Position of Women in the Indian Civilization Compiled by Sanjeev Nayyar November 2000 The Indian Women fascinates me.

Her ability to give share bear n!rt!re coo" #or" $!alities of head and heart adj!st are j!st some of the $!alities that I admire. Thro!gho!t o!r co!ntry%s t!m!lt!o!s history she s!ffered so m!ch yet she contin!es to retain $!alities that ma"e her !ni$!e. She has done great service to religion by preserving age old traditions moral fervor and spirit!al vein in o!r society. It is the mother #ho cond!cts p!ja in o!r homes attends spirit!al disco!rses #ears Indian clothes i.e. sari #hile men have adopted #estern #ear completely. This essay is dedicated to the Indian #omen. &s a nation #e progressed #hen the Indian #oman #as accorded her rightf!l place in society. Its time #e treat her li"e she #as !p to '00 (.C. It is my belief that India #ill progress m!ch faster if a greater n!mber of #omen are ed!cated financially independent and reali)e that e$!ality does not mean that yo! listen to yo!rself only. *et !s resolve to allo# her to blossom flo#er and sho# her inner bea!ty. The position of #omen is covered !nder the follo#ing chapters and periods. +. 2,00 to +,00 (C 2. +,00 to -00 (C '. -00 (C to '00 &. /. '20 to 0,0 &. ,. 0,0 to +000 &. -. +000 to +'00 . 0. +'00 to +,2- &. 1. +,2- to +000 &. 2. +000 to +1+1 &. +0. +1+1 to +20, &. ++. +20, to +2/0 &. +2. Stat!s of #omen in Western society 3 m!st read. The Age of the Rig Veda 42,00 to +,00 (C5 Chapter +

The fre$!ent reference to !nmarried girls spea"s in favor of a c!stom of girls marrying long after they had reached p!berty. &mong &ryans marriage among brothers and sisters #as prohibited. There seems to have been considerable freedom on the part of young persons in the selection of their life partners as they generally married at a mature age. &pproval of the parent or the brother #as not essential the boy and the girl made !p their minds and then informed the elders tho!gh their participation in the marriage ceremony #as essential i.e. the blessings of the elders #ere so!ght. S!prising as it may so!nd in some cases a bride6price #as paid by a not very desirable son in la#. So also #hen a girl had some defect do#ry #as given. & hymn in the 78 gives !s an idea of the old marriage ritual. The boy and his party #ent to the girl%s ho!se #here a #ell6dressed girl #as ready. The boy catches the hand of the girl and leads

her ro!nd the fire. These t#o acts constit!te the essence of marriage. The boy ta"es the girl home in a procession follo#ed by cons!mmation of the marriage. The #ife #as respected in her ne# ho!se and #ielded a!thority over her h!sband%s family. The #ife participated in the sacrificial offerings of her h!sband. &b!ndance of sons #as prayed for so nat!rally so in a patriarchal society since the son performed the last rites and contin!ed the line. There is little evidence to sho# that the c!stom of ati e9isted. :ven if "no#n it #as limited to the ;shatriya class. Remarriage of !ido!s #as permitted !nder certain conditions. <emale morality maintained a high standard altho!gh b!t the same degree of fidelity #as not e9pected from the h!sband. Net Net !omen en"oyed much freedom. They too" an active part in agric!lt!re man!fact!re of bo#s. They moved aro!nd freely p!blicly attended feasts and dances. #$%% to &%% 'C Chapter 2

The age of the Atharva( ama and )a"ur Vedas * <reedom of marriage contin!ed and remarriage of #ido#s contin!ed to be allo#ed. The sale of a da!ghter #as "no#n b!t vie#ed #ith e9treme disfavor. .o#ries contin!ed to be given b!t not in the sense that #e !nderstand today. The marriage ceremony #as the same as in the previo!s period e9cept that the girl had to mo!nt a stone before the boy ca!ght her hand. &s in the previo!s period the pict!re of an ideal family life contin!ed. =rad!ally religio!s ceremonies increasingly #ere cond!cted by the priests res!lting in loosing her preeminent position in the ho!sehold. This #as the period d!ring #hich the importance of rit!als increased and so did the importance of the (rahmans. .esire for sons contin!ed sati #as not prevalent. Net net the position of #omen #as not as high as it #as in the 7ig 8edic period. <emale #or"ers #ere involved in dying embroidery and bas"et ma"ing. The Age of the +panishads * The an!loma system of marriage ie bet#een the male of a higher caste and female of a lo#er caste prevailed d!ring this period. The r!les of >anini regarding &bhi6vadana 4 sal!tation as a mar" of respect to elderly persons in the ho!se 5 sho# that the presence of #ives of the lo#er caste in a ho!se and their association #ith ladies of a higher caste bro!ght do#n the general level of #omanly c!lt!re and led to a deterioration in their stat!s. The =rihya6s!tras give detailed r!les regarding the proper seasons for marriage $!alifications of bride and bridegroom. The vario!s stages of a marriage ceremony are? a5 The #ooers formally go to the girl%s ho!se. b5 When the bride%s father gives his formal consent the bridegroom performs a sacrifice. c5 :arly in the morning of the first day of marriage celebrations the bride is bathed.

d5 & sacrifice is offered by the high priests of the bride%s family and a dance of /@1 #omen ta"es place as part of the Indrani "arman. e5 The bridegroom goes to the girl%s ho!se and ma"es the gift of a garment mirror to the bride #ho has been bathed earlier. f5 The ;anya6pradana formal giving a#ay of the bride ta"es place no# follo#ed by. g5 The clasping of the bride%s right hand by the bridegroom%s o#n right hand ta"es place no#. h5 The treading on stone. i5 The leading of the bride ro!nd the fire by the bridegroom. j5 The sacrifice of the fried grains. "5 The Saptapadi i.e. the co!ple #al"ing seven steps together as a symbol of their livelong concord. l5 <inally the bride is ta"en to her ne# ho!se. m5 &fter the bride came home the co!ple is e9pected to observe celibacy for three days after #hich the marriage #as cons!mmated. The logic #as to emphasi)e at the o!tset that self6control #as very m!ch part of married life. The bride is at a mat!re age over +, or +-. The elaborate rites indicate that marriage #as a holy bond and not a contract. The #omen held an honored position in the ho!sehold. She #as allo#ed to sing dance and enjoy life. ati #as not generally prevalent. Wido# 7emarriage #as allo#ed !nder certain circ!mstances. An the #hole the .harma6s!tras ta"e a more lenient attit!de than the Smritis of a later age. The &pastamba imposes several penalties on a husband !ho un"ustly forsa,es his !ife. An the other hand a #ife #ho forsa"es her h!sband has to only perform penance. In case a gro#n !p girl #as not married at a proper time by her father she co!ld choose her h!sband after three years of #aiting. The most pleasing feat!re of this period is the presence of !omen teachers( many of #hom possessed highest spirit!al "no#ledge. The famo!s dialog!e bet#een Bajnaval"ya and his #ife Caitreyi and =argi 8acha"navi sho# ho# enlightened the #omen of that age #ere. &ccording to the Sarvan!"ramani"a there #ere as many as 20 #omen among the a!thors of the 7ig 8eda. These stories stand in contrast to the later age #hen the st!dy of 8edic literat!re #as forbidden to #omen !nder the most severe penalty. 'irth of a -aughter +n!elcome 3 &s in all patriarchal societies d!ring that age the birth of a da!ghter #as !n#elcome. The son lived #ith his parents earned money for the family protected the family from enemies and perpet!ated the name of the family. .o!ever( the latter%s birth #as not considered so bad. Ane of Dpanishads recommends a rit!al for ens!ring the birth of a scholarly da!ghter. &ltho!gh it did not become as pop!lar as the one for the birth of a son it indicates those c!lt!red parents eager for da!ghters. .!ring this period the da!ghters co!ld be initiated into 8edic st!dies and co!ld offer sacrifices to =ods the son #as absol!tely not necessary. The importance of ancestor #orship by sons led to a decline in the importance of da!ghters.

