 89D0s <,opham, 300A=. 6o1ever, public accountability o& schools and teachers has been increasin" in the 4( and many other countries and this increased accountability impacts the public perception and 1ork o& all teachers includin" those teachin" in sub/ects or "rade levels not bein" tested.
3D0
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License For example, #rin, a middle school social studies teacher, said 'As a teacher in a Lnon3testingL su%$ect area, , s*end su%stantial instructional time su*orting the standardi/ed testing re&uirements. 7or e4am*le, our school has instituted L ord of the dayL, hich encourages teachers to use, define, and incor*orate terminology often used in the tests 1e.g. Zcom*areZ, Zo4ymoronZ etc.). , use the terms in my class as often as *ossi%le and incor*orate them into ritten assignments. , also often use test &uestions of similar formats to the standardi/ed tests ith dou%le negatives, short ans er ill hel* in my o n su%$ect assessments 1e.g. multi*le choice &uestions
and e4tended res*onse &uestions) as , %elieve that *ractice in the test &uestion formats students %e more successful in those su%$ects that are %eing assessed.)
Accountability and standardi2ed testin" are t1o components o& (tandards 7ased -e&orm in #ducation that 1as initiated in the 4(A in 89D0s. The t1o other components are academic content standards 1hich are described later in this chapter and teacher quality 1hich 1as discussed in Chapter 8.
Types o& standardi2ed tests Achievement tests

(ummari2in" the past '$83 achievement tests are desi"ned to assess 1hat students have learned in a speci&ic content area. These tests include those speci&ically desi"ned by states to access mastery o& state academic content standards <see more details belo1= as 1ell as "eneral tests such as the Cali&ornia Achievement Tests, The Comprehensive Tests o& 7asic (kills, %o1a Tests o& 7asic (kills, )etropolitan Achievement Tests, and the (tan&ord Achievement Tests. These "eneral tests are desi"ned to be used across the nation and so 1ill not be as closely ali"ned 1ith state content standards as speci&ically desi"ned tests. (ome states and Canadian ,rovinces use speci&ically desi"ned tests to assess attainment o& content standards and also a "eneral achievement test to provide normative in&ormation. (tandardi2ed achievement tests are desi"ned to be used &or students in kinder"arten thou"h hi"h school. For youn" children questions are presented orally, and students may respond by pointin" to pictures, and the subtests are o&ten not timed. For example, on the %o1a Test o& 7asic (kills <http UU111.riverpub.comU= desi"ned &or students are youn" as kinder"arten the vocabulary test assesses listenin" vocabulary. The teacher reads a 1ord and may also read a sentence containin" the 1ord. (tudents are then asked to choose one o& three pictorial response options. Achievement tests are used as one criterion &or obtainin" a license in a variety o& pro&essions includin" nursin", physical therapy, and social 1ork, accountin", and la1. Their use in teacher education is recent and is part o& the increased accountability o& public education and most (tates require that teacher education students take achievement tests in order to obtain a teachin" license. For those seekin" middle school and hi"h school licensure these are tests are in the content area o& the ma/or or minor <e.". mathematics, social studies=I &or those seekin" licenses in early childhood and elementary the tests &ocus on kno1led"e needed to teach students o& speci&ic "rade levels. The most commonly used tests, the ,-AS%( series, tests % and %%, developed by #ducational Testin" (ervice, include three types o& tests <111.ets.or"=
(ub/ect Assessments, these test on "eneral and sub/ect$speci&ic teachin" skills and kno1led"e. They include
both multiple$choice and constructed$response test items. Educational Psychology

3D8
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments

,rinciples o& Learnin" and Teachin" <,LT= Tests assess "eneral peda"o"ical kno1led"e at &our "rade levels
#arly Childhood, '$:, A$9, and ;$83. These tests are based on case studies and include constructed$response and multiple$choice items. )uch o& the content in this textbook is relevant to the ,LT tests.
Teachin" Foundations Tests assess peda"o"y in &ive areas multi$sub/ect <elementary=, #n"lish, Lan"ua"e
Arts, )athematics, (cience, and (ocial (cience. These tests include constructed$response and multiple$choice items 1hich tests teacher education students. The scores needed in order to pass each test vary and are determined by each state.
!iagnostic tests
Profiling s8ills and abilities$ (ome standardi2ed tests are desi"ned to dia"nose stren"ths and 1eaknesses in skills, typically readin" or mathematics skills. For example, an elementary school child may have di&&icult in readin" and one or more dia"nostic tests 1ould provide detailed in&ormation about three components <8= 1ord reco"nition, 1hich includes phonolo"ical a1areness <pronunciation=, decodin", and spellin"I <3= comprehension 1hich includes vocabulary as 1ell as readin" and listenin" comprehension, and <3= &luency <+oshi 3003=. *ia"nostic tests are o&ten administered individually by school psycholo"ists, &ollo1in" standardi2ed procedures. The examiner typically records not only the results on each question but also observations o& the childJs behavior such as distractibility or &rustration. The results &rom the dia"nostic standardi2ed tests are used in con/unction 1ith classroom observations, school and medical records, as 1ell as intervie1s 1ith teachers, parents and students to produce a pro&ile o& the studentJs skills and abilities, and 1here appropriate dia"nose a learnin" disability.
A*titude tests
,redictin" the &uture Aptitude tests, like achievement tests, measure 1hat students have learned, but rather than &ocusin" on speci&ic sub/ect matter learned in school <e.". math, science, #n"lish or social studies=, the test items &ocus on verbal, quantitative, problem solvin" abilities that are learned in school or in the "eneral culture <Linn P )iller, 300A=. These tests are typically shorter than achievement tests and can be use&ul in predictin" "eneral school achievement. %& the purpose o& usin" a test is to predict success in a speci&ic sub/ect <e.". lan"ua"e arts= the best prediction is past achievement in lan"ua"e arts and so scores on a lan"ua"e arts achievement test 1ould be use&ul. 6o1ever 1hen the predictions are more "eneral <e.". success in colle"e= aptitude tests are o&ten used. Accordin" to the test developers, both the ACT and (AT -easonin" tests, used to predict success in colle"e, assess "eneral educational development and reasonin", analysis and problem solvin" as 1ell as questions on mathematics, readin" and 1ritin" <http UU111.colle"eboard.comI http UU111.act.or"U=. The (AT (ub/ect Tests that &ocus on mastery o& speci&ic sub/ects like #n"lish, history, mathematics, science, and lan"ua"e are used by some colle"es as entrance criteria and are more appropriately classi&ied as achievement tests than aptitude tests even thou"h they are used to predict the &uture. Tests desi"ned to assess "eneral learnin" ability have traditionally been called %ntelli"ence Tests but are no1 o&ten called learnin" ability tests, co"nitive ability tests, scholastic aptitude tests, or school ability tests. The shi&t in terminolo"y re&lects the extensive controversy over the meanin" o& the term intelli"ence and that its traditional use 1as associated 1ith inherited capacity <Linn P )iller 300A=. The more current terms emphasi2e that tests measure developed ability in learnin" not innate capacity. The Co"nitive Abilities Test assesses '$83 studentsE abilities to
3D3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License reason 1ith 1ords, quantitative concepts, and nonverbal <spatial= pictures. The 5oodcock +ohnson %%% contains co"nitive abilities tests as 1ell as achievement tests &or a"es 3 to 90 years <http UU111.riverpub.com=.
"igh:sta1es testing by states

5hile many (tates had standardi2ed testin" pro"rams prior to 3000, the number o& state$1ide tests has "ro1n enormously since then because BCL7 required that all states test students in readin" and mathematics annually in "rades third throu"h ei"hth and at least once in hi"h school by 300A$:. T1enty$three states expanded their testin" pro"rams durin" 300A$: and additional tests are bein" added as testin" in science is required by 300;$D. (tudents 1ith disabilities and #n"lish lan"ua"e learners must be included in the testin" and provided a variety o& accommodations so the ma/ority o& sta&& in school districts are involved in testin" in some 1ay <Clson, 300A=. %n this section 1e &ocus on these tests and their implications &or teachers and students.
(tandards based assessment Academic content standards

BCL7 mandates that states must develop academic content standards that speci&y 1hat students are expected to kno1 or be able to do at each "rade level. These content standards used to be called "oals and ob/ectives and it is not clear 1hy the labels have chan"ed <,opham, 300F=. Content standards are not easy to developKi& they are too broad and not related to "rade level, teachers cannot hope to prepare students to meet the standards. An example, a broad standard in readin" is 'Students should %e a%le to construct meaning through e4*eriences :). (tandards that are too narro1 can result in a restricted curriculum. An example o& a narro1 standard mi"ht be Students can define, com*are and contrast, and *rovide a variety of e4am*les of synonyms and antonyms. A stron"er standard is 'Students should a**ly #no ledge of determine the meaning of ord origins, derivations, synonyms, antonyms, and idioms to ith literature, cultural events
and *hiloso*hical discussion) 1no grade level indicated). 1American 7ederation of Teachers, C<<:, *.
ords 1grade >) 1American 7ederation of Teachers, C<<:, *. :).
The American Federation o& Teachers conducted a study in 300A$: and reported that some o& the standards in readin", math and science 1ere 1eak in 33 states. (tates set the stron"est standards in science &ollo1ed by mathematics. (tandards in readin" 1ere particularly problematic and 1ith one$&i&th o& all readin" standards redundant across the "rade levels, i.e. 1ord$by$1ord repetition across "rade levels at least A0 per cent o& the time <American Federation o& Teachers, 300:=. #ven i& the standards are stron", there are o&ten so many o& them that it is hard &or teachers to address them all in a school year. Content standards are developed by curriculum specialists 1ho believe in the importance o& their sub/ect area so they tend to develop lar"e numbers o& standards &or each sub/ect area and "rade level. At &irst "lance, it may appear that there are only several broad standards, but under each standard there are subcate"ories called "oals, benchmarks, indicators or ob/ectives <,opham, 300F=. For example, %dahoJs &irst "rade mathematics
3D3
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments standard, /ud"ed to be o& hi"h quality <AFT 3000= contains &ive broad standards, includin" 80 "oals and a total o& 39 ob/ectives <%daho *epartment o& #ducation, 300A$:=.
Alignment of standards, testing and classroom curriculum

The state tests must be ali"ned 1ith stron" content standards in order to provide use&ul &eedback about student learnin". %& there is a mismatch bet1een the academic content standards and the content that is assessed then the test results cannot provide in&ormation about studentsJ pro&iciency on the academic standards. A mismatch not only &rustrates the students takin" the test, teachers, and administrators it undermines the concept o& accountability and the >theory o& action@ <(ee box >*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research@= that underlies the BCL7. 4n&ortunately, the 300: Federation o& Teachers study indicated that in only 88 states 1ere all the tests ali"ned 1ith state standards <American Federation o& Teachers, 300:=. (tate standards and their ali"nment 1ith state assessments should be 1idely availableKpre&erably posted on the states 1ebsites so they can be accessed by school personnel and the public. A number o& states have been slo1 to do this.Table F3 summari2es 1hich states had stron" content standards, tests that 1ere ali"ned 1ith state standards, and adequate documents on online. Cnly 88 states 1ere /ud"ed to meet all three criteria in 300:. Table F3 (tron" content standards, ali"nment, and transparency evaluation &or each state in 300: <Adapted &rom American Federation o& Teachers, 300:=. Standards are strong Alabama Alaska Ari2ona Arkansas Cali&ornia Colorado Connecticut *ela1are *istrict o& Columbia Florida .eor"ia 6a1aii %daho %llinois W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W 3est documents match standards 3esting documents online W W W
3DF
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License %ndiana %o1a 'ansas 'entucky Louisiana )aine )aryland )assachusetts )ichi"an )innesota )ississippi )issouri )ontana Bebraska Bevada Be1 6ampshire Be1 +ersey Be1 )exico Be1 Mork Borth Carolina Borth *akota Chio Cklahoma Cre"on ,ennsylvania -hode %sland (outh Carolina W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W
3DA
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments (outh *akota Tennessee Texas 4tah W W W W W W W W
Sam*ling content
5hen numerous standards have been developed it is impossible &or tests to assess all o& the standards every year, so the tests sam*le the content, i.e. measure some but not all the standards every year. Content standards cannot be reliably assessed 1ith only one or t1o items so the decision to assess one content standard o&ten requires not assessin" another. This means i& there are too many content standards a si"ni&icant proportion o& them are not measured each year. %n this situation, teachers try to "uess 1hich content standards 1ill be assessed that year and ali"n their teachin" on those speci&ic standards. C& course i& these "uesses are incorrect students 1ill have studied content not on the test and not studied content that is on the test. (ome ar"ue that this is a very serious problem 1ith current state testin" and ,opham <300F= an expert on testin" even said >5hat a muddleheaded 1ay to run a testin" pro"ram.@ <p. ;9=
Adequate Mearly ,ro"ress <AM,=

4nder BCL7 three levels o& achievement, basic, pro&icient and advanced, must be speci&ied &or each "rade level in each content area by each state. (tates 1ere required to set a time table &rom 3003 that insured an increasin" percenta"e o& students 1ould reach the pro&icient levels such that by 3083$8F, so every child is per&ormin" at or the pro&icient level. (chools and school districts 1ho meet this timetable are said to meet adequate yearly pro"ress <AM,=. 7ecause every child must reach pro&iciency by 3083$8F "reater increases are required &or those schools that had lar"er percenta"es o& initially lo1er per&ormin" students. #xhibit 8: illustrates the pro"ress needed in three hypothetical schools. (chool A, initially the lo1est per&ormin" school, has to increase the number o& students reachin" pro&iciency by an avera"e o& : per cent each year, the increase is 3 per cent &or (chool 7, and the increase is only 8 per cent &or (chool C. Also, the checkpoint tar"ets in the timetables are determined by the lo1er per&ormin" schools. This is illustrated on the &i"ure by the arro1Kit is obvious that (chool A has to make si"ni&icant improvements by 300;$D but (chool C does not have to improve at all by 300;$D. This means that schools that are initially lo1er per&ormin" are much more likely to &ail to make AM, durin" the initial implementation years o& BCL7.
3D:
#xhibit 8A Adequate Mearly ,ro"ress requires "reater student improvement in schools 1ith lo1er levels o& initial pro&iciency (chools A, 7 and C all must reach 80 per cent student pro&iciency by 3083$F. 6o1ever the school that initially has the lo1est level o& per&ormance <A= has to increase the percenta"e o& students pro&icient at a "reater rate than schools 1ith middle <7= or hi"h <C= levels o& initial pro&iciency rates.
Su%grou*s
For a school to achieve AM, not only must overall percenta"es o& the students reach pro&iciency but sub"roups must also reach pro&iciency in a process called dese"re"ation. ,rior to BCL7 state accountability systems typically &ocused on overall student per&ormance but this did not provide incentives &or schools to &ocus on the neediest students, e.". those children livin" belo1 the poverty line <6ess P ,etrilli, 300:=. 4nder BCL7 the percenta"es &or each racialUethnic "roup in the school <1hite, A&rican American, Latino, Bative American etc.=, lo1 income students, students 1ith limited #n"lish pro&iciency, and students 1ith disabilities are all calculated i& there are enou"h students in the sub"roup. A school may &ail AM, i& one "roup, e.". #n"lish lan"ua"e learners do not make adequate pro"ress. This means that it is more di&&icult &or lar"e diverse schools <typically urban schools= that have many sub"roups to meet the demands o& AM, than smaller schools 1ith homo"eneous student body <Bovak P Fuller, 3003=. (chools can also &ail to make AM, i& too &e1 students take the exam. The dra&ters o& the la1 1ere concerned that some schools mi"ht encoura"e lo1$per&ormin" students to stay home on the days o& testin" in order to arti&icially in&late the scores. (o on avera"e at least 9A per cent o& any sub"roup must take the exams each year or the school may &ail to make AM, <6ess P ,etrilli, 300:=.
Sanctions
(chools &ailin" to meet AM, &or consecutive years, experience a series o& increasin" sanctions. %& a school &ails to make AM, &or t1o years in ro1 it is labeled >in need o& improvement@ and school personnel must come up 1ith a school improvement plan that is based on >scienti&ically based research@. %n addition, students must be o&&ered the Educational Psychology
3D;
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments option o& trans&errin" to a better per&ormin" public school 1ithin the district. %& the school &ails &or three consecutive years, &ree tutorin" must be provided to needy students. A &ourth year o& &ailure requires >corrective actions@ 1hich may include sta&&in" chan"es, curriculum re&orms or extensions o& the school day or year. %& the school &ails to meet AM, &or &ive consecutive years the district must >restructure@ 1hich involves ma/or actions such as replacin" the ma/ority o& the sta&&, hirin" an educational mana"ement company, turnin" the school over to the state.
.ro1th or value added models

Cne concern 1ith ho1 AM, is calculated is that it is based on an absolute level o& student per&ormance at one point in time and does not measure ho1 much students improve durin" each year. To illustrate this, #xhibit 8: sho1s six students 1hose science test scores improved &rom &ourth to &i&th "rade. The circle represents a studentJs score in &ourth "rade and the tip o& the arro1 the test score in &i&th "rade. Bote that students 8, 3, and 3 all reach the level o& pro&iciency <the hori2ontal dotted line= but students F, A and : do not. 6o1ever, also notice that students 3, A and : improved much more than students 8, 3, and F. The current system o& AM, re1ards students reachin" the pro&iciency level rather than studentsJ "ro1th. This is a particular problem &or lo1 per&ormin" schools 1ho may be doin" an excellent /ob o& improvin" achievement <students A and := but do not make the pro&iciency level. The 4( *epartment o& #ducation in 300: allo1ed some states to include "ro1th measures into their calculations o& AM,. 5hile "ro1th models traditionally tracked the pro"ress o& individual students, the term is sometimes used to re&er to "ro1th o& classes or entire schools <(haul, 300:=.
#xhibit 8: An illustration o& value added vs pro&iciency approach to assessment. #ach arro1 represents the mathematics achievement results o& one student 1ho 1as tested in the &ourth "rade <sho1n by the dot= and also the &i&th "rade <sho1n by the tip o& the arro1=. (ome states include "ro1th in&ormation on their report cards. For example, Tennessee <http UU111.k$ 83.state.tn.usUrptcrd0AU= provides details on 1hich schools meet the AM, but also 1hether the studentsJ scores on tests represent avera"e "ro1th, above avera"e, or belo1 avera"e "ro1th 1ithin the state. #xhibit 8; illustrates in a 3DD
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License simple 1ay the kind o& in&ormation that is provided. (tudents in schools A, 7, and C all reached pro&iciency and AM, but in (chools *, #, and F did not. 6o1ever, students in schools A and * had lo1 "ro1th, in schools 7 and # avera"e "ro1th, in schools C and F hi"h "ro1th. -esearchers have &ound that in some schools students have hi"h levels o& achievement but do not "ro1 as much as expected <(chool A=, and also that in some schools, the achievement test scores are not hi"h but the students are "ro1in" or learnin" a lot <(chool F=. These are called >school e&&ects@ and represent the e&&ect o& the school on the learnin" o& the students. (chool A 4chievement (chool 7 (chool C
,ro&iciency (chool * (chool # (chool F
'o( gro(th
4verage gro(th
;igh gro(th
#xhibit 8; ,ro&iciency and "ro1th in&ormation
.ro1th over one year

(chools can vary on overall school achievement <pro&iciency= as 1ell as the amount o& "ro1th in student learnin", For example schools A, 7, and C all have hi"h achievement levels but only in (chool C do students have, on avera"e, hi"h "ro1th. (chools *, C, and F all have lo1 levels o& pro&iciency but only in school * do students, on avera"e, have lo1 "ro1th. .ro1th models have intuitive appeal to teachers as they &ocus on ho1 much a student learned durin" the school yearKnot 1hat the student kne1 at the start o& the school year. The current research evidence su""ests that teachers matter a lotKi.e. students learn much more 1ith some teachers than others. For example, in one study lo1$achievin" &ourth "rade students in *allas, Texas 1ere &ollo1ed &or three years and 90 per cent o& those 1ho had e&&ective teachers passed the seventh "rade math test 1hereas only F3 per cent o& those 1ith ine&&ective teachers passed <cited in 7racey, 300F=. 4n&ortunately, the same study reported that lo1 achievin" students 1ere more likely to be assi"ned to ine&&ective teachers &or three years in a ro1 than hi"h achievin" students. (ome policy makers believe that teachers 1ho are hi"hly e&&ective should receive re1ards includin" hi"her salaries or bonuses and that a primary criterion o& e&&ectiveness is assessed by "ro1th models, i.e. ho1 much students learn durin" a year <6ershber", 300F=. 6o1ever, usin" "ro1th data to make decisions about teachers is controversial as there is much more statistical uncertainty 1hen usin" "ro1th measures &or a small "roup or students <e.". one teacherJs students= than lar"er "roups <e.". all &ourth "raders in a school district=. .ro1th models are also used to provide in&ormation about the patterns o& "ro1th amon" sub"roups o& students that may arise &rom the instructional &ocus o& the teachers. For example, it may be that hi"hest per&ormin" students in the classroom "ain the most and the lo1est per&ormin" students "ain the least. This su""ests that the teacher is &ocusin" on the hi"h achievin" students and "ivin" less attention to lo1 achievin" students. %n contrast, it may be the hi"hest per&ormin" students "ain the least and the lo1 per&ormin" students "ro1 the most su""estin" the teacher &ocuses on the lo1 per&ormin" students and payin" little attention to the hi"h per&ormin" students. %& the Educational Psychology
3D9
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments teacher &ocuses on the students >in the middle@ they may "ro1 the most and the hi"hest and lo1est per&ormin" students "ro1 the least. ,roponents o& the value$added or "ro1th models ar"ue that teachers can use this in&ormation to help them make in&ormed decisions about their teachin" <6ershber", 300F=.
*i&&erin" state standards

4nder BCL7 each state devises their o1n academic content standards, assessments, and levels o& pro&iciency. (ome researchers have su""ested that the rules o& BCL7 have encoura"ed states to set lo1 levels o& pro&iciency so it is easier to meet AM, each year <6o&&, 3003=. (trin"ency o& state levels o& pro&iciency can be examined by comparin" state test scores to scores on a national achievement test called the Bational Assessment o& #ducational ,ro"ress <BA#,=. BCL7 requires that states administer readin" and math BA#, tests to a sample o& &ourth and ei"hth "rade students every other year. The BA#, is desi"ned to assess the pro"ress o& students at the state$1ide or national level not individual schools or students and is 1idely respected as a 1ell desi"ned test that uses current best practices in testin". A lar"e percenta"e o& each test includes constructed$response questions and questions that require the use o& calculators and other materials <http UUnces.ed."ovUnationsreportcard=. #xhibit 8D illustrates that t1o states, Colorado and )issouri had very di&&erent state per&ormance standards &or the &ourth "rade readin"Ulan"ua"e arts tests in 3003. Cn the state assessment :; per cent o& the students in Colorado but only 38 per cent o& the students in )issouri 1ere classi&ied as pro&icient. 6o1ever, on the BA#, tests 3F per cent o& Colorado students and 3D per cent o& )issouri students 1ere classi&ied as pro&icient <Linn 300A=. These di&&erences demonstrate that there is no common meanin" in current de&initions o& >pro&icient achievement@ established by the states.
#xhibit 8D -elationship bet1een state pro&iciency levels and scores on BA#, <Adapted &rom Linn 300A= &mplications for beginning teachers$ !r @ucci is the *rinci*al of a su%ur%an fourth through si4th grade school in 8hio that continues to meet AQP. Ee as#ed her hat %eginning teachers should #no a%out high sta#es testing %y the
390
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License states. Z, ant %eginning teachers to %e familiar hat all students should #no ith the content standards in 8hio %ecause they
clearly define
and %e a%le to do. 0ot only does teaching revolve
around the standards, , only a**rove re&uests for materials or *rofessional develo*ment if these are related to the standards. , ma#ing. Every year , meet ant %eginning teachers to understand the conce*t of data3%ased decision ith all the teachers in each grade level 1e.g. fourth grade) to loo# for
trends in the *revious yearLs test results and consider remedies %ased on these trends. , also meet ith each teacher in the content areas that are tested and discuss every studentLs achievement in his or her class so e can develo* an instructional *lan for every student. All interventions ith students are research %ased. Every teacher in the school is res*onsi%le for hel*ing to im*lement these instructional *lans, for e4am*le the music or art teachers must incor*orate some reading and math into their classes. , also as# all teachers to teach test ta#ing s#ills, %y using similar formats to the state tests, enforcing time limits, ma#ing sure students learn to distinguish %et een &uestions that re&uired an e4tended res*onse using com*lete sentences versus those that only re&uires one or t o ords, and ensuring that students ans er school year and continue to success.Z The impact o& testin" on classroom teachers does not /ust occur in *r )ucciJs middle school. A national survey o& over F,000 teachers indicated that the ma/ority o& teachers reported that the state mandated tests 1ere compatible 1ith their daily instruction and 1ere based on curriculum &rame1orks that all teachers should &ollo1. The ma/ority o& teachers also reported teachin" test takin" skills and encoura"in" students to 1ork hard and prepare. #lementary school teachers reported "reater impact o& the hi"h stakes tests A: per cent reported the tests in&luenced their teachin" daily or a &e1 times a 1eek compared to F: per cent o& middle school teacher and 3D per cent o& hi"h school teachers. #ven thou"h the teachers had adapted their instruction because o& the standardi2ed tests they 1ere skeptical about them 1ith F0 per cent reportin" that teachers had &ound 1ays to raise test scores 1ithout improvin" student learnin" and over ;0 per cent reportin" that the test scores 1ere not an accurate measure o& 1hat minority students kno1 and can do <,edulla, Abrams, )adaus, -ussell, -amos, P )iaoI 3003=. hat is actually %eing as#ed. Ee %egin this early in the ith the format, or# on these s#ills, so %y s*ring, students are familiar
and therefore less an4ious a%out the state test. Ee do everything *ossi%le to set each student u* for
0nternational testing Testin" in the Canadian provinces

Canada has developed a system o& testin" in the provinces as 1ell as national testin". #ach province undertakes its o1n curriculum based assessments. At the elementary school level provinces assess readin" and 1ritin" <lan"ua"e arts= as 1ell as mathematics <also called numeracy=. %n the middle "rades science and social studies is o&ten assessed in addition to lan"ua"e arts and mathematics. (ummary results o& these tests are published but there are no speci&ic consequences &or poor per&ormance &or schools. %n addition, these tests are not hi"h stakes &or students. At the secondary school level hi"h stakes curriculum based exit tests are common <http UUedudata.educ.ubc.caU*ata^,a"esU,anCan.htm=. Canada has developed pan$Canada assessment in mathematics, readin" and 1ritin", and science that are administered to a random sample o& schools across the country. These assessments are intended to determine 1hether, on avera"e, students across Canada reach similar levels o& per&ormance at about the same a"e Educational Psychology
398
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments <http UU111.cmec.caUpcapUindexe.stm=. They are not intended to provide individual &eedback to students are similar in purpose to the BA#, tests administered in the 4nited (tates.
0nternational comparisons
Alon" 1ith the increasin" "lobali2ation has come an interest 1ith international comparisons in educational achievement and practices and more than F0 countries participate in t1o ma/or testin" initiatives. The Trends in %nternational )athematics and (cience (tudy <T%)((= have assessed students in &ourth and ei"hth "rades &our times throu"h 300;. The ,ro"ramme &or %nternational Assessment <,%(A= have assessed 8A$year$olds in readin", mathematical and science literacy in more than &orty countries on three times since 3000. The items on both series o& tests include multiple choice, short ans1er and constructed response &ormats and are translated into more than 30 lan"ua"es. ,olicy makers are o&ten interested in the comparison o& avera"e studentsJ scores across countries. For example, in ei"hth "rade science on the 3003 T%))( students &rom Canada, 4nited (tates, 6on" 'on", and Australia scored si"ni&icantly hi"her than the international avera"e 1hereas students &rom #"ypt, %ndonesia, and the ,hilippines scored si"ni&icantly belo1 the international avera"e <T%))( 3003=. Cn the mathematics test in the 3003 ,%(A, 8A$ year$old students &rom 6on" 'on", China and Finland scored hi"her than students &rom Canada and Be1 0ealand 1ho in turn scored hi"her than the students &rom 4nited (tates and (pain, 1ho in turn scored hi"her than the student &rom )exico and 7ra2il <C#C*, 300F=. 7oth series o& tests also collect survey data &rom students, teachers or school principals allo1in" &or in&ormation about instructional practices and student characteristics. For example, teachers &rom the ,hilippines report spendin" almost t1ice as much time teachin" science to &ourth "raders than in the 4nited (tates <)artin, )ullis, .on2ale2, P Chrosto1ski, <300F=. (tudent reports &rom ,%(A indicate that there is considerable cross$country variation in ho1 much students &eel anxiety 1hen doin" mathematics. (tudents in France, %taly, +apan, 'orea report &eelin" the most anxious 1hereas students in *enmark, Finland and Betherlands and (1eden &eel the least anxious <C#C* 300F=.
,nderstanding test results

%n order to understand test results &rom standardi2ed tests it is important to be &amiliar 1ith a variety o& terms and concepts that are &undamental to >measurement theory@, the academic study o& measurement and assessment. T1o ma/or areas in measurement theory, reliability and validity, 1ere discussed in the previous chapterI in this chapter 1e &ocus on concepts and terms associated 1ith test scores.
The basics 7re&uency distri%utions

A &requency distribution is a listin" o& the number o& students 1ho obtained each score on a test. %& 38 students take a test, and the scores ran"e &rom 88 to 30 then the &requency distribution mi"ht look like Table FF. 5e also sho1 the same set o& scores on a histo"ram or bar "raph in#xhibit 30. The hori2ontal <or x axis= represents the score on the test and the vertical axis <y axis= represents the number or &requency o& students. ,lottin" a &requency distribution helps us see 1hat scores are typical and ho1 much variability there are in the scores. 5e describe more precise 1ays o& determinin" typical scores and variability next.
393
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Table FF Frequency distribution &or 30 scores Score on test 8; 8D 89 30 38 33 33 3F 3A 3: 3; 3D 39 30 TCTAL Bre6uency 8 8 0 3 3 : 3 3 0 3 : 3 3 8 38 )ode )ode )edian )ean Central tendency measures
#xhibit 89 Tests scores &rom Table FFrepresented as a bar "raph
393
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments
Central tendency and variability

There are three common 1ays o& measurin" central tendency or 1hich score<s= are typical. The mean is calculated by addin" up all the scores and dividin" by the number o& scores. %n the example in Table FF, the mean is 3F. The median is the >middle@ score o& the distributionKthat is hal& o& the scores are above the median and hal& are belo1. The median on the distribution is 33 because 8A scores are above 33 and 8A are belo1. The mode is the score that occurs most o&ten. %n Table FF there are actually t1o modes 33 and 3; and so this distribution is described as bimodal. Calculatin" the mean, median and mode are important as each provides di&&erent in&ormation &or teachers. The median represents the score o& the >middle@ students, 1ith hal& scorin" above and belo1, but does not tell us about the scores on the test that occurred most o&ten. The mean is important &or some statistical calculations but is hi"hly in&luenced by a &e1 extreme scores <called outliers= but the median is not. To illustrate this, ima"ine a test out o& 30 points taken by 80 students, and most do very 1ell but one student does very poorly. The scores mi"ht be F, 8D, 8D, 89, 89, 89, 89, 89, 30, 30. The mean is 8;.A <8;0U80= but i& the lo1est score <F= is eliminated the mean is no1 is 8.A points hi"her at 89 <8;8U9=. 6o1ever, in this example the median remains at 89 1hether the lo1est score is included. 5hen there are some extreme scores the median is o&ten more use&ul &or teachers in indicatin" the central tendency o& the &requency distribution. The measures o& central tendency help us summari2e scores that are representative, but they do not tell us anythin" about ho1 variable or ho1 spread out are the scores. #xhibit 30 illustrates sets o& scores &rom t1o di&&erent schools on the same test &or &ourth "raders. Bote that the mean &or each is F0 but in (chool A the scores are much less spread out. A simple 1ay to summari2e variability is the range, 1hich is the lo1est score subtracted &rom the lo1est score. %n (chool A 1ith lo1 variability the ran"e is <FAK3A= ] 80I in the school 7 the ran"e is < AA$ 33 ] 33=.
#xhibit 30 Fourth "rade math scores in t1o di&&erent schools 1ith the same mean but di&&erent variability 6o1ever, the ran"e is only based on t1o scores in the distribution, the hi"hest and lo1est scores, and so does not represent variability in all the scores. The standard deviation is based on ho1 much, on avera"e, all the
39F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License scores deviate &rom the mean. %n the example in #xhibit 8; the standard deviations are ;.;3 &or (chool A and 3.08 &or (chool 7. %n the exercise belo1 1e demonstrate ho1 to calculate the standard deviation.
Calculatin" a standard deviation

#xample The scores &rom 88 students on a qui2 are F, ;, :, 3, 80, ;, 3, ;, A, A, and 9 A. Crder scores. :. Calculate the mean score. ;. Calculate the deviations &rom the mean. D. (quare the deviations &rom the mean. 9. Calculate the mean o& the squared deviations &rom the mean <i.e. sum the squared deviations &rom the mean then divide by the number o& scores=. This number is called the variance. 80. Take the square root and you have calculated the standard deviation.
(core <(tep 8, order= 3 3 F A A
*eviation &rom the mean $3 $3 $3 $8 $8
(quared deviation &rom the mean 9 9 F 8 8 <(tep F$A, complete the calculations= Formula Standard deviation=
Score Mean
N
B ] Bumber o& scores : ; ; ; 9 80 TCTAL ] :: <(tep 3, calculate mean=

MEAN 66 / 11 = 6
0 8 8 8 3 F
0 8 8 8 9 F F0 <(tep 3, calculate deviations= <(tep :, &ind the standard deviation= Standard deviation= 3.64 =1.91
Mean= 40 / 11= 3.64
#xhibit 38 Calculatin" a standard deviation
The normal distribution

'no1in" the standard deviation is particularly important 1hen the distribution o& the scores &alls on a normal distribution. 5hen a standardi2ed test is administered to a very lar"e number o& students the distribution o& scores Educational Psychology
39A
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments is typically similar, 1ith many students scorin" close to the mean, and &e1er scorin" much hi"her or lo1er than the mean. 5hen the distribution o& scores looks like the bell shape sho1n in #xhibit 89 it is called a normal distribution. %n the dia"ram 1e did not dra1 in the scores o& individual students as 1e did in #xhibit 30, because distributions typically only &all on a normal curve 1hen there are a lar"e number o& studentsI too many to sho1 individually. A normal distribution is symmetric, and the mean, median and mode are all the same.
#xhibit 33 7ell shaped curve o& normal distribution Bormal curve distributions are very important in education and psycholo"y because o& the relationship bet1een the mean, standard deviation, and percentiles. %n all normal distributions 3F per cent o& the scores &all bet1een the mean and one standard deviation o& the mean. %ntelli"ence tests o&ten are constructed to have a mean o& 800 and standard deviation o& 8A and 1e illustrate that in #xhibit 8A.
#xhibit 33 Bormal distribution &or an %T test 1ith mean 800 and standard deviation 8A
39:
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License %n this example, 3F per cent o& the scores are bet1een 800 and 88A and as 1ell, 3F per cent o& the scores lie bet1een DA and 800. This means that :D per cent o& the scores are bet1een $8 and W8 standard deviations o& the mean <i.e. DA and 88A=. Bote than only 8F per cent o& the scores are bet1een W8 and W3 standard deviations o& the mean and only 3 per cent &all above W3 standard deviations o& the mean. %n a normal distribution a student 1ho scores the mean value is al1ays in the &i&tieth percentile because the mean and median are the same. A score o& W8 standard deviation above the mean <e.". 88A in the example above= is the DF per cent tile <A0 per cent and 3F per cent o& the scores 1ere belo1 88A=. %n #xhibit 80 1e represent the percentile equivalents to the normal curve and 1e also sho1 standard scores.
8
'inds o& test scores

A standard score expresses per&ormance on a test in terms o& standard deviation units above o& belo1 the mean <Linn P )iller, 300A=. There are a variety o& standard scores 9=score$ Cne type o& standard score is a 1=score/ in 1hich the mean is 0 and the standard deviation is 8. This means that a 2$score tells us directly ho1 many standard deviations the score is above or belo1 the mean. For example, i& a student receives a 2 score o& 3 her score is t1o standard deviations above the mean or the ei"hty$ &ourth percentile. A student receivin" a 2 score o& $8.A scored one and one hal& deviations belo1 the mean. Any score &rom a normal distribution can be converted to a 2 score i& the mean and standard deviation is kno1n. The &ormula is 0 score = (core mean score (tandard deviation
(o, i& the score is 830 and the mean is 800 and the standard deviation is 8A then the calculation is 0= 130 100 =2 15
%& you look at #xhibit 8A you can see that this is correctKa score o& 830 is 3 standard deviations above the mean and so the 2 score is 3. 3=score$ A 3=score has a mean o& A0 and a standard deviation o& 80. This means that a T$score o& ;0 is t1o standard deviations above the mean and so is equivalent to a 2$score o& 3. Stanines$ (tanines <pronounced staynines= are o&ten used &or reportin" studentsJ scores and are based on a standard nine point scale and 1ith a mean o& A and a standard deviation o& 3. They are only reported as 1hole numbers and Fi"ure 88$80 sho1s their relation to the normal curve.
Krade e&uivalent sores

A "rade equivalent score provides an estimate o& test per&ormance based on "rade level and months o& the school year <,opham, 300A, p. 3DD=. A "rade equivalent score o& 3.; means the per&ormance is at that expected o& a third "rade student in the seventh month o& the school year. .rade equivalents provide a continuin" ran"e o& "rade levels and so can be considered developmental scores. .rade equivalent scores are popular and seem easy to understand ho1ever they are typically misunderstood. %&, +ames, a &ourth "rade student, takes a readin" test and the "rade equivalent score is :.0I this does not mean that James can do si4th grade or# . %t means that +ames per&ormed on
8 #xhibit 88.80 must be re$dra1n. ,lease contact the Associate #ditor &or the ori"inal. Educational Psychology
39;
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments the fourth grade test as a sixth "rade student is expected to per&orm. Testin" companies calculate "rade equivalents by "ivin" one test to several "rade levels. For example a test desi"ned &or &ourth "raders 1ould also be "iven to third and &i&th "raders. The ra1 scores are plotted and a trend line is established and this is used to establish the "rade equivalents. Bote that in #rror -e&erence source not &ound the trend line extends beyond the "rades levels actually tested so a "rade equivalent above A.0 or belo1 3.0 is based solely on the estimated trend lines.
#xhibit 3F 4sin" trend lines to estimate "rade equivalent scores .rade equivalent scores also assume that the sub/ect matter that is bein" tested is emphasi2ed at each "rade level to the same amount and that mastery o& the content accumulates at a mostly constant rate <,opham, 300A=. )any testin" experts 1arn that "rade equivalent scores should be interpreted 1ith considerable skepticism and that parents o&ten have serious misconceptions about "rade equivalent scores. ,arents o& hi"h achievin" students may have an in&lated sense o& 1hat their childJs levels o& achievement.
0ssues #ith standardiAed tests

)any people have very stron" vie1s about the role o& standardi2ed tests in education. (ome believe they provide an unbiased 1ay to determine an individualJs co"nitive skills as 1ell as the quality o& a school or district. Cthers believe that scores &rom standardi2ed tests are capricious, do not represent 1hat students kno1, and are misleadin" 1hen used &or accountability purposes. )any educational psycholo"ists and testin" experts have nuanced vie1s and make distinctions bet1een the in&ormation standardi2ed tests can provide about studentsJ per&ormances and ho1 the tests results are interpreted and used. %n this nuanced vie1, many o& the problems associated 1ith standardi2ed tests arise &rom their hi"h stakes use such as usin" the per&ormance on one test to determine selection into a pro"ram, "raduation, or licensure, or /ud"in" a school as hi"h vs lo1 per&ormin".
Are standardi2ed tests biased?

%n a multicultural society one crucial question is Are standardi2ed tests biased a"ainst certain social class, racial, or ethnic "roups? This question is much more complicated than it seems because bias has a variety o&
39D
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License meanin"s. An everyday meanin" o& bias o&ten involves the &airness o& usin" standardi2ed test results to predict potential per&ormance o& disadvanta"ed students 1ho have previously had &e1 educational resources. For example, should *1ayne, a hi"h school student 1ho 1orked hard but had limited educational opportunities because o& the poor schools in his nei"hborhood and &e1 educational resources in his home, be denied "raduation &rom hi"h school because o& his score on one test. %t 1as not his &ault that he did not have the educational resources and i& "iven a chance 1ith a chan"e his environment <e.". by "oin" to colle"e= his per&ormance may blossom. %n this vie1, test scores re&lect societal inequalities and can punish students 1ho are less privile"ed, and are o&ten erroneously interpreted as a re&lection o& a &ixed inherited capacity. -esearchers typically consider bias in more technical 1ays and three issues 1ill be discussed item content and &ormatI accuracy o& predictions, and stereotype threat. ,tem content and format. Test items may be harder &or some "roups than others. An example o& social class bias in a multiple choice item asked students the meanin" o& the term field. The students 1ere asked to read the initial sentence in italics and then select the response that had the same meanin" o& &ield <,opham 300F, p. 3F= @y dad(s field is com*uter gra*hics. a. The *itcher could field his *osition %. Ee *re*ared the field %y *lo ing it c. The doctor e4amined my field of vision d. Ehat field ill you enter after college-
Children o& pro&essionals are more likely to understand this meanin" o& &ield as doctors, /ournalists and la1yers have >&ields@, 1hereas cashiers and maintenance 1orkers have /obs so their children are less likely to kno1 this meanin" o& &ield. <The correct ans1er is *=. Testin" companies try to minimi2e these kinds o& content problems by havin" test developers &rom a variety o& back"rounds revie1 items and by examinin" statistically i& certain "roups &ind some items easier or harder. 6o1ever, problems do exist and a recent analyses o& the verbal (AT tests indicated that 1hites tend to scores better on easy items 1hereas A&rican Americans, 6ispanic Americans and Asian Americans score better on hard items <Freedle, 3003=. 5hile these di&&erences are not lar"e, they can in&luence test scores. -esearchers think that the easy items involvin" 1ords that are used in every day conversation may have subtly di&&erent meanin"s in di&&erent subcultures 1hereas the hard 1ords <e.". vehemence, sycophant= are not used in every conversation and so do not have these variations in meanin". Test &ormast can also in&luence test per&ormance. Females typically score better at essay questions and 1hen the (AT recently added an essay component, the &emales overall (AT verbal scores improved relative to males <6oover, 300:=.
Accuracy of *redictions
(tandardi2ed tests are used amon" other criteria to determine 1ho 1ill be admitted to selective colle"es. This practice is /usti&ied by predictive validity evidenceKi.e. that scores on the ACT or (AT are used to predict &irst year colle"e "rades. -ecent studies have demonstrated that the predictions &or black and Latino students are less accurate than &or 1hite students and that predictors &or &emale students are less accurate than male students <Moun", 300F=. 6o1ever, perhaps surprisin"ly the test scores tend to sli"htly over predict success in colle"e &or black and Latino students, i.e. these students are likely to attain lo er &reshman "rade point avera"es than Educational Psychology
399
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments predicted by their test scores. %n contrast, test scores tend to sli"htly under predict success in colle"e &or &emale students, i.e. these students are likely to attain hi"her &reshman "rade point avera"es than predicted by their test scores. -esearchers are not sure 1hy there are di&&erences in ho1 accurately the (AT and ACT test predict &reshman "rades.
Stereoty*e threat
.roups that are ne"atively stereotyped in some area, such as 1omenJs per&ormance in mathematics, are in dan"er o& stereotype threat, i.e. concerns that others 1ill vie1 them throu"h the ne"ative or stereotyped lens <Aronson P (teele, 300A=. (tudies have sho1n that test per&ormance o& stereotyped "roups <e.". A&rican Americans, Latinos, 1omen= declines 1hen it is emphasi2ed to those takin" the test that <a= the test is hi"h stakes, measures intelli"ence or math and <b= they are reminded o& their ethnicity, race or "ender <e.". by askin" them be&ore the test to complete a brie& demo"raphic questionnaire=. #ven i& individuals believe they are competent, stereotype threat can reduce 1orkin" memory capacity because individuals are tryin" to suppress the ne"ative stereotypes. (tereotype threat seems particularly stron" &or those individuals 1ho desire to per&orm 1ell. (tandardi2ed test scores o& individuals &rom stereotyped "roups may si"ni&icantly underestimate actual their competence in lo1$ stakes testin" situations.
*o teachers teach to the tests?

There is evidence that schools and teachers ad/ust the curriculum so it re&lects 1hat is on the tests and also prepares students &or the &ormat and types o& items on the test. (everal surveys o& elementary school teachers indicated that more time 1as spent on mathematics and readin" and less on social studies and sciences in 300F than 8990 <+erald, 300:=. ,rincipals in hi"h minority enrollment schools in &our states reported in 3003 they had reduced time spent on the arts. -ecent research in co"nitive science su""ests that readin" comprehension in a sub/ect <e.". science or social studies= requires that students understand a lot o& vocabulary and back"round kno1led"e in that sub/ect <-echt P Leslie, 89DD=. This means that even i& students "ain "ood readin" skills they 1ill &ind learnin" science and social studies di&&icult i& little time has been spent on these sub/ects. Takin" a test 1ith an un&amiliar &ormat can be di&&icult so teachers help students prepare &or speci&ic test &ormats and items <e.". double ne"atives in multiple choice itemsI constructed response=. #arlier in this chapter a middle school teacher, #rin, and ,rincipal *r )ucci described the test preparation emphasis in their schools. There is "ro1in" concern that the amount o& test preparation that is no1 occurrin" in schools is excessive and students are not bein" educated but trained to do tests <,opham, 300F=.
*o students and educators cheat?

%t is di&&icult to obtain "ood data on ho1 1idespread cheatin" is but 1e kno1 that students takin" tests cheat and others, includin" test administrators, help them cheat <Ci2ek, 3003I ,opham 300:=. (teps to prevent cheatin" by students include protectin" the security o& tests, makin" sure students understand the administration procedures, preventin" students &rom brin"in" in their notes or unapproved electronic devices as 1ell as lookin" at each others ans1ers. (ome teachers and principals have been cau"ht usin" unethical test preparation practices such as "ivin" actual test items to students /ust be&ore the tests, "ivin" students more time than is allo1ed, ans1erin" studentsJ questions about the test items, and actually chan"in" studentsJ ans1ers <,opham, 300:=. Concerns in Texas about cheatin" led to the creation o& an independent task &orce in Au"ust 300: 1ith 8A sta&& members &rom the Texas
300
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License #ducation A"ency assi"ned investi"ate test improprieties. <+acobson, 300:=. 5hile the pressure on schools and teachers to have their student per&orm 1ell is lar"e these practices are clearly unethical and have lead to school personnel bein" &ired &rom their /obs <Ci2ek, 3003=.
Chapter summary
(tandardi2ed tests are developed by a team o& experts and are administered in standard 1ays. They are used &or a variety o& educational purposes includin" accountability. )ost elementary and middle school teachers are likely to be responsible &or helpin" their students attain state content standards and achieve pro&iciency on criterion$ re&erenced achievement tests. %n order &or teachers to interpret test scores and communicate that in&ormation to students and parents they have to understand basic in&ormation about measures o& central tendency and variability, the normal distribution, and several kinds o& test scores. Current evidence su""ests that standardi2ed tests can be biased a"ainst certain "roups and that many teachers tailor their curriculum and classroom tests to match the standardi2ed tests. %n addition, some educators have been cau"ht cheatin".
'ey terms
Achievement tests Aptitude tests AM, <Annual Mearly ,ro"ress= Criterion re&erenced tests *ia"nostic tests Frequency distribution .rade equivalent scores 6i"h stakes tests )ean )edian )ode Borm re&erenced tests -an"e (tandard deviation (tanine 0$score
Cn the %nternet
Qhttp$))(((.cse.ucla.edu)O The Bational Center &or -esearch on #valuation, (tandards, and (tudent Testin" <C-#((T= at 4CLA &ocuses on research and development that improves assessment and accountability systems. %t has resources &or researchers, '$83 teachers, and policy makers on the implications o& BCL7 as 1ell as classroom assessment. Q(((.ets.orgR This is the home pa"e o& #ducational Testin" services 1hich administers the ,-AS%( %% series o& tests and has links to the testin" requirements &or teachers seekin" licensure in each state *istrict o& Columbia and the 4( Gir"in %slands. Qhttp$))(((.ed.gov)nclb)landing. htmlR This is 4( *epartment o& #ducation 1ebsite devoted to promotin" in&ormation and supportin" and BCL7. Links &or teachers and the summaries o& the impact o& BCL7 in each state are provided.
-e&erences
American Federation o& Teachers <300:, +uly= Smart Testing" 2et(s get it right. AFT ,olicy 7rie&. -etrieved Au"ust Dth 300: &rom http UU111.a&t.or"UpresscenterUreleasesU300:Usmarttestin"UTestin"brie&.pd& Aronson, +., P (teele, C. ). <300A=. (tereotypes and the Fra"ility o& Academic Competence, )otivation, and (el&$Concept. %n A. +. #lliott P C. (. *1eck <#ds.=. 9and%oo# of com*etence and motivation. 1pp.F3:$ FA:= .uil&ord ,ublications, Be1 Mork.
308
A .lobal Text
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments 7racey, .. 5. <300F=. Galue added assessment &indin"s ,oor kids "et poor teachers. Phi !elta Ka**an, A:, 338$ 333 Ci2ek, .. +. <3003=. *etectin" and preventin" classroom cheatin" ,romotin" inte"rity in assessment. Cor1in ,ress, Thousand Caks, CA. Combined Curriculum *ocument -eadin" F.8 <300:=. Accessed Bovember 89, 300: &rom http UU111.education.ky."ovU'*#U%nstructionalW-esourcesUCurriculumW*ocumentsWandW-esourcesU Teachin"WToolsUCombinedWCurriculumW*ocumentsUde&ault.htm Freedle, -. C. <3003=. Correctin" the (ATJs ethnic and social\class bias A method &or reestimatin" (AT scores. 9arvard Educational Revie , =; <8=, 8$F3. Fuhrman, (. 6. <300F=. %ntroduction, %n (. 6. Fuhrman P -. F. #lmore <#ds=. Redesigning accounta%ility systems for education. <pp. 3$8F=. Be1 Mork Teachers Colle"e ,ress. 6aertel, #. P 6erman, +. <300A= A historical perspective on validity ar"uments &or accountability testin". %n +. L.6erman P #. 6. 6aertel <#ds.= 4ses and misuses o& data &or educational accountability and improvement. B<>th Qear%oo# of the 0ational Society for the Study of Education. )alden, )A 7lack1ell 6ershber", T. <300F=. Galue added assessment" Po erful diagnostics to im*rove instruction and *romote student achievement. American Association o& (chool Administrators, Con&erence ,roceedin"s. -etrieved Au"ust 38 300: &rom 111.c"p.upenn.eduUope^ne1s.html 6ess, F. 6. ,etrilli, ). +. <300:=. 0o Child 2eft +ehind Primer. Be1 Mork ,eter Lan". 6o&&, *. +. <3003= (tates revise meanin" o& pro&icient. Educational Eee#, CC,<:= 8,3F$3A. 6oover, #. <300:, Cctober 38=. (AT scores see lar"est dip in 38 years. Chronicle of 9igher Education, A3<80=, A8. 6uman -esources *ivision <n. d.=. Fire&i"hter Common1ealth o& )assachusetts ,hysical Abilities Test <,AT= Accessed Bovember, 89, 300: &rom http UU111.mass."ovU? pa"e%*]hrdtopicPL]3PL0]6omePL8]CivilW(ervicePsid]#hrd %daho *epartment o& #ducation <300A$:=. @athematics Content standards and assessment %y grade level. Accessed Bovember 33 300: &rom http UU111.sde.idaho."ovUinstructUstandardsU +acobson, L. <300:=. ,robin" Test irre"ularities Texas launches inquiry into cheatin" on exams. Education Eee#, CA1B), 3D +erald, C. * <300:,Au"ust=.The 9idden costs of curriculum narro ing. %ssue 7rie&, 5ashin"ton *C The Center &or Comprehensive (chool -e&orm and %mprovement. Accessed Bovember 38, 300: &rom 111.center&orcsri.or"U +oshi, -. ). <3003=. )isconceptions about the assessment and dia"nosis o& readin" disability. Reading Psychology, C>, 3F;$3::. Linn, -. L., P )iller, ). *. <300A=. @easurement and Assessment in Teaching 9th ed. 4pper (addle -iver, B+ ,earson . 303
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Linn, -. L. <300A=. 7i4ing the 0C2+ Accounta%ility System. C-#((T ,olicy 7rie& D. Accessed (eptember 38, 300: &rom http UU111.cse.ucla.eduUproductsUpolicybrie&s^set.htm Be1 Mork (tate #ducation *epartment <300A=. 6ome %nstruction in Be1 Mork (tate. Accessed on Bovember 89, 300: &rom http UU111.emsc.nysed."ovUnonpubUpart80080.htm )artin, ).C., )ullis, %.G.(., .on2ale2, #.+., P Chrosto1ski, (.+. <300F=. 7indings 7rom ,EA(s Trends in ,nternational @athematics and Science Study at the 7ourth and Eighth Krades Chestnut 6ill, )A T%)(( P ,%-L( %nternational (tudy Center, 7oston Colle"e. Accessed (eptember 33, 300: &rom http UUtimss.bc.eduUtimss3003iUscience*.html Bovak, +. -. P Fuller, 7 <3003, *ecember=, Penali/ing diverse schools- Similar test scores, %ut different students %ring federal sanctions. Policy analysis for *olicy education. 4niversity o& Cali&ornia, 7erkeley (chool o& #ducation 7erkeley CA. Accessed on (eptember 38, 300: &rom http UUpace.berkeley.eduUpace^index.html <C#C* 300F=. Learnin" &or Tomorro1Es 5orldKFirst -esults &rom ,%(A 3003. Accessed on (eptember 33, 300: &rom http UU111.pisa.oecd.or"UdocumentU Clson, L. <300A, Bovember 30th=. (tate test pro"ram mushroom as BCL7 kicks in. Education Eee# C?1B;) B<3BC. ,edulla, + Abrams, L. ). )adaus, .. F., -ussell, ). '., -amos, ). A., P )iao, +. <3003=. Perceived effects of state3mandated testing *rograms on teaching and learning" 7indings from a national survey of teachers. 7oston Colle"e, 7oston )A Bational 7oard on #ducational Testin" and ,ublic ,olicy. Accessed (eptember 38 300: &rom http UUescholarship.bc.eduUlynch^&acpUA8U ,opham, 5. +. <300F=. America(s 'failing) schools. 9o +ehind. Be1 Mork -outled"e Falmer. ,opham, 5. +. <300A=. Classroom Assessment" Ehat teachers need to #no . 7oston , )A ,earson. ,opham, 5. +. <300:=. #ducator cheatin" on Bo Child Le&t 7ehind Tests. Educational Eee#, C? <33= 33$33. -echt, *. -. P Leslie, L. <89DD=. #&&ect o& prior kno1led"e on "ood and poor readersJ memory o& text. Journal of Educational Psychology A<, 8:$30. (haul, ). (. <300:=. 0o Child 2eft +ehind Act" States face challenges measuring academic gro th. Testimony be&ore the 6ouse Committee on #ducation and the 5ork&orce .overnment Accountin" C&&ice. Accessed (eptember 3A, 300: &rom 111."ao."ovUc"i$binU"etrpt?.AC$0:$9FDT (ti""ins, - <300F=. Be1 Assessment 7elie&s &or a Be1 (chool )ission, Phi !elta Ka**an, A: <8= 33 $3;. 5ise, (. L. P *e)ars, C. 5. <300A=. Lo1 examinee e&&ort in lo1$stakes assessment ,roblems and potential solutions. Educational Assessment B<<8=, 8$8;. Moun", +. 5. <300F=. *i&&erential validity and prediction -ace and sex di&&erences in colle"e admissions testin". %n -. 01ick <#d=. Rethin#ing the SAT" The future of standardi/ed testing in university admissions. Be1 Mork <pp. 3D9$308=. -outled"e Falmer. Educational Psychology
*arents and teachers can co*y
ith 0o Child 2eft
303
A .lobal Text
ppendi4 ) Preparing for licensure