The feeling of dejection on the birth of a da!ghter did not lead to /emale Infanticide in ancient India. This c!stom crept into India d!ring the medieval period. Ance the disappointment on the birth of a da!ghter #as over the family did not disting!ish bet#een their son and da!ghter. In s!bse$!ent periods gro#ing incidence of Sati meant that parents sa# their da!ghters j!mping on to f!neral pyres or if she became a #ido# live a chaste life since #ido# remarriage #as not permitted. In s!ch an environment to become a da!ghter%s parent became a so!rce of misery. In the post 8edic period the professions open to #oman in higher sections of society #ere teaching medical doctors and b!siness. They s!ffered from no disabilities in doing b!siness and co!ld even pledge their h!sband%s credit and enter into contracts on their behalf. Purdah system #as not prevalent d!ring this period. There is nothing in o!r tradition or literat!re to s!ggest that the father@elder brother in6la# co!ld not see the face of the da!ghter6in6la# as is the case in North India today. 01an is only one half2 says a Vedic passage3 he is not complete till he is united !ith his !ife and gives birth to children. The h!sband is to treat his #ife as his dearest friend. The #ife is a companion friend of a man says a 8edic passage. The Cahabharat and (!ddhist thin"ers conc!r #ith this vie#. &%% 'C to 45% AChapter '

1arriage bet#een the same caste #as preferred altho!gh inter caste marriages #ere prevalent. Af the eight forms of marriage prescribed by the .harma6s!tras the &rhsa form of marriage #as most pop!lar #hich #as the father gave his da!ghter after receiving from the bridegroom a co# and a b!ll or t#o pairs. The bridegroom #as selected by the girl%s father or g!ardian. &ccording to Nearch!s the Indians Emarry #itho!t giving or ta"ing do#ries b!t the girls as soon as they are marriageable are bro!ght for#ard by their fathers and e9posed in p!blic to be selected by a person #ho e9cels in some form of physical e9erciseF. This indicates a modified form of Svayamvara. While girls contin!ed to be married aro!nd +- there #as a tendency to marry them before they attained p!berty. It #as probably d!e to the an9iety to maintain their body p!rity. *o#ering of the marriage age affected their ed!cation and c!lt!re adversely. &fter all if she got married early then ho# co!ld she st!dyG :9treme emphasis #as no# laid on the physical chastity of #omen #hich disco!raged #ido# remarriage divorce and enco!ragement of sati. We m!st remember that India faced its first foreign invasion ie =ree"s d!ring this period. .!ring the earlier part of this period there #ere highly educated !omen holding an honorable position in society and ho!sehold. There #ere lifelong st!dents of sacred te9ts

or those #ho p!rs!ed their st!dy till marriage. Women also recd training in arts m!sic painting and for some military training also. <emale bodyg!ards are referred to in ;a!tilya%s &rthasastra. (!ddhist and Hain n!ns reno!nced the #orld for the sa"e of spirit!al salvation. Hain te9ts refer to Hayanti #ho carried on disc!ssions #ith Cahavira himself and later on became a n!n. Inspite of the progress there #ere gro!ing disabilities. :arlier the girls #ent thro!gh the Dpanayana ceremony b!t no# it #as only a formality. Can! laid do#n that marriage #as e$!al to Dpanayana #hile Bajnaval"ya too" the step of prohibiting Dpanayana ceremony for girls. The #ife #ho performed 8edic sacrifices #as denied the right to do so. Narada is ho#ever more considerate to#ards #omen. =ree" #riters have stated that sati e9isted #as in vog!e in >!njab possibly confined to the #arrior class only. Women courtesans !ere not loo,ed do!n by religious leaders or "ings. Some of them #ere highly accomplished and in the point of c!lt!re standing resembled the Hetairai of &thens. & famo!s co!rtesan &mrapali #ho lived d!ring the reign of (imbisara 4'00 to 20' (C5 #as a bea!ty #hom (!ddha visited. ocial customs are a product of the environment !e live in. India had never seen till '20 (C an invasion li"e the =ree"s. I!oting freedom fighter #riter ;.C. C!nshi E&bo!t the beginning of the Christian era perhaps !nder the infl!ence of foreigners the spirit!al disenfranchisement of #omen began. 7it!als came to be performed #itho!t the 8edic mantrasJ the 8edic sacrifices #ere tabooed for the #ife. Wido# 7emarriage and divorce #ere disco!raged. An the other hand ;a!tilya in the matters of divorce placed man and #omen on an e$!al footing. (!t as people #ith la9 morals came into the social frame#or" on acco!nt of the e9panding frontiers of .harma the marital tie ass!med greater sanctityF. 45% to 6$% A Chapter 7

1arriage 8 there #as a gro#ing tendency to lo#er the marriageable age of girls #ith girls being married before or after p!berty. Carriage #ithin the same caste #as preferred b!t prohibited #ithin certain degrees of relationship. & yo!ng man co!ld !nder special circ!mstances apply himself to #inning the girl of his choice by co!rtship and #ooing #hen s!ccessf!l #as to be follo#ed by a grad!al #inning of the girl%s confidence. 9ducation 6 =irls of high families had ade$!ate opport!nities for ac$!iring proficiency in higher learning. In 8atsyayana%s ;amas!tra instances of princess are mentioned #hose intellect #as sharpened by "no#ledge of the Sasatras. The literary evidence of the =!pta age proves that girls of high families as also those living in hermitages read #or"s on ancient history K legend. =irls living in royal co!rts #ere trained in singing K dancing too. The Ideal Wife 8 8atsyanana dra#s a pict!re of a good #ife #hich may be ta"en as a reflection of the real life d!ring that period. When a #oman is the only #ife she has to devote herself to him as if he #ere a deity. She m!st be f!lly devoted ta"e care of his

comforts and attend festivities #ith his permission. She honor%s her h!sband%s friends and loo"s after his parents. &part from loo"ing after his friends K family she has complete charge of the ho!sehold. In case she has a co6#ife she loo"s !pon her as her yo!nger sister or mother depending on her o#n age. The Wido! 8 in the =!pta period lived the chaste and a!stere life prescribed by the Smritis. Sati #as e9tolled by some b!t strongly disapproved by others. In the absence of any reference by the Chinese travelers it #o!ld be correct to believe that the c!stom #as not #idely prevalent d!ring this period. 7emarriage of #ido#s tho!gh coming into disfavor #as not forbidden. :eneral tatus of Women 3 .!e to a lo#ering of the age of marriage girls #ere not ed!cated as before. This red!ced the position and stat!s of #omen. (rides being too yo!ng had no say in choosing their partners. *ove marriages #ere a thing of the past. .!ring this period marriage became an irrevocable !nion b!t it #as one sided in favor of the h!sband. Since #omen #ere not as ed!cated as before they did not "no# #hat their rights #ere. &mong the most stri"ing changes may be the increased recognition in ;atyayana of the #omen%s right to property and a remar"able r!le in &tri that allo#ed #omen molested by robbers to regain her social stat!s. Some #omen enjoyed political po#er e.g. >rabhavati6g!pta da!ghter of Chandra6g!pta II #ho r!led the 8a"ata"a "ingdom on behalf of her son in the /th cent!ry a.d. Viel 3 &vailable literat!re seem to indicate that married #omen in higher families did not !s!ally appear in p!blic #itho!t veils. The silence of Hi!en Tsang indicates that #omen in general did not observe the >!rdah or remain in secl!sion. Reasons for -eterioration in the status of !omen bet!een $%% 'C to $%% ATheir stat!s deteriorated considerably d!ring this period. With time and progress one #o!ld e9pect the condition of people to improve b!t in this case it #as the opposite. +. The introduction of slavery revol!tionised the position of #omen in the classical period of =ree" history they lost esteem in society. The same thing happened in India #hen a semi servile stat!s came to be assigned to the S!dra class #hose only d!ty #as service of the higher castes. Aver time and d!e to vario!s factors inter caste marriages started happening d!ring the period +000 to ,00 (C. The introd!ction of non6&ryan #omen into the &ryan ho!sehold is the starting point to the deterioration in a #omen%s stat!s. Having said that it #as non &ryan mothers that gave birth to 8eda 8yasa and ;rishna. Dnfamiliar #ith religio!s c!stoms rit!als and Sans"rit the non &ryan #ife #o!ld have goofed ma"ing the priests angry. In love #ith his #ife the &ryan man overloo"ed the shortcomings in his #ife. (!t #hat abo!t the priestsG To avoid this problem it #as decided that the #hole class of #oman #ere ineligible for 8edic st!dies and religio!s d!ties. 2. &nother reason #as that Vedic sacrifices became comple; ma"ing it diffic!lt for the #ife to have mastery over them. In the 8edic age a yo!ng #omen #o!ld ta"e a Soma stal" and proceed straight to offer it to Indra in a sacrifice performed by herself alone.