%& you live in the 4nited (tates or another country that certi&ies or licenses teachers 1ith some &orm o& test or assessment o& kno1led"e o& teachin", you 1ill &ind the &ollo1in" case studies help&ul in preparin" &or at least the test. The cases each deal 1ith a realistic teachin" problem or dilemma. They are &ollo1ed by a &e1 questions that can, in principle, be ans1ered in short <hal&$pa"e= essay &ormat. <This style parallels the style o& the ,-AS%( %% examination taken by many &uture teachers in the 4nited (tates.= The content or topic o& the cases parallel ma/or topics o& the chapters o& Educational Psychology.one case per chapter. -eaders 1ho are plannin" to take the ,-AS%( %% test, especially the version called >,rinciples o& Learnin" and Teachin"@, 1ill kno1 that the test also includes a number o& structured, multiple$choice items. 5e have not included any examples o& multiple$choice test items here, but they are 1idely available in various published study "uides &or the ,-AS%( %%. ,erhaps the most authoritative is the one published by the administrators o& the ,-AS%( itsel&, the #ducational Testin" (ervice #ducational Testin" (ervice. <300F=. Study guide for ,rinciples o& Learnin" and Teachin", Cnd edition. ,rinceton, B+, 4(A Author.
30F
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ *+ 'reparing for licensure
,reparin" &or licensure the decline and &all o& +ane .ladstone
(ee also Chapter 3, The learnin" processI Chapter ;, Classroom mana"ement and the learnin" environment. +ane .ladstone 1as student teachin" in a sixth$"rade classroom. (he had been there &or several 1eeks, helpin" 1ith activities and occasionally leadin" speci&ic activities that she had devised hersel&. (he liked the students and &elt that she had been developin" "ood relationships 1ith them. Cne mornin" )s 5ilson, her supervisin" teacher, had to leave unexpectedly. >(omethin"Js come up, +ane, and the principal needs me to come to a meetin" ri"ht a1ay. %t could be a1hile be&ore %Jm back, so youJll need to take care o& thin"s. 7ut you kno1 the routines no1, donJt you?@ +ane 1as surprised and a bit 1orried, but also excited by the challen"e. (he did indeed kno1 the routines, so she smiled cheer&ully as )s 5ilson 1ent out the door. >C', everyone@, she said. >5eJll start 1ith lan"ua"e arts. Turn to 1here 1e le&t o&& yesterday, pa"e F:.@ >7ut )s .ladstone@, said ,aul, >5e actually le&t o&& on pa"e 33.@ >Bo, dummyL@ chimed in 'atherine, >Mou 1ere absent yesterday, and the day be&ore 1e had an assembly. -emember?@ (uddenly three or &our students 1ere discussin" 1here in &act the class had le&t o&& in the book, and there&ore 1here +ane ou"ht to be"in. +ane 1as 1onderin" that hersel&. >,a"e F:L@ she said &irmlyKactually more &irmly than she had intended. 7ut the students a"reed, and the lesson be"an. The lesson turned out to be a short story about an athlete 1ho trained hard as a runner &or a local competition. (tudents took turns readin" selections &rom the story, and in this 1ay "ot about hal& 1ay throu"h it. Then +oe raised his hand. >)s .ladstone@, he asked. >*o you think athletes should be arrested &or takin" steroids?@ +ane 1as taken o&& "uard by this. (he had been determined to &inish the lesson smoothly. All she could think to say 1as, >5ell % donJt kno1. ThatJs a hard question.@ >)y dad says they should be arrested, and that no one should have any doubts about that.@ %n seconds the lan"ua"e arts lesson 1as &or"otten and students 1ere ar"uin" about 1hether athletes should take dru"s. For the moment +ane 1as on the sidelines. >)y uncle took steroids at university@, said Frank, >and it never hurt him.@ >.rossL@ called out +ill &rom across the room. >% suppose you take them too, then?@ >5hatJs that supposed to mean?@ asked Frank, obviously annoyed. >(heJs sayin" your too &at, Frank@, said +oe. >ThatJs 1hat steroids do, you kno1.@ +ane 1as "ettin" 1orried. 6o1 could she "et the discussion back on track? (tudents 1ere /ust "ettin" more 1orked up.
30A
>%Jve never taken any dru"sL@ >Bot real dru"sKsteroidsKyou 1erenJt listenin".@ >% bet you have, thou"h_@ Cn it 1ent, 1ith some students "ettin" annoyed and others clearly tunin" out. 5hat i& )s 5ilson came back no1? >7# T4%#TL@ +ane shouted, surprised at hearin" hersel& be so loud. #veryone "ot still instantly, stunned and surprised. 7ut not &or lon". >7e quietL@ someone mimicked so&tly &rom the back o& the room. A &e1 snickers. Then someone else said it, 1ith sarcasm drippin" &rom the 1ords. >7e quietL@ +ane "lo1ered at the class, 1onderin" 1hat to do next.
Tuestions

5hat did +ane do 1ron"? <a= 6o1 could the studentsJ inappropriate behaviors be considered examples o& operant behaviors bein" rein&orced?
<b= %n 1hat 1ay did +aneJs >clampin" do1n@ on the students rein&orce +ane? *escribe brie&ly a 1ay &or +ane and )s 5ilson to prevent behavior problems &rom occurrin" 1hen and i& +ane has to take over the class unexpectedly.
30:
A .lobal Text
,reparin" &or licensure +oeyJs individual educational plan

(ee also Chapter A, (tudents 1ith special educational needsI Chapter 80, ,lannin" instruction. The &ollo1in" are excerpts &rom t1o parts o& the %ndividual #ducational ,lan <%#,= &or a &ourth$ "rade student named +oey 1ho has an intellectual disability. The excerpts list various per&ormance ob/ectives and actions, but only some o& these are complete. For othersKmarked 1ith question marks <??=Krelevant in&ormation or plans have been deliberately le&t blank. -ead the excerpts and then respond to the questions that &ollo1 Part #$ domainCcommunication Performance 2b ectives 8. +oey 1ill increase his vocabulary in all areasK people, thin"s, and actions. ?ethods/ ?aterials/ or Strategies $ +oey 1ill use pictures to learn ne1 1ords $ TA 1ill prompt active responsesKe.". >(ho1 me ^^.@ $ Conversation book 1ith pictures o& +oey doin" thin"s $direct instruction 3. +oey 1ill be"in usin" 3$ or 3$1ord sentences more o&ten. $+oey 1ill be provided 1ith model phrases such as >^^??^^@ $+oey 1ill be "iven an entire sentence and then ^^??^^ $&acilitatin" Teacher $modelin" TA $modelin" $in&ormal observations $checklists o& particular sentences used -oles and -esponsibilities Teacher $monitor $plan daily activities TA 1i.e. 'Teacher Assistant))" $modelin" $in&ormal observation $checklists re 1hether desired vocabulary is bein" learned 4ssessment
30;
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Part 2$ domainKacademicUco"nitive Performance 2b ectives ?ethods/ ?aterials/ or Strategies 3. +oey 1ill reco"ni2e and print his name. $Cards 1ith one studentJs name per card. +oey 1ill ^^??^^ $)ake name usin" ^^??^^ $^^??^^ F. ^^^??^^^ $^^??^^ $^^??^^ -oles and -esponsibilities Teacher $monitor TA $&acilitate $model Teacher $monitor TA $&acilitate $model $^^??^^ $^^??^^ $ ^^??^^ 4ssessment
Tuestions
For ,er&ormance Cb/ectives O3 and O3, the sample phrases and model sentences are missin" in the >)ethods, )aterials, and (trate"ies@ column. (u""est t1o reasonable sample phrases and t1o model sentences to &ill in these blanks. Then su""est ho1 each o& the teachin" strate"ies illustrate principles o& learnin".
For ,er&ormance Cb/ective O3, 1hat is missin" in the >Assessment@ column? (u""est a reasonable method o& assessment and then explain <8= 1hy the method 1ould be both valid and practical, and <3= any cautions the teacher should be a1are o& in usin" the method o& assessment.
,er&ormance Cb/ective OF is missin" both >)ethods, )aterials, and (trate"ies@ and >Assessment.@ Fill in both boxesKi.e. su""est t1o 1ays o& implementin" the ob/ective and t1o 1ays o& assessin" it. Then explain ho1 your su""estions re&lect the nature o& ,er&ormance Cb/ective OF.
30D
A .lobal Text
,reparin" &or licensure -osemaryJs instructional decision

(ee also Chapter D, Bature o& classroom communicationI Chapter 9, Facilitatin" complex thinkin". -osemary had planned a lesson &or her second "rade class about personal and social mana"ement, but she 1as not satis&ied 1ith it. (he had taken the "eneral "oal directly &rom the stateJs o&&icial curriculum "uide &or health education >(tudents 1ill identi&y positive communication skills@, it said. 7ut the "uide said nothin" about ho1 to translate this "oal into practice. (he 1as thinkin" that she 1ould use puppets to demonstrate ho1 to communicate in positive 1ays. The puppets 1ould en"a"e in dialo"ue, durin" 1hich they 1ould nod their heads appropriately, &ocus on the speaker, not interrupt, and keep still 1hile listenin". )aybe she 1ould include a &e1 communication mistakes as 1ellKtimes 1hen a puppet mi"ht interrupt in appropriately, &or exampleKand challen"e students to identi&y those moments. 6er plan seemed &ine as &ar as it 1ent, but she &elt unsure about t1o thin"s. Cne concern 1as ho1 to make sure that students "ot the point o& the activity, and did not re"ard it simply as entertainment. 6o1 should she introduce the activity? 5hat should she say about it, either be&orehand, durin", or a&ter1ards? 5hat exactly should she tell students she is expectin" &rom them? The other concern 1as 1ith the very &ormat o& the activity. (he did not 1ant students /ust to kno1 about "ood communication skillsI she 1anted them to use them as 1ell. The puppets did not seem to help 1ith this latter purpose. 6o1, she 1ondered, could she "et students to take responsibility &or practicin" "ood communication? 5as there a 1ay to modi&y or extend the puppet activity that 1ould do this? Cr perhaps additional activities that students could do? Think o& the ran"e o& instructional strate"ies available to -osemary. Then ans1er each o& the &ollo1in" questions.
Tuestions
Choose t o strate"ies that 1ould help her 1ith the &irst o& her concernsK1ith makin" sure that students understood the purpose o& the puppets lesson. Compose an ima"inary script o& 1hat she mi"ht say be&ore, durin", and a&ter usin" the puppets in the 1ay described.
*evise one 1ay to modify the puppet activity so that it &ocused less on studentsJ kno1led"e o& communication and more on studentsJ skills 1ith communication.
*evise one additional activity to develop studentsJ skills 1ith communication and their sense o& responsibility &or doin" so. Cutline each activity in point <or summary= &orm.
309
Comment brie&ly on ho1 each o& your ans1ers above <to Tuestions O8$3= dra1s on principles and methods o& ma/or instructional strate"ies.
380
A .lobal Text
,reparin" &or licensure @r Cullen teaches a%out houses

(ee also Chapter 80, ,lannin" instructionI Chapter F, (tudent diversity. )r Cullen teaches &i&th "rade at an urban elementary school, 1here one o& the normal curriculum topics is about >1here people live@. The "eneral "oal o& the unit, as expressed in the curriculum &rame1ork document &rom the (tate *epartment o& #ducation, is &or students >to understand the nature and purposes o& houses and ho1 they are a&&ected by the circumstances o& their society@. To "et started in plannin" the unit, )r Cullen brainstormed the conceptual 1eb o& ideas and topics sho1n belo1 as >*ocument 8@ belo1. 6e also introduced students to makin" conceptual 1ebs about houses, one o& 1hich is sho1n belo1 as >*ocument 3@. ,art 1ay throu"h the unit, in addition, he took the class on a simple &ield trip to look at the houses in the residential nei"hborhood near the school. 6is notes about that &ield trip are sho1n as >*ocument 3@. *ocument 8 )r CullenJs conceptual map about houses (tyles (i2es Types Appearance 7rick 5ood ,laster Construction materials
6C4(#(
Costs
,urchase ,rice -ental costs
)aintenance
,arts o& a 6ouse
#&&ects o& Location
%nside 7ath 7edroom<s= 'itchen Cutside .ara"e Mard Bei"hborin" (chools 6ouses P (tores (treet tra&&ic
388
*ocument 3 +illJs conceptual map about houses Color (i2e ,ainted? Mard tidy?
(imilarity P *i&&erences amon" 6ouses
Appearance o& 6ouses
6C4(#(
,arts o& 6ouses
Location o& 6ouses
7edrooms FurnaceUheater
Bear &riends?
Bear stores?
,rivacy?
5arm enou"h?
Bear bus stop
*ocument 3 Botes on Field Trip Lookin" at Bei"hborhood 6ouses 30 students 1alked about b mile around the nei"hborhood <30 minutes= and vie1ed
approximately 800 houses in the process. 7ehavior durin" the 1alk 1as "enerally "ood. (everal questions asked by students <no particular order o& importance= <a= >5ho lives in these houses?@ <b= >5hy are some houses painted nicely but others are not?@ <c= >5hy are some houses bi""er than others?@ <d= >5here are some really 7%. houses?@ <e= >*o children play on these yards and streets?@ Tuestion to mysel& 6o1 to address these questions back in class?
Tuestions
Compare the concept 1ebs o& )r Cullen and o& the t1o students. %denti&y one topic or "oal that appears to be a priority &or all three individuals. Then devise a strate"y or activity appropriate &or teachin" about this topic or "oal. 4se principles o& instructional plannin" such as described in this chapter.
383
A .lobal Text
%denti&y a topic or "oal that appears to be a priority only &or )r Cullen <i.e. that does not appear on either studentJs concept 1eb=. *evise a strate"y or activity appropriate &or teachin" about this topic or "oal, takin" into account the possibility that the students have less prior kno1led"e or motivation about this topic than about the one identi&ied in Tuestion O8.
%denti&y a topic or "oal that appears to be a priority only &or one o& the students <i.e. that appears only on that studentJs concept 1eb=. *evise a strate"y or activity appropriate &or supportin" the student in pursuin" this topic, and &or connectin" it to at least one other topic in )r CullenJs concept 1eb.
Choose any t1o o& the questions cited in )r CullenJs &ield trip notes. *iscuss ho1 these questions mi"ht be addressed in the context o& one o& the other activities described in Tuestions O8$O3 >*ecidin" &or yoursel& about research@.
383
,reparin" &or licensure &acilitatin" studentsJ communication throu"h "roup 1ork

(ee also Chapter ;, Classroom mana"ement and the learnin" environmentI Chapter D, The nature o& classroom communication. Scene #$ *arbara Buller ma8es plans %t is late Au"ust. 7arbara Fuller, a third "rade teacher, peers about her classroom, 1onderin" ho1 she 1ill or"ani2e her pro"ram &or the comin" year. (he 1ants to try some sort o& collaborative "roup 1ork because she has heard "ood thin"s about itKespecially that it "ets students talkin" to each other in 1ays that are productive rather than mere chit$chat. )s Fuller is thinkin" o& tryin" a "roup pro/ect &or social studies that she is callin" >6o1 many people does it take to raise a child?@ (tudents are supposed to explore ho1 people outside the &amily contribute to the 1el&are o& in&ants and children. %& they do collaborate success&ully, then students can pool their research, share ideas and interpretations, and present their results to class more e&&ectively. )s Fuller has read some very speci&ic literature about ho1 to "et started 1ith collaborative "roup 1ork. Cne book recommends, &or example, that she assi"n the members o& each "roup rather than lettin" students select their o1n "roupsI this procedure is supposed to avoid cliques and ensure that everyone is included. 7ut it also means that some "roup mates may not be each otherJs &irst choice. )s Fuller considers this trade$o&& care&ully, and &inally decides to "o ahead and assi"n the "roup members hersel&. To minimi2e possible complaints, she also decides to "ive each "roup an immediate task choose a leader as 1ell as a name &or the "roup. Scene 2$ Collaborate groups that dont collaborate T1o 1eeks into the term, )s Fuller be"ins the collaborative pro/ect about community helpers. (he describes the purposes and advanta"es o& "roup 1ork students can help each other, cover more readin" material, and en/oy each otherJs company. They 1ill also be challen"ed to explain 1hat they learn to each other and to /usti&y to each other their ideas &or the &inal report and presentation. Cnce the 1ork be"ins, she be"ins noticin" a variety o& reactions &rom "roups and the individuals 1ithin them. %n one "roup <)s Fuller dubs it >.roup 8@=, &or example, Tom complains to her that he is the only boy in the "roup. >MouJll be &ine,@ she says to Tom. >%& you look around, youJll see that most people are 1ith other people they donJt kno1 terribly 1ell.@ Tom looks uncom&ortable 1ith her response, but continues 1orkin". %n .roup 3, +asmine takes over almost immediatelyI everyone seems to a"ree that she should have this /ob. 4n&ortunately +asmine is not pleased to be in char"e she issues orders reluctantly <>'yla, you look up about nurses@=, to 1hich her "roup happily a"ree.
38F
A .lobal Text
%n .roup 3, 'en and (er"e con&er about the pro/ect, but i"nore the "irls in the "roup. The "irls soon are chattin" about activities outside school, doodlin" in their notebooks, and apparently daydreamin". %n .roup F, )s Fuller can hear voices periodically risin" in an"er. (he canJt make out 1ho is sayin" 1hat, but it seems to involve +enni&er, (ean, and possibly Lavar. The other t1o "roup members are sittin" quietly, simply observin" the ar"ument and presumably 1aitin" &or it to be over.
Tuestions
%& you could speak to )s Fuller ri"ht no1 <at the end o& (cene 3=, 1hat advice could you "ive her to assist in continuin" the activity? For this question, take the situation as it has in &act evolved so &arI avoid "ivin" advice, that is like >Mou should never have done S in the &irst place.@ Focus your advice on developin" e&&ective strate"ies o& communication, either &or )s Fuller, &or the students, or &or both.
Bo1 ima"ine that you can, miraculously, turn the clock back to the be"innin" o& (cene 8, 1hen )s Fuller 1as plannin" the collaborative activity in the &irst place. 5hat advice could you "ive her at that initial point in time? A"ain, &ocus your advice on developin" e&&ective strate"ies o& communication, either &or )s Fuller, &or the students, or &or both.
Consider ho1 nonverbal communication amon" the students mi"ht be a&&ectin" studentsJ experience in particular. *escribe a 1ay in 1hich one or more &eatures o& nonverbal communication mi"ht cause a collaborate "roup to &all apart or become unproductive. Then su""est 1ays that )s Fuller mi"ht be able to help so that members o& the "roup remained mutually supportive and productive.
38A
,reparin" &or licensure )s (canton teaches second "rade

(ee also Chapter 80 ,lannin" instructionI Appendix C The re&lective practitioner. 5hen )s (canton tau"ht second "rade, she kept a /ournal about her experiences. (ometimes she simply recorded interestin" &acts or in&ormation individuals, but other times she commented and re&lected on individuals at more len"th. 6ere are three o& her /ournal entries. !ocument B" ?s Scanton%s observation of 4shley%s (riting Cctober F Ashley procrastinated a lot a"ain today durin" /ournal$1ritin" timeKstared at the ceilin", at the kids near her, etc. etc. % reminded everyone that they 1ere supposed to 1rite about >this 1eek at school,) but it didnJt seem to sink in 1ith Ashley. A&ter sittin" a lon" time, she dre1 a picture o& her &amilyK)om, *ad, cat. % kno1 she especially loves her cat, but % also thou"ht she should &ollo1 directions more closely. % ask her, >%s that all youJve done?@ (he &ro1ns. % smileKa sincere one. >%tJs hard,@ she says cautiouslyKre&errin" to the 1ritin" itsel&. >7ut thatJs 1hy itJs important to 1ork at itKto actually A pause. Then, >6o1 do you spell [)omJ?@ she asks. % tell her to sound it outI ask 1hat is the &irst sound, etc. UmU_UahU_UmU_ (he says these sounds slo1ly, maybe to please me. >UmU,@ she repeats, and then 1rite do1n one letter ?. % have to leave to check on others. From a distance % see her 1rite do1n K/ then erase and s1itch it to C. 5as she soundin" out >cat@? !ocument C" 'ater that year$ ?s Scanton%s log of 4shley%s misspellings Ashley, Bovember 38 Ashley is still misspellin" so many 1ords in her 1ritin" that %Jm "ettin" exasperated, to put it nicely. 6ereJs a list o& her misspellin"s &rom the past t1o 1eeksKmostly &rom her /ournal techrs <teachers= rite,) say %.
milmen<mailmen= peliec <police=
&ier pepel <&ire people= pepl <people=
librein <librarian= lectrisudie <electricity=
38:
A .lobal Text
doctrs <doctors= nrsis loyors <nurses= <la1yers=
N 5hat to do &or her? N !ocument H;" Still later$ ?s Scanton ournal reflections April 38 +ust &inished a cool book, K0QS AT ERK, by .lenda 7issex, that made me think about Ashley and her misspellin"s. The author described her sonJs invented spellin"s and ho1 they became more plenti&ul and complicated at &irst, but eventually became more >adultlike@ or conventional. Fascinatin"L The mom 1as in no hurry to cure her child o& his spellin" problems, but he seemed to out"ro1 them on his o1n. The chie& point seemed to be that invented spellin"s may be "ood because they sho1 active e&&orts by the child to &i"ure out the rules o& spellin". (o maybe Ashley 1ill out"ro1 her misspellin"s too? % do note that her misspellin"sKher inventions Khave become more complicated across the year. 6ereJs &rom her /ournal last 1eek T*A 5 5T T +) BA* 5 ,LM T5L%T TA. 5ith a little help &rom Ashley, % &i"ured this out as >Today 1e 1ent to "ym and 1e played toilet ta".@ 6ereJs &rom the 1eek be&ore T%0 5' 5 )A* ,TM )AS. Translation >This 1eek 1e made party masks.@ Tuite a di&&erence &rom the start o& the year, 1hen she 1ould only 1rite do1n a couple o& letters durin" /ournal$1ritin" timeL )aybe % need to support her e&&orts more and 1orry about them less. 7ut ho1 to do that and still make sure she really is learnin" ho1 to spell? ,.(. %& you are interested, the book about invented spellin"s that )s (canton mentioned in *ocument O3 is listed in the biblio"raphy.
Tuestions
%n these excerpts &rom her /ournal, )s (canton has observed and re&lected on AshleyJs learnin" to spell. Considered her activities as a 1hole, ho1 much do they quali&y as action research in the sense described in this chapter? 5hat should be added or chan"ed to make her activities a &ull$&led"ed example o& action research?
Consider the list o& misspellin"s <or invented spellin"s= in *ocument O3. (u""est ho1, i& at all, )s (canton mi"ht address those misspellin"s 1ith Ashley. %n particular, comment on 1hether she should make time to 1ork 1ith Ashley in the same 1ay that she did in
38;
*ocument O8. Assumin" that she does make time, ho1 she mi"ht set priorities about 1hich 1ord<s= to &ocus on i& she does not have time to deal 1ith them all?
(uppose that )s (canton does not have time to revie1 every misspelled 1ord 1ith Ashley. 6o1 else could she address AshleyJs spellin" problems? Consider brie&ly ho1 she mi"ht use each o& the &ollo1in" <8= peer tutor, <3= classroom computer, <3= home1ork. Comment on ho1 )s (canton mi"ht collect in&ormation about each o& these strate"ies.
38D
A .lobal Text
ppendi4 8) 3eciding for yourself about the research

%n most o& this book, educational research is used to establish ideas and advice about teachin". #xcept in Chapter 83 <>The re&lective practitioner@=, ho1ever, 1e do not analy2e research studies in depth. %n this appendix there&ore 1e look at examples or cases o& research studies in detail. 5e describe ho1 they 1ere conducted, re&lect on their si"ni&icance and meanin", and pose a &e1 questions to consider about each study. There is approximately one case per chapter, and their topics rou"hly parallel one or more o& the ma/or themes o& each chapter. The re&erences &or the books cited are listed at the end o& each case study, as 1ell as in the biblio"raphies o& the chapter related to each case. Lookin" at the research studies in detail "ives a di&&erent perspective on the research than simply using the results >up close@ the implications o& a study are o&ten not as clear as 1hen seen &rom a distance.
389
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ ,+ -eciding for yourself a.out the research
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research Chapter 8, The chan"in" teachin" pro&ession and you effects of high3sta#es testing on learning educational *sychology
As indicated in this chapter, the trend to1ard hi"h$stakes testin" has a&&ected even the preparation o& teachers themselves. )any American states no1 require ne1 teachers to pass a standardi2ed test o& sub/ect matter kno1led"e, and many also require them to pass a test about educational psycholo"yKthe sort o& content that is the &ocus o& this textbook <Cochran$(mith, 3003I #ducational Testin" (ervice X#T(Y, 300F=. These chan"es hi"hli"ht make the issues about testin" very vividKand at times anxiety$provokin"K&or many ne1 teachers. -osemary (utton studied the e&&ects o& hi"h$stakes testin" on her o1n teachin" o& educational psycholo"y as 1ell as on her under"raduate studentsJ responses to studyin" this sub/ect <(utton, 300F=. %n her state o& Chio, ne1 teachers must all take a test called the >,-AS%( %% ,rinciples o& Learnin" and Teachin"@ <#T(, 300F=. (he reported experiencin" a number o& ne1 instructional dilemmas as a result o& this test bein" introduced as a requirement &or teacher licensin" and certi&ication, and she described ho1 she resolved them. The e&&ects o& the dilemmas and o& her solutions to them 1ere not uni&orm, but depended on the particular &eature o& the course. Cne ne"ative e&&ect 1as that ,ro&essor (utton &elt more pressure to cover as much o& the content o& the ,-AS%( in her course as possible, so that students could be prepared as 1ell as possible &or the test. *oin" so, ho1ever, meant coverin" more material and there&ore reducin" depth o& covera"e o& certain topics. This 1as a serious problem, she &eared, because some parts o& the course became more shallo1 or &ra"mented. (he also had less time &or open$ended discussions that truly &ollo1ed interests expressed by the students. Cn the other hand, ,ro&essor (utton also reported diversi&yin" her teachin" methodsK&or example by usin" more "roup 1ork and less lecturin"Kas a 1ay to make class sessions more interestin" and motivatin", and there&ore insurin" that students learned the increased material as 1ell as possible. (he also be"an usin" more assi"nments that resembled the ,-AS%( test itsel&. %n this case imitatin" the ,-AS%( meant "ivin" >case study qui22es@ throu"hout the semester, 1hich 1ere &eatured prominently on the ,-AS%(. The qui22es consisted o& short anecdotes or stories &ollo1ed by open$ended questions 1hich students ans1ered the space o& a &e1 sentences or brie& para"raph. (ince the students kne1 that the qui22es 1ere a type o& preparation &or licensin", they tolerated them 1ell, and even 1elcomed them. (he and the students &elt as i& they 1ere >on the same side@, 1orkin" to"ether to help the students pass their exam. The relationship 1as there&ore more positive and less >con&licted@ compared to earlier times 1hen ,ro&essor (utton 1as expected not only to teach the students, but also to evaluate them.
330
5ith the introduction o& the licensin" exam, &inally, some students seemed to re"ard educational psycholo"y as more important than in the pastKeven usin" university break 1eeks &or additional study o& the textbookL Cn the other hand, some students seemed to 1orry about their per&ormance on the test, and their anxiety may have inter&ered 1ith learnin" about educational psycholo"y itsel&. Their 1orries created a dilemma that ,ro&essor never truly resolved ho1 to "et students to prepare &or the test seriously 1ithout arousin" undue 1orry or anxiety in them?
Tuestions
6o1 1ell do you &eel that ,ro&essor (uttonJs dilemmas about hi"h$stakes testin" re&lect the dilemmas that public school teachers mi"ht &ace in preparin" their o1n students &or hi"h$ stakes tests?
Cn balance, and takin" into account ,ro&essor (uttonJs experience, do you think that hi"h$ stakes tests are desirable?
-e&erences
Cochran$(mith, ). <3003=. Assessin" assessment in teacher education. +ournal o& Teacher #ducation, AF<3=, 8D;$898. #ducational Testin" (ervice. <300F=. (tudy "uide &or ,rinciples o& Learnin" and Teachin", 3nd edition. ,rinceton, B+ Author.
338
A .lobal Text
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research Chapter 3, The learnin" process %ehaviorist and constructivist teaching com*ared
Bumerous educators have planned and implemented activities and curriculum units that use either behaviorist or constructivist principles in one 1ay or another. C&ten the demonstrated activities or units are hard to compare directly simply because behaviorism and constructivism address di&&erent aspects o& learnin", and there&ore call upon teachers to per&orm some1hat di&&erent roles. To see 1hat % mean, look at these t1o examples o& instructional research. The &irst is "rounded in behaviorism and the second is "rounded in constructivism. *ehaviorism in action$ a remedy for stuttering )ark Cnslo1 and his collea"ues have described a 1ay to help youn" children overcome stutterin", a problem in 1hich sounds and 1ords are repeated or stretched unduly, so that &luent conversation is di&&icult <3008=. Cnslo1Js research strate"y 1as simple, at least in principle he trained parents o& children 1ho stuttered to praise their child more stron"ly is the child spoke &luently <1ithout any stutter=, and to correct the child quietly, but non$punitively 1henever the child did stutter. A &luent sentence there&ore produced praise, or even a "old star, &rom parents. A stuttered sentence produced an immediate sentence like >% think that 1as a stutter@, stated &actually and quietly. Galue /ud"ments and criticisms 1ere not allo1ed. Cnslo1Js pro"ram contradicted the conventional advice to parents about stutterin", 1hich 1as to i"nore it 1herever possible. Bonetheless the pro"ram produced very positive results. All o& the stutterin" children reduced or even eliminated their stutterin" a&ter a &e1 1eeks o& the di&&erential rein&orcement by their parents, and the stutterin" did not return 1hen they 1ere tested even one year a&ter the pro"ram &inished. Constructivism in action$ pro ect=based learning +uliette .oldman, an educator 1orkin" in Australia, demonstrated ho1 this can be done 1ith health education &or middle years students <.oldman, 300:=. (he desi"ned a pro/ect &or seventh$"rade students in 1hich they had to publish a trainin" manual &or &ello1$students on the topic o& >"ood &ood handlin"@, advice &or restaurant 1orkers about ho1 they can keep &or contaminatin" either themselves or the &ood that they serve. The 1riters o& the manual 1orked in "roups o& three, researchin" in&ormation on a ran"e o& topics related to &ood handlin". Then they used computer sel&$publishin" so&t1are to prepare and print copies o& their in&ormation. They also made oral presentations about their manuals to a school assembly to 1hich local &ood$industry representatives 1ere invited, and they arran"ed to display the &inished manuals at the local public library. The initiative used constructivist principles in a number o& 1ays. For example, it challen"ed learners to make decisions about 1hat their particular manual should >teach@. The decision$ makin" required learners constantly to monitor their o1n kno1led"e and learnin"Ken"a"e in
333
metaco"nitionKin order to insure that the content 1as complete, accurate, and important to learn. %t also "rouped students into teams, so that they could, to some extent, teach each other 1hatever they needed to learn, includin" helpin" each other to sense 1hether they actually 1ere learnin" &rom their research.
Tuestions
Cbviously these t1o studies are about di&&erent educational problems or issues. 5hat i& the learnin" theories underlyin" them 1ere s1itched? Could a stutterin" pro"ram be built around constructivist principles o& learnin", and a health education pro"ram be built around behaviorist principles? 5hat 1ould each pro"ram look like?
7e a skeptic &or a moment. 5hat do you suspect mi"ht be the hardest part o& implementin" behavioral conditionin" &or stutterin" described by Cnslo1? And 1hat mi"ht be hardest part o& implementin" the constructivist pro"ram about health education?
-e&erences
Cnslo1, )., )en2ies, -., P ,ackman, A. <3008=. An operant intervention &or early stutterin". +ehavior modification C?<8=, 88:$839. .oldman, +. <300:=. 5eb$based desi"ned activities &or youn" people in health education A constructivist approach. 9ealth Education Journal :?<8=, 8F$3;.
333
A .lobal Text
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research Chapter 3, (tudent development schools and the o%esity e*idemic
Childhood obesity leads not /ust to teasin" by peers, but eventually also to a variety o& serious medical problems, ran"in" &rom back pain to heart disease and diabetes. That is 1hy medical experts are quite concerned that obesity in children has increased markedly since the 89A0s, to the point o& bein" considered a "enuine health >epidemic@ <C"den, et al., 3003=. -ecent pro/ections su""est that &ully one$third o& all children born in 3000 1ill eventually develop diabetes as a side$ e&&ect o& bein" over1ei"ht <Barayan, et al., 3003=. 5hy have these chan"es happened? Cne &actor is probably the vast increase in individualsJ consumption o& su"ar especially >dis"uised@ &orms like corn syrup <7a1a, 300A=. Another is a more sedentary, >stay$inside@ li&estyle than in the past. The latter has happened, amon" other reasons, because o& population shi&ts cities and to1ns have increased in population and si2e, 1hile rural areas have decreased in population, causin" more people to rely on car travel more than ever be&ore. The chan"es have also led residents in many areas o& many cities to consider their nei"hborhoods less sa&e than in the past, causin" them to respond 1ith inactivity either they stay inside more or they rely even more on cars to "et around. #ven schools have contributed to the trend to1ard obesity. >+unk &ood@ drinks and snacks are 1idely available in many schools throu"h commercial vendin" machinesKeach one "ivin" a student an extra 8A0 and 300 unneeded calories per day. )ore insidiously, perhaps, is the e&&ect o& the trend to1ard hi"h$stakes testin" because o& them, many schools tend to stren"then courses and special pro"rams that prepare students in the >basic@ sub/ects that they kno1 1ill be tested, and to trim pro"rams <like physical education, but also the arts= that 1ill not be tested. These considerations led a "roup o& physicians at the 4niversity o& .eor"ia to or"ani2e an a&ter$ school pro"ram o& physical activity &or elementary school students <Min, et al., 300A=, and to assess 1hether the pro"ram actually helped prevent 1ei"ht "ain in students. (tudents volunteered &or a pro"ram that had three components 30 minutes o& physical activity, a healthy snack, and assistance 1ith the studentsJ home1ork. <The researchers explain that assistance 1ith home1ork had nothin" to do 1ith 1ei"ht loss, but 1as very important in "ettin" students to attend and "ettin" parents to support the pro"ramL= (ta&& &or the pro"ram included a mix o& re"ular teachers &rom the school <not necessarily physical education specialists= and other individuals hired speci&ically &or the pro/ect. ,hysical activities 1ere chosen in part by the students, and 1ere "enerally non$competitive and cooperative in nature. %nitial results o& the pro"ram have been very encoura"in"I students and parents support the pro"ram stron"ly, and teachers have been success&ul in makin" sure that students are actually
33F
active enou"h durin" the pro"ram sessions. (ince the pro"ram is still on"oin", ho1ever, it 1ill be a &e1 more years be&ore there 1ill be de&initive results about 1ei"ht "ain, or lack thereo&.
Tuestions
%t is hard to disa"ree 1ith the purposes o& this studyKreducin" the prevalence o& obesity. 7ut does it really sho1 1hat it claims? 7e a deliberate skeptic &or a moment and ask yoursel& these questions
%& the students 1ere volunteers, ho1 typical do you think they are o& all students? And i& the teachers are receivin" a lar"e research "rant to implement the pro"ram, mi"ht they be 1orkin" harder to do a "ood /ob than most o& us ordinarily 1ork?
An important ambi"uity about the pro"ram 1as the &act that it included %oth physical activity and home1ork assistance. Think about this ambi"uity.
%& the researchers split up these t1o elementsKo&&erin" only one or the other at any one schoolKho1 mi"ht the split a&&ect the outcomes?
5ould di&&erent sorts o& students volunteer as a result o& the split, and ho1 i& at all 1ould their selection matter?
-e&erences
C"den, C., Fle"a, '., Carroll, ). P +ohnson, C. <3003=. ,revalence and trends in over1ei"ht amon" 4.(. children and adolescents, 8999$3000. Journal of the American @edical Assocation, CAA<8F=, 8;3D$8;33. Barayan, '., 7oyle, +., Thompson, T., (orensen, (., P 5illiamson, *. <3003=. Li&etime risk &or diabetes mellitus in the 4nited (tates. Journal of the American @edical Association, CF<<8F=, 8DDF$8D90. 7a1a, (. <300A=. The role o& the consumption o& bevera"es in the obesity epidemic. Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of 9ealth, BC?<3=, 83F$83D.Min, 0., 6anes, +., )oore, +., 6umbles, ,., 7arbeau, P .utin, 7. <300A=. An a&ter$school physical activity #valuation and the 6ealth ,ro&essions, 3D<8=, :;$D9. pro"ram &or obesity prevention in children.
33A
A .lobal Text
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research Chapter F, (tudent diversity usin" A&rican$American #n"lish to enrich classroom discourse
%n addition to speakin" a lan"ua"e other than #n"lish at home, many students learn another version or dialect o& #n"lish. A dialect is a version o& a lan"ua"e 1ith some1hat unique vocabulary, "rammar, and pronunciation. The most prominent dialect o& #n"lish in Borth America is A&rican$ American #n"lish, sometimes also called #bonics. %ntellectually and emotionally, #bonics is /ust as rich and capable o& expressiveness as >(tandard #n"lish,@ the dialect usually used, &or example, by radio and television ne1s broadcasters. %t is used by many A&rican Americans in the 4nited (tates, thou"h not by all and o&ten not in every possible situation. 7ut #bonics has distinctive &eatures not shared 1ith (tandard #n"lish. %n "rammar, &or example, the verb to be is used di&&erently than in (tandard #n"lish. %nstead o& simply indicatin" existence or non$existence, to be can also distin"uish bet1een a one$time event and an on"oin", continuous state. Consider these t1o sentences and their meanin"s <8= 6e tired. <>6e is tired ri"ht no1.= <3= 6e be tired. <>6e is o&ten or al1ays tired.@= #bonics also has &eatures o& lan"ua"e use or communication, /ust like a >&orei"n@ lan"ua"e, 1hich are di&&erent &rom (tandard #n"lish. Cne is the use o& repetitive, rhythmic phrases &or emphasisK not unlike the style o& an enthusiastic >preacher@ in church. Another is the use o& call$and$ response, in 1hich an individual asks a question or makes a statement to 1hich the "roup expects to respond in unison. 5hat is interestin" and important about the &eatures o& lan"ua"e use is that teachers can use them to communicate more e&&ectively 1ith students, o&ten even i& they themselves have not personally learned to speak A&rican$American dialect. Anita 7ohn <3003= illustrated this principle by care&ully observin" the teachin" styles o& t1o teachers 1ho re"ularly incorporated the dialect into conversations 1ith students and 1ho used these conversations as a brid"e &or students to learn (tandard #n"lish. %n one observation, &or example, the class 1as be"innin" a 1ritin" activity and the teacher said, >This mornin" 1e are "oin" to practice some sentences, and 1hen 1e do that % 1ant you to listen. Can you say that?@ The class responded in chorus, >ListenL@ The teacher said, >*o 1hat?@ The class replied even louder, >ListenL@ The teacher repeated the 1ork a &e1 times to"ether 1ith the students >Listen_listen_@ Then she be"an clappin" in bet1een 1ords >Listen_ XclapY_listen_ XclapY_listen_ XclapY_@ (uddenly she stopped, leaned &or1ard and asked the class, >6o1 you "onna listen? 5ith your &eet?@ All responded loudly >BoooL@ A&ter a pause, she asked a"ain, >Mou
33:
"onna listen 1ith your nose?@ All responded a"ain >BoooL@ (he asked, >6o1?@ #veryone responded loudly to"ether, >5ith our earsL@ The teacherJs approach used both repetitive, rhythmic lan"ua"e and a call$and$response style 1ith 1hich, as it happened, many o& her students 1ere already &amiliar. 7y usin" these &eatures o& A&rican$American communication, she "ained studentsJ attention e&&ectively, but also used the style o& communication to support an activity embedded in (tandard #n"lish, 1ritin" sentences. %n addition to bein" a &amiliar style o& interaction, ho1ever, the technique 1orked &or another reason it implied respect &or the lan"ua"e and communication skills that students had acquired already. (uch respect has been sho1n to be important &or success not only 1hen students are learnin" t1o dialects, but also 1hen they are learnin" t1o lan"ua"es, such as (panish and #n"lish <)arine2$ -oldan P )alave, 300F=.
Tuestions
)ost teachers a"ree that part o& teachersJ "oals should be to encoura"e students in learnin" (tandard #n"lish, both spoken and 1ritten. 7ut an issue that 1e may disa"ree about, and that is raised by 7ohnJs study, is 1hether teachers should do so by usin" non$ standard dialect in class. Mou could think about it this 1ay by >speakin" #bonics@, is a teacher modelin" inappropriate #n"lish or is heUshe providin" students 1ith a brid"e &rom #bonics to standard #n"lish? 5hat do you think about this?
There is also a related question that is more practical. %s usin" non$standard dialect really practical &or every teacher? ,resumably usin" it is easier &or those 1ith prior experience speakin" the dialect, than &or those 1ithout experience. 7ut could other teachers learn it 1ell enou"h to be e&&ective 1ith students? %& not, then ho1 else, i& at all, could such teachers communicate 1ith students e&&ectively?
-e&erences
7ohn, A. <3003=. Familiar voices 4sin" #bonics communication techniques in the primary classroom. Ir%an Education, ;A<:=, :DD$;0;. )artine2$-oldan, C. P )alave, .. <300F=. Lan"ua"e ideolo"ies mediatin" literacy and identity in bilin"ual contexts. Journal of early childhood literacy, ><3=, 8AA$8D0.
33;
A .lobal Text
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research Chapter A, (tudents 1ith special educational needs 9o high schoolsell does inclusion occur in
The %ndividuals 1ith *isabilities #ducation Act applies to all levels o& schoolin", &rom kinder"arten throu"h t1el&th "rade, and one o& its revisions <Public
Law 101-336, 104 Stat. 327, 8990=
&urther addressed the needs o& secondary schools by includin" provisions &or school$to$1ork transitions &or students 1ith disabilities. Met pro"ress at includin" such students has "enerally been more rapid and complete in elementary schoolsKespecially at the youn"est "rade levelsKthan in secondary schools. The reasons &or the di&&erence do not necessarily have to do hi"h school teachersJ attitudes about disabilities as compared to elementary teachersJ attitudes. )uch o& it stems &rom di&&erences in ho1 the t1o levels o& schoolin" are structured, 1ith secondary schools bein" much lar"er and or"ani2ed by a complex timetable o& classes that tends to sort studentsKand even teachers themselvesLKby academic back"round <'elly, 300FI Cakes, 300A=. Cne e&&ect o& this or"ani2ation is to make it harder &or special education and "eneral education teachers to collaborate, and there&ore to inte"rate learnin" experiences &or students 1ith disabilities into hi"h school as a 1hole. Met some teachers and schools mana"e to collaborate any1ay. A research study by +oseph (to1itschek and his collea"ues explored the &actors that account &or comparative success at includin" students 1ith disabilities in secondary school <(to1itschek, Lovitt, P -odri"ue2, 3008=. The researchers 1ere interested, &irst, in ho1 much teachers actually do collaborate to desi"n and carry out pro"rams &or youth 1ith disabilities, and second, in 1hat speci&ic circumstances or practices 1ere associated 1ith collaboratin" success&ully. They chose three contrastin" hi"h schools to study in detail a lar"e urban public hi"h school, a rural public hi"h school in a small to1n, and a private urban hi"h school. For each school they collected in&ormation &rom a 1ide ran"e o& sta&&Kspecial education teachers, "eneral education teachers, administrators, parents, and students 1ith disabilities themselves. The in&ormation came &rom surveys, intervie1s, revie1s o& o&&icial school documents, and observations o& classrooms. 5hat did they &ind? Amon" other thin"s, they &ound that special education teachers at all o& the schools stron"ly supported inclusion o& students 1ith disabilities to the &ullest possible extentI they did not, that is, seek to stren"then or increase the schoolsJ reliance on se"re"ated special education classes. They also &ound si"ni&icant interest and support &rom parents o& the students 1ith disabilities in the educational pro"rams o& their children. These &actors su""ested that chan"e to1ard &uller inclusion may continue in the years ahead. 7ut they also &ound limitations on ho1 much the teachers could collaborate at any o& the schools. A ma/or problem 1as the teachersJ dependency on in&ormal communication 1ith "eneral education
33D
teachers. %nstead o& re"ularly announced meetin"s to discuss inclusion initiatives, teachers had to >catch@ each other in the hall1ay or durin" lunch hours, &or example, in order to have conversations about students and 1ays o& includin" them in class or school activities. At these moments the teachers tended already to be busy. A partial result 1as that the "eneral education teachers ended up 1ith limited kno1led"e both about the special education pro"ram at their school, and about 1hy particular students mi"ht be placed success&ully in their particular classrooms. All o& the students 1ith disabilities had %#,s, but the "eneral teachers had little or no kno1led"e o& their contentsKor even o& their existence. Bot surprisin"ly, under these conditions there 1ere &e1 ma/or collaborative activities, such as the co$teachin" o& a course by a special education teacher and a "eneral teacher or /ointly operated activities or pro"rams. Met &or each school there 1ere also individual teachers and activities that boosted collaboration in the school, and that could in principle be tried else1here as 1ell. The private hi"h school, &or example, had an especially e&&ective, vital pro"ram &or involvin" parents there 1ere re"ular advisory "roup meetin"s to assess the current needs o& the special education pro"ram and to develop and sustain support &or it amon" the parents. Another especially e&&ective collaboration involved peer tutorin"Kusin" hi"h school students to tutor the students 1ith disabilities on a re"ular basis, o&ten 1ith course credit "iven as >payment@ to the tutors. ,eer tutorin" proved a "ood 1ay to communicate the nature and extent o& the special education pro"ram to the student population as a 1hole. A third e&&ective &orm o& collaboration involved usin" a teacher as a >community coordinator@, someone 1ho developed linka"es to a"encies and potential employers in the community. The linka"es proved especially help&ul in studentsJ transitions to 1ork and li&e a&ter hi"h school. All in all, there 1ere limitations on inclusion in the secondary schools, but also "rounds &or optimism because o& the collaborative successes and the dedication o& the teachers. Althou"h (to1itschek and his collea"ues &ocused on only three schools, their &indin"s su""ested three key points <8= that the motivation &or inclusion and collaboration de&initely exists amon" secondary teachers, <3= that it is possible to 1ork around the or"ani2ational constraints o& hi"h schools, and <3= that chan"es in those constraints in the &uture should &urther increase levels o& inclusion and collaboration.
Tuestions
%& you 1ere a teacher in a hi"h school <as many readers o& this book plan to become=, ho1 1ould you prepare your students to receive a student 1ith a disability into one o& your classes? Consider actions that you 1ould take both be&ore and a&ter the student actually arrives.
339
A .lobal Text
(ometimes teachers at every "rade level express concern about receivin" students 1ith disabilities into their classes, even i& it can be arran"ed easily. 5hy do you think that the teachers &eel this 1ay? Think o& three possible o%$ections to inclusion, and then think o& ho1 an advocate &or inclusion mi"ht respond to each o& them.
-e&erences
,ublic La1 808$33:, 80F (tat. 33; <+uly 3:, 8990=. Americans 1ith *isabilities Act o& 8990. 5ashin"ton, *.C. 4nited (tates .overnment ,rintin" C&&ice. (to1itschek, +., Lovitt, T., P -odri"ue2, +. <3008=. ,atterns o& collaboration in secondary education &or youth 1ith special needs ,ro&iles o& three hi"h schools. 4rban #ducation, 3:<8=, 93$83D. 'elly, (. <300F=. Are teachers tracked? Cn 1hat basis and 1ith 1hat consequences. (ocial psycholo"y in education, ;<8=, AA$;3. Cakes, +. <300A=. 'eepin" track 6o1 schools structure inequality, 3nd edition. Be1 6aven, CT Male 4niversity ,ress.
330
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research Chapter :, (tudent motivation ,s self3efficacy culturally %iasedAs 1e explain in this chapter, sel&$e&&icacy belie&s are based heavily on experiencesKmastery, vicarious <or observed= mastery, and social persuasion. -esearch has &ound that these experiences are e&&ective in a 1ide variety o& situations, such as makin" decisions about careers, per&ormin" tasks at 1ork, choosin" courses at school, decidin" 1hether to /oin a&ter$school sports teams, and plannin" e&&ective instruction as a teacher <Allison, *1yer, P )akin, 8999I 7andura, 899;I .oddard, 6oy, P 6oy, 300F=. 7ecause it has proved valid in so many situations, sel&$e&&icacy seems relatively universal co"nitive processKas i& it >1orks@ every1here, &or everyone. 7ut does it? The very &act that sel&$e&&icacy is based on e4*erience should make us suspicious o& its limits, since there are &e1 experiences that are literally shared by all people in all places or societies. And the 1ide diversity amon" students in most schools should lead to similar skepticism. )aybe it is true that sel&$e&&icacy promotes motivation &or many students, or even &or most, but does it do so &or all students? And i& it does not, then 1hat are the reasons? These questions prompted a psycholo"ist named Lori Lindley to investi"ate 1hether sel&$e&&icacy has in &act proved use&ul and valid &or understandin" motivation in unusually diverse populations <Lindley, 300:=. (he searched the research literature &or studies about sel&$e&&icacy in each o& the &ollo1in" "roups <a= 1omen 1ith careers <b= ethnic minorities livin" in the 4nited (tates <c= societies and cultures outside the 4nited (tates <d= sel&$identi&ied "ay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals <e= people 1ith disabilities 5hat has research sho1n about the sel&$e&&icacy o& members o& these "roups? Compared to the >classic@ research about this concept, is sel&$e&&icacy hi"her, lo1er, con&ined to /ust limited areas o& activity, or not even a meanin"&ul idea? 5hat Lindley &ound 1as that sel&$e&&icacy belie&s 1ere <like the people she studied= complex and varied. 5omen, &or example, 1ere /ust as likely to express hi"h sel&$e&&icacy and lo1 motivation about usin" computers, as to express lo1 sel&$e&&icacy and hi"h motivation to use them. Amon" ethnic minority students <6ispanics, Asian$Americans, and A&rican Americans=, some studies &ound lo1er sel&$e&&icacy about choosin" careers than amon" 1hite students. 7ut other studies &ound no di&&erences.
338
A .lobal Text
Amon" societies outside the 4nited (tates, ho1ever, hi"h sel&$e&&icacy seemed to predict motivation, much as it does in the >classic@ research 1ith 1hite American populationsKthou"h a"ain 1ith some di&&erences. Amon" %talian hi"h school students, &or example, sel&$e&&icacy belie&s about career choice are stron"ly associated 1ith the studentsJ interest in and choice o& career <Lent, et al., 3003=. Met the connection bet1een sel&$e&&icacy and motivation 1as &ound to have a di&&erent character &or students &rom Tai1an <)au, 3000= &or them hi"h sel&$e&&icacy 1as associated not 1ith bein" hi"hly motivated, but 1ith relyin" heavily on others to assist 1ith makin" decisions and 1ith bein" hi"hly rational or lo"ical in makin" them. (el&$e&&icacy, under these conditions, 1as not so much a belie& in yoursel& as a belie& in your community. Amon" the remainin" "roupsKthe "ayUlesbianUbisexual individuals and the people 1ith disabilitiesKresearch 1as especially scarce and conclusions 1ere there&ore hard to reach. The publications that did exist emphasi2ed a belie& in the potential value o& sel&$e&&icacy &or these "roups, but they did not report research studies describin" 1hether in &act sel&$e&&icacy in &act motivated the individuals, or even existed consistently and meanin"&ully as a concept or belie&. 5hat does the diversity o& these &indin"s su""est <beyond .randmotherJs rule that >sometimes one thin" happens, and sometimes another@=? Lindley noted t1o points, both o& 1hich 1ere hinted at by some o& the studies that she revie1ed. The &irst point is that sel&$e&&icacy may be a belie& about personal capacity only &or some individuals in some situations. For others, e&&icacy may really be a belie& in the "roup or community, such as your &amily, classroom, or 1orkplace. (el&$e&&icacy may really be collective self=efficacyKa belie& that your "roup can accomplish its "oals. 7elievin" primarily in the "roup may be quite motivatin", but also be quite a di&&erent experience &rom believin" primarily in yoursel&. %n recent years some psycholo"ists and educators have ackno1led"ed this possibility and be"un studyin" the dynamics o& collective sel&$e&&icacy <7andura, 899;I .ordon, 6oy, P 6oy, 300F=. LindleyJs second point is that &or some "roups, the main barriers to success are not %eliefs in personal capacity, but real, external obstacles independent o& personal belie&s. %ma"ine, &or example, that a person encounters daily, real social pre/udice because he or she is non$1hite, homosexual, or has a disability. For that person, sel&$con&idence may only "o part o& the 1ay to insurin" success, and removin" the real social barriers may be needed to "o the rest o& the 1ay. For teachers, three implications o& this research seem clear. First, individual sel&$e&&icacy belie&s do o&ten motivate students, and teachers should there&ore encoura"e them in these students. (econd, some students may see their personal capacity in terms o& the capacity o& "roups to 1hich they belon". Teachers can motivate these students by stren"thenin" the capacity o& their "roupsK perhaps usin" strate"ies like the ones described in this chapter and the next. Third, some students ri"htly perceive "enuine in/ustices in their 1orld 1hich limit their chances o& successI teachers should not deny the importance o& these in/ustices, but reco"ni2e them and do 1hat they can to reduce them.
333
Tuestions
Think about your o1n belie& in your capacity to teach 1ell, as 1ell as your doubts and 1orries about your capacity. Mou mi"ht call this your teaching self=efficacy. 5hat is that belie& primarily based on, and 1hat 1ould it take to raise that belie& even hi"her?
(uppose your students consisted o& about equal numbers 1ho believed in individual sel&$ e&&icacy and in collective sel&$e&&icacy. %ma"ine and describe one advantage o& havin" such a mix in your class, as 1ell as one potential source o& conflict that you mi"ht have to deal 1ith bet1een the t1o "roups.
-e&erences
Allison, '., *1yer, +., P )akin, (. <8999=. (el&$e&&icacy and participation in vi"orous physical activity by hi"h school students. 6ealth #ducation and 7ehavior, 3:<8=, 83$3F. 7andura, A. <899;=. (el&$e&&icacy The exercise o& control. Be1 Mork Freeman. .oddard, -., 6oy, 5., P 6oy, A. <300F=. Collective e&&icacy belie&s Theoretical developments, empirical evidence, and &uture directions. #ducational -esearcher, 33<3=, 3$83. -ochester, BM 4niversity o& -ochester ,ress. Lent, -., 7ro1n, (., Bota, L., P (oresi, (. <3003=. Teachin" social co"nitive interest and choice hypotheses across 6olland types in %talian hi"h school students. +ournal o& Gocational 7ehavior, :3, 808$88D. )au, 5.$C. <3003=. Factors that in&luence persistence in science and en"ineerin" career aspirations. Career *evelopment Tuarterly, A8, 33F$3F3
333
A .lobal Text
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research Chapter ;, Classroom mana"ement and the learnin" environment Culturally res*onsive classroom management
#ven thou"h teachers mi"ht believe that consistency is a mark o& "ood classroom mana"ement, it is not al1ays true that >one si2e &its all@ 1hen it comes to matchin" particular mana"ement strate"ies to speci&ic students. A lot o& research su""ests, on the contrary, that success in classroom mana"ement needs to be ad/usted to the cultural back"round and expectations o& students. #ducators sometimes call this approach culturally responsive classroom management. (upport &or culturally responsive mana"ement comes a number o& research studies. %n one study, &or example, *avid 7ro1n intervie1ed 83 teachers 1ho tau"ht in classrooms &rom 8st throu"h 83th "rade in urban, inner$city schools in several di&&erent cities <7ro1n, 300F=. A &e1 o& the teachers 1ere themselves culturally diverseKone 1as &rom (ri Lanka, one 1as A&rican American, t1o 1ere 6ispanic AmericanKbut most 1ere 1hite. Althou"h the intervie1s 1ere len"thy and detailed, they centered on /ust three underlyin" questions <8= 6o1 do you interact 1ith students? <3= 6o1 1ould you describe your mana"ement style? <3= 5hat 1orks 1ell &or you in communicatin" 1ith students? The teachersJ vie1s could be summari2ed in several points. First, the teachers considered it important to sho1 students that the teachers cared and respected them this attitude 1as si"ni&icantly more important, they &elt, 1hen teachin" urban students than 1hen teachin" suburban students. The teachers there&ore made more e&&ort than usual to be &riendly 1ith all students and to "et to kno1 them as individuals. To do so, thou"h, the teachers also had to kno1 ho1 the students themselves pre&erred to be publicly kno1n or ackno1led"ed. %n some classrooms 1ith 6ispanic American students, &or example, the teachers &ound it 1ise not to call on individuals durin" class, because some o& the students pre&erred to be reco"ni2ed &or their relationships 1ith classmatesK&or their membership in the class as a "roupKrather than &or their distinctiveness &rom the "roup. %nterestin"ly, >carin"@ involved more than simple 1armth and nurturance. %t also meant teachersJ assertin" their authority to make clear demands on students both &or hi"h quality 1ork and &or appropriate classroom behavior. Assertin" authority indirectly in order to sound polite <like sayin" >5ould you like to sit do1n no1?@= 1as less e&&ective and 1as o&ten interpreted by students as a si"n o& a teacherJs indi&&erence. *irect, speci&ic commands <like >Take your seat@= 1ere more e&&ective, provided they did not also express hostility.
33F
The teachersJ carin" had to be consistent in every 1ay not only did they have to say &riendly thin"s to students, but also they had to look &riendly 1ith eye contact and smiles. 5hat made such consistency initially challen"in" &or some teachers 1as reco"ni2in" studentsJ o1n si"ns o& &riendliness &or 1hat they 1ere. %n some classrooms 1ith A&rican American students, &or example, students en"a"ed in a >call response@ pattern o& interaction as the teacher "ave instructions or explained an idea, some students 1ould say or speak their o1n &eelin"s or mention their o1n ideas. The pattern 1as not meant to interrupt the teacher, ho1ever, so much as to sho1 involvement in the lesson or activity, and the teacher needed to ackno1led"e it as such. Cther educational researchers besides *avid 7ro1n have &ound similar results, thou"h some point out that actually practicin" culturally responsive mana"ement can be harder than simply kno1in" 1hat it involves <5einstein, Tomlinson$Clarke, P Curran, 300F=. To become skill&ul 1ith the strate"ies described by 7ro1n and others, &or example, teachers also need to look honestly at their o1n preconceptions about ethnic, cultural and racial di&&erences, so that they do not misconstrue culturally ambi"uous behaviors o& students /ust because students have a back"round di&&erent &rom the teacherJs o1n. Teachers also need to be a1are o& ho1 much society$1ide pre/udice on studentsJ sense o& e&&icacy, since pervasive pre/udice and discrimination can stimulate some students to 1ithdra1 in 1ays that may be mistaken &or la2iness. ,erhaps the most challen"in" aspect o& culturally responsive mana"ement, ho1ever, is &or teachers to accommodate to studentsJ cultural di&&erences 1hile also helpin" them learn ho1 to &unction 1ell in the some1hat bureaucratic, middle$class oriented >culture@ o& school. This challen"e is &ull o& dilemmas. 6o1 much, &or example, should a teacher sacri&ice conventional >politeness@ behaviors <like usin" indirect questions= simply because students understand and respect directness more easily? 6o1 much should a teacher encoura"e students to critique each otherJs or the teacherJs ideas even i& studentsJ &amilies "ive hi"her priority to cooperation and compliance 1ith authorities? And 1hat i& a particular class is itsel& culturally diverse, containin" students &rom many cultural back"rounds in one room? 5hat should a teacher do then?
Tuestions
Think about the issue o& politeness versus directness mention in the &inal para"raph above. ,resumably teachers and students need some sort o& mutual accommodation about this issue. %& you 1ere the teacher, 1hat 1ould the accommodation look like? Cbviously it mi"ht depend on the particular students and on the precise the behavior at hand. 7ut "o beyond this "enerality. %ma"ineKand describeK1hat you mi"ht actually say to students to sho1 respect &or their pre&erred styles o& talkin" 1hile still encoura"in" them to respect or even adopt styles o& speech that lead to more success in school?
33A
A .lobal Text
Culturally responsive classroom mana"ement has sometimes been critici2ed on the "rounds that it encoura"es teachers to >pro&ile@ or stereotype students accordin" to their ethnic, racial, or cultural back"rounds. 7ein" culturally responsive, it is said, makes teachers overlook the individual di&&erences amon" students. Cthers ar"ue that treatin" students strictly as individuals makes teachers overlook studentsJ obvious cultural herita"es. 6o1 mi"ht you resolve this issue in your o1n mind? A"ain, "o beyond the obvious ima"ine an actual conversation that you mi"ht have 1ith your o1n students about this issue.
-e&erences
7ro1n, *. <300F=. 4rban teachersJ pro&essed classroom mana"ement strate"ies -e&lections o& culturally responsive teachin". Ir%an Education, ;F<3=, 3::$3D9. 5einstein, C.,Tomlinson$Clarke, (., P Curran, ). <300F=. To1ard a conception o& culturally responsive classroom mana"ement. Journal of Teacher Education, ??<8=, 3A$3D.
33:
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about research Chapter D, Bature o& classroom communication Ehen is a student lyingAlthou"h 1e mi"ht 1ish that it 1ere not true, students do occasionally tell a deliberate lie to the teacher. %n explainin" 1hy an assi"nment is late, &or example, a student mi"ht claim to have been sick 1hen the student 1as not in &act sick. 5orse yet, a student mi"ht turn in an assi"nment that the student claims to have 1ritten 1hen in &act it 1as >borro1ed@ &rom another student or <especially amon" older students= even &rom %nternet. %n situations like these, is there any 1ay to discern 1hen a person actually is lyin"? )any o& the si"ns 1ould have to be nonverbal, since by de&inition a liarJs verbal statements may not indicate that &alsehood is occurrin". A lar"e body o& research has studied this questionKlookin" &or nonverbal si"ns by 1hich deception mi"ht be detected. The research can be summari2ed like this people "enerally believe that they can tell 1hen someone is lyin", but they can not in &act do so very accurately. %n a survey o& ;A countries around the 1orld, &or example, individuals &rom every nation expressed the belie& that liars avoid eye contact <.lobal *eception -esearch Team, 300:=. <This is an unusually stron" trend compared to most in educational and psycholo"ical researchL= %ndividuals also named additional behaviors liars shi&t on the &eet, &or example, they touch and scratch themselves nervously, and their speech is hesitant or &la1ed. 7ut the most important belie& is about eye contact a liar, it is thou"ht, cannot >look you in the eye@. 4n&ortunately these belie&s seem to be simply stereotypes that have little basis in &act. #xperiments in 1hich one person deliberately lies to another person &ind little relationship bet1een avertin" eye contact and lyin", as 1ell as little relationship bet1een other nonverbal behaviors and lyin" <*e,aulo et al., 3003=. A person 1ho is lyin" is /ust as likely to look directly at you as someone tellin" the truthKand on the other hand, also /ust as likely to look a1ay. %n &act "a2e aversion can indicate a number o& thin"s, dependin" on the context. %n another study o& eye contact, &or example, An/anie )cCarthy and her collea"ues observed eye contact 1hen one person asks another person a question. They &ound that 1hen ans1erin" a question to 1hich a person already kne1 the ans1er <like >5hat is your birthday?@=, the person 1as likely to look the questioner directly in the eye <)cCarthy, et al., 300:=. 5hen ans1erin" a question 1hich required some thou"ht, ho1ever, the person tended to avert direct "a2e. The researchers studied individuals &rom three societies and &ound di&&erences in 1here the individuals look in order to avoid eye contact people &rom Canada and Trinidad looked up, but people &rom +apan looked do1n. All o& their ans1ers, remember, 1ere truth&ul and none 1ere lies. %& "a2e aversion does not really indicate lyin", then 1hy do people believe that it does any1ay? The research team that studied this belie& su""ested that the belie& does not actually re&lect our experiences 1ith liars, but instead &unction as a deterrent to lyin" behavior <.lobal *eception
33;
A .lobal Text
-esearch Team, 300:=. (ince nearly everyone disapproves o& lyin", and since detectin" it is o&ten di&&icult, the next best strate"y is to persuade potential liars that they mi"ht in &act be detected. Furthermore, i& 1e believe that liars should &eel ashamed o& their behavior, it is reasonable to suppose that they 1ould sho1 si"ns o& shameKi.e. "a2e aversion, shi&tin" on their &eet, hesitation, and the like. The irony is that i& 1e be"in to doubt a personJs truth&ulness, a truth&ul person is more likely to &eel uncom&ortable, so the person is likely to be"in avertin" "a2e and sho1in" other si"ns o& nervousness any1ay. The end result is to rein&orce the stereotype o& "a2e aversion, but not to identi&y an actual liar. For teachers, the implications o& this research are t1o&old. First, it su""ests that 1e should be very care&ul be&ore decidin" 1hether or not a particular student is lyin" on a particular occasion. 5e should encoura"e students to be equally care&ul 1ith each otherI it is too easy, it seems, to /ump to conclusions about this sort o& /ud"ment. (econd, it implies that a better 1ay to reduce lyin" by students is to develop hi"h$quality relationships 1ith them, so that students 1ill not &eel a need to lie. Cbviously, developin" hi"h$quality relationships is a bi" /ob and it may be easier 1ith some students than 1ith others. 7ut it appears to be more e&&ective than &alsely accusin" truth&ul students 1hile overlookin" actual deceptions.
Tuestions
Classrooms are like any other social settin" in that they can only &unction 1ell i& their membersJ are truth&ul 1ith each other. 6o1 could you communicate this messa"e to students so that they endorse it themselves? Cne 1ay, o& course, is to discuss the problem 1ith students. 7ut another 1ay mi"ht be to sta"e >simulated lyin"@ bet1een students, and have students see ho1 1ell they can discern true liars. 5ould a simulation be a "ood idea, or 1ould it be undesirable by "ivin" students practice at lyin" e&&ectively? #xplain your vie1s about this question.
-ecall the study above in 1hich thou"ht$questions caused individuals to avert direct "a2e. 5hy do you suppose that people &rom Trinidad and Canada averted "a2e by lookin" up, 1hile people &rom +apan averted by lookin" do1n? 5hat sort o& cultural si"ni&icance does this di&&erence have, i& any? %n ans1erin" this question, think as 1ell about ho1 you could &ind out i& the ans1er is valid.
-e&erences
.lobal *eception -esearch Team. <300:=. A 1orld o& lies. Journal of Cross3cultural Psychology, ;=<:=, :0$ ;F. *e,aulo, 7., Lindsay, +., )alone, 7., )uhlenbruck, L., Charlton, '., P Cooper, 6. <3003=. Cues to deception. Psychological +ulletin, BCF, ;F$88D.
33D
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License )cCarthy, A., Lee, '., %takura, (., P )uir, *. <300:=. Cultural display rules drive eye "a2e durin" thinkin". Journal of Cross3cultural Psychology, ;=<:=, ;8;$;33.
339
A .lobal Text
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about research Chapter 9, Facilitatin" complex thinkin" identifying attitude3treatment interactions
As 1e have stated in various places in this chapter, and as many teachers 1ill con&irm &rom experience, there seems to be no instructional strate"y that is best &or all students. %nstead a more "uarded comment may be more accurate there seem to be strate"ies that are especially "ood &or certain students under certain conditions. #ducational psycholo"ists have lon" studied this idea and call it aptitude=treatment interaction <abbreviated 43&= <Cronbach P (no1, 89;;I (no1, 89D9=. The a*titude in this term is the unique quality, talent, or skill o& a studentI the treatment is the instructional strate"y or approach bein" usedI and the interaction is the combination o& the t1o. The idea seems intuitively appealin", but it has proved surprisin"ly di&&icult to identi&y particular AT%s scienti&ically. ,art o& the problem is the ambi"uity o& the term a*titude. Bumerous qualities, talents, and skills o& students have been identi&ied and studied, includin" memory &or verbal material, memory &or visual material, memory &or sequences o& ideas, ability to analy2e a problem into its parts, and creativity . The situation is /ust as ambi"uous in de&inin" treatment. %s it a speci&ic teacher$directed strate"y such as the use o& advance or"ani2ers described in this chapter? Cr does treatment mean a broad approach such as )adeline 6unterJs e&&ective teachin" model that 1e describe in this chapter, or like student$centered inquiry learnin" that 1e also describe? (ince both key terms have multiple possible meanin"s, it is not surprisin" that research studies o& their combinations have also yielded ambi"uous results. (ometimes a particular combination o& aptitude and treatment help learnin", but other times it makes little di&&erence. %n spite o& these problems 1ith the research as a 1hole, the speci&ic studies o& AT%s have clearly been help&ul to teachers. %n one, &or example, the researchers investi"ated human ecolo"y studentsJ pre&erred styles o& learnin"Ktheir a*titudes <Crutsin"er, 'ni"ht, P 'inley, 300A=. *id they pre&er, &or example, to learn &rom visual in&ormation <pictures, dia"rams= or &rom verbal in&ormation <text and oral explanations=? *id they pre&er to scan ne1 in&ormation in sequence, or to skip around in it and piece it to"ether at the end? The researchers &ound that this particular "roup o& students tended to pre&er ne1 in&ormation to be visual and sequential. As a result, they 1ere able to improve studentsJ learnin" by addin" to the course more computer$based instruction, 1hich 1as relatively visual and sequential in its or"ani2ation. %n another study, the researcher 1ho initially 1as studyin" cooperative learnin" "roups in university students discoveredKand 1ondered 1hyKsome o& the "roups 1ere more productive than others <,eterson, 300F=. Cn closer investi"ation o& the "roups he &ound an AT%$related problem. (tudents in this particular university course 1ere choosin" their o1n "roup partners.
3F0
They there&ore tended to choose their o1n &riends, a practice that inadvertently reduced the talents and resources available in some "roups. Friends, it seemed, tended to duplicate each otherJs styles o& problem solvin" and o& per&ormin" academic tasks, renderin" the "roup as a 1hole less rich in talents and there&ore less productive or success&ul. To remedy this problem, the instructor undertook to identi&y studentsJ stron" points in di&&erent aspects o& problem solvin". 6e identi&ied 1hich students 1ere inclined to take action, 1hich 1ere "ood at decision$makin", 1hich at identi&yin" problems, and 1hich at brainstormin". Then he assi"ned students to "roups so that each "roup had one person stron" in each o& these areas. The results 1ere a strikin" increase in the productivity o& all "roups. 7ut there 1as a catch althou"h the students 1ere indeed more productive, they did not like bein" assi"ned partners as 1ell as choosin" their o1nL )aintainin" this particular AT% may there&ore prove di&&icult over the lon" termKperhaps another reason by AT% research has not al1ays &ound consistent results.
Tuestions
Think about the &act that results o& AT% have been inconsistent, even thou"h it seems reasonable "iven the obvious diversity amon" students in every classroom. Assumin" that you support the idea o& AT%s, explain ho1 you 1ould /usti&y it to t1o kinds o& people <8= a &ello1 teacher in your school, and <3= a pro&essor o& educational psycholo"y.
.iven the results o& ,etersonJs research study, 1hat is the best advice you could "ive to teachers <or to yoursel&= about ho1 to set up cooperative learnin" "roups? (hould students choose their o1n partners, or should the teacher choose them? 'eep in mind the proviso mentioned at the endKthat the students pre&erred to choose their o1n partners, even thou"h it meant learnin" less.
-e&erences
Cronbach, L. P (no1, -. <89;;=. A*titudes and instructional methods" A hand%oo# for research on interaction. Be1 Mork %rvin"ton. Crutsin"er, C., 'ni"ht, *., P 'inley. <300A=. Learnin" style pre&erences %mplications &or 5eb$based instruction. Clothing and Te4tiles Research Journal, C;<F=, 3::$3;:. (no1, -. <89D9=. Aptitude$treatment interaction as a &rame1ork &or research on individual di&&erences in learnin". %n ,. Ackerman, -. (ternber", P -. .laser <#ds.=, 2earning and individual differences, pp. 83$ :0. Be1 Mork 5. 6. Freeman. ,eterson, T. <300F=. (o youJre thinkin" o& tryin" problem$based learnin"? Three critical success &actors &or implementation. Journal of @anagement Education, CA<A=, :30$:F;.
3F8
A .lobal Text
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research Chapter 80, ,lannin" instruction 9o does multicultural curriculum affect racial #no ledge and %iases)ulticultural and anti$racist curricula 1ork partly by portrayin" and discussin" individuals o& diverse racial or ethnic back"round in 1ays that counteract stereotypes. (tudents read stories, 1atch videos, and talk about respected citi2ensKdoctors, political leaders, celebrities, and the like K1ho happen to be A&rican$American, 6ispanic, or o& some other non$Caucasian ori"in. %n some cases, especially at the early childhood level, studentsJ interests and concerns are used to "uide the selection and inte"ration o& diversity$related activities <*erman$(parks, 899F=. Cne 1ay o& thinkin" about such a curriculum is that it tries to make students into >experts,@ even at relatively youn" a"es, about racial and ethnic di&&erences. %nstead o& thinkin" about diversity in super&icial termsKas based merely on skin color, &or exampleKstudents learn to see diversity as complex and multi$&aceted. An A&rican$American child and a 5hite child do not simply di&&er in color, &or exampleI they are both similar and di&&erent in many 1ays. 6ope&ully the "reater subtlety o& their expert kno1led"e also reduces ne"ative biases &elt about race. To test these possibilities, *onna ,erkins and Carolyn )ebert intervie1ed ;9 children at six preschool and a&ter$school child care centers <300A=. (ome o& the centers emphasi2ed multicultural education, some emphasi2ed multicultural education as 1ell as an emer"ent curriculum, and some emphasi2ed neither. ,erkins and )ebert assessed childrenJs kno1led"e and attitudes about race in several 1ays. For example, they displayed pictures o& other children over various races on a &elt board, and asked the participatin" children to arran"e the pictures so that children 1ere closer to"ether i& more similar and &arther apart i& more di&&erent. They also asked participatin" children to evaluate simple stories or anecdotes about three pictures, one o& a 1hite child, one o& an A&rican$ American child, and one o& an Asian$American child. %n one o& the anecdotes, &or example, the researcher asked, >(ome children are nau"hty because they dra1 1ith crayons on the 1alls. 5hich o& these children <in the pictures= mi"ht do that?@ The participatin" child could then choose any or all o& the pictured childrenKor choose none at all. 5hat did ,erkins and )ebert &ind &rom this study? Four ideas stood out especially clearly <8= Children indeed sho1ed more >expertise@ about race i& they attended a child care center that emphasi2ed multicultural educationKbut only i& they center also emphasi2ed emer"ent curriculum. To be e&&ective, in other 1ords, in&ormation about human diversity had to "ro1 out o& childrenJs personal concerns and interests. %t 1as not enou"h simply to tell them about human diversity.
3F3
<3= Althou"h a multiculturalUemer"ent pro"ram 1as e&&ective in sensiti2in" children to di&&erences %et een races, it 1as not especially e&&ective &or sensiti2in" them to di&&erences races. 5hen it came to di&&erences amon" A&rican$Americans, &or example, ithin the
multiculturalUemer"ent children 1ere no more subtle or >expert@ in their /ud"ments than any other children. <3= Children in the multicultural pro"rams tended to vie1 all children, re"ardless o& race, in a relatively more positive li"ht, and this tendency increased as they "ot older <i.e. &rom a"e F to :=. <F= )ost important o& all, the pro"ram orientation did a&&ect the childrenJs kno1led"e and attitudes, even at <or perhaps because o&= their youn" a"e.
Tuestions
5hy do you suppose that multicultural education 1orked only in con/unction 1ith an emer"ent curriculum? %ma"ine that you 1ritin" a brie& summary o& this study &or a school ne1sletter, and that you need to comment on this question. 5hat 1ould you say about it?
(keptics mi"ht say that the study assessed only 1hat children say about race, not ho1 children mi"ht act in racially related situations. %n an intervie1, in other 1ords, a child mi"ht express positive sentiments about every race or ethnic "roup, but still behave in pre/udiced 1ays durin" play or other activities at school. %s this a le"itimate criticism o& the ,erkins and )ebert study? 6o1 could you devise another study to test 1hether there is truth to the criticism?
-e&erences
,erkins, *. P )ebert, C. <300A=. #&&icacy o& multicultural education &or preschool children. Journal of Cross3 Cultural Psychology, ;:<F=, F9;$A83. *erman$(parks, L. <899F=. #mpo1erin" children to create a carin" culture in a 1orld o& di&&erences. Childhood Education, =<, ::$;8.
3F3
A .lobal Text
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research Chapter 88, Teacher$made assessment strate"ies the im*ortance of esta%lishing trust hen giving critical feed%ac# across the racial divide
,rovidin" accurate but constructive &eedback to students is di&&icult &or teachers. %denti&yin" problems in student 1ork and pointin" out areas &or improvement can undermine studentsJ con&idence and motivation. 6o1ever, students cannot make si"ni&icant improvements in their 1ork i& they do not "et accurate in&ormation about their stren"ths and 1eaknesses. Cohen, (teele and -oss <3003= ar"ue that trust is crucial to this dilemma students are more likely to respond 1ell to accurate &eedback i& they trust the teacher and believe that the &eedback is not biased. 6o1ever, i& the student distrusts the teacher &eedback that points out 1eaknesses is likely to lo1er motivation and con&idence. The dilemma o& providin" trust and accurate &eedback that enhances motivation is particularly acute 1hen the students come &rom a "roup that has been stereotyped as less competent <e.". A&rican American, Latino= and the teacher is 1hite. (everal studies su""est that &eedback that is >1ise@ can help establish trust and &oster motivation even thou"h the &eedback includes in&ormation about 1eaknesses. %n one study, FA A&rican American and FD 5hite Colle"e students 1ere asked by a 5hite experimenter to 1rite a letter o& commendation &or their &avorite teacher <Cohen (teele, -oss, 8999=. The students 1ere told that the best letters 1ould be published in a /ournal and that the skills needed 1ere similar to those needed to 1rite an e&&ective colle"e paper. A photo o& each student 1as attached to their dra&t letter. A 1eek later the students returned &or the second session o& the study and 1ere "iven one o& three types o& &eedback <8= 4nbu&&ered criticism (pellin" and "rammatical errors 1ere marked as 1ell as some shortcomin"s in the 1ritin" <e.". stylistic concerns=. Also t1o check marks ac#no ledging good *oints ere included.
<3= Criticism and positive bu&&er %n addition to the criticism described &or the unbu&&ered "roup, students 1ere told that they did a "ood /ob and made a number o& "ood points. <3= 5ise &eedback Criticism, positive bu&&er, and assurance. %n addition to the criticism and positive bu&&er described above, students 1ere also told that the person critiquin" the letter believed that the student could meet the hi"h standards needed &or publication. The researchers assessed ho1 biased the students believed the revie1er 1as, ho1 motivated students 1ere to revise the letter, and ho1 much students identi&ied 1ith 1ritin" skills. All students 1ere less motivated and identi&ied less 1ith 1ritin" i& they received unbu&&ered criticism. 6o1ever, &or 5hite students the distinction bet1een criticism 1ith positive bu&&er vs the 1ise &eedback 1as not as important as it 1as &or A&rican American students. The "roup o& A&rican American students 1ho received 1ise &eedback 1as more motivated, identi&ied more 1ith 1ritin", 3FF
and 1as si"ni&icantly less likely to believe the revie1er 1as biased than the "roups that received the other &orms o& criticism. This study su""ests that the kind o& &eedback "iven is important unbu&&ered criticism is associated 1ith lo1er motivation &or all students. 6o1ever, &or A&rican American students 1ho "ro1 up amidst ne"ative stereotypes about their competence, &eedback that promotes motivation, needs to include three components some positive comments, criticism that identi&ies speci&ic 1eaknesses, and comments that make it clear the teacher believes the student can do 1ell.
Tuestions
This study 1as conducted usin" Colle"e studentsKdo you think the &indin"s 1ould also apply to elementary, middle, and hi"h school students?
This study &ocused on A&rican American students. *o you think the &indin"s mi"ht also apply to Latino and Bative American students 1ho are also o&ten stereotyped as less competent?
6o1 important is trust in classroom interactions? 6ave you received the kinds o& &eedback described here? *id it in&luence your motivation?
-e&erences
Cohen, .., (teele, C., P -oss, L. <8999=. The mentorEs dilemma ,rovidin" critical &eedback across the racial divide. Personality and social *sychology %ulletin, C?1B<), B;<C3B;BA. Cohen, .., (teele, C., P -oss, L. <3003=. A barrier o& mistrust 6o1 ne"ative stereotypes a&&ect cross$race mentorin". %n Aronson, +. ). P Aronson, +. <#ds.=, %mprovin" academic achievement %mpact o& psycholo"ical &actors in education, 30A$338. #merald .roup ,ublishin".
3FA
A .lobal Text
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about the research Chapter 83, (tandardi2ed assessment strate"ies Ehy are standardi/ed tests so im*ortant to 0C2+The use o& standardi2ed testin" in BCL7 arises &rom re&orms that 1ere initiated in the 89D0s. These re&orms 1ere heavily in&luenced by business leaders 1ho 1ere concerned 1ith the risin" productivity o& international competitors and believed that improvin" education 1ould aid 4(A competitiveness. Corporate leaders 1ho had orchestrated company turnarounds stressed the importance o& settin" explicit "oals, per&ormance or outputs, use o& benchmarks or standards, and or"ani2ational restructurin". ,olicy makers needed support &rom the business leaders &or the additional &inancial resources needed &or 1idespread education re&orms they 1ished so it is not surprisin" they adopted these business ideas as they devised 1ays to make teachers and students more accountable. Accordin" to (usan Fuhrman <300F= a >theory o& action@ underlies these ne1 accountability systems that contains the &ollo1in" assumptions <a= (choolsJ primary &ocus should be student achievement in the key areas o& math, readin" and science. Clear content standards developed by each (tate &or each sub/ect area and "rade level help schools in this &ocus. %& re1ards and sanctions are based on the basis o& studentsJ meetin" the content standards in that school then the teachers and administrators 1ill devote ener"y and resources to improvin" student achievement. <b= Standardi/ed tests that are ali"ned 1ith the content standards can accurately and authentically measure student per&ormance. 5ell desi"ned tests are reliable and valid and so other measures such as classroom observations are not needed to determine i& teachers and schools are doin" a "ood /ob. <c= )eanin"&ul conse&uences 1ill not only motivate teachers, students, and administrators but also improve instruction. ,ositive consequences include bonuses &or teachers and administrators and ne"ative consequences include denial o& "raduation or promotion &or students, or school take over and restructurin". 7ecause these consequences are real, teachers 1ill 1ork harder to teach and be more likely to additional pro&essional development to improve their skills. (tudents 1ill also 1ork harder to learn so teacher$student interactions around content 1ill improve. Frequent assessment 1ill provide meanin"&ul &eedback on student per&ormance 1hich in turn 1ill promote improved teachin". <d= There 1ill be minimal unintended conse&uences i& the systems 1ork as intended. For example, instruction 1ill improve rather then becomin" narro1ly &ocused on test takin" skills, and hi"h school "raduation tests 1ill promote learnin" not increase drop out rates.
3F:
Tuestions
Cur questions &ocus on part o& each assumption.
6o1 much emphasis should schools place on readin", mathematics and science? 5hat role should art, physical education, social studies, and music play in school classrooms?
*o standardi2ed tests measure studentsJ per&ormance on content standards adequately? (hould schools be /ud"ed on studentsJ scores on standardi2ed tests? %s it important that classroom observations o& students <by teachers or others= are not included.
5ill students and teachers be motivated by the tests. (ti""ins <300F= ar"ued that 1hile hi"h achievin" students may be motivated by tests many students 1ho &ind the tests di&&icult 1ill "ive up and so be less motivated. *o you a"ree 1ith (ti""ins or the assumption underlyin" BCL7?
Are the unintended consequences minimal? %s classroom instruction improvin" or becomin" narro1ly &ocused on test takin" skills and content?
-e&erences
Fuhrman, (. 6. <300F=. %ntroduction, %n (. 6. Fuhrman P -. F. #lmore <#ds=. Redesigning accounta%ility systems for education. <pp. 3$8F=. Be1 Mork Teachers Colle"e ,ress.
3F;
A .lobal Text
*ecidin" &or yoursel& about research Appendix C, The re&lective practitioner action research as a isolation of teaching ay to deal ith the
Cbservers o& education have sometimes noted that classroom teachers tend to be isolated &rom each other by the very nature o& their 1ork <Lortie, 89;AI 0eichner, 300;=. A teacher may be constantly surrounded by students, but chances are that no collea"ue 1ill be there to 1itness 1hat the teacher does in class. Conversation about classroom experiences do happen, but they tend to happen outside o& class timeKperhaps over lunch, or be&ore or a&ter school. This circumstance does not prevent teachersJ &rom sharin" experiences or concerns related to teachin" alto"ether, but delayin" conversations probably makes them less &requent or likely. Fe1er colle"ial conversations, in turn, can limit teachers by reducin" their opportunities to learn &rom each otherKor even to reali2e many o& the instructional options open to them. Action research addresses teachersJ isolation because it promotes not only re&lection on practice, but also collaboration and sharin" <6ayes, 300:=. The bene&its o& sharin" may be the most obvious 1hen an action research pro/ect is actually published &or a 1ider audience. Cver the past 30 years, numerous teachers and other educators have published studies o& their o1n teachin" or their o1n studentsJ learnin". There are no1 entire books compilin" such accounts <&or example, (amaras P Freese, 300:I Tid1ell P Fit2"erald, 300:=, a comprehensive handbook discussin" aspects o& teachersJ studies o& their o1n teachin" <Lou"hran, et al., 300F=, several /ournals 1hose purpose is lar"ely or solely to publish examples o& action research <one, &or example, is called simply Action -esearch=, and a variety o& blo"s and 1ebsites that post action research pro/ects. Collectively these publications are a rich source o& practical 1isdom &rom 1hich individual teachers can learn and think about their o1n teachin". 7ut an action research pro/ect does not have to published &ormally in order to promote collaboration or sharin". The bene&its can happen locallyKeven 1ithin a sin"le school buildin"K 1henever a teacher plans, carries out, and talks about a research initiative. A teacher named 7etty -a"land, &or example, described ho1 this happened in her hi"hly unusual teachin" situation, a /uvenile correctional &acility <-a"land, 300:=. The &acility &unctioned some1hat like a prison &or youth convicted o& various crimes. As you mi"ht suppose, )s -a"landJs students experienced behavior problems and con&licts more o&ten than usual in schools, to the extent that teachers sometimes &elt physically vulnerable themselves, as 1ell as isolated &rom help i& serious con&licts developed durin" class. To deal 1ith these stresses, )s -a"land initiated a sel&$study o& her practice in 1hich she 1rote and thou"ht about her experiences and her reactions to the experiences. (he shared the results, both in 1ritin" and throu"h meetin"s, 1ith &ello1 teachers. %n the course o& doin" so, she developed a number o& insi"hts 1hich collea"ues &ound help&ul in &ormulatin" their o1n thinkin" 3FD
As )s -a"land re&lected on her 1ork as a teacher, she reali2ed that teachin" in a correctional &acility had made her more cautious about her sa&ety even outside o& teachin" hours. For example, she had become more care&ul about lockin" her car door, 1here she 1alked at ni"ht, and even 1here she sat in restaurants <she pre&erred to sit 1ith her back to the 1all=. )s -a"land &ound it impossible to describe her 1ork in a &ully detached or ob/ective 1ay, and &inally decided that bein" detached 1as not even desirable. 6er &eelin"s and interpretations o& studentsJ behavior 1ere essential to understandin" experiences 1ith them, so she decided that it 1as better to include these in 1hatever she 1rote about them. As she 1rote, talked, and re&lected on her experiences, she &ound hersel& "overned by t1o incompatible perspectives about her 1ork, 1hich she called the educational *ers*ective <try to help students and turn their lives around= and the correctional *ers*ective <remember that the students had committed serious crimes and o&ten could not be trusted=. )ore importantly, she discovered, throu"h conversations 1ith &ello1 sta&&, that they too &elt torn bet1een these same t1o perspectives. 7y talkin" 1ith each other about the dilemmas in ho1 to interpret studentsJ needs and <mis=behaviors, she and the other sta&& 1ere able to develop a common perspective about their purposes, about appropriate 1ays o& helpin" students, and about appropriate 1ays o& dealin" 1ith con&licts 1hen they arose. %n the end, a study initiated by one teacher, )s -a"land, bene&ited all the teachers. 5hat be"an as a sel&$study eventually became a "roup study, and teachersJ mutual isolation at 1ork decreased. Bot many teachers, o& course, &ind themselves teachin" in a correctional &acility. 7ut manyK perhaps mostKdo experience serious dilemmas and stresses either about studentsJ behavior or about their learnin". *ependin" on circumstances, &or example, a teacher may 1onder ho1 to respond to students 1ho treat the teacher or other students disrespect&ully. Cr a teacher may &eel lost about helpin" certain students 1ho are stru""lin" or 1onder 1here the teacherJs responsibility ends i& a student persists in not learnin" even a&ter receivin" special help. (uch uncertainties may not lead to physical threats, as actually happened to 7etty -a"land occasionally, but they can create a lot o& stress nonetheless. 7ut action research can helpKsystematically studyin" and re&lectin" on ho1 to solve them, readin" and listenin" to ho1 others have done the same, and sharin" 1hat teachers there&ore learn. 7ecause o& these activities, questions about teachin" can be resolved, or at least clari&ied, and classroom practice can be enhanced. )ost important, the bene&its can be shared not only 1ith the teacher as researcher, but 1ith a teacherJs collea"ues as 1ell.
Tuestions
Consider the three 1ays discussed in this chapter that research articles can di&&er <8= by ho1 much they seek universal truths, <3= by the response the author expects &rom the
3F9
A .lobal Text
reader, and <3= by the assumptions the author makes about the readerJs prior experiences. 5here is )s -a"landJs action research situated on each o& these dimensions o& di&&erence?
Consider the ethical issues about action research discussed at the end o& this chapterK insurin" privacy o& students, "ainin" in&ormed consent, and insurin" &reedom to participate. .iven the nature and &ocus o& )s -a"landJs particular action research, ho1 mi"ht she honor these ethical considerations? *oes the &act that her students 1ere <literally= captives make any di&&erence?
(uppose that instead o& an inside sta&& member like )s -a"land studyin" youth&ul o&&enders, an outsider un&amiliar 1ith youth correctional &acilities 1anted to do so. 6o1 1ould outsider status a&&ect 1hat could be learned about li&e in a /uvenile correctional &acility?
-e&erences
Lortie, *. <89;A=. Schoolteacher. Chica"o 4niversity o& Chica"o ,ress. 0eichner, '. <300;=. Accumulatin" kno1led"e across sel&$studies in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, ?A<8=, 3:$F:. 6ayes, *. <300:=. Tellin" stories (ustainin" improvement in schools operatin" under adverse conditions. ,m*roving Schools, F<3=, 303$383. (amaras, A. P Freese, A. <#ds.=. <300:=. Self3study of teaching *ractices. Be1 Mork ,eter Lan". Tid1ell, *. P Fit2"erald, L. <#ds.=. <300:=. Self3study and diversity. -otterdam, The Betherlands (ense ,ublishers. -a"land, 7. <300;=. ,ositionin" the practitioner$researcher Five 1ays o& lookin" at practice. Action Research, ><3=, 8:A$8D3.
3A0
ppendi4 C) The reflective practitioner