(!t things became more comple9 #ith time. In the 8edic age she got married at abo!t +-6+0 by #hich she co!ld devote -60 yrs to st!dy b!t to "no# all the rit!als etc she #o!ld have to marry aro!nd 2262/ ie abo!t +2 yrs of st!dy. This #as impractical at that point of time. This pl!s an increase in the desire for a son led to a lo#ering of the marriage age of girls #hich in t!rn disco!raged their ed!cation. &ltho!gh the vie# that #omen m!st not be allo#ed to perform sacrifices #as opposed by parts of society b!t its vigoro!s advocacy by one school co!pled #ith a lo#ering of the marriage age led to the neglect of the 8edic ed!cation of girls. '. The period of ,00 years bet#een 5%% 'C to 4%% A- !as very dar, for <orthern India. <irst came the =ree"s 4+20 to +,0 (C5 Scythians and >arthians 4+00 (C to ,0 &.5. These barbarians #ere follo#ed by the ;!shanas in the 2 nd cent!ry &.. >olitical reverses #ar reverses and the decline of prosperity prod!ced a #ave of despondency all aro!nd. The ascetic ideal of the Dpanishads (!ddhism and Hainism #hich #as opposed by Hind! society earlier began to get a real hold over social mind o#ing to the prevailing #ave of despondency at the beginning of the Christian era. It strengthened the hands of those #ho #ere opposed to #ido# remarriage. & #oman #as to lead a chaste life to aim for salvation follo# the footsteps of tho!sands of mon"s n!ns #ho had entered the Sanyasa stage direct from (rahmacharya #itho!t passing thro!gh married life. /. ati 3 d!e to the foreign invasions and its conse$!ences for #omen the c!stom of sati tho!gh confined to the #arrior class earlier began to gain #idespread acceptance be perceived as a great sacrifice. The tendency to regard #omen as #ea"er and not of strong moral fibre got stronger d!ring this period altho!gh #omen as mother sister contin!ed to be highly respected. ,. The only direction in #hich the position of #omen improved #as in the sphere of proprietary rights. &s society began to disco!rage #ido# remarriages there began to arise a class of childless #ido#s #ho needed money to maintain themselves. -. History is #itness that con$!est of a co!ntry implies con$!est of its #omenfol". What follo#s is shamef!l b!t reality of life. The #ars that preceded the =ree" invasion did not res!lt in con$!est of #omen. Invasions res!lted in great emphasis being placed on the p!rity and chastity of #omen. Nat!rally it impacted the #ay society perceived #omen. 6$% to #%%% AChapter $

1arriage 8 The Smriti a!thorities of this period treat earlier marriage r!les #ith some modifications. Cedhatithi made inter6caste marriages e9ceptional. Carriage #ith the da!ghter of a maternal !ncle is condemned. Carriage by m!t!al love is condemned by Cedhatithi and he said that one sho!ld marry a girl #ho is m!ch yo!nger than himself she m!st get married bet#een the age of eight and achieving p!berty. If a girl%s g!ardian cannot find her a match before she becomes of marriageable age then she can choose her partner after staying in her father%s ho!se for three years after

attaining p!berty. While love marriages #ere "no#n they #ere solemni)ed after approval of the girl%s g!ardians. Sometimes girls #ith the approval of their parents opted for a Svayamvara ceremony. 9ducation 8 .!e to a red!ction in the marriage age the ed!cation levels among #omen dropped drastically altho!gh some #omen of all classes had an opport!nity for liberal ed!cation fine arts. &ccording to Cedhatithi the #omen did not "no# Sans"rit the lang!age of the 8edas. 7ajase"hara refers to princesses da!ghters of high officials #ho #ere poetesses as #ell as adept in sciences. In &vantis!ndari #e have a stri"ing e.g. of a #omen learned in San"srit lore. In the plays of 7ajase"hara #e find that co!rt6ladies and even the maids6in6#aiting capable of composing Sans"rit and >ra"it verses. Remarriage * While &gni >!rana 8isvar!pa permits a #oman to ta"e a second h!sband !nder five circ!mstances lost dead impotent and o!tcaste or adopted the life of a recl!se it is forbidden by Cedhatithi (rahma >!rana. Wido! 8 &s in the previo!s period the life of strict celibacy and self6restraint enjoined !pon her #as so!ght to be enforced d!ring the period. The tons!re of #ido# came into vog!e abo!t the 1th cent!ry a.d. and #as to help her lead an ascetic life. ati 3 The rite of sati #as enjoined by some a!thorities b!t condemned by others b!t the c!stom #as mainly confined to royal families. &ccording to &rab #riter S!laiman Ethe #ives of "ings sometimes b!rnt themselves on the f!neral fires of their h!sbands b!t it #as for them to e9ercise their option in this matterF. 7emember the first C!slim invasion in Sind 0+2 &... #as d!ring this period. Purdah * !as not prevalent d!ring this period. &ccording to &b! Laid most Indian >rincess #hile holding co!rt allo#ed their #omen to be seen !nveiled by the men present #hether native or foreigners. :eneral tatus of Women 8 As in the previo!s period the Smritis emphasi)e the d!ty of absol!te devotion and obedience of #ives to their h!sbands. Cedhatithi says that a #ife m!st shampoo her h!sband%s feet provided the h!sband follo#s a righteo!s path and is free from hatred jealo!sy to#ards his #ife. :$!al right of the h!sband and #ife to see" legal remedy is advocated by Cedhatithi. He ta"es Can! to enjoin not the act!al beating of the recalcitrant #ife b!t only a method of p!tting her on the right path. The general condition #as the same as in the preceding period. Cedhatithi observes that a #omen needs to be g!arded by male relations at all times 4impact of foreign invasion5J #omen sho!ld have no freedom of action regarding virt!e #ealth and pleas!re. An the other hand he ta"es a h!man vie#. & #ife m!st not be forsa"en !nless she becomes an o!tcaste and forsa"ing means she cannot do ho!sehold #or" b!t gets food clothing. & mother m!st never be abandoned if she becomes an o!tcaste. The c!stom of dedicating maidens for service in temples contin!ed d!ring this period.

=uoting >. 1. 1unshi ?8arnasrama6dharma of Cedhatithi is a dynamic #orld force and not a static social order. Inter caste marriages is permitted. & ;shatriya and a 8aisya have the right to recite the =ayatri6mantra. (rahmanhood is not ac$!ired by birth alone. He accords to #omen a position in refreshing contrast to some of the later a!thorities. Women can perform all the sams"aras only thee sho!ld not recite the 8edic mantras. &t a partition an !nmarried sister sho!ld be given one fo!rth share of the dividing brothers. & #ife is obtained from =od not sec!red li"e cattle or gold from the mar"et a h!sband has no o#nership over his #ife. (efore the #ife m!st be compelled to serve her h!sband he m!st have the necessary $!alifications among others a loving attit!de to#ards her. The practice of Sati is nothing b!t s!icide and it is not permissible. The general level of their c!lt!re is high. Silamahadevi #ife of the 7ashtra"!ta emperor .hr!va probably r!led jointly #ith her h!sband. Several I!eens of the ;ara dynasty r!led in Ares. S!gandha and .idda of ;ashmir administered e9tensive "ingdoms. There #ere learned #omen as #ell as administrators. Sarasvati #ife of Candanamisra #ho acted as an arbitrator in her h!sband%s disp!tations #ith San"aracharya #as a learned scholar herselfF. #%%% to #4%% A.-. Chapter &

1arriage 8 &s in the previo!s period girls got married at an early age. &s regards 7oyal marriages 8aijayanti gives !s a t#o fold classification. The "ing%s married #ives consisted of the chief $!een the $!een born of a royal family the honored lady the dearly beloved lady the lady #ho is not the da!ghter of a "ing and lastly the lady #ho has been #on in #ar. The ;athasaritsagara says that the tradition of the girl%s g!ardians getting off their girl%s married contin!ed from the previo!s period. There #ere some irreg!lar marriages also li"e (rahmans marrying ;shatriya girls sometimes #ith their parent%s blessings or by elopement of girls #ith their lovers. There #ere a n!mber of cases of inter caste marriages reported d!ring this period. 9ducation 8 &s in the previo!s period the average level of ed!cation dropped drastically since they #ere married off before attaining p!berty. Wido! 8 as in the previo!s period #ido# remarriage #as forbidden. ati 3 perhaps d!e to the impact of foreign invasions self6immolation of #ido#s on the f!neral pyre #as getting more common in North India. Purdah 8 As in the earlier periods it has restricted !sage. With the advent of C!slim r!le it grad!ally spread to the higher classes of Northern India.

:eneral tatus of Women 8 1en contin!ed to be as protective abo!t their #omenfol" as in the previo!s period. They m!st be g!arded against physical ab!se and mental !nchastity. This is best done by "eeping the #ife in secl!sion. She m!st be "ept so b!sy at home that she does not have time for anything else. The h!sband m!st honor his #ife #ith gifts clothes #hile the other male relatives m!st honor her on festive occasions. The la#s relating to s!ppression and abandonment have a strong tendency to emphasi)e some points in her favor. The #ife may be s!perseded on specific gro!nds. The h!sband in some cases has to as" her permission or in others has to #ait for a long periods of time. :ven if a s!perceded #ife gets angry and leaves her h!sband she m!st be maintained by him. The s!perceded #ife m!st be given a s!m e$!al to #hat is spent on the second marriage or is given to the second #ife. When a #ife is g!ilty of ad!ltery she m!st be maintained till her performance of penance. Anly in e9treme cases as #hen a #ife is g!ilty of abortion or attempting to "ill her h!sband m!st she be driven o!t of the ho!se. When a h!sband leaves deserts his good #ife #rongf!lly he #o!ld be p!nished by the ;ing li"e a thief. The c!stom of dedicating #omen to the service of temples contin!ed from the previo!s period. There is a strong tendency in this period to maintain b!t increase #omen rights to property. The #omen%s right to inherit the property of her male relations is emphatically stated by the a!thors of Smriti6chandri"a. The #ido# is entitled to s!cceed to the #hole estate of her deceased sonless h!sband provided she is chaste and the property #as divided at the time of his death. &s in the previo!s period some #omen e9ercised a commanding infl!ence !pon the administration of the state. In ;ashmir S!ryamati $!een of &nanta rose to be the de facto r!ler of the "ing. The political infl!ence of ladies can also be traced to the .eccan and So!th India. In So!th Canara district +'th cent!ry a.d. $!een (allamahadevi of the &l!pa dynasty r!led for atleast +/ years. #4%% to #$5& A.-. Chapter 6

lavery 6 Slavery #as $!ite common and Iv (at!tah refers to the ac$!isition of slave girls in lots and their distrib!tion as gifts. Sadly a sort of comm!nal spirit seems to have prevailed in the matter. The C!slims too" pleas!re in enslaving Hind! #omen enmass. C!hammad (in T!ghla$ sent as presents to the Chinese emperor +00000 male slaves and +00000 slave dancers from among the Indian infidels. An the other hand C!slim #omen #ere t!rned by the 7ajp!ts into slave girls and ta!ght the art of dancing. 1arriage 6 =irls contin!ed to get married early e9cept those from ;shatriya families #ho got married aro!nd +/ or +,. The ;shatriya father #as #orried that if his da!ghter got married very early her h!sband dies in #ar 4very prevalent d!ring this period5 ho# #o!ld she manage #ido#hood before she came of age. &nother reason #as that many ;shatriya #omen #ere called to accept governmental responsibilities so needed to be

trained in administrative d!ties and military e9ercises. <or girls #ho got married early ed!cation #as not possible. Carriages #ithin the same caste became more common altho!gh !pper caste did marry more than once once #ithin their o#n caste and second time o!tside their caste. &s in the earlier period marriage #ithin the same gotra #as forbidden and girls #ere given a#ay in marriage before the age of p!berty. Wido# 7emarriage #as forbidden d!ring this period. The feat!res of marriage in the previo!s period contin!ed in this period too. ati 6 #as more prevalent d!ring this period than in earlier periods. It is best bro!ght o!t #ith this $!ote from the >rab!ddha (harata iss!e of November 2000 E&fter Caharana Sanga dies his son 8i"ramditya 4+,'+6'-5 sat on the throne of Chitor. The "ing #as #ea". Sei)ing the opport!nity the >athan "ings of =!jarat and Cal#a attac"ed Chitore. The ;ing lost the battle and r!n a#ay. The >athans entered the fort. It #as !s!al for #omen of those days to commit jo!har i.e.6mass self6immolation to protect their #omanhood. The #ife of the "ing Ha#aharbai #as a lady of rare $!alities. 7iding on a horse bac" the #omen army attac"ed the s!rprised pathans. (lood flo#ed many >athans #ere "illed. &lmost all the #omen laid their lives do#n fighting and the rest committed jo!harF. Hats off to those #omen they #ere made of steel. Purdah 3 The p!rdah had become a common practice d!ring this period b!t #as !n"no#n among lo#er classes of society especially in the r!ral areas. C!slim r!le #as #ea" in the So!th and fo!nd limited acceptance there. :eneral Position of Women 6 The position of #omen #as not made #orse b!t act!ally strengthened on some points. The old r!les enjoining !pon the g!ardians the responsibility for marrying their girls early along #ith the right to the girl to ma"e her choice of h!sband contin!ed. &lso the revocation of marriage #ith a bridegroom !nder special circ!mstances #as allo#ed. The r!les relating to sinf!l #omen contin!ed tho!gh #ith less severity tho!gh. The #ife #as to contin!e to loo" after h!sband and family and the h!sband%s reciprocation of maintaining the faithf!l #ife contin!ed. &s before the h!sband is to pay compensation e9tending to one third of property to his s!preseded #ife. Ho#ever the feeling that #omen are symbols of con$!est became stronger d!ring this period. & #ido# #as considered to be the foremost heir of her sonless and divided h!sband as also a #omen%s complete o#nership of her stridhana 4certain "inds of property ac$!ired by a #oman on specific occasions and at different stages of life5 #$5& to #6%6 A.-. Chapter @