The e4*erience in reflective teaching is that you must *lunge into the doing, and try to educate yourself %efore you #no hat it is you(re trying to learn. 1!onald Sch[n, BFA=) *onald (chcn, a philosopher and educational researcher, makes an important observation learnin" about teachin" o&ten means makin" choices and takin" actions 1ithout kno1in" in advance quite 1hat the consequences 1ill be. The problem, as 1e have pointed out more than once, is that classroom events are o&ten ambi"uous and ambivalent, in that they usually serve more than one purpose. A teacher compliments a studentJs contribution to a discussion at that moment she may be motivatin" the student, but also &ocusin" classmatesJ thinkin" on key ideas. 6er comment &unctions simultaneously as behavioral rein&orcement, in&ormation, and expression o& carin". At that moment complimentin" the student may be exactly the ri"ht thin" to do. Cr not perhaps the praise causes the teacher to ne"lect the contributions o& others, or &ocuses attention on &actors that students cannot control, like their ability instead o& their e&&ort. %n teachin", it seems, everythin" cuts more than one 1ay, si"ni&ies more than one thin". The complications can make it di&&icult to prepare &or teachin" in advance, thou"h they also make teachin" itsel& interestin" and challen"in". The complications also mean that teachers need to learn &rom their o1n teachin" by re&lectin" <or thinkin" about the si"ni&icance o&= their experiences. %n the classrooms, students are not the only people 1ho need to learn. (o do teachers, thou"h 1hat teachers need to learn is less about curriculum and more about studentsJ behavior and motivation, about ho1 to assess their learnin" 1ell, and about ho1 to shape the class into a mutually supportive community. Thinkin" about these matters helps to make a teacher a re&lective practitioner <(chcn, 89D3=, a pro&essional 1ho learns both &rom experience and about experience. 7ecomin" thou"ht&ul helps you in all the areas discussed in this text it helps in understandin" better ho1 studentsJ learnin" occurs, 1hat motivates students, ho1 you mi"ht di&&erentiate your instruction more &ully, and ho1 you can make assessments o& learnin" more valid and &air. Learnin" to re&lect on practice is so important, in &act, that 1e have re&erred to and illustrated its value throu"hout this book. %n addition 1e devote this entire chapter to ho1 you, like other pro&essional teachers, can develop habits o& re&lective practice in yoursel&. %n most o& this chapter 1e describe 1hat re&lective practice &eels like as an experience, and o&&er examples o& places, people, and activities that can support your o1n re&lection on practice. 5e &inish by discussin" ho1 teachers can also learn simply by observin" and re&lectin" on their o1n teachin" systematically, and by sharin" the results 1ith other teachers and pro&essionals. 5e call this activity teacher research or action research. As you 1ill see, re&lective practice not only contributes to teachersJ ability to make 1ise decisions, but also allo1s them to serve as e&&ective, principled advocates on behal& o& students. Educational Psychology
3A8
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ + The reflective practitioner
Types of resources for professional development and learning