Purdah 8 Thro!gh the ages there #as deterioration in the stat!s of #omen b!t there #as no secl!sion ever. Strict veiling of #omen #as a common practice among the C!slims in their native lands and nat!rally great stress #as laid !pon it by all "ings incl!ding a liberal li"e &"bar. Hind!s adopted p!rdah as a protective meas!re to save the p!rity of

their #omen and maintain the p!rity of their social order. >!rdah #as ho#ever less rigoro!sly follo#ed in 7ajp!t families. Their #omen trained in all arts of #arfare too" part in h!nting e9peditions. (arring notable C!slim families So!th India did not adopt p!rdah. Hind! #omen !sed a dopatta to cover their heads #ith #omen from lo#er strata of society not follo#ing any system of p!rdah at all. ati 3 #as #idely prevalent d!ring this period. Wido#s #ho #o!ld not b!rn themselves #ere harshly treated by society they #ere not allo#ed to sport long hair or p!t on ornaments. 9ducation 3 Women%s ed!cation #as not completely ignored tho!gh ed!cation #as imparted by their parents. C!slim girls learnt the I!ran. The rich appointed t!tors to teach their da!ghters at home. The da!ghters of 7ajp!ts chiefs #ere able to read and #rite. C!ghal princesses #ere more able to read and #rite. The average #omen had s!fficient "no#ledge abo!t her native lang!age. The "no#ledge of Sans"rit #as #idely spread in the So!th. Ho#ever since the average age of girls #as lo# the average girl did not get the benefit of ed!cation. :eneral tatus 3 The birth of a da!ghter #as considered ina!spicio!s 4in the previo!s periods it #as not li"e that 3 a prod!ct of the environment they lived in5. =irls #ere married off at an early age less than +0 leaving no room for her to be ed!cated or choose her partner. .o#ry #as demanded and paid. In some cases the bridegroom has to pay the bride%s g!ardians. =irls belonging to high class 7ajp!t families had greater freedom to choose their h!sband. 1onogamy seems to have been the r!le among the lo#er strata of society in both the comm!nities d!ring this period. &fter getting married the girl #as responsible for the management of her ho!sehold. She #as to be a devoted #ife #ho too" care of her h!sband%s needs. An the other hand her h!sband #as to ta"e good care of her. It appears that most Hind!s led a happy domestic life. -ivorce and remarriages common among C!slims #as prohibited to Hind! #omen. Wido# 7emarriage e9cept for the lo#er strata of society had completely disappeared in Hind! society d!ring this period. & C!slim #oman inherited a definite share of her h!sband%s or father%s share of property #ith an absol!te right to dispose it. Dnli"e her Hind! sister she retained the right after marriage. Cahr #as another safeg!ard for her #hile a Hind! #oman had no right to the property of her h!sband%s parents. & Hind! #oman #as entitled to maintenance besides movable property. Th!s #omen #ere led to a position of despondency in every sphere of life. They became home birds period. Inspite of their secl!sion some C!ghal ladies #ere #riters of distinction and administrators of rare merit. Cira (ai Salima S!ltana Lib6!n6Nisa 4eldest da!ghter of &!rang)eb5 #ere poetess of distinction. In Caharashtra &"a bai and ;ena disciples of 7amdas S#ami #ere imp literary fig!res. Shivaji%s mother Hijabai developed in him a

spirit of defiance and self assertion. Tarabai Cohite #as the s!preme g!iding force in Caharashtra after the death of her h!sband 7ajaram. Her brilliance helped co!nter the C!ghal onsla!ght by &!rang)eb. Whatever may have been the position of #omen in society she certainly occ!pied a most respectable position as mother. #6%6 to #@#@ A Chapter A

<rom #hatever point of vie# the +1th cent!ry #as an inglorio!s period in the history of India. =rad!al disintegration and collapse of the C!ghal :mpire and debased character of nobility s!bjected the co!ntry to political t!rmoil social disorder and economic decline. 1arriage 8 #as a !niversal social practice e9cept on the part of those #ho observed celibacy on religio!s gro!nds. To arrange for marriage of their children #as considered to be the parent%s d!ty. Carriage #as an indissol!ble and sacred bond and not a contract for materialistic comforts. & d!ly married #ife co!ld not be discarded e9cept on charges of ad!ltery. &ltho!gh too" place at an early age cons!mmation did not ta"e place till they attained mat!rity. Purdah 8 #as observed in Hind! and C!slim families. Ho#ever #omen of poor families #ho !sed to go o!t to earn their livelihood and those of So!th India did not observe it #ith the e9ception of the Coplahs of Calabar in ;erala. ati 8 It #as more #idely prevalent in 7ajasthan and Central India #ith hardly any follo#ers in the So!th. In (engal Sati #as not !niversally follo#ed by all castes. &s a res!lt of Western ed!cation and the enlightened p!blic opinion !nder the leadership of 7aja 7am Cohan 7oy the got of *ord William (entic" abolished Sati in +122. 9ducation 8 Since most girls got married early they did not have the benefits of ed!cation. G No major changes from the previo!s period. Polygamy 8 There #as ordinarily no polygamy amongst the common man e9cept the 7ajahs >rinces others. (!t polygamy had become a notorio!s practice among the ;!lins of (engal and the (rahmins of Cithila. 7aja 7am Cohan 7oy protested vehemently against this c!stom. Wido! Remarriage in high caste Hind! families #as not permissible in (engal. The >esh#as collected a ta9 called patdam on the remarriage of #ido#s. Wido# 7emarriage #as #idely prevalent among the non6(rahmins of Caharashtra. An the #hole remarriage #as not prevalent across the co!ntry. tatus( 9uropean Vie! 8 <amily system had Cen as the head of the family #hile the #ife follo#ed his #ill. Having said that she had a dignified position in the ho!se and the a!thority in reg!lating its affairs. >iety charity modesty and affection #ere the $!alities

of a Hind! #ife. Contemporary :!ropean #riters li"e Arme have praised the Hind! #omen ESegregated from the company of the other se9 and strangers to the ideas of attracting attention they are only handsomer for this ignorance as #e see in them bea!ty in the noble simplicity of nat!reF. I!oting missionary &bbe .!bois EHind! #omen are nat!rally chaste. I #o!ld go so far as to say that Hind! #omen are more virt!o!s than any of many other civili)ed co!ntriesF. Society in general had feelings of reverence for #omenfol". /or!ard*loo,ing !omen 3 &ngels at home co!ld stand side by side #hen the need arose. I!oting Calcom on the #omen of Caharashtra EThe females of both the (rahman and S!dra Carathas have #hen their h!sbands are princes great infl!ence not only by their over individ!als b!t sometimes in the affairs of the state. If married to men of ran" they !s!ally have a distinct provision and estate of their o#n enjoy as m!ch liberty as they desire and seldom #ear a veil%. T#o imp egs. in the +1 th cent!ry are 7ani (havani of Natore and Shri .evi &halya (ai #ho r!led over Indore from +0-- to +02,. Rani 'havani #as g!ided by deep religio!s convictions #ith good administrative s"ills and charity for pio!s objects #hich have immortali)ed her memory. Ahalya 'ai #as inspired by higher virt!es of idealism and piety. She #as a good administrator. I!oting Calcom EShe appears #ithin her limited sphere to have been one of the p!rest and most e9emplary r!lers that ever e9isted and she affords a stri"ing e.g. of the practical benefits of a mind received from performance of #orldly d!ties !nder a deep sense of responsibility to it creatorF. The present day ;ashi 8ish#anath Candir at 8aranasi is made by &hilyabhai as a temple at Somnath. Since a ne# Somnath temple #as made post Independence the one made by her is not as "no#n. C!slim ladies #ho participated in political affairs #ere .ardanah (eg!m #ife of the governor of Arissa Leb!nisa #ife of Sh!ja6!d6din assisted her h!bby in administration and so #as the case #ith &li 8ardin%s #ife. :eneral <otes 3 Slavery #as another evil. Dnder d!ress men and #omen #ere sold as slaves. Dnable to #ithstand the impact of nat!ral calamities people sold themselves family to a rich man in lie! of money. .ancing girls #ere p!rchased #hen yo!ng by Nai"ins i.e. dance companies. <emale children and yo!ng #omen #ere bo!ght by all ran"s. #@#@ to #A%$ AChapter #%

&n important reason for the decadence of Indian society #as the grad!al b!t steady deterioration in the position of #omen. The reason #hy the attention of :nglish ed!cated Indians #as first dra#n to the necessity of reform in the stat!s of #omen is that it affected their o#n "in #hose miseries stirred their emotions. Inspite of the good #ords said by :!ropean scholars abo!t the condition of #omen in the previo!s period on an average their condition #as deplorable. Child marriage lac" of ed!cation no #ido# remarriage and sati #ere some of the problems that she faced. Their condition in (engal partic!larly #as pitiable.