At some level re&lection on practice is somethin" you must do &or yoursel&, since only you have had your particular teachin" experiences, and only you can choose ho1 to interpret and make use o& them. 7ut this rather individual activity also bene&its &rom the stimulus and challen"e o&&ered by &ello1 pro&essionals. CthersJ ideas may di&&er &rom your o1n, and they can there&ore help in 1orkin" out your o1n thou"hts and in alertin" you to ideas that you may other1ise take &or "ranted. These bene&its o& re&lection can happen in any number o& 1ays, but most &all into one o& &our "eneral cate"ories
talkin" and collaboratin" 1ith collea"ues participatin" in pro&essional associations attendin" pro&essional development 1orkshops and con&erences readin" pro&essional literature
%n the next sections 1e explore 1hat each o& these activities has to o&&er.
Collea"ues as a resource
,erhaps the simplest 1ay to stimulate re&lections about your o1n teachin" is to en"a"e &ello1 teachers or other collea"ues in dialo"ue <or thou"ht&ul conversation= about teachin" and learnin" 5hat do you think o& this kind o& experience? 6ave you ever had one like it yoursel&, and 1hat did you make o& it? Bote that to be help&ul in stimulatin" re&lection, these conversations need to be lar"ely about educational matters, not about personal ones <>5hat movie did you see last ni"ht?@=. *ialo"ues 1ith individual collea"ues have certain advanta"es to more complex or &ormal pro&essional experiences. Talkin" 1ith an individual "enerally allo1s more participation &or both o& you, since only t1o people may need to express their vie1s. %t also can provide a measure o& sa&ety or con&identiality i& your conversation partner is a trusted collea"ueI sometimes, there&ore, you can share ideas o& 1hich you are not sure, or that may be controversial. A some1hat more complex 1ay o& stimulatin" re&lection is "roup study. (everal teachers at a school "ather re"ularly to brin" themselves up to date on a ne1 curriculum, &or example, or to plan activities or policies related to a school$1ide theme <e.". >the environment@=. .roup meetin"s o&ten result in considerable dialo" amon" the members about the best 1ays to teach and to mana"e classrooms, as 1ell as stories about studentsJ behavior and learnin" experiences. For a be"innin" teacher, "roup study can be a particularly "ood 1ay to learn &rom experienced, veteran teachers. (harin" o& ideas becomes even more intense i& teachers collaborate 1ith each other about their 1ork on an extended basis. Collaboration can take many &ormsI in one &orm it mi"ht be >team teachin"@ by t1o or more teachers 1orkin" 1ith one "roup o& students, and in another &orm it mi"ht be t1o or more teachers consultin" re"ularly to coordinate the content o& their courses. Collaborations 1ork best 1hen each member o& the team brin"s responsibilities and expertise that are unique, but also related to the other membersJ responsibilities. %ma"ine, &or example, a collaboration bet1een (haron, 1ho is a middle$years classroom teacher, and ,at, 1ho is a resource teacherKone 1hose /ob is to assist classroom teachers in 1orkin" 1ith students 1ith educational disabilities or special needs. %& ,at spends time in (haronJs classroom, then not only 1ill the students bene&it, but they both may learn &rom each otherJs presence. ,otentially, ,at can learn the details o& the middle$years curriculum and learn 3A3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License more about the &ull ran"e o& studentsJ skillsKnot /ust those o& students havin" di&&iculties. (haron can "et ideas about ho1 to help individuals 1ho, in a classroom context, seem especially di&&icult to help. Achievin" these bene&its, o& course, comes at a cost the t1o teachers may need to take time not only &or the students, but also to talk 1ith each other. (ometimes the time$cost can be reduced some1hat i& their school administrators can arran"e &or a bit o& extra plannin" and sharin" time. 7ut even i& this does not happen, the bene&its o& collaboration 1ill be very real, and o&ten make the investment o& time 1orth1hile.
,ro&essional associations and pro&essional development activities

Another 1ay to stimulate re&lection about teachin" is by /oinin" and participatin" in pro&essional associationsK or"ani2ations &ocused on supportin" the 1ork o& teachers and on upholdin" hi"h standards o& teachin" practice. Table FA lists several ma/or pro&essional associations related to education and their %nternet addresses. )ost o& them are composed o& local branches or chapters servin" the needs o& a particular city, state, or re"ion. Table FA A selection o& pro&essional associations related to education
American Association &or the )entally -etarded <AA)-= X111.aamr.or"Y Association &or 6ealth, ,hysical #ducation, -ecreation, P *ance <AA6,#-*= X111.aahperd.or"Y Association &or #xperiential #ducation <A##= X111.princeton.eduUdrcurtisUaee.htmlY Association &or -etarded Citi2ens <A-C= X111.thearc.or"U1elcome.htmlY #BC Cnline -esources &or )ath and (cience #ducation X111.enc.or"Ustan.htmY Bational Association &or 7ilin"ual #ducation <BA7#= X111.nabe.or"UY Bational Association &or the #ducation o& Moun" Children <BA#MC= X111.naeyc.or"UY Bational Council &or Teachers o& )athematics <BCT)= XX111.nctm.or"UY Bational Council &or the (ocial (tudies <BC((= X111.socialstudies.or"UY Bational Council &or Teachers o& #n"lish <BCT#= X111.ncte.or"Y Bational (cience Teachers Association X111.nsta.or"UY Cr"ani2ation o& American 6istorians <CA6= X111.oah.or"Y
To achieve their purposes, a pro&essional association provides a mixture o& publications, meetin"s, and con&erences intended &or the pro&essional development o& educators, includin" classroom teachers. Typically the publications include either a relatively &requent ne1sletter or a less &requent /ournal &ocused on issues o& practice or research. Gery lar"e associations o&ten publish more than one ne1sletter or /ournal, each o& 1hich is &ocused on a particular topic or type o& ne1s <&or example, the Bational #ducation Association in the 4nited (tates publishes ei"ht separate periodicals=. (ome also publish online /ournals <there are several listed as part o& Table F: or online Educational Psychology
3A3
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ + The reflective practitioner versions o& print /ournals. 5hatever &ormat they take, pro&essionally sponsored publications stimulate thinkin" by discussin" issues and dilemmas &aced by pro&essional educators, and sometimes also by presentin" recent educational research and the recommendations &or teachin" that &lo1 &rom that research. 5e discuss 1ays o& usin" these publications &urther in the next section o& this chapter. Table F: A samplin" o& /ournals related to pro&essional education
Annotated 7iblio"raphy o& #ducation +ournals $ annotations o& over F3: education related /ournals and extensive links to educational or"ani2ations and institutions that sponsor them.
C(( +ournal $ Computers in the (ocial (tudies $ dedicated to the encoura"ement o& the use o& computers and related technolo"y in '$83 social studies classrooms.
#ducation ,olicy and Analysis $ published by the Colle"e o& #ducation at Ari2ona (tate 4niversity #ducational Theory $ publishes 1ork in the philosophy o& education and other disciplines. #&&ective Teachin" $ electronic /ournal devoted to the exchan"e o& ideas and in&ormation relevant to colle"e and university teachin" in Borth Carolina.
6arvard #ducational -evie1 $ quarterly /ournal that provides an inter$disciplinary &orum &or innovative thinkin" and research in education.
%nteract $ #uropean plat&orm &or interactive learnin" and ne1 media. +ournal o& Computin" in 6i"her #ducation $ publishes articles that contribute to our understandin" o& the issues, problems, and research associated 1ith instructional technolo"y
Be1 /our $ electronic /ournal and ne1sletter archive. -evista %beroamericana de #ducacion $ -evista de la C#%. (cholarly #lectronic +ournals $ Trends and Attitudes A -esearch ,roposal 5C-L*(,#A'#- online $ an international academic /ournal 1ritten by and &or international scholars, university administrators, and researchers.
)eetin"s and con&erences sponsored by a pro&essional association also take a variety o& &orms. *ependin" on the si2e o& the association and on the importance o& the topic, a meetin" could be as short as a one hal&$day 1orkshop or as lon" as a &ull 1eek 1ith many sessions occurrin" simultaneously. (ometimes, too, an association mi"ht sponsor a more extended courseKa series o& meetin"s &ocused on one topic or problem o& concern to teachers, such as classroom mana"ement or curriculum plannin". %n some cases, the course mi"ht carry university credit, thou"h not al1ays. As you mi"ht expect, the si2e o& a pro&essional association makes a di&&erence in kinds o& pro&essional development experiences it can provide. %n "eneral, the smaller the association, the more exclusively it &ocuses on local ne1s and educational needs, both in its publications and in its meetin"s or other activities. At a pro&essional development 1orkshop sponsored by a local teachersJ association, &or example, you are relatively likely to see collea"ues and acquaintances not only &rom your o1n school, but &rom other nei"hborin" schools. Locally 3AF
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License sponsored events are also more likely to &ocus on local issues, such as implementin" a ne1 system &or assessin" studentsJ learnin" 1ithin the local schools. %n "eneral, too, local events tend to cost less to attend, in both time and money. 7y the same token, the lar"er the association, the more its pro&essional development opportunities are likely to &ocus on lar"e$scale trends in education, such as the impact o& the 0o Child 2eft +ehind le"islation 1e discussed in Chapter 8 or the latest trends in usin" computer technolo"y &or teachin". Con&erences or other pro&essional development events are more likely to span several days and to be located outside the immediate to1n or re"ion 1hether you live and 1ork. Mou may there&ore see &e1er o& your everyday collea"ues and acquaintances, but you may also have a "reater incentive to make ne1 acquaintances 1hose interests or concerns are similar to your o1n. The event is more likely to &eature educators 1ho are 1ell$kno1n nationally or internationally, and to call attention to educational trends or issues that are ne1 or un&amiliar. 5hether lar"e or small, the activities o& pro&essional associations can stimulate thinkin" and re&lectin" about teachin". 7y meetin" and talkin" 1ith others at a meetin" o& an association, teachers learn ne1 ideas &or teachin", become a1are o& emer"in" trends and issues about education, and con&ront assumptions that they may have made about their o1n practices 1ith students. ,ro&essional meetin"s, con&erences, and 1orkshops can provide these bene&its because they dra1 on the expertise and experience o& a 1ide ran"e o& pro&essionalsKusually 1ider than is possible 1ithin a sin"le school buildin". 7ut compared simply to talkin" 1ith your immediate collea"ues, they have a distinct disadvanta"e they take e&&ort and a bit o& money to attend, and sometimes they are available at convenient times. 5ell$balanced pro&essional development should there&ore also include activities that are available &requently, but that also dra1 on a 1ide ran"e o& expertise. Fortunately, an activity 1ith these &eatures is o&ten easily at hand the readin" o& pro&essional publications about educational research and practice.
Reading and understanding professional articles

Althou"h publications about educational issues and research can take many &orms, they tend to serve three ma/or purposes in some sort o& combination. A publication could either <8= provide a &rame1ork &or understandin" teachin" and learnin", <3= o&&er advice about ho1 to teach, or <3= advocate particular ideas or practices about education. 7ene&itin" &rom a pro&essional publication depends partly on understandin" 1hich o& these purposes a particular article or book is emphasi2in".
Three purposes o& educational publications

Consider the &irst purpose, to provide a &rame1ork &or understandin" teachin" and learnin" <6ittleman and (imon, 300A=. A H&rame1orkH in this context means a perspective or "eneral vie1point &or understandin" speci&ic events and actions. They are much like the theories described earlier in this book, thou"h not al1ays as &ormal or broad. A published article mi"ht propose, &or example, a 1ay o& understandin" 1hy certain students are disrespect&ul in spite o& teachersJ e&&orts to prevent such behavior <perhaps they are rein&orced by peers &or bein" disrespect&ul=. %t mi"ht o&&er evidence supportin" this perspective. %n doin" so, the author provides a sort o& >theory o& disrespect&ul behavior@, thou"h he or she may not call it a theory explicitly. A second purpose is to o&&er advice about appropriate teachin" practices. An article intended &or this purpose, &or example, mi"ht su""est ho1 to introduce readin" instruction to &irst "raders, or ho1 to use &iction to teach hi"h school history, or ho1 to or"ani2e a class to include a student 1ith a disability. C&ten "ivin" such advice overlaps Educational Psychology
3AA
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ + The reflective practitioner 1ith the &irst purpose, providin" a &rame1ork &or understandin", since thinkin" about an educational issue in a particular 1ay may imply certain 1ays o& dealin" 1ith it in practice. A third purpose o& a published article is to advocate ideas and persuade others to take actions bene&itin" students and society. %t mi"ht take a position about important issues in education %s it a "ood idea or not to retain <or hold back= a student in "rade level &or another year i& the student &ails the curriculum the &irst time? (hould schools teach about sexuality? (hould "irls learn science in classrooms separate &rom boys? %n advocatin" &or ideas or policies about such matters, the article may express concern about 1hat is "ood, ethical or desirable in education, not /ust about 1hat is &actually true or practical. The author may seek explicitly to persuade readers o& the authorJs point o& vie1. These &eatures do not mean, ho1ever, that you need to "ive up thinkin" &or yoursel&. Cn the contrary, 1hen readin" an advocacy$oriented article, re&lection may be especially important. 5hatever its purposeKunderstandin", advice, or advocacyKan article or book about a pro&essional issue can stimulate thinkin" about 1hat you kno1 and believe about teachin" and learnin". %t should there&ore create, rather than undermine, your individuality as a teacher. Think o& pro&essional readin" as a dialo"ue or conversation about education some o& the comments in the conversation 1ill probably be more help&ul than others, but each participant contributes someho1, even i& none can "ive a &inal ans1er or everlastin" truth. %t is the same 1ith publicationsI some may be more help&ul than others, but none 1ill be so per&ect that you can a&&ord to cease &urther readin" or &urther thinkin". %& you are about to be"in a teachin" career, &or example, you may be especially interested in anythin" published about classroom mana"ement, but less interested in the problems o& administerin" schools or in the political issues that usually accompany educational systems. Met some publications may discuss these latter issues any1ay, and eventually you may &ind yoursel& more concerned about them than at the start o& a career. Mour /ob, as a re&lective teacher, 1ill be sort out the currently use&ul articles <or parts o& articles= &rom ones you cannot use immediately. To experience educational publications in this 1ay, ho1ever, you must think o& the authors as your collaborators as 1ell as "eneral authorities. As a reader, you need to assume that you are entitled to consider an authorJs ideas, but not obli"ated to accept it 1ithout /ournals related to pro&essional education question. There are several strate"ies &or developin" this attitude, but to keep the discussion &ocused, 1e 1ill look at /ust t1o. 5e have already discussed the &irst strate"y, 1hich is to understand the purposes o& any particular piece o& research 1hich you encounter, in order to assess its current use&ulness to your daily 1ork and your lon"$term pro&essional "oals. 5e have already indicated several "eneral purposes o& educational research publications, but 1e 1ill "o into more detail about this in the next section. The second strate"y &or relatin" to authors as collaborators is to think about ho1 you yoursel& mi"ht contribute to pro&essional kno1led"e by en"a"in" in research o& your o1n, even as a classroom teacherKan activity o&ten called action research <)ills, 300:I (trin"er, 300;=. At the end o& this chapter 1e discuss 1hat action research involves, and ho1 you mi"ht consider usin" it.
AuthorsJ assumptions about readers

Authors o& pro&essional articles and books also make assumptions about their readers, and it helps to be a1are o& these 1hile you read. The assumptions a&&ect the style, content, and si"ni&icance o& the authorJs ideas in 1ays that are both obvious and subtle.
3A:
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Cne assumption is about the response 1hich an author expects &rom you, the reader does he or she expect you actually to do somethin" ne1, or simply to consider doin" somethin" ne1? Cr does the author /ust 1ant you to be a1are o& a ne1 idea? Consider, &or example, an article revie1in" best practices about inclusion o& students 1ith special needs. The author may imply, or even ur"e you to take a moral position you should include these students, the author may seem to say. 7ut in a di&&erent articleKone recommendin" particular teachin" practicesKthe author may merely ask you to think about alternatives to your normal 1ays o& teachin". Certain strate"ies 1orked under certain teachin" conditions, the author says, so simply consider 1hether they mi"ht 1ork &or you as 1ell. A second, less obvious di&&erence amon" pro&essional publications is in their un$stated assumptions about prior experiences and attitudes o& readers. This assumption may be either help&ul or &rustratin", dependin" on you actual prior back"round. A piece intended as a >&rame1ork &or understandin"@ may assume, &or example, that you are &amiliar 1ith basic theories o& learnin" already. %& you have read and understood 1hat 1e outlined in Chapter 3 o& this book, the article may turn out to be relatively accessible or understandable to you even i& you have relatively little experience in actual classroom teachin", and even i& you have never studied learnin" theories in detail. The article mi"ht seem more accessible than you expect because, &or example, it &ocuses primarily on ho1 teacherEs praise a&&ects studentsE learnin", an idea 1ith 1hich you may be some1hat &amiliar already. Cn the other hand, a pro&essional publication may assume that you have tau"ht school &or a number o& years already, or that you are at least &amiliar 1ith classroom li&e &rom the point o& vie1 not o& students, but o& a teacher. An author 1ritin" about H1ithitnessH <discussed in Chapter ;=, &or example, may make this assumption, since the concept ori"inated by observin" teachers mana"in" lar"e "roup classroom activities. %& you yoursel& are experienced at actual teachin", readin" about 1ithitness may tri""er a lot o& questions about /ust ho1 1ithit teachers are able to be in practice, and about 1hether in &act they al1ays need to be 1ithit. Mou can also ask yoursel& these questions even i& you have not yet been a teacher yoursel&, o& course, but they may seem less immediate or ur"ent. A pro&essional article intended to advocate &or a particular educational policy or practice may make very di&&erent assumptions about you as a reader. %t may assume, &or example, that you do in &act en/oy persuadin" others o& your point o& vie1, even 1hen others initially disa"ree or react indi&&erently. This sort o& assumption may sho1 up as much in 1hat the 1ritin" omits, as in 1hat it includes i& the term cooperative learnin" activity is used 1ithout explanation, &or example, the researcher may be assumin" not only that you are the sort o& personK perhaps a teacherK1ho kno1s 1hat that term means already, but also that you already believe in the value o& cooperative learnin" and are motivated to explain its value to others. %n makin" these distinctions amon" published articles, keep in mind a point 1e made at the outset that an individual article usually serves more than one purpose at a time and makes more than one assumption about your prior kno1led"e and about ho1 you are supposed to respond to the article. The di&&erences are only about emphasis. To illustrate these ideas about the purposes and e&&ects o& research, look in the next section at three examples o& actual published articles relevant to education. The studies are not a &ull cross$section o& educational research or publications, but they do su""est some o& the variety possible <and necessary= amon" them. #ach example serves a mixture o& purposes, but also emphasi2es one purpose in particular <perspective$takin", teachin" recommendations, or advocacy= described earlier. The authors o& each example also make particular assumptions about you, the readerKabout the intellectual 1ork 1hich the authors expect you to do and about the motivations
3A;
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ + The reflective practitioner 1hich they assume you have or hope that you 1ill acquire. For each example, 1e describe the reactions o& one o& us <'elvin (ei&ert= as he read the article.
#xample O8 6o1 do children acquire moral commitments?