Thro!gh the efforts of :nglish ed!cated Indians sati #as banned ed!cation #as promoted #ido# remarriage #as legali)ed. Inspite of best efforts polygamy #as not banned in that period. So also the c!stom of >!rdah more strictly observed by C!slims and borro#ed from them by the Hind!s of North India #as opposed by religio!s sects li"e the (rahmo &rya Samaj. In C!mbai the agitation for social reforms started earlier than West (engal d!e to the fact that the Caratha r!lers of the +1th cent!ry follo#ed the old Hind! tradition of reg!lating social affairs and sho#ed a spirit of readmitting converts intermarriage remarriage of girls and prohibition of sale of girls. The establishment of the >rarthana Samaj gave a great impet!s to social reform. Hotiba >h!le too" !p the ca!se of #omen and started a girl%s school in >!ne in +1,+ helped #ido#s to remarry. The spirit of social reform #as evident in most provinces. The Cysore govt passed a la# ma"ing marriage before the age of +2 illegal for girls. (aroda fi9ed the minim!m age for girls at +2 and +- for boys. The system of .evadasis #as declining. ati #as abolished in +122. The Hind! Wido#%s 7emarriage &ct #as passed in +1,-. It legali)ed the marriage of #ido#s and held children born of s!ch marriages to be legitimate. Inspite of the act remarriage did not ma"e m!ch progress. 9ducation 3 &ltho!gh the preceding paras refer to the high ed!cational attainment of #omen in the 8edic ages and its grad!al decline things had come to s!ch a pass d!ring the +2th cent!ry that a reg!lar system of female ed!cation #as !n"no#n in India. .a!ghters of aristocratic families got some elementary ed!cation at home period. Cissionaries did ma"e some valiant efforts in (engal to ed!cate girls b!t they failed beca!se too m!ch attention #as placed to preaching of Christianity and lac" of good teachers. &ltho!gh serio!s efforts #ere made to ed!cate #omen it failed beca!se of the e9istence of >!rdah apprehension of the parents that their da!ghters #o!ld imbibe Christian principles there #as no perceived tangible benefit to the ed!cated #omenJ family #as #orried that she #o!ld not do ho!sehold #or" beca!se of #hich family b!dgets #o!ld go !p. We m!st remember the contrib!tion made by >andit Ish#archandra Vidyasagar to the ca!se of #omen%s ed!cation in (engal. He opened no less than ', girl%s schools bet#een +1,0 and +1,1. In C!mbai #omen led a comparatively freer life as there #as no >!rdon among the Carathas. Is that not tr!e even todayG In C!mbai and >!ne :nglish ed!cated boys spread ed!cation thro!gh a girl%s school set !p in +1,+. Some prominent members of the (rahmo Samaj started jo!rnals for the promotion of ed!cation among #omen. The Arya ama" initiated ed!cation in >!njab by establishing the Caha"anya 8idyalaya at H!llandar in >!njab. 4Cy mother #ent to this school5.

=rad!ally the instit!tion secondary and primary schools all over India. Starting +112 govt grants for schools #ere more liberally given. In +20+602 there #ere +2 female colleges in (engal Cadras and Dnited >rovinces. #A%$ to #A76 AChapter ##

9ducation 8 Women%s ed!cation made steady progress. The n!mber of female st!dents at each stage increased rapidly. Abstacles li"e early marriage and orthodo9y #ere grad!ally being removed. & ne# feat!re introd!ced d!ring this period #as co6ed!cation. .ivergent vie#s #ere e9pressed on the benefits of this policy. This #as ho#ever a m!st in post6grad!ate ed!cation #here the n!mber of #omen st!dents #as far fe#er. Serio!s defects in this ne# system #ere observed by the 7adha"rishnan Commission. EThere are fe# tr!ly co6ed!cational colleges in this co!ntry. There is men%s college to #hom #omen have been admitted #hich is $!ite a different matter. Sanitary facilities for #omen are totally inade$!ate and sometimes even lac"ing.F An the other hand there #as a grad!ally gro#ing tendency among girls not only to be e$!al to men b!t to be li"e them in all her interest and activities. The progress of C!slim girl%s ed!cation #as !nsatisfactory. The spread of ed!cation among #omen made them eager for improving their rights. & *adies section #as added to the Indian National Social Conference in +20'. While this facilitated change the act!al changes introd!ced by legislation #ere fe#. The Child 1arriages Prevention Act became effective in +2'0 became applicable to all comm!nities and penali)ed marriage if the girl #as belo# +/ yrs and boy +1 yrs of age. &ttempts to have a civil marriage la# validate intercaste marriage failed. In +2'2 the Indian *egislat!re passed the Hind! WomenM% 7ight to >roperty &ct #hich conceded to the Hind! #ido# a share in her h!sband%s property and the right to demand partition. While the (aroda govt legali)ed the .ivorce by an act in +2'+ it co!ld not be achieved else#here in India. -evadasi 3 The instit!tion of .evadasi a class of #omen #ho dedicated themselves to the life6long service in temples may be traced bac" cent!ries. &ltho!gh it #as a good instit!tion earlier on it had degraded to nothing b!t prostit!tion. &n &ct #as passed in +22, #hich e9tended to the .evadasis the Sections of the >enal Code #hich made traffic in minor girls a criminal offence. Wido!s 3 &ltho!gh the &ct of +2,- accorded legal sanction to #ido# remarriage it #as not easy to brea" cent!ries of orthodo9y. Ceas!res #ere ta"en to improve their lot. Wido#%s homes #ere fo!nded thro!gho!t the co!ntryJ the most prominent one%s being the Wido#%s Home in Cysore (angalore and Cahila Silpasrama in Calc!tta amongst others. The &rya Samaj opened homes in H!ll!ndar and the Hains at (ombay. We cannot forget the pioneering efforts of >rof. ..;. ;arve #ho fo!nded a #ido#%s home in >!ne to #hich he added a High School for girls and social service center.

Cy 00 year old mother #ho hails from #hat is today >a"istan told me that ladies of the previo!s generation !sed to spin the char"ha #hen ever they got free time. It "ept them occ!pied and earns some money. The S#adeshi Home 7!le and Non6Cooperation Covements dre# o!t #omen of their homes and made some of them participate in the str!ggle for freedom. &n important conse$!ence of this #as the near disappearance of the >!rdah system amongst the Hind!s. An &pril+0 +2'0 :andhi made a special appeal to the !omen of India to ta"e !p the #or" of pic"eting and spinning. The effect #as mirac!lo!s. Women came o!t of their homes and offered themselves for arrest and imprisonment. The World Wars partic!larly the second one led to an increase in the employment for #omen. This economic freedom along #ith the str!ggle for freedom #ro!ght changes in the intellect!al moral and social o!tloo" of Hind! #omen of the !pper classes as had not been #itnessed in the past seven h!ndred years. &bolition of p!rdah coed!cation free social interco!rse bet#een men and #omen increase in the marriageable age and near abolition of monogamy of men #ere revolutionary changes to have s#ept India d!ring this period. &lasN These changes #ere limited to the Hind!s. .id the (ritish not help the C!slim #omen beca!se they did not #ant to antagoni)e the C!slim comm!nity as part of their .ivide and 7!le >olicy or #hat everJ the tr!th is that the condition of C!slim #omen has not s!bstantially improved over the years. The Shah (ano Case in the late eighties is an e9ample. In India%s most cosmopolitan city C!mbai #e see so many C!slim sporting >!rdahs ma"ing yo! #onder #hich age #e are living in. Dnder infl!ence of modern ed!cation government s!pport the condition of the average Hind! #omen improved s!bstantially d!ring this period. >ost independence there #as a change #ith every generation starting girls born after +2,0. Indira =andhi%s becoming >rime Cinister m!st have been a so!rce of inspiration for many parents and girls ali"e. -o!ry 6 The do#ry system did not stand as a st!mbling bloc" in a da!ghter%s marriage in ancient India. In prehistoric times it #as the other #ay ro!nd #ith the bride%s father demanding payment at the time of shaadi. In rich K royal families some gifts !sed to be given to the son6in6la# at the time of marriage. =ifts #ere given o!t of love and affection for the da!ghter sister and not !nder any comp!lsion. The system became prevalent in 7ajp!tana d!ring the medieval times beca!se the 7ajp!ts too" great pride in their ancestry so if a father #anted a bl!e6blooded son6in6la# he had to pay for it. In ordinary families do#ry #as a nominal one. It is not till the middle of the +2 th cent!ry that do#ry became an impediment in marriages. >rior to the advent of the (ritish India #as an agric!lt!ral economy b!t s!bse$!ently good ed!cation l!crative jobJ economic position became parameters on #hich boys began to be meas!red. The problem seems to have got accent!ated starting the +200%s. Its time this system is d!mped. A <ote on tatus of Women in Western ociety Chapter #5