%n 899;, 6erbert (alt2stein and several collea"ues published a research$oriented article about ho1 children acquire moral belie&s <(alt2stein, et al., 899;=. The "roup o& researchers 1ere all "raduate students and pro&essors o& psycholo"y, 1orkin" mostly at the City 4niversity o& Be1 Mork. 5hen 'elvin read o& their a&&iliation 1ith psycholo"y, he suspected that they 1ould talk about moral belie&s in "eneral, and not necessarily about moral issues in classrooms, such as cheatin" or treatin" classmates 1ith care and respect. (till, the article interested 'elvin as a &ormer teacher and current university pro&essor, because he had lon" been concerned 1ith &osterin" qualities like inte"rity, honesty, cooperation, and loyalty in students. %& 'elvin could &ind out about the mechanism or process by 1hich children acquire mature moral belie&s, he reasoned, maybe he could modi&y his teachin" to take advanta"e o& that kno1led"e. (o 'elvin be"an readin" the article. 6e discovered some parts 1ere challen"in" and required care&ul re&lection, 1hereas others 1ere easier to read. Cne o& the most challen"in" passa"es came almost immediately, in the second and third para"raphsI these para"raphs, it seemed, required a bit o& prior kno1led"e about theories o& moral development. 7ut 'elvin 1as 1illin" to concentrate more &ully on these para"raphs, because he expected that they mi"ht clari&y the rest o& the study. 6ere are the para"raphs, and some o& 'elvinJs thou"hts as he read them %nitial problem 5e be"an by re$examinin" the phenomenon o& heteronomy, ,ia"etEs assertion <8933U89:A= &ollo1in" 'ant <8;DAU89A9= that youn" children equate moral obli"ation 1ith de&erence to authority 1hen /usti&yin" their moral /ud"ments. The concept is important because it is central to the or"anismic account o& moral development as a series o& di&&erentiations and inte"rations.... Xp. 3;Y This 1as one o& the di&&icult para"raphs, perhaps especially because 'elvin had never read the speci&ic book by ,ia"et or by the philosopher 'ant. 7ut 'elvin did recall readin", at various times over the years, a%out ,ia"etEs vie1s on moral development. ,ia"et believed that at &irst, children de&ine morality in terms o& 1hat adults think an action is H"oodH i& and only i& adults <e.". parents= consider it "ood, and HbadH i& and only i& adults consider it bad. This is the idea o& HheteronomyH to 1hich (alt2stein is re&errin". Children, in this vie1, take quite a1hile to develop or H"ro1H into truly autonomous moral belie&s. Autonomous belie&s &orm slo1ly out o& earlier belie&s, in the 1ay that a youn" plant or animal mi"ht "ro1. This is the Hor"anismic account o& moral developmentH that (alt2stein is talkin" about.
...This account has been challen"ed by TurielEs domain theory <Turiel, 89D3=. Accordin" to Turiel and his collea"ues, even youn" children intuitively distin"uish moral &rom conventional rules. Xp. 3;Y
6ere 1as an idea that 1as intri"uin"L (alt2stein and his collea"ues 1ere pointin" to research <by the person cited, named Turiel= that su""ests that even preschoolers kno1 the di&&erence bet1een truly moral 3AD
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License rules and merely conventional rules. Apparently they believe, &or example, that it 1ould be 1ron" to steal toys or to hit someone, even i& adults "ave you permission to do so. 7ut apparently they also kno1 that it 1ould be C' &or tra&&ic li"hts to use di&&erent colorsK&or red to mean H"oH and "reen to mean HstopHKprovided that everyone a"reed on chan"in" the rule. That is 1hat the researcher named Turiel apparently meant by distin"uishin" convention &rom morality.
The introduction continued in this challen"in" style &or about t1o pa"es, requirin" 'elvin to read slo1ly and care&ully in order to understand its points. 'elvin 1as not discoura"ed &rom continuin", thou"h, because he 1anted to &ind out more about ho1, in "eneral, children acquire moral belie&s. *id moral belie&s take time to developKdid they H"ro1H on children slo1ly a&ter initially bein" borro1ed &rom parents or other adults? %n this case, then maybe 'elvin o1ed it to his students to adopt and express desirable moral attitudes mysel&, so as to provide a "ood model &or their developin" belie&s. Cr 1ere studentsJ key moral belie&s already in place 1hen they entered schoolKalmost as i& Hhard 1iredH in their minds, or at least already learned durin" in&ancy and the preschool years? %n this second case, it mi"ht still be desirable &or 'elvin to adopt positive moral attitudes, but not &or the purpose o& modelin" them &or students. (tudents already >hard 1ired@ &or key moral belie&s mi"ht not need a model so much as an en&orcer o& desirable moral behaviors. Concernin" the issue o& cheatin", &or example, the students mi"ht already understand the undesirable nature and implications o& this behavior. As a result they mi"ht not need demonstrations o& honest inte"rity &rom their teacher as much as a&&irmations &rom the teacher o& the importance o& honesty and inte"rity, alon" 1ith consistent en&orcement o& appropriate sanctions a"ainst cheatin" 1hen it did occur. For 'elvin, there&ore, the outcomes o& research on moral developmentKincludin" (alt2steinEs that he 1as currently readin"Kposed issues o& classroom mana"ement, both in university classrooms and in public school classrooms. (o 'elvin read on. (alt2stein proposed resolvin" the issues about the ori"ins o& moral development by distin"uishin" bet1een moral con&licts and moral dilemmas )oral con&licts are con&licts bet1een moral duty or ri"ht and a non$moral desire. An example mi"ht be the con&lict bet1een 1hether to return a 1allet to its ri"ht&ul o1ner or keep the coveted 1allet 1ith its extra cash. %n contrast, moral dilemmas are con&licts involvin" t1o moral ri"hts or duties. For example, Xa person mi"ht &eel a dilemma bet1eenY 1hether to steal a dru" to save a spouseEs li&e. Xp. 3DY The distinction bet1een con&licts and dilemmas looked promisin" to 'elvin. )oral con&licts looked &airly simple in co"nitive terms, even i& they 1ere sometimes di&&icult emotionally. The Hri"htH action 1as obvious. )oral dilemmas 1ere more complex co"nitively as 1ell as emotionally, because t1o H"oodsH 1ere bein" 1ei"hed a"ainst each other. The moral alternatives mi"ht both be ri"ht and 1ron" at the same time, and their relative Hri"htnessH mi"ht not be immediately obvious.
3A9
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ + The reflective practitioner (alt2stein and his collea"ues proposed that 1hen youn" children sho1 a1areness o& moral rules, they may be doin" so in the simpler context o& moral con&licts. A youn" child mi"ht believe that you should return a dollar to its o1ner, even i& the child has trouble in practice overcomin" a sel&ish impulse to keep the dollar. The same child mi"ht have trouble decidin", ho1ever, 1hether it is Hri"htH to in&orm his teacher i& a best &riend has cheated on a test. %n that case t1o moral principles compete &or attentionKhonesty and loyalty to a &riend. To sort out the implications o& choosin" bet1een these principles, a youn" child mi"ht need to rely on older, 1iser minds, such as parents or other adults. The minute that he or she does so, the child is sho1in" the moral heteronomy that ,ia"et used to 1rite about and that (alt2stein re&erred to early in the article. 4nderstandin" these ideas took e&&ort, but once 'elvin be"an &i"urin" them out, the rest o& the article 1as easier to &ollo1. %n readin" the remainin" pa"es, he noted in passin" that the researchers used several techniques common in educational research. For example, they intervie1ed participants, a common 1ay o& "atherin" systematic in&ormation about individualsE thinkin". They also imposed controls on their procedures and on the selection o& participants. ,rocedures 1ere controlled, &or example, by posin" the same three moral dilemmas and to all participants, so that individualsE responses could be compared meanin"&ully. The selection o& participants 1as controlled by selectin" t1o a"e "roups &or deliberate comparison 1ith each otherKone that 1as seven years old and the other that 1as eleven. (ince the researchers 1anted to "enerali2e about moral development as much as possible, but they obviously could not intervie1 every child in the 1orld, they sampled participants they selected a mana"eable number <sixty$&ive, to be exact= &rom the lar"er student population o& one particular school. %n a second part o& the investi"ation, they also selected a comparable number o& children o& the same t1o a"es <; and 88= &rom the city o& -eci&e, located in 7ra2il. The 7ra2ilian "roupEs responses 1ere compared deliberately 1ith the American "roupEs responses, in order to allo1 &or the impact o& cultural belie&s on moral development in "eneral. 'elvin reco"ni2ed this research strate"y as an example o& usin" control "roups. %n research terms, the 7ra2ilian "roup Hcontrolled &orH the impact o& American culture on childrenEs moral belie&s, and vice versa, the American "roup controlled &or the impact o& 7ra2ilian culture on childrenEs moral belie&s. Alto"ether, these techniques helped insure that the intervie1s o& childrenEs moral belie&s really illustrated 1hat they 1ere supposed to illustrateKthat they 1ere reliable and valid, in the senses that 1e discussed in earlier chapters. As 'elvin noticed (alt2steinEs attention to "ood research techniques, he "ained con&idence in (alt2steinJs observations and in the interpretations that the authors made &rom them. 5hat did (alt2stein and his collea"ues &ind outKor more to the point, 1hat did 'elvin (ei&ert learn &rom 1hat (alt2stein and his collea"ues 1rote about? There 1ere three ideas that occurred to 'elvin. Cne 1as that in everyday li&e, children probably deal 1ith moral belie&s o& all levels o& co"nitive complexity, and not /ust HsimpleH moral con&licts and HcomplexH moral dilemmas. (alt2stein &ound that childrenEs solutions to moral dilemmas depended a lot on the content o& the dilemma. Children advocated stron"ly &or truth&ulness in some situations <&or example, in decidin" 1hether to tell the teacher about a &riendEs cheatin"=, but not in other situations <like in decidin" 1hether to back up a &riend 1ho is bein" teased and 1ho has lied in an e&&ort to stop the teasin"=. 7ut it 1as rare &or all children to support any one moral principle completelyI they usually supported a mix. Another idea that 'elvin learned &rom (alt2steinEs research 1as about ho1 children expressed moral heteronomy versus moral autonomy. A"e, it seemed, did not a&&ect the belie&s that children statedI youn"er and older children took similar positions on all dilemmas initially. 7ut a"e did a&&ect ho1 stead&astly children held to 3:0
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License initial belie&s. Moun"er children 1ere more easily in&luenced to s1itch opinions 1hen an adult Hcross$examinedH 1ith probin" questionsI older children 1ere more likely to keep to their initial position. )oral heteronomy 1as revealed not by a childEs vie1s as such, but by the kind o& dialo"ue a child has 1ith adults. A third idea that 'elvin learned 1as about childrenEs perceptions o& adultsE moral belie&s. (alt2stein &ound that even thou"h older children <the 88$year$olds= sho1ed more moral autonomy <1ere more stead&ast= than youn"er children, they tended to believe that adults thou"ht about moral issues in 1ays similar to children 1ho 1ere youn"er. %n the Hteasin"H dilemma mentioned above, &or example, the 88$year$olds opted much more o&ten than ;$ year$olds &or remainin" loyal to a &riend, even thou"h doin" so meant &urther untruth&ulness 1ith peers. Met the 88$ year$olds also more o&ten stated a belie& that adults 1ould resolve the same dilemma in a 1ay characteristic o& ;$ year$oldsKthat is, by tellin" the truth to peers and thus betrayin" loyalty to a &riend. This &indin" pu22led 'elvin. 5hy should older, and presumably more insi"ht&ul, children think that adults are more like youn"er children than like themselves? (alt2stein su""ested an interpretation, ho1ever, that helped him make sense o& the apparent inconsistency ...Consistent 1ith our past research, children attributed the kinds o& moral choices made by youn"er children to adults. %n our vie1, this &indin" tends to support a constructivist rather than a Xsocial modelin"Y vie1 o& morality, 1hich 1ould predict that the childEs /ud"ments mirror <or develop to1ard= their representation o& adult /ud"ments. Xp. F8Y %n other 1ords, thou"ht 'elvin, i& children learned moral belie&s by imitatin" <or modelin" themselves a&ter= parents or other adults, then they ou"ht to see themselves as resemblin" adults more and more as they "et older. %nstead, they see themselves as resemblin" adults less, at least durin" middle childhood. This 1ould happen only i& they 1ere preoccupied 1ith Hconstructin"H their o1n belie&s on the basis o& their experiences, and there&ore &ailed to notice that adults mi"ht also have constructed belie&s similar to their o1n.
Relevance" a frame or# for understanding moral develo*ment

The article by (alt2stein o&&ered a 1ay to understand ho1 children develop moral belie&s, and especially to understand the chan"e &rom moral heteronomy to moral autonomy. 7y imposin" controls on the procedures <uni&orm intervie1s= and on the selection o& participants <particular a"es, particular societies or cultures=, the researchers eliminated certain sources o& ambi"uity or variability in childrenEs responses. 7y &ramin" their pro/ect in terms o& previous theories o& moral development <,ia"etJs, TurielJs=, &urthermore, they made it easier to interpret their ne1 results in the "eneral terms o& these theories as 1ell. %n these 1ays the investi"ation aspired to provide a "eneral perspective about childrenEs moral development. ,rovidin" a &rame1ork &or understandin", you recall, is one o& the ma/or purposes o& many pro&essional publications. 7ut note that the authors paid a price &or emphasi2in" this purpose. 7y or"ani2in" their 1ork around existin" "eneral theory and research, they had to assume that readers already had some kno1led"e o& that theory and research. This is not an unreasonable assumption i& the readers are expected to be &ello1 researchersI a&ter all, many o& them make a livin" by Hkno1in" the literatureH o& psycholo"y. 7ut assumin" such kno1led"e can be an obstacle i& the authors intend to communicate 1ith non$psycholo"ists in that case, either the authors must make
3:8
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ + The reflective practitioner more o& an e&&ort to explain the relevant back"round research, or readers must educate themselves about the research. The latter activity is not necessarily di&&icult <the back"round kno1led"e &or (alt2steinEs 1ork, &or example, took me only a &e1 para"raphs to explain in 1ritin"=, but it must be done to make &ull sense o& research that tries to provide a universal &rame1ork o& psycholo"ical kno1led"e.
The readerLs role" interested o%server of children

%n conductin" and reportin" their research, (alt2stein and his collea"ues 1ere not presentin" themselves as school teachers, nor 1ere they expectin" readers necessarily to respond as teachers. As they put it in the &irst para"raph o& the article, they sou"ht to o&&er Ha more contextuali2ed perspective &or understandin" the development o& moral /ud"mentsH Xp. 3;Y. 4nlike most teachers, they seemed indi&&erent to recommendin" ho1 childrenEs moral /ud"ements ou"ht to be &ostered. Cbservation o& children 1as their purpose, not intervention. The meanin" o& the term Hcontextuali2ed perspectiveH 1as not obvious to 'elvin 1hen he &irst read it, but eventually it became clearer they 1ere talkin" about the importance o& distin"uishin" amon" types o& moral decisions and moral belie&s. They did sometimes note in&ormation relevant to teachin"K&or example, they pointed out that &or cultural reasons, teachers in 7ra2il do not command hi"h respect and there&ore compared to American children, 7ra2ilian children may &eel less compelled to tell the truth to their teachers. 7ut this comment 1as not the primary &ocus o& their research, nor did the authors discuss 1hat <i& anythin"= it mi"ht imply about teachin" in the 4nited (tates. Met the non$teachin" perspective o& the article did not keep 'elvin, a lon"$time school teacher and current university teacher, &rom re&lectin" on the article in terms o& its educational relevance. As 1e mentioned already, 'elvin 1as attracted to the article because o& his o1n concerns about character development in studentsKho1 do they acquire moral belie&s and commitments, and ho1 should he help them in doin" so? 'elvin did not really expect to &ind an ans1er to the second o& these questions, "iven the HobservationH orientation o& the authors. 6e did hope to &ind an ans1er to the &irst, althou"h even here he also expected that to make allo1ances &or the &act that research intervie1s are not usually identical to classroom situations. Children mi"ht respond di&&erently 1hen intervie1ed individually by a researcher, compared to ho1 they mi"ht respond to a teacher in class. Cr perhaps not. (o in re&lectin" on the article, 'elvin had to note the context and purposes o& (alt2steinEs study, and to remind himsel& that once a teacher 1ent beyond simply observin" children to intervenin" on their behal&, the teacher mi"ht be led to di&&erent conclusions about childrenJs moral development. 7ut in spite o& these cautionsKor maybe because o& themK'elvin &ound much &ood &or thou"ht in the article related to teachin".
#xample O3 Learnin" disability as a misleadin" label

%n 300:, -ay )c*ermott, (helley .oldman, and 6ervV Garenne published an article that discussed the use o& disability cate"ories in education. The article attracted 'elvinJs attention because he had been concerned &or a lon" time about the ambi"uities o& disability cate"ories <see Chapter A o& this book= as 1ell as about their potential &or sti"mati2in" individuals. 6e expected the article to document additional problems 1ith labelin" 1hen a student is &rom a non$1hite ethnic "roup. 'elvinJs expectation 1as &ul&illed partially, but he 1as surprised also to encounter an additional and tou"her messa"e in the article. 6ere is ho1 the study be"an (ince about 8DA0_classi&yin" human bein"s by mental ability, accurately or not, has been a politically 'elvin had a mixed reaction to this openin". %n one 1ay it seemed to say somethin" &amiliarKthat
3:3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License re1arded activity. Those 1ith po1er have placed others, classi&ication systems <such as cate"ories &or usually the do1ntrodden, into ability and disposition "roups that they cannot escape_ ,eople 1ho live to"ether in a culture must stru""le constantly 1ith the constraints_o& systems o& classi&ication and interpretation used in the culture. disabilities= may create problems &or individuals. 7ut the tone o& the para"raph sounded more severely critical than 'elvin had expected it 1as sayin" that po1er "overned all classi&ications, implyin" that misclassi&ications may be 1idespread or even universal.
'elvinJs initial hunch 1as there&ore that the article 1ould express a radically critical vie1 o& disability classi&icationsKparticularly as they a&&ect the >do1ntrodden@, 1hich presumably included children &rom minority ethnic "roups. 6is expectation proved correct as the authors explained their point o& vie1, 1hich they called a cultural a**roach to understandin" disability. 4sin" learnin" disabilities <L*= as an example, here is ho1 they explained their position 5e are not as interested in L* behavior as in the preoccupationsKas seen &rom the level o& classroom or"ani2ationKo& all those adults 1ho are pro&essionally poised to discover L* behavior. 5e are less interested in the characteristics o& L* children than in the cultural arran"ements that make an L* label relevant. At this point 'elvin 1as not sure i& he 1anted to continue readin" the article because it seemed like it mi"ht not be relevant to classroom li&e speci&ically. %t also implied a severe criticism o& pro&essional educators Kimplied that they are too ea"er to &ind examples o& L* and &or this reason may misclassi&y students. Cn the other hand, 'elvin 1as already a1are that L* are an especially ambi"uous cate"ory o& disabilityI maybe the article 1ould help to sho1 1hy. (o he kept readin".
The authors continued by outlinin" the history o& L* as a cate"ory o& disability, describin" this cate"ory as an out"ro1th o& the "eneral intelli"ence testin" movement durin" the t1entieth century. 7y the 89;0s, they ar"ued, the concept o& L* o&&ered a 1ay to classi&y children 1ith academic di&&iculties 1ithout havin" to call the children mentally disabled. 7ecause o& this &act, the L* cate"ory 1as neededKliterallyKby 1ell$o&& parents 1ho did not 1ant their children treated or educated as children 1ith mental disabilities. L* as a concept and cate"ory came to be applied primarily to children &rom the 1hite middle$class, and mental disability became, by de&ault, the equivalent cate"ory &or the non$1hite and poor. To support this assertion, the authors reported a classroom observation o& three non$1hite boysK6ector, -icardo, and 7oomerK1hile they 1orked to"ether to desi"n an ima"inary research station in Antarctica. Citin" actual transcripts o& conversation 1hile the boys 1orked, the authors concluded that all three boys sho1ed intelli"ence and insi"ht about the assi"nment, but that the teacher 1as only a1are o& the contributions o& one o& the boys. 6ector systematically hid his kno1led"e &rom the teacherJs vie1 by "ettin" 7oomer to speak &or their "roupI -icardo participated 1ell in the "roup 1ork but 1as rarely ackno1led"ed by the other t1o boys. 7oomer received considerable praise &rom the teacher, thanks to his speakin" &or the "roup. Met the teacher 1as never a1are o& these subtleties. The authors blamed her oversi"ht not on the teacher hersel&, but on an educational and cultural system that leads educators to classi&y or typi&y students too quickly or easily. 6ere is ho1 they put it Educational Psychology
3:3
A .lobal Text
The American classroom is 1ell or"ani2ed &or the production o& display o& &ailure, one child at a time i& possible, but "roup by "roup i& necessary_#ven i& the teacher mana"es to treat every child as capable, the children can hammer each other into ne"ative statusI and even i& both_resist droppin" everyone into prede&ined cate"ories, the childrenJs parents can take over, demandin" more and more boxes 1ith 1hich to speci&y kinds o& kids doin" better than other kinds o& kids. %n such a classroom, i& there 1ere no L* cate"ories, someone 1ould have to invent them.
5hen 'elvin read this conclusion, he did not really disa"ree, but he did &eel that it 1as beside the point &or most teachers. )aybe children do "et classi&ied too easily, he thou"ht, but a teacherJs /ob is not /ust to lament this possibility, as the authors seemed to be doin". %nstead their /ob is to help the real, live children &or 1hom they have daily responsibility. 5hat teachers need are there&ore su""estions to avoid misclassi&yin" students by overlookin" key in&ormation about them. 'elvin 1ished, at the end, that the authors had made some o& these su""estions.
Relevance" a critical frame or#

%n this study the authors o&&ered a sort o& backhanded &rame1ork o& thinkin" about cate"ories o& disabilityI or more precisely they o&&ered a &rame1ork &or understandin" 1hat the cate"ories are not. %n essence they said that disability cate"ories describe qualities >in@ students only in the sense that educators and others happen to think o& disability cate"ories in this 1ay. An equally reasonable 1ay to think about disabilities, they ar"ued, is that modern society is or"ani2ed so that its citi2ens have to be classi&ied &or many di&&erent reasons. #ducators are simply helpin" to implement this society$1ide expectation. A &requent result in classrooms is that teachers classi&y students too easily and that key evidence o& studentsJ capacity is overlooked. %n makin" this ar"ument, the authors implied an indirect recommendation about ho1 to teach, thou"h the recommendation actually &ocused on 1hat teachers should not do. %nstead o& <mis=identi&yin" children 1ith learnin" di&&iculties, the authors implied, teachers and other educators should stop concernin" themselves 1ith classi&yin" children, and seek to reor"ani2e classrooms and schools so that classi&ication is less important. >Chan"e the school@, they 1rote, >and L* becomes less relevant@. This conclusion may be an important reminder, but it is not especially help&ul as a recommendation to practicin" teachers, 1ho usually need to kno1 about more than 1hat to avoid.
The readers( role" concerned advocate for social $ustice

%t is not surprisin" that the article lacked concrete recommendations &or teachin", "iven that the authors seemed to speak to readers not as classroom teachers, but as "eneral critics o& society 1ho are concerned about &airness or social /ustice. Their comments made t1o assumptions &irst, that readers 1ill 1ant to minimi2e un&air stereotypes o& students, and second, that readers 1ill seek "reater &airness in ho1 teachers treat students. For readers 1ho happen to be teachers themselves, the &irst o& these assumptions is a reasonable oneI most o& us 1ould indeed like to minimi2e un&air stereotypin" o& students. The second is also reasonable, but perhaps not in a 1ay that the authors intended. Teachers probably do try their best to treat students &airly and respect&ully. Their responsibilities usually mean, ho1ever, that they can only do this conveniently 1ith their o1n studentsI the time available to 1ork to1ard
3:F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License "eneral social /ustice is o&ten limited. <As you mi"ht suspect, 'elvin 1as not &ully satis&ied a&ter he &inished readin" this articleL=
#xample O3 The impact o& bilin"ualism on readin"

%n 899A, three education pro&essorsK-obert +imVne2, .eor"ia .arcea, and *avid ,earsonKpublished a study about the impact o& bilin"ualism on childrenEs ability to read #n"lish <899A=. The three speciali2ed in curriculum studies, literacy acquisition, and bilin"ual lan"ua"e development, and 1ere there&ore motivated by a concern &or the academic success o& bilin"ual children and especially by concern &or identi&yin" 1hy bilin"ual children sometimes have di&&iculty learnin" to read #n"lish. Too much research on bilin"ualism, they ar"ued, 1as based on 1hat they called a Hde&icitH &rame1ork it &ocused on 1hat bilin"ual children lacked compared to monolin"uals. They sou"ht an alternative &rame1ork, one &ocused on bilin"ual studentsE competence, and especially on their competence to read a second lan"ua"e. To search &or this alternative, the researchers mounted a lar"e research pro"ram, and the article published in 899A 1as one o& the studies resultin" &rom this research. %t cau"ht 'elvinJs interest not only because o& its topic, but because o& its approach. %nstead o& surveyin" do2ens o& students 1ith a questionnaire, as researchers sometimes do, these investi"ators relied on /ust three students studied intensively. #ach student became a case study and included detailed, len"thy observations and intervie1s o& that particular student. #ach student 1as chosen deliberately &or a particular purpose. Cne 1as a hi"hly pro&icient reader 1ho 1as also bilin"ual <(panish and #n"lish=I a second 1as a mar"inally pro&icient reader 1ho 1as bilin"ual <(panish and #n"lish=I and a third 1as a hi"hly pro&icient reader 1ho 1as monolin"ual in #n"lish. To quali&y &or the study, &urthermore, each student had to be com&ortable re&lectin" on and talkin" about their o1n readin" processes, so that the authors could intervie1 them at len"th on this topic. The researchers asked each student to read six one$pa"e passa"es in #n"lish and <1here relevant= in (panish. They invited all three to think aloud about their readin" as they 1ent alon", commentin" on ho1 they &i"ured out particular 1ords or passa"es. The oral readin"s and think$aloud commentaries 1ere taped and transcribed, and became the in&ormation on 1hich the authors based their conclusions and recommendations. 4sin" these procedures, +imVne2, .arcea, and ,earson discovered important di&&erences amon" the three "irls. The pro&icient bilin"ual, ,amela, used her "ro1in" kno1led"e o& each lan"ua"e to help in learnin" vocabulary &rom the other lan"ua"e. 5hen she encountered the #n"lish 1ord >species@ , &or example, she "uessed correctly that it meant the same as the similar (panish 1ord >especies@I and 1hen she encountered the (panish >liquedo@, she "uessed correctly that it meant the #n"lish >liquid@. 6er &ocus on learnin" vocabulary 1as stron"er than &or the pro&icient monolin"ual, )ichelle, 1ho commented less on speci&ic 1ords than ho1 the overall readin" passa"es related to her prior "eneral kno1led"e. The di&&erence presumably stemmed &rom )ichelleEs "reater &amiliarity 1ith #n"lish vocabularyKso much "reater, in &act, that )ichelle did not need to think about individual 1ords deliberately. 7oth )ichelle and ,amela di&&ered, ho1ever, &rom the less$pro&icient bilin"ual reader, Christine. Like ,amela, Christine &ocused on vocabulary, but she did not think o& her native (panish as a resource &or this task. 5hen readin" a (panish 1ord, she 1as sometimes reminded o& #n"lish equivalents <Hco"nates,H as lan"ua"e teachers call them=, but she did not use her much "reater kno1led"e o& (panish to assist 1ith her more limited #n"lish. (he did not search &or equivalent 1ords deliberately, as ,amela did.
3:A
A .lobal Text
Relevance" recommendations for teaching english as an additional language

The authors o& this article &ocused more directly on particular learnin" behaviors than did the authors o& the t1o articles described earlier. +imene2 and his collea"ues emphasi2ed the importance o& re"ardin" a childEs native lan"ua"e as a stren"th in the process, not a liability, and they then pointed out the importance o& &acilitatin" vocabulary development. 7ut they did not claim this recommendation to be appropriate &or all children or &or all &orms o& bilin"ualism. They only &ocused on a particular pair o& lan"ua"es <(panish and #n"lish in the 4(A=, and on three combinations o& skill level in these t1o lan"ua"es. These are common bilin"ual experiences in the 4nited (tates, but they are not the only ones, either in the 4nited (tates or else1here in the 1orld. For other bilin"ual situations, their conclusions mi"ht not hold true. For some students <e.". Chinese$ Americans=, the native lan"ua"e and the second lan"ua"e are much more di&&erent in vocabulary, pronunciation, and "rammar than (panish is to #n"lish, and there&ore may provide less o& a resource to a child learnin" to read. %n some settin"s, relationships bet1een lan"ua"es are more equal than in the 4nited (tates. %n Canada, &or example, both the numbers and the overall social status o& #n"lish speakers and French speakers are more equal than in the 4nited (tates. %n both o& these situations, i& a child &ails to learn to read the second lan"ua"e, it may not be &or the reasons su""ested by -obert +imVne2, but &or other reasons, ran"in" &rom di&&iculties 1ith readin" per se to cultural di&&erences in ho1 a child expects to be tau"ht <+ohnson, 300F=.
The readerLs role" %oth teacher and researcher

%n the published article describin" their research, +imVne2, .arcea, and ,earson assumed that readers have some &amiliarity 1ith bilin"ual students and 1ith issues related to teachin" readin". They be"an their article by describin" previous research studies in these areasKmore than a do2en o& them, in &act. %n the middle they described numerous responses o& the three bilin"ual students to the passa"es they 1ere asked to read. At the end o& the article they made speci&ic su""estions &or teachin", such as H&ocus more on vocabulary developmentH. 5hen 'elvin read these various sections, he &ound that his prior kno1led"e o& and re&lections about teachin" helped to make sense o& them. 7ut he also &ound that did not need to be an expert in bilin"ualism order to understand the authorsE messa"esKhe had never, in &act, tau"ht #n"lish as a (econd Lan"ua"e, nor had he ever conducted research on readin" or bilin"ual lan"ua"e development.
ction research) hearing from teachers about improving practice

#ach o& the pro&essional articles /ust described o&&ers ideas and recommendations that can stimulate re&lection about teachin" and learnin". 7ut they all su&&er &rom a particular limitation Althou"h they o&ten relate to teachers and classrooms, teachersJ role in in&luencin" in desi"nin" and interpretin" a study is minimal. %n the 1orld o& educational research, persons other than teachersKtypically pro&essors, educational administrators, or other pro&essional researchersKtend to speak on behal& o& teachers. All three o& the articles described earlier in this chapter had this &eature. ,ersons other than teachers chose the research topics. The in&ormation that emer"es &rom this arran"ement o&ten still relates to teachin" and learnin", and may contain use&ul insi"hts &or classroom 1ork. 7ut by de&inition, it is &ramed by people 1hose interests and &undamental commitments may not be identical 1ith classroom teachers. As a result, the studies are some1hat more likely to attend to problems posed by academic disciplines or by educational administrators. T1o o& the studies 1hich 1e described earlierKthe ones about moral development and about labels &or disabilitiesKsho1ed
3::
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License this quality. Classroom teachers are concerned, o& course, about both moral development and cate"ori2in" o& students. 7ut i& teachers had desi"ned the t1o pro/ects themselves, they mi"ht have re$&ramed both o& them to &ocus more explicitly on the challen"es o& classroom teachin". %n studyin" moral belie&s, &or example, teachers mi"ht have &ocused more squarely on ho1 to &oster moral belie&s in their students. %n studyin" inclusive education, they mi"ht have &ocused more &ully on the practical di&&iculties &aced by teachers in assessin" studentsJ learnin" disabilities 1ith validity.
The nature o& action research

%n vie1 o& these issues, a particularly important kind o& investi"ation &or teachers is action research <sometimes also teacher research=, an activity re&errin" to systematic, intentional inquiry by teachers &or the purpose o& improvin" their o1n practice <(tenhouse, 89DAI 7rydon$)iller, .reen1ood, P )a"uire, 3003I -ussell, T. P Lou"hran, +. 300A=. Action research is not to be con&used 1ith research about teachin" and learnin", 1hich are investi"ations by pro&essional researchers on topics o& teachers, teachin", or learnin". Action research has several de&inin" characteristics, in addition to bein" planned and conducted by teachers. First, it ori"inates in the problems and dilemmas o& classroom practice, or in chronic problems 1ith certain students, materials, or activities. (econd, its outcomes o&&er in&ormation &ocused on particular teachers and classrooms, rather than about teachers in "eneral or students in "eneral. Althou"h this &eature mi"ht make action research seem less use&ul as a source o& advice or kno1led"e that is truly "eneral, supporters ar"ue that &ocusin" on speci&ic learnin" contexts makes action research more credible or valid as a source o& practical in&ormation and ideas. %t is, they ar"ue, simply more attuned to the context o& real classrooms <(t. Clair, 300A=. Third, 1hile the audience &or action research can certainly include pro&essors and educational administrators, the audience tends to be other teachers <Fenstermacher, 899FI Ackerman P )ac'en2ie, 300;=. Action research is there&ore in an especially stron" position to provide HinsiderH perspectives on educational problems.
Action research in practice

Action research makes a number o& assumptions as a result o& its nature and purposes <-ichardson, 899FI (chmuck, 300:=. To varyin" de"rees, most such studies support some combination o& these ideas
that teachin" is itsel& really a &orm o& research that action research, like teachin" itsel&, requires substantial re&lection that collaboration amon" teachers is crucial &or makin" teacher research meanin"&ul, and &or the
improvement o& teachin"

that teachersE kno1led"e o& teachin" has to be shared publicly, especially 1hen "ained systematically
throu"h action research To see ho1 these &eatures look in practice, look at several examples o& action research studies.
#xample O8 Focusin" on motivatin" students