The -octrine of perpetual tutelage of #omen #as not ta"en serio!sly by Hind! society can be ga!ged from the fact that a #omen%s share in property "ept on increasing. If s!ppression of #omen #as indeed the aim her share in the property sho!ld have come do#n b!t the opposite happened. &ccording to .r *eitner the :d!cational Commissioner of >!njab d!ring the third $!arter of the last cent!ry the elderly #omen of the ho!se had the diffic!lt job of mediation in family disp!tes. It m!st be noted that the doctrine of perpet!al t!telage of #omen #as !niversally accepted every#here till recent times. I!oting >rof =ilbert C!rray ETo the average &thenian it #as probably rather #ic"ed for her to have any character #ic"ed for her to ta"e part in p!blic life #ic"ed for her to ac$!ire learning.F :ven AristotleBs tho!ght that li"e slaves artisans and traders #omen sho!ld occ!py a s!bordinate place. Their #ill is #ea" virt!e less perfect and self6s!fficient and deliberative fac!lty rather inconcl!sive. Cale by nat!re is s!perior and female inferior. The one r!les and the other is r!led. The Roman Ca! regarded the #ife as the da!ghter of her h!sband as far as her j!ridical stat!s #as concerned for a long time she co!ld not sign a #ill ma"e a contract or become a #itness. .o#n to 200 &. even mothers of several children contin!ed to be !nder the t!telage of their male relations. Women is al#ays dependent says Conf!ci!s and o#es d!e homage to her father6in6la# and h!sband. In the Christian marriage the #ife has to ta"e the vo# of obedience at the time of her marriageJ logically spea"ing this places her !nder the perpet!al t!telage of her h!bby. The 'ible arg!es that #omen sho!ld never !s!rp the a!thority over man b!t be al#ays s!bordinate to them firstly beca!se :ve and not &dam #as deceived and secondly beca!se the former #as created o!t of a rib of the former. &t the synod of Cacon in ,1, &. the assembled bishops debated #hether h!man beings #ere #omen at all and finally concl!ded they #ere. N!mero!s #riters of medieval :!rope have emphasi)ed the inferiority of #omen. Cilton held #omen o!ght to obey #itho!t arg!ment. 7o!ssea! the apostle of freedom condemned #omen to a servile position. =irls he arg!es sho!ld be s!bject to restraint. :ven ed!cated ladies of the +1th cent!ry felt that #omen sho!ld not dream of independence. The /rench Revolution #hich stood for :$!ality #as not prepared to grant it to Women. The <rench National &ssembly treated #omen so contempt!o!sly that it even ref!sed to read their petition. In the &nti6Slavery Congress held in Condon in +1/0 #omen delegates from &merica #ere not admitted beca!se (ritish representatives felt that it #as contrary to the #ord of =od that #omen sho!ld sit in the Congress. In :ngland there #as a determined opposition to the admission of #omen to the medical co!rse do#n to +111 &.. A9ford Dniversity #o!ld admit #omen st!dents b!t #o!ld not give them degrees till +220 &.. -ivorce 3 The earlier .harmasastras tell !s that divorce #as permitted !nder certain circ!mstances at the beginning of the Christian era. &ro!nd the ,th cent!ry (C a #ave of asceticism passed over Hind! society. Inspite of lots of opposition it became #ell gro!nded aro!nd the beginning of the Christian era that a #omen co!ld be married only once. To divorce one h!sband and to marry another beca!se the marital life #as not

happy began to appear as a grossly sens!al proced!re. It may be pointed o!t that the 7oman Catholic Ch!rch holds the same vie# today as it regards marriages as indissol!ble. 4The boo" #as #ritten in +2,-5. In :ngland do#n to the middle of the +2 th cent!ry a divorce co!ld be had only by an &ct of >arliament. (et#een +0+, and +1,, &... only abo!t +10 persons co!ld get divorce thro!gh >arliamentary *egislation. -uty of Dbedience 6 &ccording to the &vesta a good #ife is one #ho is obedient to her h!sband. The 8edic marriage rit!al does not enjoin the d!ty of obedience !pon the #ife. The original Christian rit!al specify enjoined the d!ty of obedience !pon the #ife. She too" the oath that she #o!ld love and obey her h!sband till her death #hile the latter merely observed that he #o!ld love and cherish her. The deliberate differentiation in the oath #as a nat!ral corollary of the theory ad!mbrated in >a!l 8 22 that the h!sband is the head of the #ife as Christ is the head of the Ch!rch. It is interesting to note that even in +221 the (ritish >arliament ref!sed to sanction the proposal to delete the reference to obedience from the #ife%s oath. The theory of #ife%s s!bordination is dying o!t in the West. Physical Assault of Wife 3 With the red!ction in the average age and ed!cation of girls physical assa!lt of the #ife did happen in India. (!t #as the sit!ation any different in the WestG In medieval 7!ssia the bride%s father s!pplied his son6in6la# #ith a ne# #hip as a symbol of his a!thority and it #as h!ng over the bridal bed. There #as a proverb c!rrent in =ermany d!ring the +,th cent!ry that #omen and an ass e9isted only to be beaten. In :ngland as late as +12+ &...only #as the h!sband%s right to inflict corporal p!nishment on his #ife first denied by la# co!rts. We sho!ld th!s not be very s!rprised if Hind! Smritis had 2000 yrs ago recogni)ed the h!sband%s right to inflict a mild p!nishment on his #ife #arning him at the same time that he #o!ld be liable to p!nishment if he overstepped his limits. ati 3 The c!stom of sacrifice of the #ido# at the f!neral of her h!sband #as #idely prevalent since ancient times. &ltho!gh there is no direct evidence that it prevailed d!ring the Indo6:!ropean &ge the fact that it #as practiced among the =a!ls =oths Nor#egians Celts Slaves and the Thracians #o!ld j!stify that it #as probably #ell established among the Indo6:!ropeans. In China #hen a #ido# "illed herself in order to follo# her h!sband to heaven her corpse #as ta"en o!t in a great procession. Sati #as $!ite common in ;ashmir probably d!e to its pro9imity to Central &sia #hich #as the home of the Scythians among #hom the c!stom #as $!ite common. It traveled to the islands of Hava S!matra and (ali along #ith the immigration of Hind!s there. <iyoga or Cevirate 4is a #ido# marrying her h!sband%s brother5 3 Dp to abo!t '00 (.C. #ido#s #ere not re$!ired to commit sati. They co!ld remarry marry their h!sband%s brother or remain #ido#s. It may be noted that the c!stom of *evirate #as $!ite common in many ancient civili)ations. &mong the Ee!s a #omen co!ld become the #ife of her h!sband%s brother #itho!t any ceremony. If he ref!sed she #o!ld spit on his face. The Dld Testament also declares that if a #oman becomes a #ido# her h!sband%s brother shall go !nto her and ta"e her into #ife and perform the d!ties of a h!sband%s brother !nto her. 4.e!ternonomy 2, ,6+05. The marriage of Hamlet%s mother #ith Cla!di!s and