A number o& years a"o, ,atricia Cli&&ord and (haron Friesen published an account o& their e&&ort to develop a classroom pro"ram based on studentsE out$o&$school interests and experiences <8993=. Cli&&ord and Friesen 1ere co$teachers in a double$si2ed classroom 1hich deliberately included children &rom &irst, second and
3:;
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ + The reflective practitioner third "rades. Their interest in studentsJ out$o&$school experiences "re1 out o& three more basic questions about teachin", 1hich they phrased like this
6o1 can curriculum remain open to childrenEs unique experiences and connect 1ith the 1orld they kno1
outside the school? Too o&ten, the o&&icial school curriculum lacked meanin" &or children because it seemed cut o&& &rom the rest o& the 1orld. The result 1as unmotivated students and poor learnin".
5hy is ima"inative experience the best startin" place &or plannin"? The teachers &elt that ima"inative
experiencesKmake$believe play, stories, poemsKprovided access to childrenEs lives outside schoolKtheir make$believe play, or their stories or poems. ,erhaps someho1 these could be connected to the "oals o& the o&&icial curriculum.
5hat happens 1hen teachers break do1n the barriers bet1een school kno1led"e and real kno1led"e? %n
dra1in" on childrenEs outside experiences, 1ould children actually become more motivated or not? 5ould they take over the pro"ram, and &ail to learn the o&&icial curriculum "oals? To ans1er these questions, the teachers kept extensive diaries or /ournals &or one entire school year. These became the >data@ &or the research. %n the /ournals, they described and re&lected on their daily teachin" experiences. The teachers also talked 1ith each other extensively about classroom events and their si"ni&icance, and the results o& the conversations o&ten entered the /ournals eventually durin" the research. %n their /ournal, &or example, the teachers recorded an experience 1ith students about 1ays o& tellin" time. %n preliminary discussions the students became interested in ho1 a sundial 1orked. (o the teachers and students 1ent outside, 1here they created a human sundial, usin" the students themselves. The teachersE /ournal kept a chronicle o& these events, and noted the comments and questions 1hich students developed as a result
%& you stood in the same place &or a 1hole day you 1ould see your shado1 chan"e places because the earth
chan"es position.
5hy is my shado1 lon"er than % am in the evenin", but shorter at noon? Clouds can block the sunEs rays so sundials 1onEt 1ork on rainy days. 6o1 did people start to tell time?
As the year evolved and observations accumulated and 1ere recorded, the teachers "radually be"an to ans1er their o1n three questions. They &ound, &or example, that connectin" the curriculum 1ith childrenEs interests and motives 1as most e&&ective 1hen they could establish a personal bond 1ith a child. They also &ound that ima"inative expression helped certain children to &eel sa&e to explore ideas. They &ound that blendin" school$based and personal kno1led"e caused children to learn much more than be&oreKalthou"h much o& the additional kno1led"e 1as not part o& an o&&icial curriculum. 5ith these conclusions in mind, and 1ith numerous examples to support them, Cli&&ord and Friesen published their study so that others could share 1hat they had learned about teachin", learnin", and students. The study by Cli&&ord and Friesen is interestin" in its o1n ri"ht, but &or our purposes think &or a moment about their 1ork as an example o& action research. Cne o& its &eatures is that it &ormed part o& the normal course o& teachin" the authors 1ere simply more systematic about ho1 they observed the students and recorded in&ormation 3:D
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License about classroom events. Another &eature is that the research required conscious re&lection over an extended time their /ournals and conversations contained not only descriptions o& events, but also interpretations o& the events. A third &eature is that the study involved collaboration it 1as not /ust one teacher studyin" the ma/or questions, but t1o. Th &ourth &eature is that the teachers not only developed their results and conclusions &or themselves, but also shared them 1ith others. These &our qualities make the study by Cli&&ord and Friesen a clear example o& teacher research. Bote, thou"h, that sometimes studies conducted by teachers may not sho1 all o& these &eatures so clearlyI instead they may sho1 some o& the key &eatures, but not all o& them, as in the next t1o examples.
#xample O3 Focusin" on development

(ince 89D8, Givian ,aley has published a series o& short books documentin" and interpretin" her observations o& youn" children in classrooms <89D8, 89D:, 8998, 899D, 3000, 300A=. ,aley 1as interested in ho1 youn" children develop or chan"e over the lon" term, and in particular ho1 the development looks &rom the point o& vie1 o& a classroom teacher. %n one o& these books, &or example, she observed one child in particular, )ollie, &rom the time she entered nursery school /ust a&ter her third birthday until a&ter the child turned &our years old <,aley, 89D:=. 6er interest 1as not &ocused on curriculum, as Cli&&ord and FriesenEs had done, but on )ollie as a "ro1in" human bein"I Hthe sub/ect 1hich % most 1ished to learn,H she 1rote, His childrenH <p. xiv=. ,aley there&ore 1rote extended narrative <or story$like= observations about the 1hole ran"e o& activities o& this one child, and 1ove in periodic brie& re&lections on the observations. 7ecause the observations took story$like &orm, her books read a bit like novels themes are sometimes simply su""ested by the story line, rather than stated explicitly. 4sin" this approach, ,aley demonstrated <but occasionally also stated= several important developmental chan"es. %n @ollie at Three <89DD=, &or example, she describes examples o& )ollieEs lan"ua"e development. At three years, the lan"ua"e 1as o&ten disconnected &rom )ollieJs actionsKshe 1ould talk about one thin", but do another. 7y &our, she 1as much more likely to tie lan"ua"e to her current activities, and in this sense she more o&ten Hsaid 1hat she meantH. A result o& the chan"e 1as that )ollie also be"an understandin" and &ollo1in" classroom rules as the year 1ent on, because the lan"ua"e o& rules became more connected in her mind to the actions to 1hich they re&erred. Givian ,aleyEs book had some o& the characteristics o& action researchKbut 1ith di&&erences &rom Cli&&ord and FriesenJs. Like their research, ,aleyEs >data@ 1as based on her o1n teachin", 1hile her teachin" 1as in&luenced in turn by her systematic observations. Like Cli&&ord and FriesenJs, ,aleyJs research involved numerous re&lections on teachin", and it led to a public sharin" o& the re&lectionsKin this case in the &orm o& several small books. 4nlike Cli&&ord and Friesen, thou"h, ,aley 1orked independently, 1ithout collaboration. 4nlike Cli&&ord and Friesen, she deliberately inte"rated observation and interpretation as they mi"ht be inte"rated in a piece o& &iction, so that the resultin" HstoryH o&ten implied or sho1ed its messa"e 1ithout statin" it in so may 1ords. %n this re"ard her 1ork had qualities o& 1hat some educators call arts$based research, 1hich are studies that take advanta"e o& an artistic medium <in this case, narrative or story$like 1ritin"= to hei"hten readersE understandin" and response to research &indin"s <7arone and #isner, 300:=. %& you are studyin" the use o& space in the classroom, &or example, then aesthetically or"ani2ed visual depictions <photos, dra1in"s= o& the room may be more help&ul and create more understandin" than verbal descriptions. %& you are studyin" childrenEs musical kno1led"e, on the other hand, recordin"s o& per&ormances by the children may be more help&ul and in&ormative than discussions o& per&ormances.
3:9
A .lobal Text
#xample O3 Focusin" on collaboration

%n 899:, an example o& action research 1as published that 1as intended simultaneously &or classroom teachers and &or university researchers, and 1hich &ocused on the challen"es o& collaboration amon" educators <4lichny P (choener, 899:=. A teacher <5endy (choener= and a university researcher <,olly 4lichny= explored ho1, or even 1hether, teachers and university researchers could participate as equals in the study o& teachin". 5endy <the t1o used &irst names throu"hout 1hen they published their experiences= 1as a teacher o& adults learnin" #n"lish as a (econd Lan"ua"e <#(L=I ,olly 1as a specialist in multicultural education and 1anted to observe a teacher 1ho 1as success&ul at reachin" the ethnically diverse students 1ho normally study #(L. ,olly there&ore asked 5endy &or permission to study her teachin" &or an extended period o& timeKto visit her class, videotape it, intervie1 her about it, and the like. 5hat &ollo1ed is best described as an extended ne"otiation bet1een teacher and pro&essor &or access to 5endyEs class, on the one hand, and &or mutual respect &or each otherEs 1ork, on the other. %n the published article, the ne"otiations are described separately by each participant, in order to honor the di&&erences in their concerns and perspectives. 7e&ore, durin", and a&ter the observations, it 1as necessary &or ,olly and 5endy each to ad/ust expectations o& 1hat the other person could do and 1as 1illin" to do. As the authors put it, some thin"s 1ere Heasy to hearH &rom the other and some thin"s 1ere Hhard to hearH. 5endy, as a teacher, &ound it easier to hear criticisms o& her teachin" i& they came &rom hersel&, rather than &rom the hi"her$status university pro&essor, ,olly. ,olly, &or her part, &ound it easier to hear 5endyEs comments i& she matched 5endyEs sel&$criticisms and evaluations 1ith some o& her o1n experiences. ,olly there&ore made sure to tell 5endy about dilemmas and problems she experienced in her o1n <university= teachin". 7ecause they needed to ad/ust to hearin" and talkin" 1ith each other, the t1o educators eventually &ocused less on ,ollyEs ori"inal purposeKstudyin" multicultural teachin"Kand more on the problem o& ho1 teachers and university researchers mi"ht collaborate e&&ectively. Cverall, this study quali&ies as a piece o& action research, thou"h it is not &ully &ocused on classroom teachin". For example, the teachers did collaborate and re&lect on their experiences, but not all o& the re&lection 1as about teachin" in classrooms. The rest 1as about the relationship bet1een 5endy and ,olly. 5hile the problem selected 1as ori"inally about classroom teachin"K5endyJsKit did not ori"inate 1ith the classroom teacher <5endy= or concerns she had about her o1n classroomI instead it 1as chosen by the university researcher <,olly= and her desire to study multicultural teachin". The researchers did share 1hat they learned by publishin" their observations and ideas, but their published report speaks only partly to classroom teachers as suchI in addition it speaks to academic researchers and educators o& &uture teachers. 7y pointin" out di&&erences amon" these examples o& action research, 1e do not mean to imply that one is >better@ than another. The point is simply to sho1 ho1 diverse studies by teachers can be and to appreciate their di&&erences. 5hatever their speci&ic &eatures, classroom studies by teachers hold in common the commitment to "ivin" a voice to teachers as they re&lect on problems and challen"es intrinsic to classroom li&e. This "oal can be accomplished in more than one 1ay throu"h /ournals and other record$keepin" methods, throu"h oral discussions 1ith collea"ues, and throu"h 1ritten re&lections created either &or themselves or &or others concerned about teachin" and learnin". *iversity amon" topics and methods in action research studies should not surprise us, in &act, since classrooms are themselves so diverse.
3;0
The challenges of action research

5ell and "ood, you may say. Action research o&&ers teachers a 1ay to hear each other, to learn &rom their o1n and otherEs experience. 7ut there are also a &e1 cautions to keep in mind, both ethical and practical. Look brie&ly at each o& these areas.
#thical cautions about action research

Cne caution is the possibility o& con&lict o& interest bet1een the roles o& teachin" and conductin" action research <6ammack, 899;=. A teacherJs &irst priorities should be the 1el&are o& his or her students &irst and &oremost, you 1ant students to learn, to be motivated, to &eel accepted by their peers, and the like. A researcherJs &irst priorities, ho1ever, are to the &ield or topic bein" studied. The t1o kinds o& priorities may o&ten overlap and support each other. Givian ,aleyJs observations o& children in her classes, described earlier, not only supported her childrenJs learnin", but also her studies o& the children. 7ut situations can also occur in 1hich action research and teachin" are less compatible, and can create ethical dilemmas. The problems usually relate to one o& three issues privacy, in&ormed consent, or &reedom to participate. #ach o& these becomes an issue only i& the results o& a research pro/ect are made public, either in a /ournal or book, as 1ith the examples 1e have "iven in this chapter, or simply by bein" described or shared outside the classroom. <(harin", you may recall, is one o& the de&inin" &eatures o& action research.= Look brie&ly at each o& the issues.
,nsuring *rivacy of the student

Teachers o&ten learn in&ormation about students that the students or their &amilies may not 1ant publici2ed. (uppose, &or example, you have a student 1ith an intellectual disability in your class, and you 1ish to study ho1 the student learns. Cbservin" the student 1ork on <and possibly stru""le 1ith= academic activities may be quite consistent 1ith a teacherJs responsibilitiesI a&ter all, teachers normally should pay attention to their studentsJ academic e&&orts. 7ut the student or his &amily may not 1ant such observations publici2ed or even shared in&ormally 1ith other parents or teachers. They may &eel that doin" so 1ould risk sti"mati2in" the student publicly. To respect the studentJs privacy and still study his learnin" behavior, the teacher <alias the >action researcher@= there&ore needs to dis"uise the studentJs identity 1henever the research results are made public. %n any 1ritten or oral report, or even in any hall1ay conversation about the pro/ect, the teacherUresearcher 1ould use a pseudonym &or the student, and chan"e other identi&yin" in&ormation such as the physical description o& the student or even the studentJs "ender. There are limits, ho1ever, to ho1 much can be dis"uised 1ithout chan"in" essential in&ormation. The teacher could not, &or example, hide the &act o& the intellectual disability 1ithout compromisin" the point o& the studyI yet the intellectual disability mi"ht be unusual enou"h that it 1ould e&&ectively identi&y the student bein" studied.
Kaining informed consent

(tudents may not understand 1hat is bein" studied about them, or even reali2e that they are bein" studied at all, unless the teacherUresearcher makes an explicit e&&ort to in&orm them about the action research and ho1 she 1ill use the results &rom it. The same is true &or the studentsJ parentsI unless the teacher$researcher makes an e&&ort to contact parents, they simply 1ill not kno1 that their childJs activities are bein" observed or may eventually be made public. (tudentsJ i"norance is especially likely i& the students are very youn" <kinder"arten= or have intellectual or readin" di&&iculties, as in the example 1e described above. As an action researcher, there&ore, a teacher is obli"ed to Educational Psychology
3;8
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ + The reflective practitioner explain the nature o& a research pro/ect clearly, either in a letter 1ritten in simple lan"ua"e or in a &ace$to$&ace conversation, or both. ,arents and students need to "ive clear indications that they actually understand 1hat class activities or materials 1ill constitute data that could be made public. %n most cases, indicatin" in&ormed consent means askin" studentsJ parents si"nin" a letter "ivin" permission &or the study. (ometimes, in addition, it is a "ood idea to recheck 1ith students or parents periodically as the pro/ect un&olds, to make sure that they still support participation.
,nsuring freedom to *artici*ate

5hen a student &ails to participate in an ordinary class activity, most teachers consider it le"itimate to insist on the studentJs participationKeither by persuadin", demandin", or <perhaps= trickin" the student to /oin. *oin" so is ethical &or teachers in their roles as teachers, because teachers are primarily responsible &or insurin" that students learn, and studentsJ participation presumably &acilitates learnin". %& a teacher desi"nates an activity as part o& an action research pro/ect, ho1ever, and later shares the results 1ith them, the teacher then also becomes partly responsible &or ho1 other teachers use kno1led"e o& the research study. <-emember sharin" results is intrinsically part o& the research process.= The resultin" dual commitment means that >&orcin"@ a student to participate in an action research activity can no lon"er be /usti&ied solely as bein" &or the studentJs o1n educational "ood. )uch o& the time, a simultaneous commitment to both teachers and students presents no real dilemma 1hat is "ood &or the action research pro/ect may also be "ood &or the students. 7ut not al1ays. (uppose, &or example, that a teacher 1ants to do research about studentsJ belie&s about 1ar and "lobal con&lict, and doin" so requires that students participate in numerous extended "roup discussions on this topic. #ven thou"h the "roup discussions mi"ht resemble a social studies lesson and in this sense be "enerally acceptable as a class activity, some parents <or students= may ob/ect because they take too much class time a1ay &rom the normal curriculum topics. Met the research pro/ect necessitates "ivin" it lots o& discussion time in class. To respond ethically to this dilemma, there&ore, the teacher may need to allo1 students to opt out o& the discussions i& they or their parents choose. (he may there&ore need to &ind 1ays &or them to cover an alternate set o& activities &rom the curriculum. <Cne 1ay to do this, &or example, is to hold the special "roup discussions outside re"ular class timesKthou"h this obviously also increases the amount o& 1ork &or both the teacher and students.=
,ractical issues about action research

%s action research practical? From one perspective the ans1er has to be HC& course notL@ Action research is not practical because it may take teachersJ time and e&&ort 1hich they could sometimes use in other 1ays. 'eep in mind, thou"h, that a ma/or part o& the e&&ort needed &or action research involves the same sort o& 1orkKobservin", recordin" in&ormation, re&lectin"Kthat is needed &or any teachin" that is done 1ell. A better 1ay to assess practicality may there&ore be to reco"ni2e that teachin" students al1ays takes a lot o& 1ork, and to ask 1hether the additional thou"ht&ulness brou"ht on by action research 1ill make the teachin" more success&ul. Looked at in this 1ay, action research is indeed practical, thou"h probably not equally so on every occasion. %& you choose to learn about the quality o& conversational exchan"es bet1een yoursel& and students, &or example, you 1ill need some 1ay to record these dialo"ues, or at least to keep accurate, detailed notes on them. -ecordin" the dialo"ues may be practical and bene&icialKor not, dependin" on your circumstances. Cn the other hand, i& you choose to study ho1 and 1hy certain students remain on the mar"ins o& your class socially, this problem too may be
3;3
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License practical as action research. Cr it may not, dependin" on 1hether you can &ind a 1ay to observe and re&lect on studentsE social interactions, or lack thereo&. )uch depends on your circumstancesKon the attention you can a&&ord to "ive to your research problem 1hile teachin", in relation to the bene&its that solutions to the problems 1ill brin" students later. %n "eneral any action research pro/ect may require certain choices about ho1 to teach, thou"h it should not inter&ere 1ith basic instructional "oals or prevent covera"e o& an important curriculum. The main point to remember is that action research is more than passive observation o& students and classroomsI it also includes educational interventions, e&&orts to stimulate students to ne1 thinkin" and ne1 responses. Those are &eatures o& re"ular teachin"I the di&&erence is primarily in ho1 systematically and re&lectively you do them.
8enefiting from all 1inds of research

Althou"h 1e authors both &eel a de"ree o& sympathy &or the nature and purposes o& action research, 1e are not tryin" to advocate &or it at the expense o& other &orms o& educational research or at the expense o& simply readin" and understandin" pro&essional publications in "eneral. The challen"e &or you, as a classroom teacher, is to &ind the value in all &orms o& pro&essional development, 1hether it be participation in a pro&essional association, readin" "eneral articles about research, or en"a"in" in your o1n action research. To the extent that you dra1 on them all, your 1ays o& learnin" about teachin" 1ill be enriched. Mou 1ill acquire more 1ays to understand classroom li&e, 1hile at the same time acquirin" perspective on that li&e. Mou 1ill learn 1ays to "rasp the individuality o& particular students, but also to see 1hat they need in common. Mou 1ill have more 1ays to interpret your o1n experiences as a pro&essional teacher, but also be able to learn &rom the pro&essional experience o& others. -eali2in" these bene&its &ully is a challen"e, because the very diversity o& classrooms renders problems about teachin" and learnin" complex and diverse as 1ell. 7ut you 1ill also "ain "ood, pro&essional company in searchin" &or better understandin" o& your 1orkKcompany that includes both educational researchers, other pro&essional teachers, and o& course your students.
Chapter summary
The complexities o& teachin" require teachers to continue learnin" throu"hout their teachin" careers. To become a li&elon" re&lective practitioner, teachers can rely on collea"ues as a resource, on pro&essional associations and their activities, and on pro&essional publications related to educational issues and needs. 4nderstandin" the latter, in turn, requires understandin" the purposes o& the published materialK1hether it is o&&erin" a "eneral &rame1ork, recommendin" desirable teachin" practices, or advocatin" &or a particular educational policy or need. %nterpretin" published material also requires understandin" the assumptions that authors make about readersJ prior kno1led"e and belie&s. An important additional strate"y &or becomin" a re&lective practitioner is action researchKstudies o& teachin" and learnin" desi"ned and carried out by teachers in order to improve their o1n practice. 7y nature, action research studies are hi"hly relevant to classroom practice, but there are also cautions about it to keep in mind, both ethically and practically.
'ey terms
action research assumptions about readersJ prior kno1led"e in&ormed consent insurin" privacy o& students insurin" &reedom to participate pro&essional associations purposes o& educational research re&lective practitioner
3;3
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ + The reflective practitioner reliability validity
Cn the %nternet
<http$))(((.aera.netR This is the o&&icial 1ebsite o& the American #ducational -esearch Association <or A#-A=, a ma/or HumbrellaH pro&essional association supportin" educational research o& all kinds. The home pa"e has links to over t1o do2en special interest "roups <called >(%.s@=, each speciali2in" in some &orm o& educational research or practice. There is, amon" others, a special interest "roup called Hteacher as researcherH, intended primarily &or educators involved in action research. Qhttp$))(((.nea.orgR This is the 1ebsite o& the Bational #ducation Association <or B#A=, another ma/or pro&essional association o& educators. The di&&erence bet1een this association and the American #ducational -esearch Association, ho1ever, is that the B#A &ocuses less on presentin" research as such, and more on issues o& teachin" practice. Like the A#-A 1ebsite, it includes articles on numerous topics that can be do1nloaded or read online. Qhttp$))(((.ed.gov)offices)2!-&R This is the 1ebsite o& the 4nited (tates C&&ice o& #ducational -esearch and %mprovement. %t summari2es current research initiatives about education that are sponsored by the 4nited (tates Federal "overnment, and includes links &or &indin" in&ormation about the individual initiatives 1hich it lists. Q(((.scra2P.orgR, Qcoe.(estga.edu)arsigO These t1o 1ebsites belon" to pro&essional or"ani2ations dedicated to action research. The &irst belon"s to the (ociety &or Community -esearch and Action, a division o& the American ,sycholo"ical Association. %t promotes and publishes action research in many pro&essions, one o& 1hich is education. The second 1ebsite belon"s to the Action -esearch (pecial %nterest .roup o& the American #ducational -esearch AssociationI as you mi"ht suspect &rom its name, it &ocuses exclusively on action research by educators.
-e&erences
Ackerman, -. P )ac'en2ie, (. <#ds.=. <300;=. Incovering teacher leadershi*" Goices from the field. Thousand Caks, CA Cor1in ,ress. 7arone, T. P #isner, #. <300:=. Arts$based research in education. %n +. .reen, ". Camilli, P ,. #lmore <#ds.=, 9and%oo# of com*lementary methods in education research. )ah1ah, B+ #rlbaum. 7issex, .. <89D0=. K0QS AT ERK. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. 7rydon$)iller, )., .reen1ood, *., )a"uire, *. <3003=. 5hy action research? Action Research, B<8=, 3$3D. Cli&&ord, ,. P Friesen, (. <8993=. A curious plan )ana"in" on the t1el&th. 9arvard Educational Revie , :;<3=, 339$3AD. Fenstermacher, .. <899F=. The kno1er and the kno1n The nature o& kno1led"e in research on teachin". %n L. *arlin"$6ammond <#d.=, Revie of research in education, Golume C<, pp. 3$A:. 5ashin"ton, *.C. American #ducational -esearch Association. 6ayes, *. <300:=. Tellin" stories (ustainin" improvement in schools operatin" under adverse conditions. ,m*roving Schools, F<3=, 303$383.
3;F
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 6ittleman, *. P (imon, A. <300A=. ,nter*reting educational research, >th edition. #n"le1ood Cli&&s, B+ ,rentice$6all. +imene2, -., .arcia, .., P ,earson, *. <899A=. Three children, t1o lan"ua"es and strate"ic readin" Case studies in bilin"ualUmonolin"ual readin". American Educational Research Journal, ;C<8=, :;$9D. +ohnson, ). <300F=. A *hiloso*hy of second language ac&uisition. Be1 6aven, CT Male 4niversity ,ress. Lortie, *. <89;A=. Schoolteacher. Chica"o 4niversity o& Chica"o ,ress. Lou"hran, +., 6amilton, )., La7oskey, G., P -ussell, T. <#ds.=. <300F=. ,nternational hand%oo# of self3study of teaching and teacher education *ractices. *ordrecht, The Betherlands 'lu1er. )c*ermott, -., .oldman, (., P Garenne, 6. <300:=. The cultural 1ork o& learnin" disabilities. Educational Researcher, ;?<:=, 83$8;. )ills, .. <300:=. Action research" A guide for the teacher researcher, ; rd edition. Be1 Mork ,rentice 6all. ,aley, G. <89D8=. Eally(s stories. Chica"o 4niversity o& Chica"o ,ress. ,aley, G. <89DD=. @ollie is three. Chica"o 4niversity o& Chica"o ,ress. ,aley, G. <8998=. The %oy ho ould %e a helico*ter. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress.
,aley, G. <899D=. K an/aa and me. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. ,aley, G. <3000=. The #indness of children. Cambrid"e, )A 6arvard 4niversity ,ress. ,aley, G. <300:=. A child(s or#" The im*ortance of fantasy *lay. Chica"o 4niversity o& Chica"o ,ress.
-a"land, 7. <300;=. ,ositionin" the practitioner$researcher Five 1ays o& lookin" at practice. Action Research, ><3=, 8:A$8D3. -ichardson, G. <899F=. Conductin" research in practice. Educational Researcher, C;<A=, A$80. -ussell, T. P Lou"hran, +. <300A=. (el&$study as a context &or productive learnin". Studying Teacher Education, B<3=, 803$80:. (amaras, A. P Freese, A. <#ds.=. <300:=. Self3study of teaching *ractices. Be1 Mork ,eter Lan". (chmuck, -. <300:=. Practical action research for change. Thousand Caks, CA (a"e ,ublications. (chcn, *. <89D3=. The reflective *ractitioner. Be1 Mork 7asic 7ooks. (chcn, *. <89D;, April=. Educating the reflective *ractitioner. ,aper presented at the Annual )eetin" o& the American #ducational -esearch Association, 5ashin"ton, *.C. (alt2stein, 6., )illery, )., #isenber", 0., *ias, )., P CJ7rien, *. <899;=. )oral heteronomy in context %ntervie1er in&luence in Be1 Mork City and -eci&e, 7ra2il. %n 6. (alt2stein <#d.=, 0e directions in child develo*ment" Culture as a conte4t for moral develo*ment, pp. 3;$A0. (an Francisco +ossey$7ass. (ei&ert, 'elvin. <89D8=. 6ave 1e oversold mainstreamin"? Journal of the Canadian Association for Qoung Children, ><3=, :$9.
3;A
A .lobal Text
*ppendi$ + The reflective practitioner (t. Clair, -. <300A=. (imilarity and superunkno1ns An essay on the challen"es o& educational research. 9arvard Educational Revie , =?<F=, F3A$FA3. (tenhouse, L. <89DA=. Research as a %asis for teaching. London, 4' 6einemann. (trin"er, #. <300;=. Action research, ;rd edition. Thousand Caks, CA Cor1in ,ublications. Tid1ell, *. P Fit2"erald, L. <#ds.=. <300:=. Self3study and diversity. -otterdam, The Betherlands (ense ,ublishers. 4lichny, ,. P (choener, 5. <899:=. Teacher$researcher collaboration &rom t1o perspectives. 9arvard Educational Revie , ::<3=, F9:$A3F. 0eichner, '. <300;=. Accumulatin" kno1led"e across sel&$studies in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, ?A<8=, 3:$F:.
3;:

Educational Psychology

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Educational Psychology

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Educational Psychology

http://www.saylor.org/courses/psych303/ The Saylor Foundation

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

About the authors and revie1er Author, Kelvin Seifert

Author, Rosemary Sutton

Revie er, Sandra !eemer

8. The chan"in" teachin" pro&ession and you.............................................................................D

3. The learnin" process .............................................................................................................30

A. (tudents 1ith special educational needs.............................................................................. DA

:. (tudent motivation.............................................................................................................. 809

;. Classroom mana"ement and the learnin" environment.................................................... 83D

D. The nature o& classroom communication............................................................................8A9

9. Facilitatin" complex thinkin"..............................................................................................8D3

80. ,lannin" instruction.......................................................................................................... 380

88. Teacher$made assessment strate"ies................................................................................ 3F0

83. (tandardi2ed and other &ormal assessments.....................................................................3;;

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

1. The changing teaching profession and you

ith others, #ee* learning ne

The joys of teaching

re there also challenges to teaching!

Teaching is different from in the past

1. The changing teaching profession and you

Be1 trend O8 diversity in students

!iversity of s*ecial educational needs

1. The changing teaching profession and you

Be1 trend O3 usin" technolo"y to support learnin"

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

Be1 trend O3 accountability in education

Be1 trend OF increased pro&essionalism o& teachers

success&ul are my students at &indin" students as &ully and help&ully as to

"o# educational psychology can help

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

$. The learning process

as not learning this

as indeed *lanning to do that tas# again. 'That(s good), he

me to fa#e it this time- 7or your students( sa#e-)

Teachers% perspectives on learning

Gie1in" learnin" as dependent on curriculum

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

Gie1in" learnin" as dependent on sequencin" and readiness

Signs of readiness to teach reading

throu"h other means in addition to askin" teacher

expand childJs thinkin"

&e1 simple 1ords

son"s poems, and son"s Source" Copple P 7redekamp, 300:.

Gie1in" trans&er as a crucial outcome o& learnin"

&ajor theories and models of learning

7ehaviorism chan"es in 1hat students do

-espondent conditionin" learnin" ne1 associations 1ith prior behaviors

Res*ondent Conditioning and Students

Three #ey ideas a%out res*ondent conditioning

,ress lever Food pellet

them "i""le in response <the rein&orcement=.

assistant compliments him &or 1orkin" hard <the rein&orcement=.

Constructivism chan"es in ho1 students think

Psychological constructivism" the inde*endent investigator

Social Constructivism" assisted *erformance

%mplications o& constructivism &or teachin"

2. The learning process

Postconventional $ustice" social contract and universal rinciles

Americans 1ith isabilities Act o& 8990 <or AA=.