of Henry 8III #ith ;atherine indicates an earlier c!stom of Niyoga event!ally developing into a reg!lar remarriage #ith a brother6in6la#. S#ami .ayananda Saras#ati fo!nder of the &rya Samaj enco!raged niyoga probably beca!se it had 8edic sanction. Purdah 3 There is no do!bt that >!rdah #as !n"no#n in India do#n to +00 (.C. It is only after the starting that some sections of society in Northern India notably royalty began to advocate greater seclusion for !omen( ie they p!t a veil. 4Co!ld be the impact of foreign invasion5. The Chinese travelers of the 0 th cent!ry &... did not mention it too. The >!rdah system became #idely prevalent in North India s!bse$!ent to the C!slim invasion. Secl!sion of #omen #as not confined to India alone. In Athens( $%% '.C. #omen co!ld not meet their h!sband%s g!ests or go o!t of the ho!se #itho!t proper g!ards. & bridegroom co!ld not see his bride before marriage in ancient =reece. &t Sparata #omen had separate apartments and co!ld not be present at ban$!ets. In &ssyria veil #as #orn by all married #omen. In >ersia secl!sion of #omen had become $!ite common before the beginning of the Chrisitan era. The (ible lays do#n that #omen sho!ld not spea" in p!blic at the Ch!rch. Tert!llian says E<or a virgin of virt!o!s habits every appearance in p!blic #ith an !nveiled face is e$!ivalent to s!ffering a rapeF. To come do#n to modern times #omen lived !nder restrictions. .o#n to #@$% A.-. in 9ngland( a #oman co!ld not ta"e a #al" m!ch less a jo!rney alone nor co!ld she as" a fello# #or"er to visit her !nless the #or"er #as a girl. When t#o ladies spo"e at a meeting convened for the p!rpose of s!pporting a #omen%s ca!se in >arliament a Cember of >arliament said ET#o ladies have disgraced themselves for spea"ing in p!blicF. When the Ho!se of Commons #as b!ilt in +1// it #as great diffic!lty that a *adies =allery #as sanctioned. Child 1arriage 8 In the 8edic &ge do#n to /00 (.C. girls #ere married bet#een the age of +- to +1. (et#een /00 (.C. to +00 &... the age #as grad!ally lo#ered and the tendency #as to marry girls at the time of p!berty. With importance being attached to chastity pre6p!berty marriages came in vog!e after 200 &... Sati satisfactory economic condition and the joint6family system enco!raged early marriage. The Sarda &ct of +222 made the marriage of girls and boys before the age of +/ and +1 an offence. Child marriages #ere common in :!rope for a long time. In ancient 7ome maidens #ere married at the age of +0 or +2. In the age of chivalry girls #ere often married at the age of , beca!se marriage #as a matter of military tactics and alliances. The r!le of the Ch!rch that boys and girls sho!ld be married at the age of +, and +2 #as openly flo!ted. In :ngland e9cept in the !pper classes child marriage #as common in T!dor times. Tho!gh in act!al practice late marriages became common by +1,0 &... !p to +222 the minim!m legal age of marriage contin!ed to be +2 for girls and +/ for boys. In +222 >arliament raised it to +- for both boys and girls partly as a reaction to the Sarda (ill introd!ced in India.

/ranchise 8 There #ere democratic assemblies in the 8edic &ge. Women #ere e9pected to spea" #ith compos!re and s!ccess in p!blic assemblies. Things ho#ever changed after aro!nd '00 (.C. Starting abo!t +220 #omen began to play an important role in the Independence Covement as #ell. Sarojini Naid! 8ijayla"shi >andit to name a fe#. Indian #omen are l!c"y that they got the right of franchise almost #itho!t as"ing. It is #ell "no#n ho# the <irst World War #or"ed as a miracle in #inning over the most deadly opponent%s of #omen%s franchise. The (ritish >arliament granted franchise to its #omen in +2+1. Ascetic chool .ostile to Women 6 It appears that some Hind! #riters have painted #omen in very blac" colors not beca!se they believed in #hat they said b!t beca!se they #ere an9io!s to diss!ade men from marriage and family life. It may be noted that this tendency to attrib!te all and imaginary fa!lts to #omen is not confined to the 7en!nciation School of India alone. Said Socrates E Women is the so!rce of all evil her love is to be dreaded more than the hatred of man the poor yo!ng men #ho see" #omen are li"e fish #ho go to meet the hoo"F. While Christ did not ind!lge in any tirade of #omen the same cannot be said of other saints. St >a!l says EIt is good for man not to to!ch a #omanJ marriage #as a concession a degradation to avoid fornicationF. <uns 6 .!ring the 8edic &ge a #oman #as indispensable to her h!sband from a spirit!al and religio!s point of vie#. .!ring +,00 to +000 (.C the vol!me of 8edic st!dies became very complicated and time cons!ming #hich meant that lady 8edic scholars became rarer. With the steady deterioration in her position starting '00 (.C. things began to change. (!ddha rel!ctantly admitted #omen as mon"s and .igambara Hains held that #omen can never get salvation e9cept by first being born as men. It may be noted that early Christian fathers shared similar vie#s. The Co!ncil of *aodicea closed the doors of preaching career to #omen in '-, a.d. and not all agitation%s has s!cceeded even till +2,- in getting them opened. Islam permits #omen to read the ;oran b!t not preach it. <udity 3 The real e9planation of #omen appearing #itho!t covering their b!sts properly in the sc!lpt!res paintings of So!thern Central India seems to be the artistic convention of that age. (reasts are the most significant symbol of motherhood and the artistists felt that they may be !ncovered in #or"s of art tho!gh they may be act!ally covered in real life. *et%s not conf!se the matter #ith o!r indecent tho!ghts. Its all in the mind Na. Convention in India or :!ropean co!ntries prescribed a scantier dress for #oman than #hat is act!ally !sed in real life. This #ill be apparent to all st!dents of ancient and modern sc!lpt!res K paintings of :!rope. We cannot concl!de that #omen in modern :!rope move abo!t in a n!de condition beca!se they appear !ncovered in some #or"s of art so also the same logic applied to the Indian #omen.

Religion of :oddess 8 I!oting Hagdish C Hoshi from The Times of India EThe phenomenon of feminine theology in (rahmanical religion tradition is !ni$!e beca!se all over the #orld the female gods #ere replaced by male gods. .iana and (erecynthia Isis and Cybele #ere e9iled #ith the coming of Christianity altho!gh female hierophanies reappeared in the fig!res of Cary and the female saints. Ho#ever the fig!re of the version and its s!pporting theology are s!bordinate to her son. Af all the religio!s practices and beliefs concerned #ith feminine divinities it is Sha"tism #hich gives the =oddess a place of s!preme importance. In this tradition female is raised above the male as .!rga described as Sha"ti the energy of the cosmos. Witho!t her #e are told in one of the te9ts that the #orld is lifeless and even the great Shiva is merely a corpse. &n analysis of the legends doctrines and abstract philosophies indicates the first the =oddess is portrayed as po#er and the female Sha"ti element is identified as the essence of reality the male element playing a s!bservient role. Second she is identified #ith >ra"riti the primeval matter. &s s!ch she is identified #ith e9istence or that #hich !nderlines all e9istent things. Thirdly she is described as giving food to all no!rish all life and to ca!se decay. <o!rthly the =oddess incarnates in herself all the brilliance and po#er that the =ods collectively possess and her pervasive magic gives them s!fficient po#er to be able to battle #ith all evil. It is an e9!berant celebration of the vario!s forms of .evi the =oddess and their role in her victory over the demons #ho are s!pposed to be tormenting the people of this earth. She is also described as the embodiment of s!preme eternal "no#ledge #hich becomes the ca!se of the release from bondageF. This essay is based on inp!ts from The History and C!lt!re of Indian >eople by the (hartiya 8idya (havan K The >osition of Women in the Hind! Civili)ation by &.:.&lte"ar. &lso go to Iss!es and Insights section and read O.o#ry the Imperial Arigins of a criminal crime% by 8eena Tal#ar. It is an eye opener. :mail feedbac" to esams"ritiPs!ryacons!lting.net